Mapping Mobility 2012

International Mobility in Dutch Higher Education

Mapping Mobility 2012 Contents 2 3 1 Introduction and summary 7 1.1 Introduction 8 1.2 Mobility from a Dutch perspective 9 1.3 Mobility from an ­international perspective 11 1.4 Theme: Internationalisation between secondary school and university: the gap year 12 1.5 Reference guide 12

2 Diploma mobility to and from the Netherlands 13 2.1 Inbound diploma mobility 14 2.1.1 Developments in ­inbound diploma mobility 15 2.1.2 Countries of origin 5 2.1.3 Ratio of male to female students 20 2.1.4 Bachelor’s or master’s degree programmes 20 2.1.5 Fields of study 23 2.1.6 Higher education ­institutions 27 2.1.7 Students from Neso ­target countries 30 2.2 Outbound diploma mobility 36 2.2.1 Developments in ­outbound mobility 37 2.2.2 Destination countries 37

3 Credit mobility to and from the Netherlands 41 3.1 Inbound credit mobility 42 3.1.1 Developments in ­inbound mobility 43 3.1.2 Inbound credit mobility under the Erasmus Programme 43 3.2 Outbound credit mobility 48 3.2.1 Developments in ­outbound credit mobility 49 3.2.2 Ratio of male to female students 51 3.2.3 Fields of study 52 3.2.4 Higher education ­institutions 52 3.2.5 Work placement or study programme, or both 52 3.2.6 Outbound credit mobility under the Erasmus programme 56 3.2.7 Effects of experience gained abroad during the study programme 59

4 Total mobility 61 2 4.1 International students in the Netherlands 64 3 4.2 Dutch students abroad 68

5 Dutch mobility from an international perspective 71 5.1 The Netherlands’ position in the ­international student market 74 5.1.1 Patterns of international mobility 75 5.1.2 The position of the Netherlands 77 5.2 Developments in the Neso target countries 84 5.2.1 Inbound and outbound mobility 85 5.2.2 Brazil 86 5.2.3 China 89 5.2.4 India 90 5.2.5 Indonesia 91 5.2.6 Mexico 92 5.2.7 Russia 92 5.2.8 South Korea 93 5.2.9 Taiwan 94 5.2.10 Thailand 95 5.2.11 Vietnam 96 5.2.12 Conclusion 97 4 5 5.3 Credit mobility 100 5.4 Lecturer and researcher mobility 104 5.4.1 Mobility to the Netherlands 105 5.4.2 Mobility from the Netherlands 106

6 Internationalisation between secondary school and university: the gap year 107 6.1 Introduction 108 6.2 Going abroad in the gap year 110 6.2.1 Trends in gap year ­mobility – figures 111 6.2.2 Reasons for taking a gap year abroad 111 6.2.3 Developments 113 6.3 Utilising the gap year in higher education 114 6.3.1 Participant gains 115 6.3.2 The role of the gap year in government policy and education institution policy 115 6.3.3 Relationship with ­internationalisation policy in Dutch education 117 6.3.4 Recommendations 118

Appendix 121 7.1 Nuffic programme mobility 122 7.1.1 Inbound mobility 123 7.1.2 Outbound mobility 123 7.2 Definitions and methods 126 7.2.1 Mobility as part of internationalisation 127 7.2.2 Types of mobility 127 7.2.3 Diploma mobility and credit mobility 127 7.2.4 Mobility source data 127 7.2.5 In short: what do we know, and what do we not know? 131

Abbreviations 134 Publication information 136

4 5 6 7 1

Introduction and summary

6 7 1.1 Introduction Key developments Nuffic has produced the annual Mapping Mobility • The number of international students is report since 2010. The aim of the publication growing worldwide. This trend is also evident is to inform you of recent developments in the in the Netherlands, which is progressively internationalisation of Dutch higher education. catching up with the European outbound mobility average. This report provides an update of recent • Worldwide, Europe remains the hub for developments in student mobility to and from international student mobility although the Netherlands and, where possible, offers East Asia continues to grow in importance. additional information on other types of • The number of Dutch students studying internationalisation. The publication therefore abroad now reflects solid growth, partly contains multiple diagrams and tables that on account of the later introduction of the reflect internationalisation developments. bachelor’s-master’s degree structure and other Bologna measures in the surrounding We also aim to put Dutch internationalisation countries. The implementation of portable into an international context. Every year we student grants and loans has spurred Dutch therefore analyse what is happening in other students to study abroad at almost 1,600 countries to gain insight into how the Netherlands institutions in 86 countries since 2007. is performing and to identify trends. Moreover, • Students from Germany form the largest group each year we explore one specific theme in of international students in the Netherlands greater depth. This year’s theme is ‘Internatio­ and the imbalance in student mobility between nalisation between secondary school and the Netherlands and Germany continues to university: the gap year’. grow. However, there are signs of diminishing growth in the number of German students The supply of data on mobility flows and other studying in the Netherlands. The decline is types of internationalisation continues to be a offset by larger numbers of students from concern. We still frequently encounter problems Bulgaria, Greece, the United Kingdom, Italy in our endeavours to collect accurate data that and France, which has increased the diversity can also be used for the purpose of international of international students in the Netherlands. comparison. Issues relating to definitions and a • The number of international students enrolling lack of records mean that charting international at Dutch research universities is growing at mobility remains a matter of meticulously inter­ a faster pace than the numbers of students preting information and making careful decisions entering Dutch universities of applied sciences, based on the available data. These issues are as is the number enrolling on master’s rather explained in greater detail in the appendix. than bachelor’s degree programmes.

8 9 1.2 Mobility from of students from Bulgaria, Greece, the United a Dutch perspective Kingdom, Italy and France. The continued growth The number of international students rose once in student numbers from the latter countries again between 2010-11 and 2011-12, with the appears to be offsetting the diminishing growth percentage of the total number of enrolled in student numbers from Germany. students up from 8.1% to 8.4%. Based on residence permit data, the number of The percentage of international students that students from the Neso target countries1 who make up the student population in academic have studied abroad in the Netherlands since or research-oriented higher education (weten­ 2007 jumped from 2,500 to 10,500 students schappelijk onderwijs, WO) has climbed in the registered in the Netherlands in 2012. last five years from 7.7% to 11.2%. In the same period, the percentage of international students The difference between the percentages of pursuing higher professional education (hoger female and male students of foreign nationality beroepsonderwijs, HBO) rose from 6.0% to 6.8%. has steadily increased in favour of female In terms of numbers, this equates to 6,350 students. Fifty-nine per cent of international additional students in higher professional students pursuing higher professional education education as opposed to 11,000 additional are women, while women account for 54% in students in research-oriented higher education. academic higher education. The number of international students in research- oriented higher education is rapidly approaching Almost three quarters of the international the number of international students in higher students pursuing government-funded education professional education. were enrolled in a bachelor’s degree programme, the majority of whom were higher professional Germany remains the main country of origin education students. In academic higher for international students. However, the growth education, the number of international master’s in student numbers from Germany seems to students exceeded the number of international

be diminishing and the German share of bachelor’s students in 2010-11 for the first 1 Nuffic operates a number international students in the Netherlands has time ever. of Netherlands Education Support Offices (Nuffic declined marginally to 45%. Austria surpassed Neso offices) to support the Netherlands in 2008 as the main destination Although Agriculture remains the most inter­ Dutch higher education abroad. There are Nuffic country for German students. The number of nationalised field of study in academichigher Neso offices in Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, German enrolments is followed at some distance education – recording the highest percentage Russia, Thailand, Vietnam by enrolments from China and Belgium, which in of international students among the student and South Korea, and Nuffic Neso Desks in India turn are still well ahead of the growing numbers population pursuing this field of study – the and Taipei.

8 9 majority of international students pursuing The growth in the number of students taking academic higher education can be found in the advantage of the Dutch student grants and loans field of Economics. In higher professional system to study abroad seems to continue to education, the most international field of study is be slowing down somewhat, as is the number Language & Culture, thanks to the contribution of countries where they are studying. The of the arts disciplines; here too, however, the preferred countries are Belgium, the United majority of international students have opted Kingdom, the United States, Germany, Sweden for the much wider field of Economics. and Portugal. No less than 87% of students funded by the Dutch student grants and loans The Gerrit Rietveld Academy this year again system study abroad in these countries. There attracted the highest percentage of international are signs of diminishing growth in outbound students, with Maastricht University, Codarts, mobility particularly to the Anglo-Saxon countries the University of the Arts in The Hague and whereas other countries – due to the continued Hotelschool The Hague – International University growth in outbound mobility – now rank as the of Hospitality Management occupying second top four destination countries. The portability of through to fifth place. In terms of absolute student grants and loans has yielded a broad numbers of international students, Maastricht range of international experiences: since 2007 University again ranks number one, followed Dutch students have embarked on study at a distance by Fontys University of Applied programmes at almost 1,600 different institutions Sciences, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, in 86 different countries. In 2007 Dutch students the University of Groningen and Delft University studied in only 14 different countries pursuing of Technology. The University of Amsterdam’s 134 study programmes. student population reflects the most diversity in nationalities. The above data relates to students who enrolled on a full study programme. This is referred to In addition to inbound mobility, the Netherlands as diploma mobility. Mobility during a study also has its share of outbound mobility. In 2008-09 programme is also referred to as credit mobility. a larger number of Dutch students – over 18,100 Credit mobility, particularly outbound credit – enrolled at universities abroad. In terms of mobility, is a key indicator of the level of ­­ percentage of the total student population in inter­nationalisation of a study programme. the Netherlands, the number also rose, from 2.7% to 2.9%, reflecting an upward trend. In line with the Bologna agreements, credit The main destination countries are the United mobility is preferably measured among graduates. Kingdom, Belgium, the United States and The Netherlands is one of the few countries Germany. that actually does so: once a year among

10 11 higher professional education graduates and in the Netherlands, rose from 0.7% to 1.2% once every two years among academic higher between 2000 and 2009. Despite the increase, education graduates. After a sudden dip, the the percentage of international students as part most recent higher professional education figures of the total student population in the Netherlands are again showing a limited increase, moving is still below the EU average. Compared with above the 20% standard for graduates with other Western European countries, however, the study-abroad experience. Students gained the Netherlands hosts a relatively high percentage most international experience at Hotelschool of international students from within the EU and The Hague – International University of Hospitality the EFTA countries.2 German students account Management and HAS Den Bosch University for the majority of the inbound flow. of Applied Sciences. Around 90% of students graduating at these institutions boasted study- In terms of outbound diploma mobility, i.e. the abroad experience. Unfortunately, there are no number of students following an entire study comparable figures for inbound credit mobility. programme abroad, expressed as a percentage of the student population in their own country, 1.3 Mobility from an the Netherlands also does not achieve a high ­international perspective score relative to other EU countries. However, According to the latest UNESCO data, the number the percentage has been growing since 2004. of students studying abroad rose from 1.7 million The increase is mostly determined by supply in 1995 worldwide to almost 3.7 million in given the fact that Dutch students – at least until 2008-09. Half of the outbound students studied recently – were quite satisfied with education abroad in five countries in 2008-09: 18% studied and conditions in the Netherlands. On the one abroad in the United States, 10% in the United hand, supply has increased owing to the – some­ Kingdom and 7% in Australia, Germany and what slower – introduction of the bachelor’s- France. Close to 41% had a connection with the master’s degree structure in many of the EU as a whole: the students studied in the EU, neighbouring countries. On the other hand, the or originated from the EU or travelled between portability of student grants and loans that has EU countries for study purposes. The centre been in place since 2007 facilitates the study- of excellence for diploma mobility seems to be abroad option. undergoing a gradual shift towards East Asia and the Pacific. The number of students from all Neso countries pursuing a study abroad has been growing The Netherlands’ share of the global international since 2007-08. This trend has in part contributed student market, measured as a percentage of positively to the number of outbound students 2 EFTA countries: Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein all international students worldwide studying from the Neso target countries studying in the and Switzerland.

10 11 Netherlands. The number climbed from 2,500 to to having travelled abroad in the gap year, and 10,500 students between 2007-08 and 2011-12. for students in higher professional education to having worked during that period. 1.4 Theme: Internationalisa- tion between secondary school Governments take different approaches to the and university: the gap year gap year phenomenon. In the United Kingdom The gap year – a term commonly used in Anglo- the gap year is funded, subject to certain Saxon countries – refers to the year out between conditions and students can obtain recognition finishing secondary education and commencing of their acquired competencies. By contrast, tertiary education. Around 9% of Dutch students in Denmark, where many Danish students do in take a gap year (which incidentally sometimes fact take a gap year, a discouragement policy exceeds one year). One of the main reasons for applies. In some cases, for instance in Australia, doing so is that students hope it will be beneficial universities seek to embed a gap year in a study for their ultimate choice of study programme programme. although non-study-related reasons also contribute. Almost 3% of Dutch students travel The question is: how does the Netherlands abroad in the gap year to gain international approach the gap year? experience. The percentage differs for academic higher education students (5%) and higher 1.5 Reference guide professional education students (2%) and Chapters 2 and 3 describe developments in moreover depends on their field of study. student mobility to and from the Netherlands University College and Language & Culture based on explanatory diagrams. Chapter 4 students enjoyed above average travel in the discusses the total flows of inbound and gap year whereas Engineering students travelled outbound students in the Netherlands. Chapter less. Around 8% of students in academic higher 5 puts Dutch mobility into an international education pursuing Language & Culture travelled perspective while Chapter 6 elaborates on prior to commencing a study programme. the theme of ‘Internationalisation between secondary school and university: the gap year’. Students who opted for the inclusion of a gap year affirmed that it had helped them in their ultimate choice of study programme. As corro­ borated by research, the drop-out rate in the first academic year is significantly lower among students who had taken a gap year. For students in academic higher education this is attributable

12 13 2

Diploma mobility to and from the Netherlands

12 13 2.1

Inbound

diploma mobility 14 15

Diagram 01 International students in government-funded higher education in the Netherlands, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

60,000 56,131 12% 53,129 50,000 48,567 10% 43,216

40,000 38,726 8% 8.4% 8.1% 7.7% 30,000 7.2% 6% 6.6%

20,000 4%

10,000 2% Number of international students 0 0% % of total enrolments in the Netherlands 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2.1.1 Developments in Diagram 01 ­inbound diploma mobility Diagram 02 As is usual, the inbound diploma mobility figures for the last five years have been revised and Mobility from countries whose citizens updated. The figure for international students need a residence permit in 2010-11 was increased by one thousand Since 2004, information has been available whereas the figures for 2009-10, 2008-09 and on the number of students who come to the 2007-08 were lowered by several hundred. Netherlands from countries whose citizens need Notwithstanding these adjustments, the trend a residence permit as well as on the percentage of continued growth described earlier remains of this group who stay in the Netherlands for a unchanged. An absolute and relative increase prolonged period of time. has again been seen between 2010-11 and 2011-12. The number of international students Diagram 03 shows that the number of residence in the Netherlands climbed from 53,129 to 56,131 permits issued between 2010 and 2011 grew by in the above period. In addition, the percentage 390 rather than by 770 permits, which is slightly of the total number of students of foreign less than between 2009 and 2010. Growth is nationality enrolled in government-funded apparently levelling off mainly due to a slight education was up from 8.1% to 8.4%. decline in the number of students extending their residence permit for the purpose of pursuing a The growth in the share of international students multi-year study programme. Just as the in higher professional education has fallen since previous year, an increase of around 500 new the 2005-06 academic year. In 2011-12, 6.8% residence permits was recorded, bringing the of the student population in higher professional total to 10,550. education were non-Dutch, representing an Diagram 03 (see page 16) increase of 0.1% compared with 2010-11. Diagram 04 (see page 16) Growth in academic higher education remained stable. In 2011-12, 11.2% of the student 2.1.2 Countries of origin population comprised non-Dutch nationals, Enrolled students representing an increase of 0.8% relative to Germany is the main supplier of international 2010-11. Currently, 51% of international students students enrolled in government-funded, main­ in government-funded higher education are stream higher education in the Netherlands. pursuing a higher professional education study As a result of the decline in the growth of student programme, while 49% are pursuing an academic numbers from Germany by almost half, their higher education study programme. share of the total international student population

14 15

Diagram 02 International students in government-funded academic higher education and higher professional education, in numbers and as a percentage of the respective total student populations, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

30,000 12% 11.2% 10.4% 25,000 9.6% 10% 8.7% 20,000 7.7% 8%

15,000 6.7% 6.8% 6% 6.3% 6.5% 6.0% International students enrolled in 10,000 4% higher professional education (HBO) International students enrolled in 5,000 2% academic higher education (WO) % of WO 22,408 16,318 24,054 19,162 26,329 22,238 28,066 25,063 28,757 27,374 % 0 0 % of HBO 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Diagram 03 Number of new residence permits issued or extensions granted to students or student trainees from outside the EU-27 and EFTA, 2007-2011 Source: IND, 2012 (revised figures; purpose of stay: study, including a supplementary examination)

19,747 20,000 19,361 18,590

16,614 15,839

15,000

10,552 10,040 10,000 9,559

8,385 7,994 9,321 9,195 9,031 8,229 7,845 Total New 5,000 Extended 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Diagram 04 Number of residence permits issued to students or student trainees 16 from outside the EU-27 and EFTA, 2007-11 17 Source: IND, 2012 (revised figures; purpose of stay: study, including a supplementary examination)

19,747 20,000 19,361 18,590 19,437 19,059 16,614 18,187 15,839

15,000 16,280 15,501

10,000

5,000

Total

338 334 403 302 310 Study purposes 0 Work placement 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 fell slightly. Forty-five per cent of international To gain insight into short-term developments, students now originate from Germany. we have looked at the percentage changes that have occurred since the previous year. In the The Netherlands was also the main destination EU the number of students from Greece and country for German students from 2005 through the Baltic States reflected the strongest growth, 2007. In 2007, 18% of outbound German diploma with Greece recording an increase of 24%, mobility studied in the Netherlands, while 16% Estonia 23%, Lithuania 22% and Latvia 20%. chose Austria. However, in 2008 the number The United Kingdom, Austria, Slovakia, Italy, of German students pursuing studies in Austria Cyprus and Ireland recorded growth percentages surged by 35%, ousting the Netherlands from between 10-20%. Outside the EU, Morocco its spot as the main destination country. In 2008, (+103 students, or +17%) and the United States 19.5% of German students opted to study abroad (+60 students, or +11%) reflected notable growth in Austria and 18.5% in the Netherlands. Just figures. By contrast, the Japanese student as in 2007, German students chose the United population in Dutch government-funded education Kingdom as their third destination country in continued to shrink (-31 students, or -26%), and 2008; 12.5% of outbound German students has virtually halved since 2006-07. pursued studies there.3 The past six years have seen a catch-up effort The number of students from China, the main by students from the twelve newest EU member country of origin after Germany, fell between states. Their numbers grew by more than 144% 2005 and 2008 but is again showing an upward compared with 75% for the EU-27 in general. trend. Belgium remains stable in third place. Fourteen per cent of students from the EU-27 Diagram 05 (see page 18) originate from the twelve recent entrants to the Diagram 06 (see page 18) EU.4 These students are enrolled in government- funded higher education. No information is There is more movement among the group of available on EU (and EFTA) students in private

countries ranking after the first three. Bulgaria higher education. 3 DAAD, HIS, WBV. (2008, 2009, 2010, 2011). Wissen­ had previously broken away from the group schaft weltoffen, Daten und and is now followed by Greece and the United Students holding a residence permit Fakten zur Internationalität von Studium und Kingdom, which in turn is followed by Italy, We looked at countries for which at least 100 Forschung in Deutschland. a newcomer, closely followed by France in eighth residence permits were issued to students in Bielefeld: DAAD. 4 Cyprus, the Czech Republic, position. After France come Poland, Turkey, 2011. In this group, the number of students Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Indonesia and Spain, each with more originating from South Korea, Mexico, Russia, Slovakia and Slovenia than 800 students in government-funded higher the United States and Ukraine rose by more acceded in 2004; Bulgaria and Romania acceded education. than 10% between 2010 and 2011. By contrast, in 2007.

16 17 Diagram 05 and 06 Top three countries and top four to eight countries of origin for diploma mobility, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

top 3

30,000

25,000 22,109 24,093 25,032

20,000 19,155

15,000 16,469

10,000

5,000 3,787 4,145 4,313 Germany China

3,334 2,179 3,405 2,158 2,262 2,359 2,418 Belgium 18 0 19 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

top 4 to 8

2,000

1,500 1,602 1,260 1,444 1,414

1,000 1,017 1,069 1,142 1,043 1,020 792 812 736 799 853 834 848 809 922 945 923 946 711 664 500 622 692 Bulgaria Greece United Kingdom Italy

0 France 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Diagram 07 Residence permits issued: top ten countries of origin in 2007-2011 Source: IND, 2012 (revised figures)

6,000 5,717

5,000 5,435 5,435

4,000 4,146 4,435 5,102

3,000

2,000

2007 1,228 1,492 1,496 1,660 1,332 1,281 1,230 1,182 1,198 1,000 935 2008 2009 2010

0 1,011 728 724 847 843 480 524 658 749 804 344 389 410 542 654 342 427 447 497 576 559 547 568 568 543 234 316 412 456 501 244 275 291 338 404 2011

China United Indonesia Turkey India South Korea Russia Suriname Iran Mexico States

Diagram 08 International students in government-funded education according to gender, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

42.3% 41.1% Male students enrolled in 40.9% higher professional education (HBO) 40.4% 40.7%

18 19 57.7% 58.9% Female students enrolled in 59.1% higher professional education (HBO) 59.6% 59.3%

45.9% 46.1% Male students enrolled in 46.1% academic higher education (WO) 45.7% 46.2%

54.1% 53.9% Female students enrolled in 53.9% academic higher education (WO) 54.3% 53.8%

43.8% 43.3% Male students enrolled in 43.3% higher education (HO) 42.9% 43.4% 2007-08

56.2% 2008-09 56.7% 2009-10 Female students enrolled in 56.7% 2010-11 higher education (HO) 57.1% 56.6% 2011-12

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 student numbers from Tanzania, Kenya, Nepal, year the ratio was 54% male to 46% female Cameroon, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Ethiopia and students. With the 2000-01 academic year Thailand dropped by more than 10% (with marking a turning point, the ratio recorded since Tanzania and Kenya seeing their share plunge 2008-09 is 57% female to 43% male students. by more than 20%). Even though the number In higher professional education over 59% of of students from Morocco and Turkey in students are female while women account for government-funded education is rising, 54% of students in academic higher education. no increase has been seen in the number of Diagram 08 (see page 19) residence permits issued to students from these countries. The reverse is true: the upward trend 2.1.4 Bachelor’s or master’s for Turkish students was interrupted the previous degree programmes year, plummeting suddenly by almost 10% while The majority of international students in the number of residence permits for Moroccan government-funded education pursue a bachelor’s students has definitely been falling since 2005. degree programme. This is primarily attributable Suriname enrolments too were up until the to students in higher professional education previous year, but the number of residence where almost all international students pursue permits has remained reasonably stable since a bachelor’s degree programme. In academic the decline seen between 2006 and 2007. higher education the number of master’s students exceeded the number of bachelor’s students in From a regional perspective, the number of 2010-11 (revised data). residence permits for students from the United Diagram 09 States and Canada has risen by 264% since Diagram 10 2005 and by 142% for students from Oceania, Diagram 11 by 34% for students from Asia and by 2% for students from Africa. The figure for Oceania As expected, international students in higher rose sharply until 2008 but was followed by professional education pursue all CROHO a moderate decline, while the figure for Africa components, particularly bachelor’s degree grew until 2009 but has since continued to fall. programmes. Only in the Language & Culture Diagram 07 (see page 19) and Education components a notable percentage of these students are pursuing a master’s degree 2.1.3 Ratio of male to programme. Bachelor’s programmes are only female students pursued in the cross-sectoral academic higher The ratio of male to female international students education component (at the University Colleges) in government-funded higher education has while most international students who are changed in recent years. In the 1998-99 academic studying Behaviour & Society are enrolled on

20

Diagram 09 International students in government-funded higher education by phase, 2011-12 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

73 (0.1%) 63 (0.1%)

14,722 (26.2%)

Bachelor’s Master’s Post-master’s 41,273 (73.5%) Undivided Diagram 10 International students in government-funded academic higher education by phase, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

30,000

27,374

25,000 25,063

22,238

20,000 19,162

16,318 15,000

10,000

Bachelor’s Master’s 5,000 Post-master’s Undivided 8,652 7,301 41 324 10,096 8,799 49 218 11,409 10,626 44 159 12,390 12,513 59 101 0 13,603 13,635 73 63 Total 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

21

Diagram 11 International students in government-funded higher professional education by phase, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

30,000 28,757 28,066 26,329 25,000 24,054 22,408

20,000 22,993 25,258 27,670

15,000 21,383 26,939 jaar 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 10,000 Bachelor 6.618 7.773 8.859 10.336 11.286 Master 4.638 5.857 7.410 8.919 9.958 Ongedeeld5,000 1.474 668 354 246 189 Bachelor’s Post-master 46 50 42 53 45 Master’s Totaal 12.776 14.348 16.665 19.554 21.478

0 1,025 1,061 1,071 1,127 1,087 Total 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Diagram 12 International students in government-funded higher education by type of study, and phase by CROHO component, 2011-12 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012

2.3% 0.0% Cross-sectoral 97.7% 0.0%

64.7% 0.0% Economics 19.7% 15.6% 22 81.9% 12.0% Education 0.0% 6.1%

61.8% 0.6% Healthcare 18.5% 19.2%

36.4% 0.1% Behaviour & Society 43.4% 20.2%

49.8% 14.3% Language & Culture 16.5% 19.3%

45.5% 0.0% Engineering 15.1% 39.4%

0.0% 0.0% Law 47.2% 52.8%

26.7% Agriculture & 0.0% Natural Environment 9.1% Higher professional 64.2% education bachelor’s

0.0% Higher professional 0.0% education master’s Natural Sciences 24.4% 75.6% Academic higher 49,3% education bachelor’s By phase 1,9% 24,2% Academic higher 24,5% education master’s

020406080100 a bachelor’s degree programme. On the other The percentage of international students as a hand, the reverse applies to Agriculture & share of the total CROHO component population, Natural Environment, and Natural Sciences which is an indicator of the degree of international and Engineering, the components in which the orientation, shows a completely different picture. largest majority of international students are The cross-sectoral category, which refers to pursuing a master’s degree programme. The University Colleges, is the most notable category. students pursuing the other academic higher In Agriculture & Natural Environment too, the education components are more evenly percentage of international students is above 20%, distributed across the bachelor’s and master’s while the percentage in the CROHO component degree programmes. of Economics is almost 20%. Behaviour & Society Diagram 12 as well as Engineering follow at some distance reflecting percentages of around 12%. Education Diagram 13 provides a breakdown of the concludes the list accounting for only 4.3% of nationalities with 100 or more students in the international students. The only component Netherlands by study type and phase. It is showing signs of stabilisation is Agriculture & interesting to note that certain groups of countries Natural Environment while continued growth have no clear preference for the type and phase is evident in all other sectors. of study programme. Most EU countries can Diagram 14 (see page 25) primarily be seen in academic higher education Diagram 15 (see page 25) although this does not apply to countries such as Germany, France, Spain or Sweden. This The most popular component in government- evidently depends on the characteristics and funded higher professional education in terms of circumstances of each individual country. student numbers is Economics, which again saw Further research would be required. a growing number of international students in the Diagram 13 (see page 24) 2011-12 academic year. By contrast, the number of international students studying the Language 2.1.5 Fields of study & Culture component once again declined in the Looking at the numbers of international students 2011-12 academic year relative to the previous in government-funded academic higher education, year. The Healthcare field of study also saw student the CROHO components of Economics, and numbers drop for the first time. Behaviour & Society are especially popular. Although these two fields of study are perhaps At 23.5%, the Language & Culture component showing stronger growth than the other fields (art academies) reflects the highest percentage of study, in all cases consistent growth has of international students as a share of the total been seen in recent years. component population in higher professional

23

IND figures show that of the students who obtained a student residence permit for the first time in 2005, 19% were still in the country at the beginning of 2012, 2% were still studying while 17% had obtained a different residency status. Of the 2006 cohort, 21% were still in the country, 4% were still studying while 17% had obtained a different residency status. Of the 2007 final cohort, 23% were still in the country, 8% were still studying and 15% had obtained a different residency status. Diagram 13 International students in government-funded higher education, phase by country of origin, 2011-12 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012

63.0% 36.4% Afghanistan 0.0% 4.0% 27.6% Lithuania 21.5% 9.4% 38.0%

41.2% 53.0% 5.0% 4.0% Austria 30.1% Luxembourg 25.0% 23.7% 18.0%

34.3% 19.1% 4.4% 3.2% Belgium 37.8% Mexico 23.5% 8.8% 68.9% 51.8% 4.1% 82.8% Brazil 0.3% 14.1% Morocco 30.0% 13.2% 3.6% 53.9% 0.6% 57.7% Bulgaria 18.5% 0.0% 27.0% Nepal 4.1% 38.2% 82.8% 0.0% 61.9% Cameroon 10.2% 0.0% 7.0% Nigeria 14.8% 23.3% 36.9% Canada 3.7% 67.2% 11.2% 3.2% 48.1% Norway 15.9% 13.6% 49.8% 0.4% China 15.7% 50.4% 34.0% 0.0% Pakistan 15.1% 34.5% 21.0% 2.1% Colombia 8.2% 41.2% 68.7% 3.0% Poland 24.9% 22.9% 30.8% 2.4% Czech Republic 26.8% 51.7% 47.8% 6.7% Portugal 10.8% 49.1% 30.9% 4.6% Denmark 23.4% 30.8% 22.9% 1.9% Romania 14.9% 57.2% 52.5% Germany 0.5% 30.5% 51.2% 11.7% 3.7% Russia 18.0% 44.3% 27.1% 2.9% Estonia 20.7% 45.0% 32.1% Slovakia 0.8% 12.7% 17.4% 0.0% 36.8% Ethiopia 2.7% 84.7% 30.5% Slovenia 7.6% 35.9% 16.2% 3.4% 45.7% Finland 37.2% 23.5% 52.6% 11.1% 55.5% South Korea 18.1% 4.7% 18.1% France 17.6% 22.2% 41.9% 13.3% 11.3% Spain 14.8% 24 3.0% 30.0% 25 Greece 8.1% 77.6% 43.5% 0.4% 49.3% Suriname 32.8% 5.9% 23.4% Hungary 14.0% 30.7% 51.9% 2.4% 38.9% Sweden 29.3% 11.1% 16.4% Iceland 12.0% 38.0% 42.9% 30.3% Switzerland 5.7% 4.8% 17.0% Ireland 17.0% 34.4% 47.9% 24.3% 9.7% Taiwan 5.8% 0.2% 8.7% India 8.7% 61.2% 81.4% 43.4% 40.5% 4.7% 0.6% Thailand 8.5% Indonesia 14.3% 43.4% 44.5% 61.4% 36.3% Turkey 1.6% Iran 2.5% 11.7% 20.8% 25.3% 40.4% 55.3% 44.9% 1.1% 14.0% Ukraine Israel 16.0% 22.4% 27.5% 18.7%

31.7% 37.6% Higher professional 4.7% United Kingdom 5.1% education bachelor’s Italy 21.2% 29.2% 28.2% 42.4% Higher professional 57.3% 25.0% education master’s 18.8% United States 6.9% Japan 8.5% 18.3% 15.4% 49.7% Academic higher education bachelor’s 51.6% 59.0% 2.9% 0.0% Latvia 23.8% Vietnam 10.4% Academic higher 21.7% 30.6% education master’s

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Diagram 14 International students in government-funded academic higher education by CROHO component, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

30,000

27,374

25,000 25,063

22,238

20,000 19,162

16,318

15,000 Economics Behaviour & Society Engineering Language & Culture 10,000 Natural Sciences Law Agriculture &

5,000 Natural Environment Healthcare Cross-sectoral Education 7,582 5,837 3,805 2,292 1,807 1,806 1,629 1,503 1,040 73 5,219 4,132 2,666 1,714 1,455 1,167 1,114 998 648 49 7,030 5,409 3,375 2,163 1,697 1,643 1,503 1,301 883 59 4,275 3,537 2,252 1,553 1,317 919 1,008 889 527 41 0 6,246 4,820 3,025 1,952 1,612 1,417 1,237 1,109 776 44 Total

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

Diagram 15 International students in government-funded academic higher education by CROHO component as a percentage of the total component population, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

24 25 35 31.9% 31.8% 30 32.6% 29.2% 31.7%

25 23.3% 21.4% 21.6% 21.7% 23.4% 20

Cross-sectoral 19.1% 18.1% 17.0% 15 Agriculture & Natural Environment 15.3% Economics 10 Engineering 12.4% 11.8% 11.2% 11.3% 11.0% 10.4% 13.3% 10.4% 10.2% 9.6% 8.9% Behaviour & Society Natural Sciences 8.1% 8.9% 9.0% 7.1% 6.5% 8.4% 8.2% 7.7% 9.6% 9.3% 8.6% 8.7% Language & Culture 5 Law 6.4% 4.8% 5.8% 4.2% 3.7% 5.2% 3.8% 5.5% 4.3% 3.4% 4.4% 6.0% 5.0% 3.7% 3.3% Healthcare Education

4.3%

3.5% 3.1% 0 Average 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Diagram 16 International students in government-funded higher professional education by CROHO component, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

30,000 28,757* 28,066*

26,329*

25,000 24,054

22,408

20,000

* Includes cross-sectoral: five students in 2009-10 and 2010-11, 25 students 15,000 in 2011-12. 13,906 12,358 13,422 10,000 Economics Language & Culture 10,952 9,750 Behaviour & Society Engineering 5,000 Healthcare Education 4,333 4,101 3,343 3,177 4,262 4,243 3,146 2,886 4,334 Agriculture & Natural Environment

2,768 2,582 2,520 1,049 714 2,485 1,126 594

2,375 2,366 2,386 992 721 2,543 1,094 727

0 2,198 2,271 2,197 947 711 Total

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

Diagram 17 International students in government-funded higher professional education by CROHO component as a percentage of the total component population, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

26 30% 27 * Includes cross-sectoral: five students in 2009-10 and 2010-11, 25 students in 2011-12.

25% Language & Culture 25.5% 24.5% 24.4% 24.0% 23.5% Economics Agriculture &

20% Natural Environment Healthcare Behaviour & Society Engineering 15% Education Average

10% 8.9% 9.0% 8.3% 8.4% 8.8% 8.2% 8.8% 6.8% 7.0% 7.1% 6.8% 6.5% 6.3% 5% 7.2% 6.0% 7.8% 6.3% 6.5%* 6.7%* 6.8%* 4.0% 3.8% 4.1% 3.9% 4.5% 4.0% 4.8% 4.7% 5.0% 1.4% 1.5% 1.6% 4.4% 1.6% 1.7% 0% 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 education. The percentages for the other CROHO students. Fontys University of Applied Sciences components are at least 50% lower. A lower and Saxion University of Applied Sciences percentage has again been recorded for three clinched their second and third positions with components in the 2011-12 academic year. Delft University of Technology retaining its fifth Agriculture & Natural Environment shows the place and the University of Amsterdam retaining strongest decline, dropping from 9% in 2008-09 its ninth place. With an additional 500 international to 6.5% in 2011-12. A longer term adjustment students the University of Groningen jumped applies to Language & Culture which declined from seventh to fourth place whereas HAN from 25.5% in 2007-08 to 23.5% in 2011-12, University of Applied Sciences fell from fourth while the number of Healthcare students only to sixth place. The Erasmus University Rotterdam began to fall in 2009-10 by 7.1% to 6.3% in went from eighth to seventh place, and Stenden 2011-12. Economics is stabilising while the University of Applied Sciences went from eighth other fields of study are still enjoying continued to sixth place. The Hague University of Applied growth. Sciences joined the ranking to take up the tenth Diagram 16 spot while Zuid University of Applied Sciences Diagram 17 was knocked out of the top ten.

Preferred fields of study by country of origin It should be noted that these figures relate to Diagram 18 shows subjects prioritised on the students in government-funded education. basis of student numbers for the main countries In addition to this group, the institutions often of origin. The largest numbers of students for also play host to non-government-funded diploma most countries can be found in the Economics mobile students and non-centrally recorded component, followed by Language & Culture, credit mobile students. The international student and Engineering. Norwegian students enrol population is usually higher, therefore, and mainly in the Healthcare component. Where the sometimes even considerably higher, than the largest group of students for most countries did figures presented here. More comprehensive not opt for Economics or Language & Culture, records need to be maintained to accurately the second-largest group did. reflect the total population. Diagram 18 (see page 28) Diagram 19 (see page 29)

2.1.6 Higher education Among the top ten institutions with the most ­institutions international students relative to their total student Top 10 institutions populations, the Gerrit Rietveld Academie Maastricht University again cemented its number recaptured the top spot with 46% international one position with an additional 600 international students. Maastricht University fell from first to

26 27 Diagram 18 Most popular CROHO component in government-funded higher education according to country of origin, 2011-12 Source: DUO-CFI, Nuffic, 2012

1st field of study 2nd field of study 3rd field of study 4th field of study 1st field of study 2nd field of study 3rd field of study 4th field of study

Afghanistan Sweden

Austria Thailand

Brazil Turkey

Bulgaria Ukraine

Cameroon United Kingdom

China Vietnam

Czech Republic Canada

Germany Denmark

Estonia Ireland

Finland Italy

France Luxembourg

Ghana Serbia

Greece Slovenia

Hungary South Korea

Indonesia Spain

Latvia Switzerland

Lithuania Taiwan

28 Macedonia United Stated 29

Morocco Belgium

Nepal Colombia

Nigeria Ecuador

Poland India

Portugal Iraq

Romania Iran

Russia Mexico

Slovakia Bangladesh

South Africa Ethiopia 2 x 2 = Suriname Norway

ABC Economics Agriculture & Natural Environment Cross-sectoral

Language & Culture Healthcare Law

Engineering Behavior & Society Nature

Education

Diagram 19 Top ten institutions in terms of international student numbers in 2011-12 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012

Universiteit Maastricht 6,662

Fontys Hogescholen 3,816

Saxion Hogescholen 3,486

Rijksuniversiteit Groningen 2,718

Technische Universiteit Delft 2,714

Hogeschool van Arnhem en Nijmegen 2,685

Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam 2,408

Stenden Hogeschool 2,310

Universiteit van Amsterdam 2,190

Haagse Hogeschool 1,887

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

28 29 Diagram 20 Top ten institutions in terms of percentages of international students within the total student population by institution, 2011-12 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012

Gerrit Rietveld Academy 46.0%

Maastricht University 45.1%

Codarts University for the Arts 42.5%

University of the Arts, The Hague 37.0%

Hotelschool The Hague 26.1% International University of Hospitality Management

Wageningen University 23.4%

Stenden University of Applied Sciences 23.1%

Design Academy Eindhoven 21.5%

Amsterdam School of the Arts 21.0%

Helicon University of Applied Sciences 20.2%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% second place and Codarts University for the Arts the University of Amsterdam (36) followed by from second to third. The University of the Arts Delft University of Technology (35) and Erasmus The Hague, Wageningen University and Stenden University Rotterdam (35). The most widely University of Applied Sciences maintained their distributed student nationalities were German respective fourth, sixth and seventh positions. (across 42 institutions with at least 10 German Hotelschool The Hague – International University students), Belgian (35), Chinese and French of Hospitality Management climbed from ninth (29), Italian (28), British and Polish (27). to fifth place with an additional six percentage Diagram 23 (see page 32) points while Design Academy Eindhoven slid from fifth to eighth spot with eleven percentage 2.1.7 Students from Neso points. The Amsterdam School of the Arts moved ­target countries down one place while ArtEZ Institute of the Arts Nuffic operates a number of Netherlands exited the top ten ranking, ceding its position to Education Support Offices (Nuffic Neso offices) Helicon University of Applied Sciences. to support Dutch higher education abroad. Diagram 20 (see page 29) There are Nuffic Neso offices in Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia, South Korea, Diagrams 21 and 22 show the historic Thailand and Vietnam, and Nuffic Neso Desks development of the numbers and percentages in India and Taipei. In addition to the number of international students. We would again like of students in government-funded education to point out that the figures relate to students in shown in Diagram 24, the number of students government-funded higher education. The total holding a residence permit is shown in Diagram international student population therefore usually 25. The increasingly wide range of non-publicly is higher than shown here. funded study programmes means that Diagram Diagram 21 25 provides a more accurate picture of current Diagram 22 trends. Moreover, the diagram shows students who actually came to the Netherlands to pursue Preferred institution by country of origin a study programme. The enrolment statistics in Diagram 23 shows the preferred higher education Diagram 24 could also include students who institutions by country of origin. The criteria for had already been living in the Netherlands for inclusion in this statistic are that the nationality some time or were born there. is registered with at least three institutions and Diagram 24 (see page 33) that at least ten students from that country are Diagram 25 (see page 33) registered at the third-most preferred institution. Looking at only the minimum number of ten students, most countries were represented at

30 31 Diagram 21 Top ten institutions in terms of international student numbers in government-funded education by institution, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

4,318 5,042 Maastricht University 5,751 6,104 6,662 2,630 2,796 Fontys University of Applied Sciences 3,212 3,648 3,816 2,157 2,605 Saxion University of Applied Sciences 2,990 3,296 3,486 1,088 1,365 Groningen University 1,817 2,208 2,718 1,758 2,037 Delft University of Technology 2,245 2,481 2,714 2,023 2,196 HAN University of Applied Sciences 2,458 2,744 2,685 1,273 1,478 Erasmus University Rotterdam 1,775 2,125 2,408 1,604 1,943 2007-08 Stenden University of Applied Sciences 2,261 2,324 2008-09 2,310 1,490 2009-10 1,762 University of Amsterdam 2,032 2010-11 2,274 2,190 2011-12 1,035 1,257 The Hague University of Applied Sciences 1,447 1,632 1,887

01,000 2,0003,000 4,0005,000 6,0007,000

Diagram 22 Top ten institutions in terms of percentage of international students in government-funded education within the institution’s total student population, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

41.9% 42.2% Gerrit Rietveld Academy 44.8% 45.2% 46.0%

36.0% 30 38.9% 31 Maastricht University 41.4% 42.8% 45.1%

48.9% 45.4% Codarts University for the Arts 43.7% 42.1% 42.5%

35.6% 34.7% University of the Arts, The Hague 35.5% 34.4% 37.0%

17.2% Hotelschool The Hague 20.1% 21.9% International University of Hospitality Management 25.1% 26.1%

21.4% 21.6% Wageningen University 21.7% 23.4% 23.4%

16.8% 19.9% Stenden University of Applied Sciences 22.4% 22.8% 23.1%

25.2% 26.2% Design Academy Eindhoven 29.2% 2007-08 32.1% 21.5% 2008-09 22.5% 2009-10 22.6% Amsterdam School of the Arts 22.6% 23.0% 2010-11 21.0% 2011-12 20.1% 18.4% Helicon University of Applied Sciences 20.5% 17.1% 20.2%

0% 10% 20% 30%40% 50% Diagram 23 Institutions with the largest number of students from a specific country in 2011-12 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012

1st institution2nd institution3rd institution1st institution 2nd institution3rd institution

Afghanistan Latvia

Austria Lithuania

Belgium Mexico

Brazil Morocco

Bulgaria Nepal

Cameroon Nigeria

Canada Norway

China Pakistan

Colombia Poland Hogeschool van Amsterdam,

32 Czech Republic Portugal University of Applied Sciences 33 Maastricht University Denmark Romania The Hague University of Applied Sciences Delft University of Technology Germany Russia Gerrit Rietveld Academy AVANS University of Applied Sciences Finland Slovakia Wageningen University Leiden University France South Korea Utrecht University Groningen University Ghana Spain University of the Arts, The Hague Fontys University of Applied Sciences Greece Suriname Eindhoven University of Technology Saxion University of Applied Sciences Hungary Sweden Hanze University of Applied Sciences, Groningen Ireland Switzerland Stenden University of Applied Sciences Iceland Taiwan Rotterdam University University of Amsterdam India Turkey Erasmus University Rotterdam Hotelschool The Hague-International Indonesia Ukraine University of Hospitality Management INHOLLAND University of Applied Sciences Iran United Kingdom HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht CAH Dronten University of Applied Sciences Israel United States Tilburg University Utrecht School of the Arts Italy Vietnam Amsterdam School of the Arts HAN University of Applied Sciences Japan Zuyd University of Applied Sciences

2 x 2 =

ABC

Diagram 24 Students from Neso target countries in government-funded higher education in the Netherlands, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

3,334 1,072 264 358 280 275 171 126 150 111

2007-08

3,405 1,017 312 426 287 271 174 134 159 117

2008-09

3,787 951 393 455 283 272 193 139 148 126

2009-10 China

1st institution2nd institution3rd institution1st institution 2nd institution3rd institution Indonesia 4,145 900 487 482 286 277 234 161 119 114 India Afghanistan Latvia Russia 2010-11 South Korea Austria Lithuania Vietnam Belgium Mexico 4,313 930 515 510 270 268 251 170 106 103 Mexico Brazil Brazil Morocco 2011-12 Thailand Taiwan Bulgaria Nepal

Cameroon Nigeria 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,0006,000 7,0008,000

Canada Norway

China Pakistan Diagram 25 Colombia Poland Students from Neso target countries holding a temporary residence permit Hogeschool van Amsterdam, in higher education in the Netherlands, 2007-2012 32 Czech Republic Portugal University of Applied Sciences Source: IND, 2012 (revised figures) 33 Maastricht University Denmark Romania The Hague University of Applied Sciences Delft University of Technology Germany Russia Gerrit Rietveld Academy 4,146 1,332 480 344 342 244 377 302 207 219 AVANS University of Applied Sciences Finland Slovakia Wageningen University 2007-08 Leiden University France South Korea Utrecht University Groningen University 4,435 1,281 524 389 427 275 364 301 229 231 Ghana Spain University of the Arts, The Hague Fontys University of Applied Sciences 2008-09 Greece Suriname Eindhoven University of Technology Saxion University of Applied Sciences Hungary Sweden Hanze University of Applied Sciences, 5,102 1,230 658 410 447 291 388 278 271 239 Groningen Ireland Switzerland Stenden University of Applied Sciences 2009-10 China Iceland Taiwan Rotterdam University University of Amsterdam Indonesia 5,435 1,182 749 542 497 338 377 303 296 175 India Turkey Erasmus University Rotterdam India Hotelschool The Hague-International South Korea Indonesia Ukraine University of Hospitality Management 2010-11 Russia INHOLLAND University of Applied Sciences Mexico Iran United Kingdom HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht 5,717 1,198 804 654 576 404 389 303 298 157 Vietnam CAH Dronten University of Applied Sciences Taiwan Israel United States Tilburg University Utrecht School of the Arts 2011-12 Brazil Italy Vietnam Amsterdam School of the Arts Thailand HAN University of Applied Sciences Japan Zuyd University of Applied Sciences 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,0007,000 8,0009,000 10,000 11,000

2 x 2 =

ABC

Diagram 26 Percentage of outbound students from Neso target countries holding a temporary residence permit in higher education in the Netherlands, 2004-2009 Source: UNESCO, IND, 2012 (revised figures)

600,000 5%

500,000

4%

400,000

3%

300,000

2%

200,000

34 35

1%

100,000

0 0%

2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

China 402,805 406,594 1.09% 429,578 0.98% 459,026 0.90% 512,418 0.87% India 139,743 139,228 0.23% 155,100 0.28% 177,170 0.27% 195,405 0.27% South Korea 101,002 104,899 0.22% 109,984 0.26% 114,801 0.30% 122,824 0.32% Russia 38,776 41,171 0.84% 42,946 0.74% 44,221 0.77% 47,143 0.91% Vietnam 20,796 23,325 2.36% 28,020 1.68% 36,534 1.03% 43,670 0.83% Indonesia 30,056 28,351 4.47% 31,022 3.88% 32,257 4.13% 33,645 3.81% 32,525 0.69% 0.75% Taiwan* 34,058 37,171 33,021 0.91% 33,339 0.90% * Source: Ministry of Education, Mexico 23,209 24,138 0.87% 25,207 0.90% 25,772 0.95% 26,863 1.02% Taiwan (http://english.moe.gov.tw/ct .asp?xItem=9354&ctNode=1184& Brazil 19,562 20,018 0.73% 21,671 0.80% 23,136 0.89% 26,282 0.87% mp=1). UNESCO does not maintain Thailand 23,681 23,859 0.73% 24,805 0.96% 24,430 0.90% 25,192 0.92% data for Taiwan. The Dutch share of student numbers from Neso Language & Culture while students from one target countries in centrally-registered study country, namely Thailand, chose Agriculture & programmes in OECD countries is growing in Natural Environment. the case of Russia and Mexico; the share is Diagram 27 more or less stable for South Korea, Thailand, India, Taiwan, Brazil and China; but is falling in Vietnam and Indonesia. The data inevitably refers to 2008-09 (the most recent figures). While this adds no information about the Dutch share of the total number of students from the Neso target countries, Diagram 25 shows that the number of students from Neso target countries in the Netherlands climbed by 2,000 or 24%. In percentage terms the largest increase was seen in student numbers from South Korea (+68%), India (+53%), Mexico (+47%), Russia (+35%), Brazil (+30%) and China (+29%). By contrast, there was a decrease in student numbers from Thailand (-32%) as well as Indonesia (-6%). Diagram 26

Preferred fields of study for students from Neso target countries As is the case for the entire international student population, Economics is the preferred field of study among students from the majority of Neso target countries. In 2011-12 students from South Korea and Taiwan also opted mainly for Language & Culture while students from India and Mexico opted mainly for Engineering. A more varied picture applies to the second field of study. Students from four countries chose Engineering, students from three countries chose Economics, students from two countries chose

34 35

Diagram 27 Students from Neso target countries in government-funded higher education by CROHO component, 2011-12 Source: DUO-CFI, Nuffic, 2012

China

Indonesia

India

Russia

South Korea

Vietnam Economics Engineering Mexico Language & Culture Agriculture & Brazil Natural Environment Behaviour & Society Thailand Natural Sciences Law Taiwan Healthcare Cross-sectoral All Neso countries Education

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%70% 80%90% 100% 2.2

Outbound diploma mobility 36 37 2.2.1 Developments in since the implementation of the general portability ­outbound mobility of student grants and loans. The number of The number of Dutch nationals enrolled abroad countries grew from 14 in 2006-07 to 78 in continued to rise to over 18,100 between 2007-08 2011-12. However, 87% of the students funded and 2008-09. Although the Dutch student still study abroad in Belgium, the United Kingdom, population abroad has been growing since the the United States, Germany, Sweden and turn of the century in terms of absolute numbers, Portugal (see below). the upward trend is currently continuing in Diagram 29 (see page 38) percentage terms too, and has even been Diagram 30 (see page 38) reinforced. The general portability of student grants and loans in 2007 may have contributed 2.2.2 Destination countries to the increase between 2006-07 and 2008-09 When enrolling for a full study programme abroad, (while more interest was certainly shown in this the host country for almost 80% of Dutch option, as described below, it is unclear to what nationals is another EU country. In 2008-09 extent this group was included in the OECD the largest number of Dutch students studied figures: for instance, some students might study abroad in the United Kingdom, followed by at institutions that have not been included in the Belgium, the United States and Germany. statistics). The Dutch share in the total outbound flow from the EU-27 countries rose from 2.6% Dutch enrolments are increasing in almost all to 2.8% between 2007-08 and 2008-09 but is countries. The increase even accelerated in still smaller than what might be expected given Belgium where an additional 820 students the size of the Dutch student population (see enrolled in 2008-09, as well as in the United also Chapter 5). Kingdom where Dutch student numbers were Diagram 28 up by 600. This applies to a lesser extent to Spain (+80) and, outside the EU, to the United Portable student grants and loans States (+155) and Switzerland (+60). The limited Although portable student grants and loans had increase of 50 Dutch students has evidently been an option for a limited number of fields of halted the prolonged decline of Dutch students study and host countries for many years, they studying in Germany. became generally available in September 2007. Diagram 31 (see page 39) The only restriction is that the study programme abroad must be of sufficient quality. Destination countries for portable student grants and loans As shown in Diagrams 29 and 30, the number of Most of the Dutch government-funded study-abroad countries has primarily increased students studied abroad in Belgium, with the

36 37

Diagram 28 Dutch students studying abroad to obtain a diploma, 2004-2009 Source: OECD, 2012

20,000 4.0%

18,115 16,018

15,000 14,725 14,188 13,184 3.0%

2.93% 10,000 2.66% 2.50% 2.45% 2.33%

5,000 2.0%

2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Abroad % of total enrolments in the Netherlands Diagram 29 Number of students funded abroad, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-Information Management Group, DUO-CFI, 2012; figures as of 1 March of each year

10,000 2.0%

8,347 7,929 8,000 7,432 1.6%

6,429

6,000 5,517 1.2% 1.25% 1.21% 1.17% 1.07% 4,000 0.94% 0.8%

2,000 0.4%

0 0.0%

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

Number of students % of total enrolments in the Netherlands

38

Diagram 30 Number of countries where study programmes are funded by the Dutch government, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-Information Management Group, 2012; figures as of 1 March of each year

9,000 100 8,347 8,000 7,929 7,432 7,000 80 6,429 77 78 6,000 5,517 69 65 60 5,000 55 4,000 40 3,000

2,000 20 1,000

0 0

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

Number of students Number of countries

Diagram 31 Destination countries, 2004-2009 Source: OECD, 2012 39

6,000

5,000 5,577 4,975 4,464 4,877 4,056 4,000 3,984 3,462 3,273 3,000 3,463 3,078

2,000 1,622 1,623 1,607 1,703 1,558 United Kingdom 1,839 1,593

1,682 1,544 Belgium 1,000 United States 1,540 Germany 673 485 652 399 France 626 57

603 49 571 35 0 New Zealand

2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 United Kingdom in second place in 2011-12, In the United States, 232 institutions hosted in turn followed by the United States, Germany, enrolled Dutch government-funded students. Sweden and Portugal. While Belgium enjoyed The largest number, 10 students, attended a 7.8% increase of 335 students, the number of Columbia University. Dutch students studying abroad in the United Kingdom is stabilising. The number of Dutch In Germany Dutch students pursued studies at students studying in the United States seems 94 institutions. RWTH Aachen University (53), to be declining slightly, which surprisingly also Freie Universität Berlin (14), the WWU University seems be the case in Australia, Canada, Ireland of Munster (12) and the University of Cologne and New Zealand. As the differences between were the only institutions attended by 10 or more the other countries have narrowed, the diagram Dutch-government funded students. has been expanded to include six countries. Incidentally, there is a marginal difference between In Sweden Dutch students pursued studies at the number of Dutch government-funded students 21 institutions, with 10 or more students attending in Portugal and the subsequent countries the Universities of Jönköping (21), Lund (21), (Denmark, France, Spain, etc.). Uppsala (19), Gothenburg (12) and Stockholm (11), as well as the Stockholm School of Over one third (34%) of the total number of Economics (10). Dutch government-funded students studied at 5 Flemish institutions: the K.U. Leuven (1,042), Concluding the list, Dutch students pursued the University of Antwerp (758), the University of studies at 14 institutions in Portugal, mainly at Ghent (536), Antwerp University College (319) and the Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades KH Kempen University College (210). Students e Technologias in Lisbon (65). enrolled at a total of 55 Belgian institutions. The latest figures showing enrolments at 1,064 In the United Kingdom, Dutch students pursued institutions in the 78 countries included in the studies at 180 institutions. More than 50 Dutch diagram confirm that the portability of the student government-funded students studied at 7 grants and loans system has contributed to universities (London Metropolitan University, boosting a broad international experience. University College London, the University of Eighty-six countries and as many as 1,584 Cambridge, the University of Edinburgh, the institutions have accepted enrolments since London School of Economics, the University of 2007. Oxford and King’s College London). Small groups Diagram 32 of Dutch students were reasonably evenly distributed across the other 173 institutions.

40 41

Diagram 32 Main host countries, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-Information Management Group, 2012; figures as of 1 March of each year

8,000

7,000 7,283 6,871 6,000 6,356

5,540 5,000

4,767

4,000 4,066 4,284 4,619

Belgium 3,000 3,539 3,785 United Kingdom

2,000 United States Germany

1,000 1,164 1,548 1,767 1,770 Sweden Portugal 825 164 209 24 6 293 227 58 13 367 279 61 35 412 267 86 55 379 281 138 96 0 Total 6 countries

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 Note: We have elected to examine inbound mobility first in this publication and then outbound mobility. With respect to diploma mobility, inbound student mobility is the key ­indicator in terms of both numbers and policy. Although the reverse is true in respect of credit mobility – more students probably go abroad rather than come to the Netherlands, and more importance is usually attached to outbound mobility in terms of 3 education – for consistency we have first looked briefly at inbound credit mobility. Credit mobility to and from the Netherlands

40 41

8,000

7,000 7,283 6,871 6,000 6,356

5,540 5,000

4,767

4,000 4,066 4,284 4,619

Belgium 3,000 3,539 3,785 United Kingdom

2,000 United States Germany

1,000 1,164 1,548 1,767 1,770 Sweden Portugal 825 164 209 24 6 293 227 58 13 367 279 61 35 412 267 86 55 379 281 138 96 0 Total 6 countries

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 3.1

Inbound credit mobility 42 43 Credit mobility refers to students who travel assuming that there is a certain degree of abroad to pursue a partial programme or take reciprocity – the assumption is 85%6 – the number up a work placement during their studies of inbound credit mobile students could total within the context of their study programme. 23,950. However, it should be noted that this is a rough estimate of inbound mobility which 3.1.1 Developments is given merely for the purpose of providing an in ­inbound mobility overall picture as well as to put outbound The only information on inbound credit mobility mobility into some perspective. – meaning students who come to the Netherlands to pursue studies or take up a work placement The following information only refers to mobility within the context of their study programme within the context of the Erasmus programme. abroad – has to date been derived from the administration of scholarship programmes. 3.1.2 Inbound credit mobility Mobility outside these programmes or more under the Erasmus Programme accurately, outside the recognised scholarship Mobility within programmes is largely determined programmes, remains largely undocumented. by the specific features and conditions of the This situation could be changed by including relevant programme. Programme mobility questions about destination countries in therefore is only indicative of general mobility international comparative graduate surveys trends to a limited extent. The European more often. With regard to Germany, however, programmes are the most interesting in this we know that just 4% of credit mobile German context as they facilitate comparisons between 5 DAAD, HIS, WBV. (2011). Wissenschaft weltoffen, students study in the Netherlands, placing the countries. Although here too, outbound mobility Daten und Fakten zur Netherlands in seventh place on the list of host is limited to a certain extent by the available Internationalität von Studium und Forschung countries. This contrasts with the 18.5% of budgets, inbound mobility reflects a greater in Deutschland. Bielefeld: DAAD. diploma mobile German students who come amount of freedom; although the number 6 The figure of 85% is taken to the Netherlands. In the latter category, the of students travelling abroad per country is from the results of the REFLEX project among Netherlands ranks as the second destination limited, students are relatively free in their graduates in 1999-2000 (Allen, J. Coenen, J. & country, after Austria. Forty-five per cent of choice of destination country, provided that Velden, R. van der (2007). credit mobile German students study in the cooperation agreements are in place and a Higher education graduates compared with other United Kingdom, France, Spain and the United certain degree of reciprocity applies. countries; Results of the States (DAAD, HIS, WBV, 2011).5 REFLEX project. The Hague, Ministry of Education, As in previous years, most Erasmus Programme Culture and Science). On average, credit mobility When taking account of the total of 28,200 students came from Spain in the last reference from other EU countries outbound credit mobile students (see the year 2009-10. France and Germany also remained was 85% of the credit mobility from the supporting information under 4.2.1) and the second and third countries of origin. ­Netherlands.

42 43 The total number of incoming Erasmus a preliminary year, we now have a reasonable programme students rose sharply, from 6,894 picture of EU-sponsored credit mobility in terms to 7,239. Among the countries of origin with of work placements. The total number of visiting more than 150 students, in percentage terms student trainees increased notably from 1,185 the largest increase was seen in student numbers to 1,355 between 2008-09 and 2009-10. from Sweden (+37%), Germany (+16%) and As stated in Mapping Mobility 2011, French Finland (+15%). On the other hand, a decrease and German students again primarily took the was seen in Erasmus programme students from opportunity offered by the Erasmus programme Portugal (-12%), Poland (-11%) and Austria (-8%). to carry out a work placement in the Netherlands Diagram 33 in 2009-10. The 2009-10 figures show, however, that their numbers are falling by 13% and 9% How popular is the Netherlands among respectively, while a sharp increase is being international Erasmus programme students? seen in student numbers from Belgium (+110%), Ten per cent of Swedish Erasmus programme Poland (+71%) and Spain +33%). The share students came to the Netherlands in 2009-10 of students in the total Erasmus Programme as did 9% of Finnish Erasmus programme population who opted for the Netherlands students, 7% of the students from Hungary, decreased from 3.9% in 2008-09 to 3.8% in and 6% from Belgium and Turkey. Compared 2009-10. with the previous year, most countries that supplied more than 150 students saw their As stated above, inbound Erasmus work share decline. The popularity of a short study placement mobility represents but a fraction period in the Netherlands declined most among of total inbound work placement mobility. Austrian (-12%), Polish (10%) and Portuguese Moreover it is uncertain whether the countries students (-9%). On the other hand a larger of origin in the Erasmus programme are share of students came from Sweden (+21%), representative of the countries of origin in Germany (+13%) and Finland (+12%). Of the general. International surveys will need to be total Erasmus programme population, the share conducted among graduates if we are to obtain of students coming to the Netherlands a complete picture of inbound credit mobile decreased to 4.0%. students to the Netherlands. Diagram 34 Diagram 35 (see page 46)

The previous Leonardo da Vinci Programme for work placements abroad, known as Erasmus Work Placements, has been part of the Lifelong Learning Programme since 2007-08. Following

44 45 5 1

Diagram 33 Erasmus countries of origin, for the purpose of study (150 or more Erasmus students), 2006-2010 Source: Nuffic, 2012

1,200 1,119 1,150 1,128 1,176

1,000 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 823 836 858 862 800 5 1 764 777 693 803

600 630 615 607 612

400 453 456 420 374 353 418 416 450 323 361 368 380 331 314 293 314 306 261 274 314 263 227 206 214 212 225 22 0 20 2

200 232 190 199 273 207 207 207 182 176 222 228 234

0 Spain France Germany Italy Turkey United Poland Belgium Finland Sweden Hungary Czech Austria Portugal Kingdom Republic

Diagram 34 Erasmus countries of origin, for the purpose of study (150 or more Erasmus programme students), percentage of the total Erasmus population by country who opted for the 44 Netherlands, 2006-2010 45 Source: Nuffic, 2012

12.0% 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 9.0% 9.16% 8.09% 8.25% 10.01% 8.11% 7.99% 7.97% 8.90%

6.0% 6.47% 6.57% 5.81% 5.96% 5.81% 6.74% 6.48% 6.84% 7.95% 6.66% 6.01% 5.61% 5.26% 5.44% 5.43% 4.77% 4.46% 4.80% 4.95% 4.72% 5.01% 4.98% 4.62% 4.28% 4.68% 4.63% 4.28% 3.89% 5.18% 4.25% 3.79% 4.01% 3.58% 3.71% 3.64% 3.53% 4.04% 3.84% 3.56% 3.22% 3.66% 3.50% 3.42% 3.20%

3.0% 3.20% 3.30% 2.96% 3.34%

0% Sweden Finland Hungary Belgium Turkey Austria United Spain Czech Portugal France Germany Poland Italy Kingdom Republic 5 1

Diagram 35 Erasmus countries of origin, work placement (50 or more Erasmus work placement students), 2007-2010 Source: Nuffic, 2012

46 47 300 Note: The data for 2007-08 281 is incomplete; the growth measured between 2007-08 and 2008-09 is largely the result of improved registration.

250 244 242 2007-08 221 2008-09 2009-10 200

168

150 151

126

110 100

83 82 81 72 70 72 73 64

50 48 37 36 29 20

0 France Germany Belgium Spain Poland United Kingdom Italy 46 47 3.2

Outbound credit mobility 48 49 3.2.1 Developments in Diagram 36 (see page 50) ­outbound credit mobility Diagram 37 (see page 50) Diagram 36 shows the results of the Student Monitor from 2001 while Diagram 37 reflects The mobility target agreed during the Bologna the results of surveys conducted among conference in Leuven set out that by 2020 at graduates. Until 2009 the Maastricht University least 20% of graduating students should have Research Centre for Education and the Labour been internationally mobile.7 Obviously, the Market (ROA) conducted surveys among both results of a graduate survey are the best way of higher professional education and academic determining whether this target is being met. higher education graduates. Since 2009, however, the IVA Institute for Social Policy Outbound credit mobility continued to decline Research, which is affiliated with Tilburg among the academic higher education cohort University, has been responsible for carrying that graduated in 2007-08. Although the figures out surveys among academic higher education probably also fell between 2007-08 and 2008-09, students. Both surveys are carried out on for reasons of prudence we have assumed that behalf of the respective umbrella organisations: the percentage for academic higher education the HBO-raad (Netherlands Association of has remained unchanged since 2007-08. Universities of Applied Sciences) and the VSNU Following a reasonably sharp increase in that (Association of Universities in the Netherlands). period, as noted in the publication of two years

ago, higher professional education also saw a 7 ‘In 2020 at least 20% of The ROA survey among higher professional decline of up to 19.9% between 2007-08 and those graduating in the European Higher Education education graduates is held annually, and the 2008-09. The decline was mainly attributable Area should have had a survey among academic higher education to a decrease in two fields of study: Education study or training period abroad’ (closing statement graduates every two years. The latest IVA and Economics. The latest higher professional at the Bologna Leuven conference on 28-29 April survey, however, only covered mobility in the education figures for students graduating in 2009). Incidentally, the master’s phase. This means that no figures 2009-10, however, again reflect a limited 20% target has not been taken from surveys among are available on a portion of outbound credit increase of up to 20.5%. The previous decline graduates but among students in general, and mobility in academic higher education and that in Education was more than offset while an as a result is probably too it is not possible to update previous academic increase was also recorded in the number of low. As shown by the results of the REFLEX higher education figures. In making comparisons Economics and Language & Culture graduates project, the international with the more recent figures for higher (see Chapter 2.2.3). average among graduates was 25% in 1999-2000 professional education and in determining (and the average among graduates from the twelve the higher education averages, the academic The averages for academic higher education participating EU countries higher education percentages are assumed and professional higher education, 26.6% and was almost 26%). See footnote 6 for the REFLEX to have remained unchanged. 20.5% respectively, would have resulted in project reference source.

48 49 5 1

Diagram 36 Percentage of outbound credit mobility among students, 2003-2010 Note: The senior student Source: ResearchNed, 2004-2012 population is the total population minus the first-year student population.

25% 5 1 Academic higher 22% 22% education, 20% 20% 20% 20% 19% 19% 19% 19% 19% senior students 17% 17% 17% 17% 17% Higher education, 16% 16% 15% 15% 19% senior students 18% 15% 18% 17% 17% 17% 17% Higher professional 15% 15% 15% 15% 16% 12%

education,

senior students 10%

14%

14%

Academic higher education total 16% 14% 5% 16%

14% Higher education total 14%

12% 14% 13%

13% 15%

12%

13% Higher professional 12%

0% 10% education total 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

50 51

Diagram 37 Percentage of outbound credit mobility among graduates, 2002-2010 Source:45% ROA, 2003-2012; VSNU/IVA, 2010

40%

35%

30% 36.1% 36.0% 31.6% 25% 31.3% 20% 26.6%* 23.2% 21.5% 26.6%* ** 22.5% 20.5% 29.1% 23.1% 20.2% 15% 26.6%* ** 22.0% 19.9% 23.2% 18.6% 24.2% 19.4% 22.8% 18.3% ** Source: VSNU/IVA. ** Data for 2007-08. 22.0% 17.2% 10% Academic higher education 5% Higher education Higher professional 0% education 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

%

% 5 1

an average for the entire graduate student between the percentages expressing mobility in population of 22.5%. a specific year, the mobility percentage during the study programme should be divided by the When comparing the results of the Student duration of the programme in years. If the study Monitor with the results of the graduate surveys, programme has an average duration of four years it is apparent that the Student Monitor results and 22.5% of students were internationally are less likely to show rising or falling trends. mobile during that period, the annual percentage Based on the total figures, a gradual increase would be 5.6%. and decrease was seen in higher professional education followed by a sudden surge, and To get an idea of the number of credit mobile stabilisation in the last measurement year. students, the percentage should be multiplied Academic higher education recorded a horizontal by the number of graduates in 2009-10: 92,250 line which plunged suddenly in 2008, only to (Statistics Netherlands, 2012).8 The result is subsequently climb more strongly and then around 5,200 students. Students who did not recover slightly. graduate were also internationally mobile, but probably less so than those who did graduate. Greater clarity is needed about the difference in A total of 634,100 students were recorded in results between the two surveys. In addition to the 2009-10 academic year, which amounts the time at which the survey is held – during or to 158,525 students in each academic year. 8 In previous publications after a study programme, and the fact that in If mobility were the same, there would be around the total number of the first case students who do not graduate 8,925 mobile students per cohort. Somewhat graduates in higher professional education and (and are less mobile) are also surveyed – the arbitrarily, this works out as 5,200 + 8,925 ÷ 2 = academic higher education mobility of students or graduates at the time 7,050 mobile students per cohort (the number was taken as a basis. 25% However, this no longer Academic higher 22% 22% of the survey may also affect the population has been rounded). This figure, times the number corresponds with the education, graduate survey popula­ 20% 20% 20% 20% 19% 19% 19% 19% 19% senior students surveyed, and therefore the results. This may of academic years (four) amounts to 28,200 tions, consisting mainly of bachelor’s graduates 17% 17% 17% 17% 17% Higher education, have a different impact on the results of the credit mobile students a year. This means that 16% 16% in higher professional 15% 15% 19% senior students 18% two different surveys. total annual outbound mobility would be around education and doctoral 15% 18% 17% 17% 17% 17% Higher professional and master’s graduates in 15% 15% 15% 15% 16% 12% 18,100 (diploma mobile) students plus 28,200 education,

academic higher education. senior students 10% Unlike the percentages referred to under diploma (credit mobile) students, bringing the total to We currently refer to these

14%

14%

totals in the above text. Academic higher mobility, which provide an annual picture, these 46,300 students. In order to obtain an education total accurate picture, separate 16% 14% 5% figures relate to mobility during the entire study 16%

14% Higher education total surveys will ultimately need programme. It is unclear in which year mobility 3.2.2 Ratio of male to be conducted among 14%

12% 14% 13%

13% 15%

12%

13% Higher professional 12%

10% bachelor’s and master’s 0% education total occurred although it is most likely to have been to female students graduates in both higher 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 during the penultimate or final year of the study The survey conducted among higher professional professional education and academic higher programme. In order to draw a comparison education graduates revealed that female education.

50 51

Diagram 38 Percentage of graduates with experience abroad according to gender, graduates in 2009-10 Source: ROA, 2012; VSNU/IVA, 2010

30% 28% 26% 25% 22%

20% 18%

15%

10%

5% * Data for 2007-08

Male 0% Female Higher professional Academic higher education education*

% students were more mobile than male students Language & Culture, and Healthcare and 13.5% whereas past surveys conducted among of graduates in Engineering, Education and academic higher education graduates showed Behaviour & Society were mobile. Higher a reverse trend. professional education graduates in the Education, Diagram 38 (see page 52) Economics and Language & Culture fields of study recorded increased mobility in 2009-10, With more women than men graduating in both while a limited decrease applied to Agriculture & higher professional education and academic Natural Environment, Healthcare and higher education, the number of mobile women Engineering. was higher than the number of mobile men. Diagram 39 In higher professional education 61% of mobile Diagram 40 graduates were women in 2009-10, with 54% in academic higher education in the 2007-08 3.2.4 Higher education academic year. ­institutions Top ten institutions 3.2.3 Fields of study A list of top ten institutions has been compiled In the CROHO components of Agriculture & on the basis of graduate surveys. As stated Natural Environment, Engineering and above, due to the unavailability of more recent Healthcare, more than 40% of academic higher figures for research universities, the percentages education graduates were mobile during their for 2007-08 have been used. In higher study programme. This applied to 20-30% of professional education Codarts University for the academic higher education graduates in the Arts and the Design Academy Eindhoven Natural Sciences as well as Language & reflected strong increases of 14.8 and 6.6 Culture, and to less than 20% of graduates in percentage points respectively, while NHTV Economics, Law, Behaviour & Society as well Breda University of Applied Sciences recorded as Education. Regrettably more recent a sharp decline in outbound credit mobility of comparative data is not available. -7.4 percentage points. Diagram 41 (see page 54) Just as in academic higher education in 2007-08, at more than 50% a relatively high level of mobility 3.2.5 Work placement or was seen among Agriculture & Natural study programme, or both Environment graduates in higher professional On average, the majority of students travel education during their studies in the 2009-10 abroad to take up a work placement, possibly academic year. Around 23.5% of higher combined with a study programme. Sixty per professional education graduates in Economics, cent of higher professional education graduates

52 53 5 1

Diagram 39 Percentage of credit mobility among academic higher education graduates, according to field of study, from 2004-2010 Source: ROA, 2004-2009; VSNU/IVA, 2010

70% * Data for 2007-08

2004-05 2005-06 60% 2006-07

55.8% 58.0% 59.5% 58.0% 58.0% 58.0% 2007-08 2008-09* 50% 2009-10* 45.3% 42.3% 42.7% 45.0% 45.0% 45.0% 42.9% 41.3% 41.2% 43.0% 43.0% 43.0% 40%

5 1

30% 29.0% 29.0% 29.0% 29.8% 22.8% 29.4% 31.6% 34.4% 26.4% 22.0% 22.0% 22.0% 20% 31.9% 34.2% 28.8% 17.0% 17.0% 17.0% 19.8% 17.8% 20.4% 16.0% 16.0% 16.0% 18.2% 18.5% 16.7% 12.0% 12.0% 12.0% 10% 11.0% 11.0% 11.0%

0% Agriculture Engineering Healthcare Natural Language & Economics Law Behaviour & Education & Natural Sciences Culture Society Environment

Diagram 40 Percentage of credit mobility among higher professional education graduates according to field of study from 2004-2010 Source: ROA, 2004-2012

60% 2004-05 52 2005-06 53 2006-07 2007-08 50%

48.3% 52.3% 52.4% 53.2% 53.0% 52.1% 2008-09 2009-10

40%

30% 25.8% 25.1% 25.8% 28.5% 25.3% 26.3%

20% 17.4% 20.2% 19.7% 20.1% 22.5% 23.1% 13.8% 14.9% 19.7% 21.5% 21.9% 21.2% 11.9% 15.2% 15.3% 14.3% 13.8% 13.7%

10% 10.5% 11.9% 12.7% 14.8% 12.8% 15.2% 8.5% 8.5% 11.3% 9.3% 11.9% 12.0%

0% Agriculture Economics Language Healthcare Education Engineering Behaviour & & Natural & Culture Society Environment Diagram 41 Top ten institutions in terms of outbound credit mobility among graduates in 2009-10 Source: ROA, 2012; VSNU/IVA, 2010

100%

80% * Data for 2007-08 90.7%

60%

40% 88.9% 58.1% 52.9% 49.1% 46.9% 42.0% 41.1% 41.0% 40.8% 54 55

20%

0%

Hotelschool HAS Wageningen CAH Dronten Eindhoven Design Delft Van Hall Codarts NHTV Breda The Hague Den Bosch University* University of University of Academy University of Larenstein University University of International University of Applied Technology* Eindhoven Technology* University of for the Arts Applied University of Applied Sciences Applied Sciences Hospitality Sciences Sciences Management

Diagram 42 Credit mobility, type of experience abroad, graduates in 2008-09 Source: ROA, 2012

19% 60%

% Work placement % Study programme

21% % Work placement and study programme

Higher professional education NVAO Internationalisation Certificate Credit mobility, the topic discussed in this chapter, often forms part of a broader internationalisation strategy for the study programme. In 2010 the Accreditation Organisation of the Netherlands and Flanders (NVAO) defined, tested and applied an assessment framework for assessing the internationalisation strategy of a study programme. The framework is based on five assessment standards:

1. Vision and policy 2. Education results 3. Education environment 4. Personnel/lecturers 5. Students

If the assessment results are satisfactory, the study programme qualifies for the distinctive (quality) feature for internationalisation, and if the assessment results are positive the study programme qualifies for the NVAO Internationalisation Certificate. Of the 21 study programmes in the Netherlands and Flanders that participated in the first round, 18 institutions were awarded the distinctive (quality) feature while ten were even awarded the NVAO Certificate. On the basis of the initial experience gained, a new assessment framework for the distinctive (quality) feature for internationalisation was defined in November 2011. The institution may now also apply for the distinctive (quality) feature, together with accreditation, if desired. A grant application has been submitted for the purpose of developing a European certificate, clarity on which will be provided in the course of 2012.

The NVAO approved twelve Dutch applications for study programmes leading to a joint degree, four of which relate to Dutch institutions in collaboration with partner institutions abroad, while the remaining eight relate only to Dutch institutions. In five cases a new study programme was assessed. In the other seven cases, existing study programmes underwent accreditation.

For more information, see www.nvao.com.

54 55 with international experience stated they had The percentage of Dutch outbound mobility taken up a work placement abroad in 2009-10, within total outbound mobility under the Erasmus a 2% increase relative to 2008-09. programme was up from 2.9% to 3.0% between 2008-09 and 2009-10. Diagram 43 3.2.6 Outbound credit mobility under the Erasmus programme The previous Leonardo da Vinci Programme for The 2011 Student Monitor results show that work placements abroad, known as Erasmus 20% of mobile students use study programme Work Placements, has been part of the Lifelong grants. Learning Programme since 2007-08. Following a preliminary year, we now have a reasonable Mobility within programmes is largely determined picture of EU-sponsored credit mobility in terms by the specific features and conditions of the of work placements. relevant programme. Programme mobility therefore is only indicative of general mobility The United Kingdom, Germany, Spain and trends to a limited extent. The European Belgium again were the main destination programmes are the most interesting in this countries for outbound Erasmus work placement context as they facilitate comparisons between mobility. The 42% increase in outbound work countries. placement mobility to the United Kingdom is particularly noteworthy and is only surpassed by An increasing number of students are pursuing the 46% increase in outbound work placement a study component abroad under the Erasmus mobility to Ireland shown at the bottom of the programme. Student numbers climbed from list. Other countries experiencing strong growth 5,358 in 2009-10 to 5,946 in 2010-11 (see figure are Turkey and Sweden where the number of 45). Large numbers of students once again opted Erasmus programme trainee students from the for Spain in 2010-11. The United Kingdom Netherlands rose by 36% and 26% respectively. reinforced its number two ranking, followed by Italy and France proved less popular, reflecting France and Sweden. The destination countries declines of 26% and 6% respectively compared enjoying the largest increase where at least 100 with 2009-10. The share of Dutch outbound students studied abroad were Austria (+33%), mobility within total outbound mobility for work Belgium (+32%), France (+26%), Hungary (+23%) placement under the Erasmus programme fell and Turkey (+21%). Students showed slightly between 2008-09 and 2009-10 from 6.9% to less interest in pursuing a study component in 6.5%. Finland (-3%). Diagram 44

56 Diagram 43 Erasmus destination countries, for the purpose of study (100 or more Erasmus students), 2006-2011 Source: Nuffic, 2012

1,000

800 818 825 893 939 1,019

600 554 603 631 740 806

2006-07 468 485 515 512 643 458 537 510 577 604 2007-08 400 2008-09

375 364 357 367 400 2009-10 304

304 2010-11 289 271 296 258 269 251 266 257 280

200 194 182 209 175 231 170 190 171 227 239 166 147 264 139 168 219 138 155 181 225 273 139 157 116 134 123 125 112 107 110 102 98 90 110 149 65 83 98 12 5

0

Spain United France Sweden Germany Finland Italy Turkey Norway Denmark Belgium Austria Portugal Ireland Hungary Kingdom

Diagram 44 Erasmus work placement destination countries (50 or more Erasmus students), 2007-2011 Source: Nuffic, 2012

800

57

600

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

2010-11 400 238 410 452 643 223 373 411 439

200 199 317 416 463 200 364 337 346 113 149 142 133 57 113 108 80 50 64 78 98 45 66 76 103 13 24 39 57 0

United Germany Spain Belgium France Turkey Sweden Italy Ireland Kingdom Diagram 45 Total Erasmus outbound and inbound mobility for the purpose of study and work placement, 2006-2011 Source: Nuffic, 2012

4,502 1,179 2006-07 6,914 no data

4,699 1,287* 2007-08 7,002 710

4,902 2008-09 2,103* 6,894 1,187

5,358 2,320* 2009-10 7,239 ** Erasmus work placements. 1,355 ** Estimate.

Outbound Erasmus (study programmes) 5,946 Outbound Leonardo/Erasmus (work placements) 2010-11 2,644* 7,239** Inbound Erasmus (study programmes) 1,355** Inbound Erasmus (work placements)

0 1,000 2,0003,000 4,0005,000 6,0007,000

Diagram 46 Percentage of academic higher education students who stated 58 they were employed at least at the level of their study programme, 59 with or without experience abroad, graduates in 2003-2008 Source: ROA, 2004-2009; VSNU/IVA, 2010

80% 77.2% 75.8%

75.9% 74% 74.9%

68% 68.9%

61.3% 61.3% 62% 59.4%

59.0%

56% 56.5%

Without experience abroad

50% With experience abroad 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 0 Diagram 45 shows total outbound and inbound The figures for students in higher professional mobility under the Erasmus programme. education are ambiguous. Over the years, students who have gained experience abroad The Dutch share of total outbound mobility often have a slightly higher average final mark; under the Erasmus programme rose from 3.5% however, they feel somewhat less often that to 3.6% between 2008-09 and 2009-10, while they are employed at the same level as their the Dutch share of total inbound mobility under study programme and they usually also earn the programme fell from 4.1% to 4.0%. The somewhat less than students who have not balance between outbound and inbound gained experience abroad. This odd paradox mobility seems to be progressively improving. requires further study. Higher professional Diagram 45 education students with the prospect of a job could perhaps be less mobile. In a previous 3.2.7 Effects of experience year, it was observed that higher professional gained abroad during the study education students who stayed abroad for programme a shorter period achieved better scores than Previous graduate surveys have revealed that those who were abroad longer and those who academic higher education students who had were not mobile. However, these results were gained experience abroad during their study not unambiguous either. programme consistently achieved higher average Diagram 46 final marks than those who had not gained experience abroad. Regrettably it was not possible to confirm this finding in the latest survey as the question was no longer included. The percentage of students who had gained experience abroad and who stated that they were employed at least at the same level as their study programme is still almost 15 percentage points higher than that of students who had not gained experience abroad, according to the graduate figures for 2007-08. According to the same figures, the average income following graduation is also higher in all years in the case of students who had gained experience abroad.

58 59 60 61 4

Total mobility

60 61 62 How many international students are there in the Netherlands and how many Dutch students are there abroad? These simple questions are not easy to answer. It is only possible to make an estimate based on various sources.

However, due to the use of various sources and the lack of information collected in a consistent manner abroad, it is not possible to compare these figures at an international level. Such international comparisons can only be made for centrally-recorded diploma mobility, EU programme mobility and internationally-organised ad hoc surveys, such as the EUROSTUDENT surveys.9

Taking account of the limitations stated above, we have first provided an estimate of total inbound and total outbound mobility below.

9 See section 5.3, page 100.

63 4.1

International students in the Netherlands 64 We can only estimate the number of international Higher education indicators students who are in the Netherlands for the There are two types of higher education purpose of obtaining a higher education diploma institutions in the Netherlands: government- or credits on the basis of highly divergent sources funded and private institutions. Government- of information.10 If the inbound flow of credit funded study programmes are by definition mobile students is around 85% of the outbound accredited by the Accreditation Organisation of group11, the entire group could possibly comprise the Netherlands and Flanders (NVAO), but not 87,100 students. This would equate to around all accredited study programmes are 63,150 international students who are in the government-funded. Netherlands for the purpose of obtaining a diploma, and to 23,950 inbound credit mobile Government-funded institutions are financed by students. the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. In the 2011-12 academic year, there were 39 With respect to the first group of 63,150 students, universities of applied sciences attended by more data has been derived from student 423,173 students, 13 research universities registrations in government-funded higher attended by 243,686 students, and the Open education and from student residence permit University of the Netherlands. In 2011-12, a records. The latter applies to students from total of 666,859 students were enrolled at the outside the EU and EFTA countries and covers above 52 higher professional education and a total of almost 60,550 students (see Diagram academic higher education institutions, an 47). With respect to the latter group of 23,950 increase of 1.6% in the total student population students, more data has been derived from over the previous year. The increase in students European Erasmus Programme participation in higher professional education was slightly records and student trainee residence permit higher while the increase in the number of records. This applies to 8,900 students. students in academic higher education This brings the total number of international reflected a slightly lower percentage. students about whom more data is available to 69,450 (60,550 plus 8,900). Compared with the This publication focuses mainly on mobility same group in previous academic years, inbound within government-funded higher education 10 For the methodological mobility is rising (Diagram 48). and relates to mainstream higher education. background to these statistics, see Appendix Map 01 Most of the data is centrally recorded and 7.2, and specifically the Diagram 47 (see page 66) regularly updated as mainstream education note on page 127. 11 See section 3.1.1 and, for Diagram 48 (see page 67) is funded by the Dutch government. This the number of outgoing publication does not include any statistics credit mobile students, see section 3.2.1, on the Open University of the Netherlands. page 49.

65

Map 01 International students in the Netherlands, 2011-12* Source: Education Executive Agency (DUO)-Central Funding of Institutions Agency (CFI), Immigration and Naturalisation Service (IND), Nuffic, 2012

2,050 50,450 Europe** Asia 13,000 Africa North America Latin America

1,800 Australia/Pacific

2,000

150 ** Excluding other diploma mobile and credit mobile students (2,600 and 15,050), rounded off to the nearest 50. ** Statistical figures. Diagram 47 International students in the Netherlands, 2011-12* Source: DUO-CFI, IND, Nuffic, 2012

Credit Diploma mobility mobility

69,450 Total 41,100 19,450 8,900 From EU and From non-EU 8,100 Erasmus excl, Turkey EFTA countries and EFTA countries 800 From non-EU and EFTA countries, incl, Turkey = 1,000 students

Germany 26,050

China 5,700

Belgium 2,900

Spain 2,200 Czech Republic 450 Zimbabwe 150

France 2,150 Mexico 400 Cameroon 150

Italy 1,750 Vietnam 400 South Africa 150

Bulgaria 1,700 Denmark 350 Kenya 150

United States 1,650 Canada 300 Iceland 100

United Kingdom 1,600 Saudi Arabia 300 Peru 100

Greece 1,550 Ireland 300 Luxembourg 100 66 67 Poland 1,450 Taiwan 300 Tanzania 100

Turkey 1,350 Brazil 300

Indonesia 1,200 Ethiopia 300

Romania 1,050 Slovakia 300

India 800 Ukraine 250

Finland 650 Colombia 250

South Korea 650 Switzerland 250

Hungary 600 Nigeria 250

Portugal 600 Singapore 200

Lithuania 600 Japan 200

Russia 600 Nepal 200

Austria 550 Estonia 200

Sweden 550 Pakistan 150

Suriname 550 Slovenia 150

Iran 500 Thailand 150

Latvia 500 Australia 150

Norway 450 Ghana 150 = 100 students * Excluding other diploma mobile and credit mobile students (2,600 and 15,050), more than 100, rounded off to the nearest 50. Diagram 48 International students in the Netherlands, 2005-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, IND, Nuffic, 2012

70,000 69,450 66,500

62,100 60,000

55,300

50,450 50,000 66 46,300 67

43,150

40,000 38,600 41,100

30,000 34,950 30,600

20,000 19,050 19,450 21,300 23,700 18,200 10,000 13,900 16,300 8,100* 750 8,100* 800

8,100 900

0 7,300 600 14,650 7,200 750 26,900 15,500 7,200 850 7,600 800

2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

From EU and EFTA countries in Dutch government-funded higher education From non-EU and EFTA countries in Dutch higher education With Erasmus (excl. Turkey) From non-EU and EFTA countries for work placement (incl. Turkey) Total inbound student mobility * Erasmus data for 2009-10 4.2

Dutch students abroad 68 69 OECD data and data from annual surveys among graduates show that an estimated 46,300 Dutch students studied abroad in the 2008-09 academic year: 18,100 Dutch nationals enrolled for a diploma at a higher education institution abroad and there were 28,200 credit mobile students.12 7,000 credit mobile students took part in the European Erasmus programme. Together with the 18,100 diploma mobile students, they form a group of 25,100 students about whom more detailed information is available. Of these 25,100 students, 21,750 remained in Europe (20,800 in the EU) and 3,350 outside Europe. Of the 18,100 diploma mobile students, 14,950 were enrolled at a higher education institution in another European country (14,300 within the EU). Students not enrolled in centrally recorded education have not been included, nor have diploma mobile students who studied abroad in non-OECD countries. Map 02 Diagram 49 (see page 70) Diagram 50 (see page 70)

12 See also section 3.2.1, page 49.

68 69

Map 02 Dutch students abroad, 2008-09* Source: OECD, Nuffic, 2012

2,200 21,750 Europe** Asia 350 Africa North America Latin America no data Australia/Pacific

50

750 ** OECD plus Erasmus, excluding other credit mobile students (21,200), rounded off to the nearest 50. ** Statistical figures. Diagram 49 Dutch students abroad by country, 2008-09* Source: OECD, Nuffic, 2012

Diploma mobility Credit mobility

25,100 Total 14,300 3,800 7,000 Registered in the EU Registered in Erasmus a non-EU country students

= 500 students

United Kingdom 6,600

Belgium 5,450

Germany 2,250

United States 1,850

Spain 1,650

France 1,350

Sweden 850

Italy 500

New Zealand 500

Norway 450

Denmark 450

Switzerland 400

Canada 400

Finland 400

Austria 400

Turkey 300

Australia 300 * OECD plus Erasmus, excluding other credit Portugal 200 mobile students (21,200), Ireland 200 more than 100 students, rounded off to the Hungary 100 = 100 students nearest 50.

70 Diagram 50 Dutch students abroad, 2003-2009 Source: OECD, Nuffic, 2012

25,100 25,000

22,000

20,450 20,000 19,900 19,100 18,100

15,000 14,300 12,600 11,850 11,250 10,400 10,200 10,000 7,000 6,000 5,900 5,750 5,700 5,250 5,000

3,800 In EU to obtain diploma 3,400 2,900 2,900 2,800 2,650 In a non-EU country to obtain diploma In EU scholarship programmes 0 Total

2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 5

Dutch mobility from an international perspective

71 72 73 This chapter puts student mobility to and from the Netherlands into an international perspective. Developments across the globe do, after all, impact on the Netherlands’ position in the international student market as well as on student flows from key student recruitment countries. The chapter opens (section 5.1) by describing worldwide mobility patterns and the position the Netherlands occupies in the world. In section 5.2 we have analysed mobility developments in ten Nuffic Neso target countries in a worldwide context. The Neso target countries are non-EU countries which the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science has designated as focus countries for the international positioning of Dutch higher education. To conclude the chapter we have examined two specific forms of mobility: credit mobility (section 5.3) and lecturer and researcher mobility (section 5.4) to and from the Netherlands in a European context.

72 73 5.1

The Netherlands’ position in the ­international student market 74 75 5.1.1 Patterns of international (accounting for 7.0%, 7.0% and 6.8% mobility respectively). Substantial numbers of The number of students studying abroad has international students also enrolled in institutions soared in the past two decades: according to in Canada (5.2%), Russia (3.7%) and Japan the latest UNESCO data, from 1.7 million in (3.6%). With an increasing number of countries 1994-95 to 2.1 million in 1999-00 and to almost actively recruiting international students, the 3.7 million in 2008-09. The latter figure equates number of destination countries is growing. to 2.23% of all higher education students Consequently, the percentage of the mobile across the globe (GED 2011, UNESCO/UIS). student population attracted by the main host One of the main growth drivers is the arrival of countries is shrinking (although an increase the knowledge economy, which has created might be seen in absolute numbers). In 2006- global competition for knowledge workers and 07, half of the student population went to four highly skilled personnel. Numerous countries rather than five host countries. have developed policy strategies to recruit Diagram 51 (see page 76) knowledge workers and international students with a view to improving the international Worldwide in 2008-09, most international competitiveness of their economy. students came from China (which accounted for 16.5% of all international higher education The growth in international student mobility is students across the globe), India (6.2%), set to continue worldwide in the years ahead South Korea (3.8%) and Germany (2.9%). – despite the gradual expansion and increasing Diagram 52 (see page 76) quality of the supply of higher education in many emerging knowledge economies, allowing more Diagram 53 shows the share of the total mobile students to pursue high-quality education in population in the relevant year. The first point their own countries. The recent economic crisis worthy of note is that almost 41% of total student experienced in parts of the world has not curbed mobility worldwide still has an EU context. growth either, given that local government authorities are unable to meet short-term demand. Yet, once again the EU share is contracting slightly, a development that is also evident in In 2008-09, almost half of all diploma mobile North America, the non-EU European students worldwide studied abroad in five countries, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America countries. At 18% the United States recorded and Central Asia. The decline is benefiting the largest share of all international students East Asia/Pacific, South and estW Asia as well worldwide, followed by the United Kingdom as the League of Arab States. The centre of (9.9%), Australia, Germany and France gravity for diploma mobility generally seems to

74 75 Diagram 51 Distribution of international students in higher education by destination country, in 1999-2000 and 2008-09 Source: OECD, EAG 2011 C3.2, C3.3

United States 22.93% 17.98% 10.76% United Kingdom 9.89% 5.10% Australia 7.01% Germany 9.03% 6.99% 6.62% France 6.78% 4.56% Canada 5.18% Russia 1.99% 3.71% Japan 3.21% 3.58% Spain 1.23% 2.31% 0.40% New Zealand 1.90% Italy 1.20% 1.79% China 1.76% 1.66% South Africa 2.19% 1.65% Austria 1.47% 1.62% South Korea 0.16% 1.36% 1.25% Switzerland 1.34% Note: This diagram defines 1.87% Belgium international students on the 1.26% basis of their nationality. 0.68% The Netherlands 1.21% 2000 Sweden 1.23% 1.08% 2009

0.0% 5.0% 10% 15% 20% 25%

Diagram 52 Main countries of origin for international students worldwide, 2008-09 Source: OECD, 2012

76 77

China 16.48%

India 6.20%

South Korea 3.84%

Germany 2.88%

France 1.64%

United States 1.58%

Russia 1.57%

Turkey 1.43%

Canada 1.42%

Japan 1.41%

The Netherlands 0.35%

0,0% 5,0% 10% 15% 20% be undergoing a gradual shift from the EU to outbound mobility in relation to the relevant East Asia and the Pacific. country’s own student population. The information below relates to the total student While the past decade has seen an increasing population, including international students number of students study in another country (some publications deduct the international within their own region, a comparative analysis student population from the total student between 2007-08 (in brackets) and 2008-09 population). In terms of both international reflects a more balanced picture. While the students in the Netherlands (7.2% of the national regionalisation of international student mobility student population) and Dutch students abroad continued in the EU and East Asia/Pacific, with (2.9% of the national student population), the the internal mobility of the total mobile population Netherlands scored below the EU-27 average in 2008-09 accounting for a larger share in that (8.0% and 3.3%).14 period compared with 2007-08, this does not apply to the other regions. This situation is Diagram 54 shows that the Netherlands hosts a corroborated when looking at the development of lower percentage of international students than, internal mobility as a share of total regional for example, Belgium, Sweden and Denmark. mobility rather than total global mobility (the While Denmark and Sweden have smaller student respective total regional mobility is set at 100, populations, the Netherlands still attracts more with internal mobility expressed as a fraction international students than these two countries thereof). Central Asia and Latin America, for despite its lower share. instance, have recorded a decline in their share Diagram 54 (see page 78) of internal mobility relative to total mobility connected with the region by 3.2% and 2.2% As shown in Diagrams 54 and 55, in 2008-09 between 2007-08 and 2008-09 respectively. the average percentage of international students 13 According to the latest OECD figures, 1.21% of Diagram 53 in the EU-27 countries was higher (8.0%) than all international students the percentage of international students in the came to the Netherlands in 2008-09 (Diagram 51). The 5.1.2 The position of United States (3.5%), Japan (3.4%) and China figure is slightly lower than in 2007-08, but still is 0.5 the Netherlands (0.2%). The percentage of non-EU-27 students percentage points higher This chapter describes the Netherlands’ position who go to EU-27 countries also is higher, than in 1999-2000. 14 EU-20 figures published by within the worldwide mobility patterns described at 5.3% (of the total student population in the the OECD were taken as a above.13 relevant EU-27 countries). basis in previous publica­ tions. If these figures were to be taken as a basis, with a total population of The percentages for total diploma mobility The average percentage of EU-27 students 17,755,146, inbound worldwide are stated above. The comparative who study in another (EU or non-EU) country at mobility would equate to 8.5% and outbound country analysis usually examines inbound and 3.3% clearly also is higher than the outbound mobility to 3.0%.

76 77

Diagram 53: Inbound, internal and outbound mobility by region, in 2008-09 (2007-08)* Source: UNESCO, Nuffic, 2012

25.2%(25.5%) 11.7%(11.4%) 3.8%(3.9%) 8.7%(7.8%) 11.9%(11.4%) 16.1%(16.1%) 21.1%(21.3%) 1.1%(1.2%) 1.8%(1.8%) Inbound Internal Outbound Inbound Internal Outbound Inbound Internal Outbound mobility mobility mobility

EU27** East Asia/Pacific North America*** 40.7%(40.8%) 36.7%(35.3%) 24.1%(24.3%)

6.0%(6.3%) 2.0%(2.3%) 6.1%(6.0%) 4.4%(4.3%) 1.4%(1.4%) 5.6%(5.5%) 0.3%(0.3%) 0.1%(0.1%) 9.4%(8.9%) Inbound Internal Outbound Inbound Internal Outbound Inbound Internal Outbound mobility mobility mobility *** Excluding 424,054 students of unknown origin among a Europe (non-EU) League of Arab States South and West Asia total of 3,387,805 students 14.4%(14.6%) 11.3%(11.2%) 9.8%(9.4%) *** Of the 3.39 million mobile students worldwide in 2008-09, 25.2% actually 0.7%(0.7%) 1.8%(2.0%) 5.4%(5.5%) 0.8%(1.0%) 1.2%(1.4%) 4.5%(4.3%) 0.6%(0.6%) 0.8%(1.0%) 2.7%(2.9%) entered the EU, 3.8% left Inbound Internal Outbound Inbound Internal Outbound Inbound Internal Outbound the EU and 11.7% were mobility mobility mobility mobile within the EU itself: representing a total of Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America and Caribbean Central Asia 40.7%. 7.9%(8.2%) 6.5%(6.7%) 4.1%(4.5%) *** United States and Canada. Diagram 54 Diploma mobility to and from various countries, in relation to the total student population by country, 2008-09 Source: OECD, Eurostat, Nuffic, 2012

% Inbound % Outbound

10.9% Belgium 2.7% 425,219

Germany 10.5% 2,438,600 4.0%

Denmark 9.6% 3.0% 234,574

9.4% Sweden 4.1% 422,580

78

Total of 27 EU countries 8.0% 19,470,400 3.3%

7.2% The Netherlands 2.9% 618,502

4.2% Finland 3.2% 296,691 percentages for China, Japan and the United between 1999-00 and 2008-09 is worthy of States. In absolute terms, outbound mobility note. A large percentage of these additional from the EU-27 member states is around 31% outbound German mobile students are likely to higher than that from China, 14 times higher have studied abroad in the Netherlands and – than that from Japan and 12 times higher than more recently – in Austria. A recent brochure that from the United States (see footnote 13, published by the Bundesagentur für Arbeit, page 77). Nordrhein-Westfalen lists six reasons why German students chose to study in the Netherlands: In percentage terms, however, fewer EU-27 the proximity of the education institution, students go to countries outside the EU than a wider range of study programmes, better Chinese or Japanese students who study subject structure, no limited intake (‘quota’), abroad. In absolute numbers, EU-27 outbound a better learning environment (contact with mobility represents over a quarter of Chinese lecturers, smaller groups, problem-focused outbound mobility. In fact EU-27 outbound education) and good quality of education.15 mobility is almost thrice and over twice that Diagram 56 (see page 81) of Japan and the United States respectively. Diagram 55 (see page 80) Compared with other EU countries, the Netherlands hosts a relatively high percentage The number of diploma mobile students from the of international students from the EU and few EU/EEA who studied in the Netherlands surged from outside the EU (see Diagram 57). In 2008-09 by 306% between 1999-00 and 2008-09 relative the percentage of international students from to other EU/EEA countries (see Diagram 56). the EU in the Netherlands was three percentage The percentage is five times higher than the EU points higher than in the previous year. The high average. Denmark also experienced relatively percentage of inbound EU students in the high growth (although less marked than in the Netherlands is mainly attributable to the high Netherlands) while the inbound flow into number of German students studying in the Sweden fell. In the same period, the number of Netherlands. Of the other EU countries only Dutch students who pursued an entire study Luxembourg, Slovakia and the Czech Republic programme in another EU/EEA country was up recorded a higher percentage of international by 57%. The growth percentage, however, is EU students (as a percentage of all international below the 64% EU average. students in the relevant country). In all these cases, the international students primarily 15 Bundesagentur für Arbeit, Regionaldirektion Nordrein- The substantial increase in the number of originated from one or more neighbouring Westfalen. (2010). ‘Kom German students who pursued a full study countries. Langs!’, Studieren in der Niederlandische Grenz­ programme in another EU/EEA country region, Ausgabe 2010.

79 Diagram 55 Diploma mobility to and from the EU, the United States, China and Japan, in relation to the total student population, by region, 2008-09 Source: OECD, Eurostat, 2012

% Inbound Major world economies % Outbound

EU-27 (as a whole) 5.3% 19,470,400 0.7%

United States 80 3.5% 19,102,814 0.3% 81

China 0.2% 29,295,841* 1.7%

Japan 3.4% 3,874,224 1.2%

* UNESCO, 2012 Diagram 56 Development inbound, by country, from other EU, EEA and candidate EU countries, and development outbound to other EU, EEA and candidate EU countries, in 1999-2000 and 2008-09* Source: Eurostat, Nuffic, 2012

350%

300% 306% 250% 221% 200%

150% * Excluding part-time students

100% Inbound from EU-27, 137% EEA and candidate 61% 64%

57% EU 2000 50% Outbound to EU-27 38% 23% 18% 38% from EU, EEA and 12% 10% 54% 8% 64% -3% 0% -16% 43% candidate EU 2000

-50% The Denmark Finland United Belgium France Germany Sweden EU-27 Netherlands Kingdom

Diagram 57 International inbound diploma mobility by country, from the EU and outside the EU, 2008-09 Source: Eurostat, Nuffic, 2012

Luxembourg 92%8% Slovakia 75% 25% Czech Republic 74% 26% The Netherlands 68% 32% 80 Austria 66% 34% 81 Belgium 66%34% Greece 59% 41% Hungary 55% 45%

Denmark 45% 55% Note: The offset level is Latvia 41% 59% given for countries where Malta 41% 59% the flow of inbound students from other EU countries is Ireland 37% 63% larger than the flow of Estonia 34% 66% outbound students to other EU countries. Example: EU-27 34% 66% Of the total number of United Kingdom 33% 67% international students in the Netherlands (44,409) 68% Germany 31% 69% (30,176) come from the EU. Spain 27% 73% Forty-seven per cent of that Finland 27% 73% number (14,307), however, is offset by Dutch students Sweden 25% 75% who are studying in other Italy 25% 75% EU countries. Poland 25% 75% Percentage of Romania 18% 82% international students France 17% 83% from the EU Portugal 16% 84% Percentage of Cyprus 15% 85% international students Bulgaria 14% 86% from non-EU countries Slovenia 13% 87% Lithuania 10% 90% Offset level

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%70% 80%90% 100% A number of countries, including Portugal, France, EU countries is higher than the outbound flow Spain and the United Kingdom, host a relatively to other EU countries. Forty-seven per cent of large number of students from outside the EU. inbound mobility from other EU countries in the This is mainly because these countries attract Netherlands is offset by Dutch students studying many students from their former colonies, abroad specifically in other EU countries. although in all cases a large and growing number The offset level for Germany is almost 100% of students come from Asia. It is also interesting whereas it is only 7% for the United Kingdom. to note that no less than two-thirds of the international students in Germany come from In 2011 Dutch higher education institutions outside the EU, compared with just one third offered over 1,500 English-taught programmes, of all international students in the Netherlands. including 232 bachelor’s programmes, 870 Germany is reputed the world over for having master’s programmes and 54 PhD programmes, the EU’s largest single and strongest economy according to the EU bachelor’s/master’s/PhD and the quality of education provided in Germany portal. The Netherlands tops Scandinavia and enjoys a good reputation. Germany in terms of English-taught bachelor’s and master’s programmes and significantly Furthermore, compared with the Netherlands, outperforms other European countries (except Sweden, Finland and Denmark too have notably for the United Kingdom where English obviously attracted more international students from is the official language). Incidentally, the other outside the EU. Part of the mobility originates countries are catching up. Germany, Switzerland, from nearby non-EU countries, such as Norway the Czech Republic, Slovakia, France and Italy and Iceland. Another contributing factor is that offer more English-taught PhD programmes than Sweden and Finland had not yet implemented the Netherlands (see http://www.phdportal.eu). higher cost-effective tuition fees for non-EU students in 2008-09. The measure took effect Outbound diploma mobility in Sweden from September 2011. According to According to the OECD, the number of Dutch the online magazine ScienceGuide, the measure students pursuing an entire study programme caused a decline in the number of international abroad climbed by over 4,900 between 2004-05 student applications of almost 90%, and a and 2008-09. Expressed as a percentage of all decline of over 90% in the number of international Dutch students, this represents an increase of students who paid their first tuition fees on time.16 2.3% to 2.9%, and therefore stronger growth. Diagram 57 (see page 81) While the Netherlands indeed moved ahead of

16 http://www.scienceguide. Belgium (which recorded 2.7% just as in 2007-08), nl/201107/international- Diagram 57 includes the offset percentage for countries such as Denmark (3.0%), Finland students-shun-sweden. aspx. countries where the inbound flow from other (3.2%), Germany (4.0%) and Sweden (4.2%)

82 83 achieved higher scores. Likewise the European certain conditions. In principle, this measure average is higher (3.3%). The Netherlands makes the decision to study abroad easier. should score above the European average and For an overview of the numbers of Dutch this is easy to justify. After all, the Netherlands’ government-funded students studying abroad, economy has an above-average level of see Section 3.2.1 on page 49. Regrettably, it dependence on overseas markets. This raises is still too premature to compare the effects of the question, however, to what extent it should portable student grants and loans between the score above average. We would like to point Netherlands and other countries. out that a higher outbound diploma mobility score is not necessarily better than a lower score as high outbound mobility might after all be indicative of shortcomings in the range of study programmes offered in the country itself.

The main destination countries for Dutch students are the United Kingdom, Belgium, the United States and Germany, followed at a distance by France and New Zealand (Diagram 35, page 46). The popularity of Sweden, which in previous years still ranked among the top six destination countries, dwindled among Dutch students in 2007-08 for reasons that are unclear. In general, the destination countries for Dutch students correspond closely with the main destination countries for students from Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Belgium and France. The most popular destinations for students from Northwest Europe are the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany and two or three neighbouring countries.

Various countries, including the Netherlands, Belgium (Flanders), Norway, Sweden and Finland, allow students to take their ‘national’ student grants and loans with them abroad on

82 83 5.2

Developments in the Neso target countries 84 85 5.2.1 Inbound and The study-abroad percentage of the student outbound mobility population in the Neso target countries has The main objective of Nuffic’s Neso programme, also climbed in most countries. which is supported by ten Netherlands Education Support Offices, is to raise the Netherlands’ To capitalise on the available potential in these international profile in the selected target countries countries, an increasing number of countries as a country with a knowledge-driven economy and higher education institutions are actively that provides good-quality higher education. recruiting international students. The countries The Nuffic Nesos’ efforts involve carrying out that began recruiting international students at an generic promotions, fostering institutional early stage, however, remain the major players. cooperation, providing information on the This category includes Australia, the United education market and facilitating Holland Alumni Kingdom and the United States (see Diagram 59). networks. The offices are located in Brazil, China, The dominance of the major players in most Indonesia, Mexico, Russia, South Korea, Neso target countries, however, seems to be Thailand and Vietnam. There are also two Nuffic ebbing somewhat. This is assumed to be Neso desks in India and one in Taipei (Taiwan). attributable to the growing number of students from the Neso target countries who are opting In general, the Neso target countries and regions for a wider range of study destinations. are characterised by growing youth populations, an increasing demand for higher education and This trend has in part contributed positively to rising levels of prosperity, which afford more the number of students from the Neso target students the opportunity to study abroad. This countries who have chosen the Netherlands as means that these countries offer significant a study destination. Based on residence permit potential for recruiting highly talented students. data, the total number of students from the Diagram 58 indicates the potential by country. Neso target countries studying abroad in the It has emerged from the 2008-09 data that Netherlands climbed by over 2,500 to 10,500 considerable differences exist between the in 2011-12 against 2007-08. Please refer to Neso target countries in terms of both numbers Diagrams 24 and 25 (see page 33) which reflect and percentages of students studying abroad. the exact Neso inbound mobility data for the On average 1.5% of the student population in Netherlands. the Neso target countries studied abroad. In all Neso target countries the number of students Mobility developments in each Neso target studying abroad has risen over 2007-08. country are examined in greater detail below.

84 85 The main study destinations, developments in Of all Neso countries Brazil has the lowest mobility to the Netherlands, the mobility policy percentage of outbound students relative to of the relevant Neso target country and the the total student population, recording almost expected mobility developments are discussed 26,300 mobile students in 2008-09. The United in succession. Further information on the States attracts the most Brazilian students (33%) education markets in the Neso target countries with France (13%), Portugal (9%), Germany (8%) is provided on the market information pages and Spain (7%) following at a distance. on the Nuffic website: www.nuffic.nl/ marketinformation. The component of Brazil’s outbound mobility Diagram 58 policy that has recently attracted the most Diagram 59 (see page 88) attention – and is set to continue to do so – is the Brazilian government’s Science without 5.2.2 Brazil Borders programme. Under the scholarship In 2011-12 close to 300 Brazilian students programme initiated by the President of Brazil, studied in the Netherlands, a 44% increase Dilma Rousseff, 100,000 student grants will be over 2007-08. It should be noted that Brazilian awarded in the period up to and including 2014. students holding a European passport who The Netherlands is also scheduled to host are studying in the Netherlands have not been Brazilian students who utilise the Science included in the Netherlands’ mobility figures. without Borders Holland programme. The size of this group is unknown. However, what we do know for certain is that students Outgoing mobility is also facilitated by originating from Brazil and holding a passport encouraging Brazilian institutions to enter into from an EU member state do study in the partnerships with institutions abroad. In addition Netherlands. We therefore assume that the to the outbound mobility of Brazilian students, actual number of Brazilian students in the many of these partnerships also deal with the Netherlands is higher. inbound mobility of international students to Brazil. A certain level of reciprocity therefore A small majority (52%) of Brazilian students in is the principle underlying such partnerships. Dutch government-funded education pursued Leading Brazilian institutions will furthermore a bachelor’s programme in higher professional become more actively involved in inbound mobility education in 2011-12. Thirty per cent pursued a in Brazil. This is initially expected to help boost master’s degree programme in academic higher regional mobility across Latin America. education. Most Brazilian students (33%) opted for a study programme in Economics while 24% chose Language & Culture as their field of study.

86 87 Diagram 58 Neso target countries, an overview Sources: *** UNESCO 2012 *** a) Taiwan Statistical Data Book 2011 http://www.cepd.gov.tw/encontent/m1.aspx?sNo=0015743 b) Taiwan Ministry of Education http://www.chinapost.com.tw/taiwan/national/national-news/2010/06/15/260722/Fewer-interested.htm *** IND 2010-2012

86 87

Total population Total higher Change in Share of higher Share of the Change in the (2010-11)* ­education higher education ­education student population number of students ­population population effective population studying from that country studying in the (2008-09)* 2007-08 abroad (2008-09)* studying abroad Netherlands in the Netherlands ­between 2008-09 (2008-09)*** and 2011-12***

Brazil 196,655,014 6,115,138 2.6% 26,282 (0.4%) 229 (0.87%) 30.1%

China 1,347,565,324 29,295,841 9.8% 512,418 (1.7%) 4,435 (0.87%) 28.9%

India 1,241,491,960 18,648,923 8.4% 195,405 (1.0%) 524 (0.27%) 53.4%

Indonesia 242,325,638 4,859,409 10.0% 33,645 (0.7%) 1,281 (3.81%) -6.5%

Mexico 114,793,341 2,705,190 3.1% 26,863 (1.0%) 275 (1.02%) 46.9%

Russia 142,835,555 9,330,115 -1.2% 47,143 (0.5%) 427 (0.91%) 34.9%

South Korea 48,391,343 3,219,216 0.5% 122,824 (3.8%) 389 (0.32%) 68.1%

Taiwan 23,162,123**a 1,337,455**a 0.9% 33,339**b (2.5%) 301 (0.90%) 0.7%

Thailand 69,518,555 2,417,262 -0.5% 25,192 (1.0%) 231 (0.92%) -32.0%

Vietnam 88,791,996 1,774,321 7.2% 43,670 (2.5%) 364 (0.83%) 6.9%

24%

30% 29% 33%

0.87% 14% 9% 8% 0.87% 0.87% 8% 7% 8% 24% 30% 29% 7% 8% 9% 33% 9% 13% 15% 0.87% 33% 24% Brazil China 9%

0.87% 8% 14% 24% 0.27% 12% 14% 30% 24% 9% 3.81% 22% 8% 24% 24% 29% 0.87% 0.87% 24% 24%33% 2% 7% 30% 8% 8% 30% 30% 29% 29% 29% 33% 33% 3% 13% 7% 33% 30% 9%30% 29% 29% 8% 15% 9%0.87% 13% 33% 33% 24% 33% Brazil China 15% 29% 9% 26% 30% 0.87% 52% 8% 17% 0.27% 12% 14% 0.87% 0.87%0.87% 3.81% 22% Brazil14% China 14% 9% 14% 14% 8% 2% 0.87%0.87% Diagram9% 59 9% 9% 8% 8% 8% 8%14% 14% 4% 3% 8% The0.27% main destination countries8% for outbound9% 3.81%9% students from 8% 8% 8% 7% 9% 3% 30% 13% 5% 8% 8% 13% 15% the Neso target countries and the Netherlands, 2008-097% 0.87%9% 5%7% 7% 9% 9% 14% 12% 15% Source: UNESCO 2012 (22 March13% 2012) 5% 26% 13% 13% 15% 15% 5%0.87% 52% 7% 0.87%7% 0.87% 9% 9% Brazil China 17% 15% 15% 0.87%0.87%13% 13% 15% Brazil BrazilBrazil30%China ChinaChina 8% 29% India 30% Indonesia Brazil Brazil ChinaChina 8% 0.27% 12% 30% 8% 8% Brazil China 0.27%12% 12% 8% 3.81% 22% 0.27% 12% 10% 0.27% 24% 24% 14% 5% 2% 8% 8% 17% 14% 24% 0.27%0.27%12%3.81%12% 22% 3.81%3.81% 22% 22% 4% 30% 30% 29%5% 29% 2% 2% 2% 3%3.81%3.81% 22% 22% 30% 0.27% 29% 3.81% 6%33% 33% 3% 52% 33% 3% India5% 3%2% 3%2%Indonesia 12% 5% 22% 3% 3% 10% 26% 43% 17% 30% 52% 11% 17% 17% 8% 6% 26% 26% 26% 26% 52% 52% 54% 22%52% 0.87%17%0.87% 17% 17% 26% 26% 52%14%52%14% 1.02% 0.87% 17% 17% 14% 8% 8% 14% India9% 9% 43% Indonesia 11% 7%9% 8% 8% 8% 30% 54% 8% 1.02% 0.91% 22% 5% 52%5% 7% 7% 6% 9% 9% 30% 14% 30% 30% 1.02% 5% 6% 13% 13% 5% 15% 15% 5% 5% 30% 30% 7% 6% 22% 14%0.87%9% 0.87% 14% 14% 7% 15% 8% 8% 5% 5%0.87% 13% 0.91% 5% 5% 5%5% BrazilBrazil 14% 14% ChinaChina India Indonesia 7% 10% 5% 5% Brazil China 17% 6% India IndiaIndiaIndonesia IndonesiaIndonesia Mexico Russia 26% 8% 43% 5% 10% 0.91% India India IndonesiaIndonesia 10% 8% 8% 10% 0.27%0.27%12% 12% 17% 8% 10% 0.27% 12% India 11% Mexico Indonesia 3.81%Russia3.81% 10%22% 22% 10% 17% 54% 17% 17% 6% 13% 2% 2%3.81% 22% 10% 10% 15% 17% 17% 6% 6% 2% 1.02% 3% 3% 0.91% 6% 5% 6% 6% 6% 0.89%3% 13% 10% 6% 15% 0.92% 43% 8% 11% 8% 0.89% 34% 5% 0.92% 43% 43% 43% 7% 17% 11% 54% 22% 8%11% 11% 26% 26% 52% 52%5% 34% 43% 43% 17%26%17% 54% 52%47% 54%11%43% 11% 54% 22%1.02% 22% 22% 17% 10% 47% 22% 54% 54% 22% 22% 1.02% 1.02%1.02% 7% 11% 11% 54% 1.02%1.02% Mexico11% 7%Russia7% 19%7% 19% 30% 30% 7% 7% 6% 30% 5% 5% 8% 0.89%10%14% 14% 6%0.92%6% 5% 0.91% 8% 6%5% 5% 5% 5% 10%14% 10% 8% 8% 8% 10% 5%5% 6% 6%5% 5%0.91% 0.91%0.91% 9% 10% 10% 10% 8% 8% 17% 9% 17% Mexico Russia 17% 10% 11%9%IndiaIndia 5% 5% IndonesiaIndonesia 0.91%0.91% 11% 10% 10% India United States IndonesiaMexico MexicoMexico34% Russia RussiaRussia United States Taiwan Thailand Taiwan Australia Thailand MexicoMexico RussiaRussia Australia 22% 10% 10% Japan 13% 17% 17% 10% 15% Japan Mexico United Kingdom Russia 15% 0.32% 17% 47% 7% 13% United States 11% 0.32%13% 13% 6% 6% 15% United Kingdom Germany 7% 3% United15% States Australia 0.89% 15% 6% 13% 13% France 3% 15% 15% 0.92% Germany 26% 0.89% 3% 0.89%0.89% Australia Japan 0.89% 0.92%29% 8% 8% South Korea 3% 5% 0.92% United Kingdom0.92%0.92% 5% 34% France 26% 0.89%0.89% Japan Canada 8%43%8%43% Germany South Korea 29% 8% 34% 0.92%0.92% 34% 34% 88 11% 11% 9% 5% United Kingdom 5% 5% 89 Malaysia 43% 8% 8% France 47% Canada 11% 10% 11% 54% 54% 5% 5% 34% 34% New Zealand Germany 22%South22% Korea 20%34% 47% 47% Malaysia 54% 0.83% 47% 60% Russia 1.02%1.02% 22% France Canada 11% 17% 47% 47% New Zealand Ukraine 1.02% 7%20% 11% 19%South Korea Malaysia 19% 13% 7%11%7% 11% Russia 0.83% The Netherlands* 15% 60% New Zealand 47% 11% 11% Canada 19% 19% 11%7% Spain 19% Russia Ukraine Taiwan 6% Thailand Malaysia 7% Portugal 19% 19% 18% Ukraine 10% The Netherlands* 13%6% 6% New Zealand Other 8% 8% The Netherlands* 6% 10% Spain 0.83%10%5% 5%7% 10%0.32% Russia0.91%0.91% 17% 8% 3% 3% 10% 10% UnitedSpain States 9% 5% 7% 6% 0.91% 10% 10% 11% Portugal 18% Vietnam South UkraineKorea Portugal 17% 17% 13% 10% 6% 9% 17% Australia 9% 9% 11% Mexico11%Mexico 11% 11%RussiaRussiaUnited States Other 7% The Netherlands* Other Taiwan 17% 17% Thailand Japan 9% 9% Mexico7% United States RussiaUnitedUnited States States 11% 11% Australia 29% Spain 17% Taiwan 7% TaiwanTaiwanThailand United Kingdom ThailandThailand Australia UnitedAustraliaAustralia UnitedStates States Japan 19% Portugal Vietnam13% South Korea TaiwanTaiwan Germany ThailandThailand 0.32% Japan 13% 13% AustraliaJapanJapanAustralia United Kingdom 7% United States 13% 15%Other15% 13% Japan Japan 0.32% Germany France 0.32%0.32% Taiwan United Kingdom 15% ThailandUnitedUnited Kingdom Kingdom 7% United7% States7% United3%United States States Australia 0.89%0.89% United Kingdom France South Korea 0.32%0.32% 3% Germany UnitedGermanyGermany Kingdom 3% 26% 3% 3%Australia7% 7% UnitedAustraliaAustralia UnitedStates States Japan 0.89% 0.92%0.92% 60% GermanyGermany South Korea Canada 3% 3% 29% France 8%0.92%8% FranceFrance20% 26% 3% 3% 3%Japan AustraliaJapanJapanAustralia United Kingdom 0.83% 26% 3% 0.32% 26%5% 5% 34% 34% 7% 3% France 29% United States Canada 29% 29%Malaysia 3% 3% 8% South Korea FranceSouthSouth Korea Korea 34% 26% 26% United Kingdom JapanUnitedUnitedJapan Kingdom Kingdom Germany 5% 6% South Korea Australia Malaysia29% 29%New Zealand 7% Canada SouthCanada KoCanadarea 47% 47% Germany UnitedGermanyGermany UnitedKingdom Kingdom France Japan Russia Malaysia18% 47% CanadaMalaysiaMalaysiaCanada New Zealand GermanyFranceGermany South Korea 29% 7% France 20% France Malaysia United Kingdom Russia Ukraine 0.83% 60% New Zealand 11% 11% MalaysiaNew ZealandNew Zealand South Korea FranceSouthSouthFrance Korea Korea Canada 26% 20% 20% 20% 11% 0.83% New Zealand 0.83%0.83% Germany Ukraine The Netherlands* 60% 60% Russia NewRussia ZealandRussia 19% 19% 60% Canada SouthCanada KoreaCanadaSouth Korea Malaysia 13% 20%7%20% 19% 0.83%0.83% France Spain 60% Ukraine RussiaUkraineUkraineRussia The Netherlands* 60% CanadaMalaysiaCanada New Zealand 7% 7% 7% Malaysia Malaysia Vietnam South Korea South Korea Spain Portugal The Netherlands* UkraineThe Netherlands*TheUkraine Netherlands* MalaysiaNew ZealandNewMalaysia Zealand Russia 10% 10% 60%7% 7% New Zealand 6% The Netherlands*SpainThe Netherlands* Canada Portugal Other 10% Spain 20% Spain Russia 18% NewRussia ZealandRussiaNew Zealand Ukraine 6%13%6% Spain 6% Malaysia Other17% 17% Portugal SpainPortugalPortugal 18% 9% 9% 18% 18% Ukraine RussiaUkraineUkraineRussia The Netherlands* 11% 11% 13% 13% 6% 6% 13% 9% 17% New Zealand 7% 11% Other PortugalOtherOtherPortugal 18% 18% UkraineThe Netherlands*TheUkraine Netherlands* Spain UnitedUnited States States 13% 13% The Netherlands* 18% TaiwanTaiwan7%Other Other Russia7%Thailand7%Thailand United States AustraliaAustralia SpainVietnam TheSpain Netherlands*SpainThe Netherlands*South Korea Portugal Taiwan Thailand Ukraine7% 7% Australia JapanJapan Vietnam VietnamVietnamSouth Korea PortugalSouthSouth Korea Korea SpainPortugalPortugalSpain Other 26% The Netherlands* Japan UnitedUnited Kingdom Kingdom 0.32%Vietnam0.32%Vietnam Other*South IND 2012 SouthKorea Korea PortugalOtherOtherPortugal Spain7% 7% UnitedUnited States States 0.32% Other Other United Kingdom GermanyGermany 7% 3%United3% States Vietnam South Korea Portugal AustraliaAustralia Germany FranceFrance 3% 3% Australia3% 26% 26% Other JapanJapan France 3% 29% 29% 26% SouthSouth Kore aKorea Japan UnitedUnited Kingdom Kingdom South Korea 29% CanadaCanada United Kingdom GermanyGermany Canada MalaysiaMalaysia Germany FranceFrance Malaysia New ZealandNew Zealand France 20% 20% SouthSouth Korea Korea New Zealand 0.83%0.83% RussiaRussia 20% South Korea 60% 60% CanadaCanada 0.83% Russia UkraineUkraine 60% Canada 7% 7% MalaysiaMalaysia Ukraine 7% The Netherlands*The Netherlands* Malaysia New ZealandNew Zealand The Netherlands* SpainSpain New Zealand RussiaRussia Spain 6% 6% PortugalPortugal 18% 18% Russia UkraineUkraine 13%6%13% Portugal OtherOther18% Ukraine 13% The Netherlands*The Netherlands* Other 7% 7% The Netherlands* SpainSpain 7% VietnamVietnam Spain SouthSouth Korea Korea PortugalPortugal Vietnam South Korea Portugal OtherOther Other The extensive Science without Borders Most Chinese students (64%) pursued a study programme will have a positive impact on the programme in Economics, while one out of five development of mobility in the years ahead. opted for Engineering. The participating nations are likely to see an increasing number of Brazilian students. Their With over 500,000 students studying abroad numbers are similarly expected to grow in in 2008-09, China is by far the largest country study-abroad countries that do not take part of origin for international students. The most in the programme. Four factors play a key role popular study destinations are the United States in this context: (1) While relatively few Brazilian (24%), Japan (15%), Australia (14%), the United students studied abroad in 2008-09, it is only Kingdom (9%) and South Korea (8%). logical for their numbers to continue to rise. (2) As a result of growing prosperity more China has been pursuing an active policy to families will be able to fund a study programme boost outbound mobility for two decades. abroad. (3) There is a huge demand for The simplification of the Chinese passport employees with a higher education background application process has made it easier for on the Brazilian labour market. (4) Brazil has a Chinese nationals to travel abroad. The particularly large youth population, which means Chinese government has also initiated several ­ that the demand for higher education is set to scholar­ship programmes. Its current outbound rise in the years ahead. mobility policy seems to be increasingly directed towards facilitating mobility to countries in the 5.2.3 China Southeast Asia region. A notable aspect of Growing numbers of Chinese students are China’s mobility policy is its strong emphasis on studying in the Netherlands each year. Their international cooperation with higher education number jumped by 38% over 2007-08. institutions. At the end of 2010 some 160 of the The nominal growth seen in the past two years over 2,000 Chinese higher education institutions seems to be slowing down somewhat. had entered into a cooperation agreement with Nonetheless China remains the largest country an institution abroad. International partnerships of origin of students outside the EU/EEA for the aim to improve the quality and reputation of Netherlands, with over 5,700 students. In 2011-12 Chinese institutions. The growing number of half the number of Chinese students in Dutch Chinese institutions that appear in the top 500 government-funded education pursued a international university rankings affirms that the bachelor’s programme in higher professional reputation of Chinese institutions is in fact education, with 34% pursuing a master’s degree improving. programme in academic higher education.

88 89 China has also initiated an active policy to boost India has the second-largest number of outbound inbound mobility and has set a specific target of students, ranking after China. In 2008-09, hosting 500,000 enrolled international students 195,405 Indian students studied abroad. Just at Chinese higher education institutions in 2020. over half studied abroad in the United States According to UNESCO, 61,200 international (52%). Other popular destinations were the students studied in China in 2009. United Kingdom (17%) and Australia (14%).

The country is facing an ageing population and Similar to the majority of emerging countries, limited population growth. Combined with more India is making every effort to improve its higher attractive higher education in China itself, this education system. Part of this policy includes might in the long term curb interest in studying aligning study programmes with those of other abroad. At present, however, fewer students countries, for example by drawing up are applying for the national university entrance internationally-comparable curricula. Another examination in China each year and the growing example is the Foreign Universities Bill, a law group who do not sit the examination are likely that seeks to permit foreign institutions to offer to opt for a study abroad programme. The study programmes in India, and which has number of Chinese students studying abroad is long been awaiting parliamentary approval. therefore expected to continue to grow in the years ahead. Scholarship programmes, institutional cooperation agreements and exchange programmes provide 5.2.4 India tangible evidence of concrete policy designed The number of students from India studying in to boost outgoing mobility. The Indian the Netherlands reflects unremitting growth. government has signed agreements with other Their numbers surged by 68% between 2007-08 countries to ensure the recognition of diplomas and 2011-12. The vast majority of students (81%) awarded in India and abroad. Such agreements from India pursued a master’s programme in will also help boost incoming mobility to India. Dutch government-funded academic higher To accommodate incoming mobility, Indian education in 2011-12, while 10% pursued a universities have been asked to provide English bachelor’s programme in higher professional language courses to international students. education. No less than 65% of the students pursued a study programme in Engineering, The soaring number of Indian students studying while 12% studied Economics. What is rather abroad reflects the huge demand for higher noteworthy is the popularity of the Natural education from the vast youth population. The Sciences field (e.g. Mathematics, Physics, Indian government is working on satisfying a Biology etc.) among 9% of Indian students. larger part of demand in India by establishing

90 91 more higher education institutions. However, Over 33,600 Indonesian students studied abroad the quality of higher education currently forms, in 2008-09, with the majority (30%) opting for and is expected to remain a major impediment Australia. Other popular destinations were in the short term. It is doubtful therefore whether Malaysia (26%) and the United States (22%). the increased supply will in fact be able to Japan and Germany (both recording 5%) match demand. The demand for pursuing study complete the top five. programmes abroad is more likely to grow, particularly on account of the quality issues In recent years, the Indonesian Ministry of in India. National Education has made available DIKTI student grants to PhD candidates and post- The assumption therefore is that the demand doctoral positions. These grants were originally for study programmes abroad will continue to intended to enable Indonesian teachers to grow. Another reason for the predicted trend is pursue master’s degree programmes abroad. that the Indian economy is in dire need of highly- Emulating higher education, more international skilled workers with study-abroad experience. education standards will also be applied to The growing number of Indian families who can primary and secondary education in Indonesia. afford to have their children educated abroad Cooperation with higher education institutions should also help bridge the gap. abroad will be sought to facilitate internationali­ sation in higher education. In short, Indonesia 5.2.5 Indonesia pursues an active policy in the internationali­ The 2011-12 academic year saw Indonesian sation of higher education. students studying in the Netherlands decrease by 10% against 2007-08. Student numbers The above corroborates that a permanent feature have again been growing (+1%) since 2010-11, of national higher education policy includes bucking the trend positively compared with the boosting outbound mobility. At the national previous years. Forty-five per cent of Indonesian level, however, boosting inbound mobility does students in Dutch-government-funded education not yet seem to be a key priority, even though pursued a master’s programme in academic it is supported by national scholarship higher education in 2011-12, while 41% pursued programmes. However, certain institutions in a bachelor’s programme in higher professional Indonesia are in fact working on this and have education. Economics and Engineering study created international study programmes. programmes were the most popular (36% and They are also recruiting international students, 27% respectively). primarily from Indonesia’s neighbour, Malaysia.

90 91 Indonesia has a large, growing youth population dimension to the current study programmes and and an increasing gross domestic product, which to the activities carried out by the Mexican higher also contributes to the huge demand for higher education institutions. This includes cooperation education. In these circumstances and the with institutions abroad. Furthermore at the circumstances described earlier on, the interest national level consultations are being held with in study-abroad programmes is expected to other countries (including the EU member states) continue to grow. The Netherlands also seems about the recognition of diplomas and setting up to be reaping the benefits in the light of the exchange programmes. To boost both outbound increased number of Indonesian students studying and inbound mobility the Mexican government in the country in the current academic year. has initiated a range of scholarship programmes.

5.2.6 Mexico The demand for higher education in Mexico is Compared with 2007-08, the number of Mexican set to grow in the years ahead. A larger share of students studying in the Netherlands in 2011-12 demand for higher education is expected to be soared by 66% to just over 400 students. The met within the Mexican higher education system majority of students (69%) from Mexico pursued by implementing capacity improvements. The a master’s programme in Dutch-government- extent to which demand for higher education funded academic higher education in 2011-12, abroad will increase depends largely on economic while 19% pursued a bachelor’s programme in and political developments in Mexico. The trend higher professional education. Almost half (45%) is relatively difficult to predict given the strong of Mexican students pursued a study programme interdependence between the Mexican and in Engineering, with 18% opting for an Economics United States’ economies. Interest in studying study programme and 14% opting for a study abroad is expected to grow due to the focus on programme in the Language & Culture field. the internationalisation of higher education in Mexico. The vast majority of the population who In 2008-09, close to 26,900 Mexican students have reached university entrance age will help studied abroad. More than half studied abroad further boost outbound mobility. in the United States (54%), distantly followed by Spain (11%), France (7%), Germany (6%) 5.2.7 Russia and the United Kingdom (5%). A growing number of Russian students are studying in the Netherlands each year. Their In Mexico the plan for improving education numbers were up by 68% in 2011-12 relative incorporates the internationalisation of higher to 2007-08. Fifty-one per cent of Russian students education. Internationalisation is to be shaped, in Dutch-government-funded education pursued among other things, by adding an international a bachelor’s programme in higher professional

92 93 education in 2011-12, while 27% pursued a international students in terms of student master’s programme in academic higher numbers. In 2008-09, 137,000 international education. Economics and Language & Culture students studied in Russia. were the most popular fields of study, recording 45% and 22% of Russian students respectively. The demographic and economic situation in Russia may prove a limiting factor in respect In 2008-09, 47,100 Russian students studied of the number of Russian students opting to abroad, with 22% opting for Germany. study abroad in the future. Russia is facing a The United States and Ukraine both recorded a diminishing youth population, which means share of 10%. France and the United Kingdom that demand for higher education may begin to hosted 8% and 6% respectively of the total decline. The current economic crisis has also number of mobile Russian students. clearly affected Russia’s economic growth. By contrast, higher education tuition fees are Reforms in Russia’s higher education system rising, master’s programmes in Russia often have are well under way. Russia participates in the a two-year duration (as opposed to the one-year Bologna process and against this background master’s programmes in the Netherlands, most of the study programmes in Russia have for instance) and the higher education offered undergone conversion to the bachelor’s-master’ abroad definitely is of higher quality in specific structure. One of the Russian government’s fields of study. These aspects might spur a larger key priorities is to improve the quality of higher number of Russian students to study abroad education. The focus seems to be directed despite the demographic and economic situation. towards improving the existing leading institutions in major Russian cities. The Russian government 5.2.8 South Korea has made student grants available to boost In 2011-12, over 650 South Korean students outbound mobility. While only a limited number studied in the Netherlands, an increase of no of student grants are currently available, there less than 90% over 2007-08. Just over half are plans to increase the number significantly. (53%) of the South Korean students in Dutch- government funded education pursued To improve the quality of the higher education a bachelor’s programme in higher professional system, the Russian government seeks to attract education in 2011-12, while 18% pursued more international researchers, teachers and a master’s programme in academic higher students. To that end an agency, EduRussia, education. Another 18% opted for a bachelor’s was established to promote Russian education programme in academic higher education. abroad. It should be noted that Russia is A notably high number of students (11%) pursued currently already quite a popular destination for a master’s programme in higher education.

92 93 A larger number (57%) of South Korean students South Korea has set itself the target of hosting opted for a Language & Culture study programme. 100,000 international students in 2012. The In addition Economics (16%) and Engineering country’s visa procedures have therefore been (13%) programmes proved to be quite popular. simplified and investments are being made in improving the facilities (accommodation and Over 123,000 South Korean students studied student grants) and study options (such as abroad in 2008-09. Sixty per cent of the students English-taught study programmes) for inter­ in this group studied in the United States, the national students. The rationale behind the most popular destination by far among South promotion of inbound mobility is the imminent Korean students. Other popular destinations decline in South Korean student numbers, were Japan (20%) and Australia (6%). with South Korea too facing diminishing population growth. The quality of South Korea’s higher education system has accelerated rapidly in recent years. The increasing quality of the South Korean higher Several institutions have now edged their way education system and the declining population into the top 100 international rankings. The South growth could affect the total number of South Korean government has clearly reaped the results Korean students studying abroad in the long of its prolonged investments in improving the term. There is no certainty about whether – and higher education system. The government’s if so, when – this will occur with student interest policy incorporated internatio­nali­sation. in studying abroad expected to continue to Concrete policy achievements include remain high, at least in the short term. institutional cooperation between South Korean higher education institutions and institutions 5.2.9 Taiwan abroad, the number of branch campuses of Some 300 Taiwanese students study in the foreign institutions located in South Korea Netherlands. Their number has remained stable and a policy for promoting outbound and in recent years. In 2011-12 the majority (61%) inbound policy. of Taiwanese students in Dutch-government- funded education pursued a master’s programme The South Korean government has made student in academic higher education, while 24% pursued grants available to boost outbound mobility. a bachelor’s programme in higher professional South Korea also works jointly with its neigh­ education. Of the Taiwanese students, 35% bouring countries on the harmonisation of higher chose to major in Language & Culture. Other education systems (similar to Europe). A cautious popular fields of study were Engineering and step was taken by recognising credits awarded Economics (both recording 17%). to students in a partnership country.

94 95 In 2008-09, over 33,300 Taiwanese students has also permitted Chinese students (albeit a studied abroad. The most popular destination limited number) to study in Taiwan. was the United States (47%), followed at a distance by Australia (11%), the United Kingdom The policy pursued by the Taiwanese government (11%) and Japan (10%). to attract primarily students correlates with the diminishing population growth. The current In recent years the Taiwanese government’s situation is such that the number of places in policy has focused on creating world-class bachelor’s programmes offered by Taiwan’s universities and on the internationalisation of higher education institutions exceeds demand. the higher education system. Taiwan therefore The demographic situation could in the long conducts an active policy for boosting both term affect the number of Taiwanese students inbound and outbound mobility. Student grants opting for a study-abroad programme. As long and loans are available to support outbound as the Taiwanese government and universities mobility and Taiwan’s goal is to become an continue to promote outbound mobility education hub for inbound mobility. Taiwan through international cooperation, the number has set a concrete target of hosting 95,000 of Taiwanese students studying abroad is, international students (mainly from Southeast however, expected to remain stable. Asia) in 2014. To that end the Taiwanese government is making substantial investments 5.2.10 Thailand in the ongoing development of the education In 2011-12 close to 160 Thai students studied environment as well as in marketing and in the Netherlands. A gradual decline was seen promoting studying abroad in Taiwan. An in their total number since 2007-08. In 2011-12, increase in the number of study programmes 43% of Thai students in Dutch-government- taught entirely in English helps facilitate both funded education pursued a bachelor’s inbound and outbound mobility. programme in higher professional education, and the same percentage pursued a master’s The Taiwanese government has recognised programme in academic higher education. Chinese diplomas (and vice versa) since 2010, Although the majority (41%) of Thai students which makes it more attractive for Taiwanese pursued a study programme in Economics, students to opt for a study programme in China. compared with the fields of study chosen This could also result in increasing student by students from the other Neso countries, mobility from Taiwan to China, given the lower Agriculture & Natural Environment (20%) enjoys language barrier and closer economic cooperation notable popularity. In addition Engineering between Taiwan and China. Effective 2011 Taiwan studies (16%) proved to be quite popular.

94 95 Over 25,000 Thai students studied abroad in Thailand, continued interest is expected to be 2008-09. The main study destinations were the seen in study-abroad programmes. Whether United States (34%), the United Kingdom (19%), this will also affect the number of Thai students Australia (17%), Japan (9%) and Malaysia (5%). who actually study abroad depends on various factors. The growth in the number of families who Various explanations can be offered for the can afford to pay for a study-abroad programme diminishing number of Thai students studying in will be the deciding factor. Assuming Thailand’s the Netherlands. The decline could be attributable limited economic growth over 2011 and the to the lower number of Dutch scholarships forecast growth of around 5% in the years ahead, available to Thai students and to the fact that the number of students opting for a study-abroad the Netherlands is still a relatively unknown study programme is not expected to grow sharply. destination. Another reason, again compared Incidentally, the newly announced scholarship with the other Neso target countries, might be programmes may indeed have a positive effect the Thai government’s lack of policy in promoting on their numbers. outbound mobility. Only a relatively small scholarship programme exists for the purpose 5.2.11 Vietnam of funding mobility. However, the Thai government Some 360 to 390 Vietnamese students have has stated that it plans to increase the number been studying in the Netherlands since 2007-08. of study-abroad scholarship programmes. Their number is reasonably stable. The high percentage (59%) of Vietnamese students in It is interesting to note that the Thai government Dutch-government-funded education who has set clear inbound mobility goals and plans pursued a bachelor’s programme in higher to make Thailand an education hub. To achieve professional education in 2011-12 proves that its goal, the Thai government is endeavouring to the Vietnamese student market affords improve the quality of the Thai higher education opportunities for higher professional education. system, including fostering institutional Thirty-one per cent of Vietnamese students cooperation and setting up student exchange pursued a master’s programme in academic programmes. These measures should help higher education. Economics (57%) and boost outbound mobility. Engineering (21%) are popular fields of study.

As a larger number of Thai secondary school In 2008-09, 43,700 Vietnamese students studied pupils are coming into contact with different abroad. Twenty-nine per cent studied in the cultures and influences, and on account of the United States, 18% in Australia, 13% in France, ongoing internationalisation of education in while 7% opted for both Japan and Russia.

96 97 The Vietnamese government promotes which should help further increase outbound outbound mobility by offering a relatively large mobility. In concrete terms, this means that the number of student grants. A requirement imposed demand for higher education will continue to on student grant recipients is that they return grow. The larger numbers of students from to Vietnam after their study period abroad. The the Neso countries who are studying in the Vietnamese government thus endeavours to Netherlands is one of the factors evidencing avoid a brain drain. The government also seeks the growing demand and increasing capacity to align its higher education system with higher for funding a study-abroad programme. The education systems abroad and has concluded assumption is that the increase correlates with numerous agreements with other countries. the policy designed to promote mobility as The cooperation obviously also aims to improve implemented in the majority of the Neso target the quality of Vietnamese higher education. countries. The efforts undertaken by the Netherlands to promote and position inbound More importantly – given the economic interest, mobility similarly play a role. the Vietnamese government’s apparent priority is to improve the quality of higher education. In 2011-12 a larger number of students from all As a result the promotion of inbound mobility Neso target countries, apart from Thailand and may perhaps not be high up on the priority list. Taiwan, studied in the Netherlands. Compared A target for attracting a larger number of inter­ with 2007-08, in percentage terms the three national students has, however, been formulated. best performers were South Korea, Russia and India, with South Korea, Mexico and Russia Vietnam’s economic growth and growing recording the best performance compared with prosperity will enable an increasing number of 2010-11. Of all students in Dutch-government- Vietnamese students to study abroad. Interest funded education from the Neso target countries, is likely to be fuelled – at least in the short term the majority (45%) pursued a bachelor’s – by the substantial difference in the quality of programme in higher professional education in higher education in Vietnam and that offered 2011-12, while a large number (39%) pursued abroad. Taking the difficult access to higher a master’s programme in academic higher education in Vietnam into the equation, the education. In 2011-12 half of the students from number of Vietnamese students choosing to the Neso target countries pursued a study study abroad is only expected to grow. programme in Economics. The other popular fields of study were: Engineering (23%), 5.2.12 Conclusion Language & Culture (8%), and Agriculture & Economic and demographic developments in Natural Environment (7%). most of the Neso target countries are favourable,

96 97 In terms of country market shares in the Neso target country education markets, a shift was seen between 2007-08 and 2008-09. The overall picture is that the collective share of the top five destination countries declined in each Neso target country. Combined with the growing numbers of students studying abroad, this therefore means that mobility flows have seen ongoing differentiation. Logically, the Netherlands has a modest market share compared with the most popular destinations. The Netherlands recorded an average market share of 1.07% across the ten Neso target countries in 2008-09.

For all Neso countries, the number of students studying abroad is expected to continue to grow, or to remain stable – at least in the short term. Dutch higher education institutions will definitely continue to have the opportunity to recruit highly talented students from the Neso target countries. A development seen in most Neso target countries is that governments also aim to improve the higher education system in their respective countries. In this context, cooperation with institutions abroad is repeatedly sought. Against this background, institutional cooperation in facilitating student mobility seems to be playing a more important role. The Neso programme will therefore continue to heighten its focus on facilitating institutional cooperation between Dutch higher education institutions and those in the Neso countries in the years ahead.

98 99 98 99 5.3

Credit mobility 100 101 No regular annually updated key figures are Inbound and outbound mobility under available on credit mobility that would help put the Erasmus programme the Netherlands into a wider context. International The European Commission estimates that comparative surveys however, are occasionally approximately 4.5% of all European students carried out, which can be used for reference study or take up work placements abroad purposes. The EUROSTUDENT project launched under the Erasmus programme at some point in 2000 is one such survey. It coordinates and/or during their studies.17 compiles specific national surveys concerning student socio-economic backgrounds. The The 2009-10 academic year saw a 7% increase Netherlands contributes data to the survey from in the number of Erasmus students in all 31 the Student Monitor (ResearchNed.nl). countries participating in the Erasmus programme Eurostudent IV, the fourth project round in which relative to 2008-09. Spain, France, the United 25 countries took part, ran from 2008 to 2011. Kingdom, Germany and Italy hosted the largest These surveys included asking students about numbers of Erasmus students (with the their study-abroad experience. EUROSTUDENT Netherlands ranking seventh). Spain, France, interprets the results of the participating countries Germany and Italy recorded the highest outbound and compiles a summary of the most common Erasmus student mobility (with the United denominators. This often gives rise to new criteria Kingdom coming sixth, and the Netherlands as it were, which are difficult to transpose to the eighth in this respect). national criteria but the surveys do enable country comparison. Diagram 60 shows the extent to which the outbound and inbound Erasmus populations According to EUROSTUDENT IV, a relatively deviate from our expectations based on the total large number of Dutch students gain experience population enjoying education in the relevant abroad during their study programme. Together country. The countries referred to in Diagram 60 with Finland and Norway, the Netherlands records actively participate in the Erasmus programme the highest number of study programme and, generally speaking, their Erasmus outbound enrolments from international students (14% and inbound figures are higher than might be of the students who took part in the survey), expected given the size of their student and the highest number of work placement populations (larger than one). This does not enrolments (9%) after Hungary (11%). Incidentally, apply to outbound Swedish students, whose 17 European Commission. the final report published by EUROSTAT-IV numbers lag behind the share of the Swedish (2012). The Erasmus Programme 2009/2010: corroborates the opinion expressed in previous population enjoying education out of the total A statistical overview. Nuffic mobility publications concerning the Swedish population in education in Erasmus URL: http://ec.europa.eu/ education/erasmus/doc/ Bologna target value of 20%. countries. In general, the inbound flow in the stat/0910/report.pdf.

100 101 countries referred to in Diagram 60 is larger than the outbound flow. Germany, where the outbound flow exceeds the inbound flow forms an exception. In terms of Erasmus inbound mobility, the Danes – just as the previous year – score the highest in relation to their student population while the Germans reflect the lowest score. Looking at outbound mobility, the Finns top the list while the Swedes show the lowest score. Diagram 60

102 103 Diagram 60 Percentage of the outbound and inbound Erasmus population among the total Erasmus population, relative to the share of the national student population in the total student population (in Erasmus countries), 2008-09 Source: OECD, Nuffic, 2012

Inbound Erasmus Outbound Erasmus

102 103

1.84 Belgium 1.59

2.54 Finland 1.70

1.03 Germany 1.30

The 1.49 1.29 Netherlands

2.74 Denmark 1.03

2.39 Sweden 0.72 5.4

Lecturer and researcher mobility 104 105 5.4.1 Mobility to candidates in the Netherlands are primarily the Netherlands found in the fields of agricultural, natural and According to the European London Communiqué engineering sciences. Data provided by the (2007), like student mobility, researcher and IND and EUROSTAT on newly issued residence lecturer mobility are deemed to play an important permits to paid researchers shows that 1,485 role in the development of the European Higher of these permits were issued in 2010, against Education Area. Unfortunately, there is a lack 1,305 in 2009, and 864 in 2008. Of the of available data concerning staff mobility to researchers from outside the EU (and EFTA), in the Netherlands on doctoral candidates and 2010 the majority originated from China (26%), lecturers as well as other members of staff. followed by Iran (8%), India (6%), the United A number of other countries, including Denmark, States (6%) and Indonesia (6%). Germany and the United Kingdom, have supplied such data. Only EUROSTAT supplies centralised data on lecturer mobility to (and from) the Netherlands. Of the available data, general data from the The number of lecturers in higher education who Association of Universities in the Netherlands taught in the Netherlands for a short period of (VSNU) shows that 42% of the doctoral time under an Erasmus exchange programme fell candidates employed by Dutch universities in from 767 to 695 between 2008-09 and 2009-10, 2010-11 were of foreign nationality (this equates according to Erasmus programme figures (499 to a total of 3,613 foreign doctoral candidates), were recorded in 2000-01). The above number an increase of 11 percentage points (35%) over of inbound Erasmus lecturers puts the

2005-06 (see Diagram 61). Hardly any comparable Netherlands in sixteenth position and within the 18 Sonneveld, H., Yerkes, data is available from other countries. lower middle bracket of Erasmus countries. The M. & Schoot, R. van de. (2010). PhD trajectories Diagram 61 most popular destination countries were Germany, and labour market mobility: A survey of recent doctoral Italy, France and Spain. recipients at four universities The VSNU does not publish detailed figures in the Netherlands. Utrecht: Netherlands Centre for about the countries of origin of foreign doctoral Total lecturer mobility under the Erasmus Graduate and Research Schools. candidates in the Netherlands. However, programme represents 29,031 people, whose 19 EUROSTAT. (2009). The a study of doctoral candidates at four Dutch number grew in the previous year by 1.5%.19 Bologna Process in Higher Education in Europe: universities, published by Utrecht University In 2009-10, the largest group of international Key indicators on the and Erasmus University Rotterdam in 2010, Erasmus lecturers in the Netherlands were from social dimension and mobility. Luxembourg: estimates that most international doctoral the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium, Office for Official Publica­ tions of the European candidates in the Netherlands come from Germany, Finland and Spain. Compared with Communities. URL: Western Europe, Asia and Eastern Europe.18 the previous year, the Netherlands has become www.eurostudent.eu/ download_files/documents/ According to the study, international doctoral less popular among Erasmus lecturers from the KS-78-09-653-EN.pdf.

104 105 Diagram 61 Doctoral candidates employed by the universities, expressed in numbers of persons and percentages broken down by Dutch and non-Dutch nationality, 2005-2011 Source: VSNU/WOPI, reference date 31 December 2010 (by number of people).

2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 267 28

7,462 7,7327,701

31% 33% 35%

69% 67% 65%

2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 1 2 3

Total doctoral candidates, 8,016 8,318 8,564 nationality known

38% 41% 42% Total doctoral candidates 62% 59% 58% nationality unknown/stateless Dutch nationality Non-Dutch nationality Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Italy, the number of international doctoral candidates but more popular among Austrian and Finnish that remain in the Netherlands is larger than the lecturers. In 2009-10, 327 people came to the number of Dutch doctoral candidates leaving Netherlands as part of the Erasmus staff mobility the country. We should point out, however, training programme whereas 375 were recorded that at the time of completing the questionnaire in 2008-09. Mobility was mainly generated by some of the doctoral candidates were not yet Germany, Finland, Poland, Latvia and Turkey. sure whether they would be working in the Netherlands or abroad. Moreover, there is no 5.4.2 Mobility from comprehensive overview of Dutch nationals the Netherlands who have earned their doctorate abroad and Traditionally, university researchers are relatively subsequently stayed abroad to work. mobile internationally because they work abroad as visiting staff or attend conferences and Just as the number of inbound Erasmus seminars abroad. However, it is difficult to lecturers, the number of outbound Erasmus measure international mobility for researchers lecturers also declined in 2009-10. In that year, exactly. Unfortunately data is not available on 709 Dutch higher education lecturers went abroad the number of Dutch nationals who have obtained to teach, against 721 lecturers in 2008-09 a doctorate abroad and their destination (with 592 recorded in 2000-01). Occupying the countries. Such data is not usually compiled sixteenth spot, the Netherlands ranks within the centrally in other countries either. lower middle bracket of Erasmus countries for outbound lecturer mobility. The majority of the According to the above study of doctoral Erasmus lecturers originated from Poland, candidates at four (and therefore not all) Dutch Spain, Germany and France. The most popular universities, 19% of doctoral candidates in the destination countries for Dutch Erasmus lecturers Netherlands leave the country to work abroad were Belgium, the United Kingdom, Germany after earning their doctorate degrees (see and Finland, followed by France and Spain. footnote 18, page 105). This figure applies to Compared with the previous year Germany, both Dutch and non-Dutch doctoral candidates Portugal and Finland enjoyed less popularity, at Dutch universities. The most important whereas Belgium, Hungary, France and Spain destinations are Western Europe (9%) – with hosted a larger number of lecturers. Germany, Belgium and the United Kingdom as the main destination countries – followed by North America (3%) and Asia (3%). According to the study, the balance between the brain drain and brain gain initially looks positive:

106 107 Theme 6

Internationalisation between secondary school and university: the gap year

106 107 6.1

Introduction 108 109 The international mobility of students during Various Dutch organisations offer high school their study programme was discussed in the and college programmes. An increasing number preceding chapters. This chapter addresses of companies, volunteer organisations and the international experience acquired by young professional agencies specialise in student people during the gap year, prior to commencing exchange programmes and offer guidance on a university study programme. study programme choice geared towards the gap year. The gap year refers to the year out between ceasing secondary education and commencing This chapter addresses going abroad in the gap tertiary education. After obtaining their secondary year. We have presented the figures for Dutch school (HAVO or VWO) diploma, most students students participating in a gap year abroad, in the Netherlands embark on a study the reasons for taking a gap year abroad and programme at a university of applied sciences the expected trends in participation figures. or research university as soon as possible. We subsequently discuss the main gains for While other students start working, a growing the participants and the incentives and group of young people choose to take a break impediments in the education system, using of at least one year between secondary school examples from various countries. We also and university to carry out other activities. This examine in what way the gap year contributes is called a gap year, a term commonly used in to achieving the internationalisation targets in Anglo-Saxon countries. Taking a gap year has higher education. We have lastly formulated been common practice in the United Kingdom recommendations for making better use of for quite some time with more young people in the gap year in Dutch higher education. the United Kingdom taking a gap year than in the Netherlands.

Young people use the gap year for various purposes. Common activities undertaken include gaining work experience, learning a language or a skill and/or travelling abroad. Young people who do not yet know what field of study they wish to pursue often decide to go to high school or community college abroad, mainly in the United States, to familiarise themselves with the different fields of study.

108 109 6.2

Going abroad in the gap year 110 6.2.1 Trends in gap year 6.2.2 Reasons for taking ­mobility – figures a gap year abroad Recent figures compiled by ResearchNed on The reasons for taking a gap year abroad also behalf of and in conjunction with Nuffic show emerged from the above study conducted by the developments in the percentage of students ResearchNed. The respondents were asked to taking a year out to travel abroad prior to state several reasons. Fifty-seven per cent of commencing their study programme. Of the the respondents stated that they hoped going students who commenced their study abroad would be beneficial for their ultimate programme in 2011, 2.6% took a year out to choice of study programme. Nine per cent travel abroad. In terms of secondary school stated that going abroad helped them prepare students, VWO students travelled abroad more for the study programme they had chosen while often than HAVO students, while students in another 9% had failed to get a place in their academic higher education travelled abroad study programme of choice because of a draw more often than students in higher professional procedure. A vast majority of 83% of the education. In the period 2008 through 2011, the respondents stated that they also had a non- percentage rose from 2.4% in 2008 to 2.9% in study related reason for their gap year mobility. 2010, but subsequently fell to 2.6% in 2011. Students in higher academic education more often had a non-study-related reason than Aside from the difference between students students in higher professional education in higher professional education and those in (88% and 77% respectively). academic higher education, a notable difference is evident depending on the degree programme. This picture corresponds with another survey Students attending University College and conducted on young people’s reasons for those majoring in Language & Culture, and to opting to take time out to pursue other activities a lesser extent Behaviour & Society, travelled between leaving secondary school and starting considerably more than the average first-year university. The reason often is a combination student. Engineering students in particular of the desire for ongoing personal development achieved a score that was notably lower than and the expectation that a gap year helps in the average. selecting and successfully completing a university Diagram 62 study programme. For countless young people Diagram 63 (see page 112) it obviously also serves to take time out to relax Diagram 64 (see page 112) between secondary school and university. The organisations involved in arranging a gap year stated that they are increasingly seeing the balance shift towards a valuable experience

111

Diagram 62 Percentage of students who travelled abroad (HAVO/VWO) Source: ResearchNed, 2012

6%

5% 5.1% 4.7% 4.4%

4% 4.0%

3%

2% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.4%

1%

Secondary education (HAVO) 0% Secondary education (VWO) 2008 2009 2010 2011 Diagram 63 Percentage of students who travelled abroad (HBO/WO) Source: ResearchNed, 2012

6% 5.3% 5% 4.7% 4.6% 4.5%

4%

3% 2.9% 2.8% 2.6% 2.4% 2.0%

2% 1.9% 1.8% 1.5%

1% Higher professional education Academic higher education 0% Total 2008 2009 2010 2011

Diagram 64 Percentage of students who travelled abroad (degree programme) Source: ResearchNed, 2012

12%

112 113

10%

8%

7.1% 8.9% 10.8% Higher professional Sectoroverstijgend 6% education 2008 Landbouw & 2009 Natuurlijke omgeving 4.7% 2010 Economie Gedrag & 4% 4.0% 2011

4.9% 4.3% 3.7% 4.7% 4.0% 5.7% 3.6% 3.9% 7.1% 6.8% 8.9% 7.6% Maatschappij 3.8% 3.1% 4.2% Academic Techniek 2.9%

2.7% higher Natuur 2.4% 2% 2.9% 2.3% 2.1% 2.5% 6.9% 6.0% 5.8% 5.3% education Taal & Cultuur 2.0% 1.6% 2.3% 2.0% 3.4% 4.3% 4.7% 4.1%

1.5% 2.0% 1.9% 1.8% 4.5% 4.6% 5.3% 2008 Rechten

1.0% 1.5% 1.3% 3.6% 3.9% 5.7% 4.4% Gezondheidszorg 1.0% 1.1% 1.5% 1.3% 2009 0.7% 0.9% 0.9% 1.0% 2.0% 2.2% 3.1% 2.0% 2010 Onderwijs

0% 0.0% 1.1% 4.1% 1.9% 1.6% 6.4% 2011 Totaal

University Education Agriculture Natural Engineering Healthcare Economics Law Behaviour & Language & Total Colleges & Natural Sciences Society Culture Environment that will still benefit young people in the years young people will perform salaried work prior to ahead. Even parents seem to increasingly view commencing their study programme to pay for the gap year as a valuable investment. If the their studies, but the favourable lending rates, reasons for taking a gap year often closely on the other hand, may possibly render this relate to a future study programme, this also step redundant. means that changes in the study climate may possibly affect participation in a gap year. Higher education in the Netherlands too is under­ going change. Examples include: the larger 6.2.3 Developments number of options for universities to select Higher education is in a state of flux. In recent students; the introduction of a fine for perpetual years governments in numerous countries have students; and privately-funded master’s degree either taken or announced measures to curb programmes. It is quite conceivable that these the rising costs of higher education. In the light developments will spur a growing number of of the economic recession, study costs have students to take a gap year after passing their been substantially increased in various European school-leaving examination. After all, it is all the countries. This is consequently expected to more important to choose the right study affect participation in a gap year and the type programme particularly in view of the serious of activities young people undertake during financial implications of making the wrong that year. choice. The gap year is increasingly developing into an opportunity for students to acquire The first signs are already evident. In England essential experience and skills and make it the number of participants in a gap year activity through the ever more stringent university (including those travelling abroad) plummeted selection procedures and raise their chances of after it was announced that tuition fees would successfully completing higher education. For be increased from September 2012. The decline that matter it should also be born in mind that in this case is probably attributable to young there is a greater chance that the higher tuition people taking advantage of the current lower fees may compel young people to continue to tuition fees to enrol at a university. It cannot be extend their gap year and ultimately end up never ruled out, however, that participation in gap pursuing a study programme at all. year activities will again rise once the new fees have become a fact. In this context it is difficult to predict what the impact of higher tuition fees will be on taking a gap year or not, and on the activities young people will undertake in that 12% year. On the one hand it is conceivable that

112 113

10%

8%

7.1% 8.9% 10.8% Higher professional Sectoroverstijgend 6% education 2008 Landbouw & 2009 Natuurlijke omgeving 4.7% 2010 Economie Gedrag & 4% 4.0% 2011

4.9% 4.3% 3.7% 4.7% 4.0% 5.7% 3.6% 3.9% 7.1% 6.8% 8.9% 7.6% Maatschappij 3.8% 3.1% 4.2% Academic Techniek 2.9%

2.7% higher Natuur 2.4% 2% 2.9% 2.3% 2.1% 2.5% 6.9% 6.0% 5.8% 5.3% education Taal & Cultuur 2.0% 1.6% 2.3% 2.0% 3.4% 4.3% 4.7% 4.1%

1.5% 2.0% 1.9% 1.8% 4.5% 4.6% 5.3% 2008 Rechten

1.0% 1.5% 1.3% 3.6% 3.9% 5.7% 4.4% Gezondheidszorg 1.0% 1.1% 1.5% 1.3% 2009 0.7% 0.9% 0.9% 1.0% 2.0% 2.2% 3.1% 2.0% 2010 Onderwijs

0% 0.0% 1.1% 4.1% 1.9% 1.6% 6.4% 2011 Totaal

University Education Agriculture Natural Engineering Healthcare Economics Law Behaviour & Language & Total Colleges & Natural Sciences Society Culture Environment 6.3

Utilising the gap year in higher education 114 6.3.1 Participant gains taking a gap year and their primary reasons for According to ResearchNed’s figures, the main doing so. This section discusses several examples gains of taking a gap year abroad in respect of the gap year in other countries. As stated of pursuing a university study programme are earlier on, compared with the Netherlands the as follows: positive contribution to a student’s gap year has been a long-familiar phenomenon ultimate choice of study programme, more in the United Kingdom, and in Australia too for certainty about the choice of study programme, that matter. In addition to providing examples substantive relevance to the study programme from these two countries, we have described a to be pursued and opting for a more inter­ remarkable institutional initiative taken in Japan, nationally-oriented study programme. Another an example from the United States, and the important aspect – at least among students in Danish government’s endeavours to spur students academic higher education – is the lower drop- to commence their studies at an earlier stage, out rate resulting from a gap year abroad. and somewhat discourage them from taking Among students in higher professional education a gap year. the lower drop-out rate among students who had enjoyed a gap year was attributable to The United Kingdom: government grant students who had worked during that period. for a gap year Only one fifth of the research participants stated The gap year is a household word in the United that the gap year abroad had not influenced Kingdom. In the previous year, however, their choice of study programme. This largely participant numbers plummeted, most probably substantiates what young people expect of a on account of the imminent implementation gap year. Many young people stated that they of higher tuition fees at British universities from had opted for a gap year to help them in their September 2012. To help make up for the decline, ultimate choice of study programme, and this the government announced that it would fund often turns out to be the case. The students 7,000 young people taking a gap year in the themselves not only stated that it had been next three years. Obviously certain conditions beneficial for their ultimate choice of study are attached to the grant. Students should be programme but the lower drop-out rate also engaged in activities in government-designated corroborates this statement. sectors, such as water management and combatting HIV, primarily in aid projects abroad. 6.3.2 The role of the gap The British government deems this essential year in government policy and because, on the one hand, the projects serve a education institution policy worthwhile purpose and on the other hand the The previous sections elaborated on the experience gained is beneficial for the personal number of young people in the Netherlands development of young Brits.

115 Another incentive for taking a gap year in the commencing a study programme has been United Kingdom is that it offers young people falling since 2005, which means that the measure the opportunity to gain recognition for the may possibly be redundant. The discouragement competencies they have acquired in that year. and limitation of the gap year has fuelled City & Guilds, a leading examination and prolonged political debate and may have already accreditation body in the United Kingdom, prompted young people to commence their offers students the opportunity to undergo an studies at an earlier stage. assessment procedure to measure and certify the competencies they have acquired. Young Australia: the University of Canberra’s people thus obtain tangible evidence to help Gap Year Plus them in their job search or to enter university. In Australia the gap year is viewed in a positive light. Young people are encouraged to venture Denmark: discouragement policy abroad to gain experience between secondary The average Danish student takes part in higher school and university. The experience gained education at a late stage largely because count­ abroad is recognised when they enrol at less young Danes start working or travel abroad university. A good example of such practice upon completing their secondary education. is the University of Canberra’s Gap Year Plus This is not usually limited to one gap year. programme which enables participants to acquire recognition of the experience acquired The government and employers in Denmark say during a gap year activity. Students register at that this is not good for the Danish economy. a university, and postpone their studies for one They believe that it would be more beneficial for year once they have been accepted. They then the Danish labour market and the income to be register for the Gap Year Plus programme and earned by young people in the future if they take part in a subsequent instruction session. were to commence their higher education study The student embarks on the gap year and programme earlier. The Danish government compiles information and proof for a portfolio. there­fore pursues an active gap year The student’s portfolio is assessed upon return discourage­ment policy. From 2009 the results and they are awarded a certificate of of the school-leaving examination – which are competencies acquired in the gap year. essential for entering university – are multiplied by 1.08 if young people enrol at a university The advantage of the programme for students within two years after passing the exam. is that they already have certainty about their future after the gap year, and the competencies Rather surprisingly the average time between they have acquired will be recognised by their passing the school-leaving examination and university of choice. It is an excellent way for

116 117 the university to nonetheless bind students who United States: the bridge year at Princeton do not wish to go straight to university after The gap year is gaining more appeal in the passing their school-leaving examination. In this United States too. A larger number of case, however, the positive effect a gap year universities have responded by creating the may have on the student’s choice of study opportunity to defer university entrance and programme no longer applies. commence a study programme a year later.

Japan: shift in the academic calendar With its Bridge Year programme Princeton The University of Tokyo in Japan has taken University has gone one step further. The the initiative to adjust the academic calendar. programme was launched in 2009 and offers The university’s academic year currently students the opportunity to perform volunteer commences in April. However, the university work in local communities in different countries, believes it would be advisable to move the start the costs of which are absorbed by the university. of the academic year to September to align more Young people can opt for Ghana, India, China, with the international level. One of the arguments Peru and Serbia. The participants undergo an in favour of the shift is to facilitate Japanese intensive language and communication course students in acquiring essential experience by before venturing abroad. They stay with local working or travelling abroad in the period families and take part in daily life. Different between passing the school-leaving examination types of volunteer work are offered, such as and entering university. This currently is one working in a local clinic or teaching young month but could become six months. Around children. The programme objective is to raise thirty Japanese universities support the initiative. the participants’ commitment to people and A representative from Waseda University stated society and offer them a unique learning that the interim period would be an excellent experience before they embark on their first opportunity for young people to improve their academic year at Princeton University. language skills and work abroad for a short period of time to increase their job prospects. 6.3.3 Relationship with A growing group of Japanese multinationals are ­internationalisation policy also said to favour graduates with international in Dutch education experience. The president of Tokyo University We have provided several examples of aims to have the adjusted academic calendar governments and institutions that actively in place within five years. encourage gap year participation in the above sections. We have also included an example of discouragement policy. One of the reasons for encouraging participation in a gap year,

116 117 particularly a gap year abroad, is the presumed The same applies to boosting outbound mobility. positive effect of international experience on the This is often based on the philosophy that young participant’s personal development. Moreover people need to prepare for an increasingly the added value of international experience international labour market. Travelling abroad in counts on the labour market. a gap year enables young people to gain some international experience. A survey carried out This sounds familiar. We also regularly come by News (the Dutch Worldwide Students across these arguments in the internationali­ Association) has revealed that those who had sation policy of the Dutch government as well travelled abroad in a gap year also pursued a as universities of applied sciences and research study period abroad more often than those universities. Three themes play a key role in the who had not already travelled abroad. current debate in the Netherlands about the pros and cons of international student mobility, The third priority in current internationalisation i.e. the value of an international classroom, the policy – international students should have ties importance of an international student having with the Netherlands – requires a climate that ties with the Netherlands and the need to boost promotes internationalisation and where the outbound mobility of the Dutch youth international students feel welcome. What may population. help in this context is for many young people to understand what it is like to be self-reliant in a The underlying rationale is that international different country. Moreover it could perhaps be mobility is vital for the quality of education, the beneficial to promote the Netherlands among labour market and the economy. If international international students wishing to take a gap experience is so important, it would be advisable year. This will enable the Netherlands to bind to utilise all the international experience in prospective students at an early stage. education as much as possible. Greater added value can be derived from the international 6.3.4 Recommendations class­room if account is taken of cultural On the basis of the above we have formulated differences. This implies that students should several recommendations for the higher education at least be aware of the existence of these sector aimed at raising the value of the gap year differences. It would be extremely beneficial if for the institution and the participant. part of the student community had already gained international experience by travelling around First and foremost, the secondary schools and the world or undertaking volunteer work in a universities have a role in providing young developing country. people information about the gap year options.

118 119 In addition to the information about study As stated above, acquiring international programme options as provided by secondary experience prior to commencing a study schools, students should also be made aware programme often is assessed as positive in of other ways to fill in the period after passing university selection procedures. This applies the school-leaving examination. This aspect primarily to more internationally-oriented and should also be communicated in the PR activities more selective institutions, such as the university carried out by the universities of applied sciences colleges. However, selection could also impede and research universities. This is less self-evident the decision to take a gap year, mainly due to because the primary aim of these activities is to the selection test which is becoming more recruit students rather than defer their choice common and makes a gap year less attractive of study programme, unless this is linked to the and sometimes impossible. It would be advisable study programme in some way. In view of the for higher education institutions to broaden the positive effects of a gap year on a student’s conditions under which selection tests are held. choice of study programme and on academic achievement, it might nevertheless be worthwhile In view of the acknowledged gains acquired for the higher education institutions to focus from a gap year abroad, i.e. positive contribution attention on this aspect. to the ultimate choice of study programme and lower drop-out rates, it would also be in the Another option is the involvement of research interests of the higher education institutions universities or universities of applied sciences in themselves to focus ongoing attention on this arranging a gap year as organised, for instance, phenomenon. by the University of Canberra and Princeton University. These universities have set up their own programmes for students embarking on their study programmes the year after the gap year. This enables institutions to maintain ties with prospective students while offering them an additional learning experience even before they have commenced their actual study programme. It would be advisable to recognise the participant’s acquired competencies, which might for instance result in granting exemptions for curricular components.

118 119 120 121 7

Appendix

120 121 7.1

Nuffic programme mobility 122 7.1.1 Inbound mobility no new data is available about the trend from Total inbound programme mobility recorded just that year onward, there seems to be a better over 11,000 participants. This is mainly due to balance between Erasmus outbound and inbound an increase in the number of Erasmus programme mobility. The number of grants awarded by the participants coming to the Netherlands. Ministry of Education, Culture and Science The 2007-08 academic year marked a transition declined between 2010-11 and 2011-12 while for Erasmus student trainees as some were still the number of VSBfonds grants reflected an taking part in the previous Leonardo da Vinci upward trend. According to the data currently programme. To a certain extent the growth seen available, outbound mobility administered by between 2007-08 and 2008-09 therefore was Nuffic is estimated at around 1.3% of the administrative (actual growth did apply after Dutch student population. 2008-09). All other programmes recorded a Diagram 66 (see page 125) decline from 2009-10. In terms of international sponsors, the Ford programme was discontinued as was the IAEA programme.

According to the data currently available, inbound mobility administered by Nuffic is estimated at close to 1.7% of the Dutch student population. Diagram 65 (see page 124)

7.1.2 Outbound mobility Total outbound mobility seems to have increased sharply between 2007-08 and 2008-09. However, the largest growth was seen in outbound Erasmus student trainees; the increase is largely attributable to improved record-keeping in Brussels. What is certain, however, is that a larger number of Erasmus students pursued part of their study programme abroad in the same period. An actual increase was recorded in the number of both outbound Erasmus student trainees and outbound Erasmus students from 2008-09. Although the most recent Erasmus inbound mobility data relates to 2009-10 and

123 Diagram 65 Total inbound programme mobility within the programmes administered by Nuffic, according to sponsor, 2007-2012 Source: Nuffic, 2012

12,000 11,545 11,371 11,297 11,165 10,809

10,000

124 8,000

6,000 7,712* 8,081* 8,594* 8,594* ** 8,594* **

4,000

2,000 2,998 2,311 2,560 2,428 2,354

424 143 20 334 63 20

307 69 15

274 65 10 215 2 N/A 0

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

European Commission International sponsors*** Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs United Nations (IAEA) *** From 2007-08 including *** Higher Education Erasmus work Commission of Pakistan Netherlands Ministry of Education, Total ­placements. and the Ford Foundation Culture and Science *** Estimated. (until 2011). Diagram 66 Total outbound programme mobility within the programmes administered by Nuffic, according to sponsor, 2007-2012 Source: Nuffic, 2012

5,986

2007-08 135 6,315 194 125

7,005

2008-09 210* 7,401* 186

7,678 194* 8,058* 2009-10 186

8,590 8,931 2010-11 216 125 * Estimated

European Commission (EU) Netherlands Ministry of Education, 8,590* Culture and Science 167 8,910 2011-12 Private VSBfonds 153 Total

0 2,0004,000 6,0008,000 10,000 7.2

Definitions and methods 126 127 7.2.1 Mobility as part to cover work placement mobility, which often of internationalisation does not involve any type of exchange. Mobility is not an isolated factor. It usually forms part of a broader strategy focused on the The distinction between ‘diploma mobility’ and internationalisation of education, which seeks ‘credit mobility’ is relevant because the terms to increase the quality of education, generate relate to different groups of students with economic impact and/or achieve more idealistic different objectives and different requirements goals, for instance to overcome differences. in terms of support. As well as boosting mobility, curricula are being internationalised to improve the international Programme mobility competencies of graduates. After all, the majority In addition to diploma mobility and credit mobility, of students are not internationally mobile. reference is often made to programme mobility, which takes place within a grant programme. 7.2.2 Types of mobility Programme mobility could entail diploma and We distinguish different types of mobility. credit mobility as well as other types of mobility, Mobility primarily relates to: such as lecturer mobility (particularly in the case - students of programmes with a broad educational aim). - researchers - lecturers The term ‘programme mobility’ is sometimes - study programmes also used to refer to the mobility of entire study programmes, termed ‘study programme mobility’ 7.2.3 Diploma mobility in this document. Unfortunately there is still a and credit mobility lack of available data on this type of mobility. A distinction is made between two main types 20 Mobility is usually also only one element of ad hoc of student mobility. If the student pursues an 7.2.4 Mobility source data research. Examples are entire bachelor’s or master’s degree programme There are two different types of data sources: graduate surveys, which are primarily designed to abroad, this is referred to as diploma mobility. those that are regularly updated and ad hoc gain an insight into the relationship between If the student’s stay abroad aims to enhance the sources. The former are usually designed to education and the labour study programme in the student’s own country show general trends while the latter often go market, or research for the Student Monitor, which by means of a work placement or pursuing a into greater detail and are used to interpret the focuses mainly on the study component, this is referred to as credit trends. The first source mainly relates to files socio-economic back­ grounds and circumstances mobility. After all, the results are usually expressed that were usually set up and updated for other of current students. Ad hoc research could of course in terms of credits. Other terms used to describe purposes (which is why mobility information has also focus specifically on credit mobility are ‘short-term mobility’ and sometimes been referred to as ‘supplementary the issue of mobility or on the effects of internationali­ ‘exchange mobility’. The latter term largely fails data capture’).20 They include records on the sation in general.

126 127 financing or funding of education, or support they enrolled at a higher education institution immigration policy. and were sometimes even born there, nationality is no longer a conclusive criterion for mobility Therefore there is a lack of data that specifically within higher education. At the international ties in with the above types and forms of mobility. level it has therefore been agreed to collect Moreover, the information is often incomplete. information about the students’ country of With regard to enrolment, the information is prior education and/or country of permanent limited to financed and government-funded residence. As the latter criterion conflicts with education (although a gradual transition is being reality and European objectives, which allow made to accredited education). Residence students to reside, work and spend their leisure permit records specifically focus on non-EU time anywhere in the EU, we have disregarded and non-EFTA countries. Therefore virtually it in this document. no information is available on EU and EFTA students in privately-financed education. For a few years now, we have been able to access information on a substantial number Another problem is that there are no clear of participants in higher education confirming definitions of the different categories. However, whether they obtained their secondary school there more or less is general consensus about diploma in the Netherlands or abroad. diploma mobility: this is the area in which the If students completed secondary education most data is available. Credit mobility is a abroad, it is assumed that they have travelled relatively new concept that is gradually being to the Netherlands specifically for the purpose accepted. For that reason, the relevant data of enjoying higher education and that they can files really still need to be developed. indeed contribute to achieving the internatio­ Conversely, opinions vary as to the status of nali­sation objectives. PhD students and researchers, and records consequently also vary. It is interesting to note that this information also provides insight into Dutch students returning Nationality, country of prior education, to the Netherlands to pursue higher education country of permanent residence after attending secondary school abroad. Until recently, it was only possible to determine student mobility on the basis of nationality data. Students who fall in this category, those who We therefore still use the term ‘foreign’ or attended secondary school in another country, ‘international’ students. However, as more and are referred to as ‘Dutch international students’ more students of different nationalities reside rather than just ‘international students’. Please for a longer period of time in the country where note that these statistics are not conclusive:

128 129 in the 2011-12 academic year we also still completed by national organisations in the do not know where a large group of students participating countries. In the Netherlands this attended secondary school, i.e. 3.5% of the is carried out by Statistics Netherlands, based total student population. If these students all largely on data provided by the Ministry of enjoyed prior education abroad, which is unlikely, Education, Culture and Science. this means that actual mobility would rise sharply based on this criterion. The percentage Although the same data is used, the information of students who attended secondary school is not always used in the same way. For instance abroad is in fact 7.1%. More consistent record- on the OECD website, comprehensive data keeping therefore is essential. regarding nationality, country of prior education Diagram 67 (see page 130) and country of permanent residence is shown Diagram 68 (see page 130) whereas the UNESCO website mainly uses the country of prior education. As none of the Revised figures for international students holding series are complete, the missing information a Dutch secondary school diploma reflect a is often added from other series to make gradual increase over the last five years from estimates for reporting purposes. In addition 2,740 students in 2007-08 to 3,743 students in to the different criteria used, i.e. nationality, 2011-12. These international students in fact country of prior education or permanent are not internationally mobile at all. Conversely, residence, the differences often noted in the 12,799 Dutch nationals holding a foreign mobility figures often arise from the extent to secondary school diploma can indeed be which, and the way in which, other series are regarded as internationally mobile. Taking this used to supplement missing data. into account, the previous total of 56,131 diploma mobile students in government-funded Due to the quality of Dutch and other data on education (Diagram 1, page 14) increases to country of prior education, in this publication 65,187 diploma mobile students. we still mainly use nationality as a mobility criterion. Although this therefore means that UOE tables mobility will be overestimated, from a historical UNESCO, OECD and EUROSTAT collect point of view these series are the most education statistics at the international level consistent and the most useful for identifying based on a handbook that sets out the mutual trends – and trends are the most important criteria agreed among these organisations and aspect in terms of policy. member countries. The information is recorded in tables known as UOE tables on account of the organisations involved. The UOE tables are

128 129 Diagram 67 Origin of secondary school diploma in percentages, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 4.0% 4.5% 4.5% 5.6% 5.8% 6.5% 5.7% 4.1% 4.5%

83.8% 85.8% 85.2%

2010-11 2011-12 3.4% 3.5% 7.1% 7.1%

6.5% 6.4% Dutch diploma awarded upon completion of same study programme Diploma awarded by disposition (state examination, or similar) Foreign diploma Diploma of unknown origin 82.9% 83.0%

Diagram 68 Number of students holding a foreign secondary school diploma according to nationality, 2007-2012 Source: DUO-CFI, 2012 (revised figures)

50,000

46,899 47,164

40,988 130 40,000 131

34,938

32,563

30,000 33,953 34,013

20,000 23,945 28,914 21,744

10,000

12,799 410 2

12,728 155 3 10,975 17 1 11,984 88 2

0 10,810 9 0

2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12

Foreign nationality Nationality unknown Total Dutch nationality Other 7.2.5 In short: what do we over the last decade. There is a lack of know, and what do we not information about the situation in other know? countries. Diagram 69 provides a general overview of the Diagram 69 information that is known and the information that is not known. To this end, a distinction is Use of data in the maps and diagrams made between diploma mobility and credit in this publication mobility to or from the Netherlands, and to Each diagram in this publication usually shows or from other countries. The latter category, only one type of data. For instance, diploma relating to inbound mobility to or outbound mobility is based on enrolment data provided mobility from other countries, is essential for by the Ministry of Education, Culture and making a comparison with the Dutch figures. Science and DUO or, at the international level, Diploma mobility per student only includes host by the OECD or UNESCO, or residence permit institutions where enrolment data is usually data provided by the IND. One exception is compiled at the national level. In the Netherlands the estimated total number of inbound and the latter applies to government-funded outbound students in Maps 01 and 02 and in education, and this often also, but not always, Diagrams 47–50, where diploma and credit is the case abroad. These enrolment figures mobility data have been added up. We have are available in the international UOE tables. used Erasmus data to reflect credit mobility Residence permit figures are also available in for the purpose of general estimates based on the Netherlands about students from outside graduate surveys. The Erasmus data has been the EU and EFTA regions. supplemented with IND residence permit data concerning work placements to reflect inbound Credit mobility not only includes host credit mobility. institutions but also seconding institutions per student. The seconding institutions are always Diploma mobility is based on IND data higher education institutions whereas the host concerning residence permits issued to institutions might also be non-educational students from countries outside the EU and institutions, such as work placement companies. EFTA for the purpose of study, and enrolment In the Dutch context, the distinction between data for students from the EU and EFTA government-funded and non-government-funded countries. In principle, the residence permit education institutions is relevant particularly in figures provide a more accurate and complete view of the growth seen in the latter category picture of mobility within higher education. (for which there also is a lack of mobility data)

130 131

Diagram 69 Availability of mobility data Source: Nuffic

Type of mobility Direction Destination/origin Source Type of education Availability of data EU and EFTA Rest of the world Diploma mobility Inbound To NL The Netherlands Government-funded education +++ +++ Non-government funded education - ++ To other countries Host countries Education ++ ++

Outbound From NL Host countries Education ++ ++ From other countries Host countries (incl. NL) Education ++ ++

Credit mobility Inbound To NL Host institution (in NL) Government-funded education - - Non-government funded education - - Extra educational - - Seconding institution/country Education - - To other countries Host institution/country Education - - Extra educational - - Seconding institution/country Education - -

Outbound From NL Host institution/country Education - - Extra educational - - Seconding institution (in NL) Government-funded education +++* +++* Non-government funded education - - From other countries Host institution/country Education - - Extra educational - - Seconding institution/country Education + -

+ Total number +++ Breakdown (discipline, etc.) ++ Breakdown (country of origin/destination) * Destination country unknown This is because the figures exclude international students who have been residing in the Netherlands for some time, but do include students in non-publicly funded education. Unfortunately – only for the purpose of this publication – students from the EU and EFTA countries have not been included in these records. We have used enrolment data based on nationality for these students, to which the advantages described above do not apply.

We have only used OECD data based on nationality (i.e. international enrolment data) to reflect outbound diploma mobility in the relevant diagrams.

132 133 132 133 Abbreviations 134 135 BUZA Ministry of Foreign Affairs CBS Statistics Netherlands CROHO Central Register of Higher Education Study Programmes (DUO) DUO Education Executive Agency EEA European Economic Area: EU plus Liechtenstein, Iceland and Norway EFTA European Free Trade Association: a free trade association between Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland Erasmus Erasmus European action programme for higher education, which is part of the Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) EU European Union HBO Higher professional education (hoger beroepsonderwijs) IND Immigration and Naturalisation Service MVV Authorisation for Temporary Stay Neso Netherlands Education Support Office NL The Netherlands Nuffic Netherlands organisation for international cooperation in higher education OCW Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development ROA Research Centre for Education and the Labour Market (Maastricht University) VO Secondary education (voortgezet onderwijs) WO Academic or research-oriented higher education (wetenschappelijk onderwijs)

134 135 Publication information 136

ISBN 978-90-5464-054-7

Authors Eric Richters, Project Leader Sjoerd Roodenburg Renze Kolster

Editor-in-chief Marijn Willemse

Design Ontwerpwerk, The Hague, The Netherlands Nuffic PO Box 29777 2502 LT The Hague The Netherlands T +31 70 4260 260 F +31 70 4260 399 I www.nuffic.nl

Although the information in this publication has been compiled with the utmost care, Nuffic cannot guarantee the accuracy and/or completeness of the data. The information may have changed or been amended. Nuffic accepts no liability in this regard. It is advisable to verify the accuracy of the information yourself, where appropriate.