T.R.

SULEYMAN DEMIREL UNIVERSITY

INSITUTE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

WESTERN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE DEPARTMENT

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

A COLLOCATIONAL READING OF PYGMALION AND GHOSTS

Müjde DEMİRAY

1630224004

MASTER’S THESIS

SUPERVISOR

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ömer ŞEKERCİ

ISPARTA-2018

T.C.

SÜLEYMAN DEMİREL UNİVERSİTESİ

SOSYAL BİLİMLER ENSTİTÜSÜ

BATI DİLLERİ VE EDEBİYATI ANABİLİM DALI

İNGİLİZ DİLİ VE EDEBİYATI BİLİM DALI

PYGMALION VE HORTLAKLAR'IN EŞDİZİMSEL OKUNMASI

Müjde DEMİRAY

1630224004

YÜKSEK LİSANS TEZİ

DANIŞMAN

Doç. Dr. Ömer ŞEKERCİ

ISPARTA-2018

(DEMİRAY, Müjde, A Collocational Reading of Pygmalion And Ghosts, MA Thesis, Isparta, 2018)

ABSTRACT

George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) and Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) were the most important figures in Modern European Drama in the late nineteenth century. While Ibsen is regarded as the founding father of Modern Drama in Europe, Shaw is considered to be one of the most important founding figures of the English Drama. They both contributed a lot to the development of modern drama in their times. Shaw is known to have been greatly inspired by Ibsen. Shaw’s Pygmalion (1912) and Ibsen’s Ghosts (1881) are considered to be great dramas of their time, even today, in terms of topics they have dealt with. These two plays are social realistic dramas as drama genre. Our literature survey has shown that plays or drama texts have hardly been analysed collocationally, so we have tried to interpret and read these two major works by the major playwrights from a collocational perspective. The study aims to find out the similarities and differences of collocatioal style between two playwrights. In the first chapter we have talked about stylistics and collocations and their importance in drama. In the second chapter we have given some information about Shaw and Ibsen. Moreover, Pygmalion and Ghosts have been discussed and enlarged to put our argument precisely. The plays, in hand, have been read, analysed and interpreted according to the seven lexical types of collocations by using simple arithmetic calculation. The lexical collocations have shown us how Shaw and Ibsen treated collocations in their works. It is the first of its kind done in Turkey.

Key words: Shaw, Ibsen, Collocations, Pygmalion, Ghosts, Style.

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(DEMİRAY, Müjde, Pygmalion ve Hortlaklar'ın Eşdizimsel Okunması Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Isparta, 2018)

ÖZET

George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) ve Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) Modern Avrupa Tiyatrosu’nun on dokuzuncu yüzyıldaki en önemli figürleriydi. Ibsen, Modern Avrupa Tiyatrosu’nun kurucu babası kabul edilirken, Shaw Modern İngiliz Tiyatrosu’nun en önemli kurucu babalarından birisi olarak bilinir. Her iki oyun yazarı da modern tiyatronun gelişimine büyük katkılar vermişlerdir. Shaw’ın, Ibsen’nin oyunlarından büyük ölçüde esinlendiği bilinmektedir. Shaw’ın Pygmalion ve Ibsen’in Hortlaklar oyunu, ele aldıkları konu bakımından kendi dönemlerinin ve hatta günümüzde sosyal gerçekçi drama türü olarak en önemli eserleri olarak kabul edilmektedir. Konuyla ilgili edebiyat araştırmamızda tiyatro eserlerinin eşzidimsel olarak nadiren ele alındığını gördük, bu bağlamda bu çalışmada bahsi geçen iki tiyatro eserini, eşdizimsel perspektiften okumaya ve yorumlamaya çalıştık. Bu çalışma, her iki oyun yazarının eşdizimsel biçemlerindeki benzerliklerini ve farklılıklarını ortaya çıkarmayı amaçlamaktadır. Birinci bölümde biçembilim ve eşdizimler ve eşdizimlerin öneminden bahsettik. İkinci bölümde Shaw ve Ibsen hakkında kısa bilgiler verdik. Buna ilave olarak, Pygmalion ve Hortlaklar kapsamlı olarak ele alındı. Bahsi geçen bu iki oyun, yedi türdeki sözcüksel eşdizimlere göre analiz edildi ve yorumlandı. Oyunlardaki sözcüksel eşdizimler basit matematiksel aritmetik yöntem kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Sözcüksel eşdizimlerin analizleri ve okunmaları Shaw ve Ibsen’in eserlerinde sözcükleri nasıl ele aldıklarını bizlere göstermiştir. Bu çalışma alanında Türkiye’de yapılan ilk çalışmadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Shaw, Ibsen, Eşdizimler, Pygmalion, Hortlaklar, Biçem.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS TEZ SAVUNMA TUTANAĞI ...... i YEMİN METNİ ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... iv ÖZET ...... v INTRODUCTION ...... 1 CHAPTER I STYLISTICS AND COLLOCATIONS 1.1. Introduction to Stylistics ...... 4 1.2. The Aim of Stylistics ...... 7 1.3. Types of Stylistics ...... 8 1.4. Introduction to Collocations ...... 10 1.5. Classifications of Collocations ...... 10 1.6. Grammatical Categories of Collocations...... 11 1.7. Lexical Collocations ...... 12 1.8. Why We Learn Collocations ...... 15 CHAPTER II GEORGE BERNARD SHAW AND HENRIK IBSEN 2.1. Some Notes On G.B. Shaw ...... 17 2.2. Chronology of Shaw ...... 23 2.3. Pygmalion (1912) ...... 27 2.4. Some Notes On Henrik Ibsen ...... 30 2.5. Chronology of Henrik Ibsen ...... 34 2.6. Introduction to Modern Drama and Scandinavian Modernism ...... 39 2.7. Ghosts (1881) ...... 41 2.8. Comments and Criticism on Ghosts in the English Press ...... 45 2.9. Collocational Reading and Analyses of Ghosts and Pygmalion ...... 48 CONCLUSION ...... 79 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 81 CURRICULUM VITAE ...... 83

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“Proper words in proper places, make the true definition of a style”. Jonathan Swift INTRODUCTION

George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) and Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) were the most important figures in modern drama. While Ibsen is regarded as the founding father of Modern Drama in Europe, Shaw is known as one of the most important founding fathers of the English Drama. They both contributed a lot to the development of modern drama in their times. In this study we aim to analyse Ibsen’s Ghosts (1881) and Shaw’s Pygmalion (1912) from a collocational perspective. These two plays are regarded as the masterpieces of Shaw and Ibsen and they are unique in themselves as they are social realistic dramas. After our survey we have found out that those plays have not been analysed or contrasted from a collocational perspective. In that sense it is the first of its kind done in Turkey. The novelty of the study is that we contrast and analyse these two plays in hand collocationally. Another aim of the study is to find out to what extent the style of Shaw and Ibsen is similar to or different from each other, as the former has been greatly inspired by Ibsen drama. Collocations are broadly divided into two categories: grammatical and lexical. Our study deals with the lexical collocation in two plays. Collocations are regarded in the scope of stylistics so we have talked about stylistics in the first chapter to grasp the importance of collocations. Introduction to stylistics, aim of stylistics, and types of stylistics have been covered in brief. Moreover, introduction to collocations, classifications of collocations, grammatical and lexical categories of collocations and why we learn collocations have also been dealt with. In the second chapter Some Notes on George Bernard Shaw, Chronology of Shaw, Pygmalion, Some on Notes Henrik Ibsen, Chronology of Henrik Ibsen, Introduction to Modern Drama and Scandinavian Modernism, Ghosts, Criticism on Ghosts in the English Press and Collocational Reading and Contrasting of Ghosts and Pygmalion have also been covered to delve into those two plays. We have preferred lexical collocations rather than grammatical collocations. It is known that lexical collocations are commonly used by writers in their works as they colour their works. Seven types of lexical collocations have been exploited in 1 our study. They are in seven categories as following: noun + noun, verb + adjective + noun, verb + noun, adverb + adjective, verb + adverb, adverb + verb and adjective +noun. The main sources we have used extensively in our study are The Routledge Handbook of Stylistics by Burke, Henrik Ibsen The Critical Heritage by Egan, Oxford Collocations Dictionary, The Cambridge Companion to George Bernard Shaw by Inness, The Complete Plays of Bernard Shaw, Stylistics: A resource book for students by Simpson and Ibsen & Meaning Studies, Essays, & Prefaces 1953- 87 by McFarlane.

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THE AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aims to reveal (1) how the lexical collocational stylistics is employed in Ghost (1881) and Pygmalion (1912) and (2) the differences of the style used by Shaw and Ibsen, (3) to what extent the lexical collocations in these plays exhibit Ibsen’s and Shaw’s treatment of words, and (4) to open a new window for further researchers to study literature as drama from a collocational perspective. THE METHOD OF THE STUDY We have mainly used textual analysis to further our argument. In some parts we have employed qualitative and quantitative research methods. In the first chapter qualitative research method has been employed and in the analysis of the plays quantitative methodology has been employed. We have analysed the collocations by using simple arithmetic calculation.

THE SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study approaches to Ghosts by Ibsen and Pygmalion by Shaw from a lexical collocational perspective. We have analysed the two plays in hand collocationally. The plays have been read and analysed to find out the style used by Shaw and Ibsen from lexical collocational point of view. The similarities and differences of the style used by two pioneering playwrights have been compared and analysed. Concerning collocations there are not enough studies done on drama. Our literature survey on this topic has proved that there is almost no study done in lexical collocations applied to drama. What we have found out is that there are some works on collocations which are mainly dictionaries and some articles covering collocations computationally. Those literary works on stylistics and collocations are not directly related to drama studies.

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CHAPTER I STYLISTICS AND COLLOCATIONS

1.1. Introduction to Stylistics The study of collocations is a new phenomenon and it is hardly applied to drama from a stylistic point of view. As our study aims to investigate the collocations used in Ghosts (1881) and Pygmalion (1912) it will be useful to deal with it under the scope of stylistics. Collocations can be analysed as lexical stylistics so we need to talk about stylistics briefly. Stylistics can be defined as a branch of linguistics which investigates and examines the whole system of expressive resources of a particular language. To Britannica, stylistics deals with the study of rhetorical and syntactical patterns of a language. It is a quite new discipline. Simpson (2004) puts it as “stylistics is a method of textual interpretation in which primacy of place is assigned to language” (2). “The word ―stylistics was firstly attested in the Oxford English Dictionary only in 1882, meaning the science of literary style, the study of stylistic features. However, the first reflections on style can be dated back to the ancient times” ( Zhukovska,2010: 8). We can trace back its origin to the ancient rhetoric and poetics which are considered to be forefathers of stylistics. The stylistics, as we know today, originated from the classical works of Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle, Cicero, Demeritus, Quintilian, and many others treated style as a proper medium of thought (Bressler,1999:18). As an academic discipline, stylistics is a twentieth- century phenomenon. “The term is derived from the Greek techne rhetorike, the art of speech, an art concerned with the use of public speaking as a means of persuasion” (Bradford, 1997: 2). The epics by Homer significantly exploit the capacity of language which affects and determines nonlinguistic events “but it was not until the fifth century BC that the Greek settlers of Sicily began to study, document and teach rhetoric as a practical discipline” (Bradford, 1997:3). Rhetoric was a powerful weapon to solve the political, and judicial disagreements over land and civil rights, so it was a powerful art of persuasion during that time (Bradford, 1997:2). Gorgias is considered to be the first person who used rhetoric beyond

4 judicial spheres. He carried it into the realms of philosophy and literary studies (Bradford, 1997:2). “Isocrates was the first to extend and promote the moral and ethical benefits of the art of speech, and one of Plato’s earliest Socratic dialogues bears the name Gorgias” (2). It was undoubtedly Plato who in his Phaedrus states that “unless a man pays due attention to philosophy, he will never be able to speak properly about anything. A real art of speaking…which does not seize hold of truth, does not exist and never will” (Bradford, 1997:3). It seems that Plato was concerned the fact that rhetoric was a device without moral and ethical subject matter (3). Plato in his Gorgias deals with an exchange between Socrates and Gorgias. Socrates claims that persuasion is like flattery, cooking and medicine. It satisfies physical and emotional desires and meets the bodily needs (3). Socrates claims that rhetoric is not an art but just a routine, “if allowed to take hold of our primary communicative medium, will promote division, ambition and self-aggrandizement at the expense of collective truth and wisdom, the principal subjects of philosophy” (3). We could infer that to Plato rhetoric was codified as subservient to the philosopher’s query for truth. Aristotle wrote his own Rhetoric (c. 330BC) (Bradford, 1997:3). It was the first counter work to Plato’s anti-rhetoric claims. Aristotle argues that rhetoric is an art which is indispensable to philosophical debate. Rhetoric which emerges in different linguistic forms is not regarded as immoral or dangerous by Aristotle. Bradford (1997) puts it as “such a recognition—that words can qualify or unsettle a single pre-linguistic truth—is part of our intellectual training, vital to any purposive reconciliation of appearance and reality” (3). To Aristotle, rhetoric was socially and politically dangerous because of its persuasive power of speech. The exchange between Plato and Aristotle is not about the rhetoric “as an illustration of the divisive nature of rhetoric. It is replayed, with largely Aristotelian preferences, in the work of the two most prominent Roman rhetoricians, Cicero and Quintilian; it emerges in the writings of St Augustine and in Peter Ramus’s Dialectique (1555), one of the founding moments in the revival of classical rhetoric during the European Renaissance” (Bradford, 1997:4). To Bradford (1997), Rhetoric was taught in Rome and in post-Renaissance education “as a form of super-grammar. It provides us with names and practical

5 explanations of the devices by which language enables us to perform the various tasks of persuading, convincing and arguing” (4). Rhetoric is a guide for the rhetorician to know the truth, so linguistic methods and strategies are used as a means of disclosing and revealing the truth. Rhetoric is actually a weapon which is employed to make listener come into line with the argument. “Lies, fabrications, exaggerations are facts of language, but they can only be cited when the fissure between language and truth is provable. For example, if I were to tell you that I am a friend of Aristotle, known facts will be sufficient to convince you (unless you are a spiritualist) that I am not telling the truth” (Bradford, 1997:4). The existence of God, moral values and the nature of justice refer to the confirmable specifics of human existence but our views on them cannot be confirmed in direct relation to these specifics (Bradford 1997). Language has a function to make the known correspond with the unknown. Our existence, thanks to language, shapes “our beliefs about the nature of truth, justice, politics and behaviour ” (Bradford,1997:5). Bradford in his Stylistics discusses that Plato and Aristotle named the conditions of this conflict as “dianoia and pragmata (thought and facts, otherwise known as res or content)” (5). It can be argued here that without language our worldly experience of anything can only become private and internalized. The ancient rhetoric and poetics are generally considered to be the predecessors of the present day stylistics. The classical era of rhetoric and poetics began approximately in fifth century BC in Athens. It continued till the fall of the Roman Empire in the West (Burke 2014: 12). Though the Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, the Roman tradition of rhetoric and poetics continued to flourish and became a part of the academic studies in the West. During the Renaissance, grammar, logic and rhetoric were taught as related disciplines to it. But its influence disappeared in Europe in the early nineteenth century (12). The study of style has been a great concern for scholars since ancient times. The stylistics, as a discipline, came to prominence in the twentieth century with Roman Jakobson and Russian formalism (Burke, 2014: 11). Today rather than poetics stylistics is more important for modern day scholars. The study of stylistics in the early twenty-first century is alive and it is

6 taught and researched in university departments of language, literature and linguistics all over the world (Simpson, 2004: 2). There are lots book-length publications, research journals and international symposia on it. The modern stylistics has positively been flourishing and it has witnessed in emergence of sub- disciplines as cognitive stylistics, discourse stylistics and feminist theory stylistics (Simpson, 2004: 2). Stylistics, today, has become a preferred and valued method in language teaching and in language learning. As its focus on the resources of the language system, it enjoys a great place in linguistics. Furthermore, it plays a fundamental role in many creative writing courses. It emphasizes on the techniques of creativity in language. It explains itself well why language is so important to stylistics and writers. Linguistic features are extensively used by writers to explain why literature as high art form matters to them. The perception of the stylistic method and technique helps us understand how language analysis works. The purview of modern language and linguistics is much broader than that and, in response, the methods of stylistics follow suit. It is the full gamut of the system of language that makes all aspects of a writer’s craft relevant in stylistic analysis” (Simpson, 2004: 2).

1.2. The Aim of Stylistics We may assume a couple of questions before we further our argument on the purpose of stylistics. We can begin by asking that simple question: (1) Why do we deal with stylistics? ; (2) For what we should do stylistics? The possible answers to these and such questions are as following: (a) to specifically explore language; (b) to enrich our ways to think about language; (c) to understand the deep and surface structures of literary texts; (d) to shed light on the very language system it stems from; (e) to illuminate the method of analytic inquiry; Moreover, Simpson (2004) argues it as: (1) stylistic analysis should be rigorous (2) stylistic analysis should be retrievable (3) stylistic analysis should be replicable (4). What Simpson means by the stylistic method should be rigorous is that it

7 should be based on clear and explicit framework of analysis. So as to answer the “stylistics method should be retrievable” means that analysis should be organised through clear and explicit terms and criteria. Clear-cut definitions for some aspects of language are hard to pin down to analyse the language. To argue that a stylistic analysis be replicable means that we should not try to copy each other’s’ work. It clearly means that the methods we use should be sufficiently transparent in order to allow other stylistics to verify them. It is not the scope of this study to delve into stylistics in a comprehensive way here, so we should narrow it to dialogues in drama.

1.3. Types of Stylistics The structure of stylistics is mainly determined by its subject matter, major tasks and aspects of research and method ( Zhukovska 2010: 11). In its historical development a couple of types of stylistics emerged. Each one deals with a specific study of language units and their functioning in speech (11). Zhukovska (2010) categorizes the types of stylistics as following: General stylistics or theoretical stylistics, stylistics of language, stylistics of speech, linguistic stylistics or linguostylistics, literary stylistics, functional stylistics, comparative stylistics, contrastive stylistics, historical stylistics, dialectal stylistics, statistical stylistics, practical stylistics, feminist stylistics, cognitive stylistics, discourse stylistics, and corpus stylistics (12-13-14). We would like to define the terms mentioned above in brief. Concerning the brief definitions of stylistics types we have mainly used Zhukovska’s “English Stylistics” and Simpson’s “Stylistics”. Cognitive stylistics is a new discipline which studies and describes what happens in the minds of readers when they interact with language. It mainly deals with the role that unconscious and conscious cognitive and emotive processes play on the individuals who are interfacing with a text which has been purposely designed to elicit certain emotions in them (Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics, 2005). Comparative stylistics studies and investigates national and international characteristics in stylistic systems of a national language. It deals with defining the common and peculiar features of that language and the features in the

8 organization of functional styles. Contrastive stylistics deals with the focus on stylistic systems of different or unrelated languages. Corpus stylistics deals with “the interface between the fields of stylistics and corpus linguistics, namely the use of a corpus methodology to investigate stylistic categories in different text types or in individual texts. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of stylistic phenomena rely on the evidence of language usage as collected and analysed in corpora” (Zhukovska 2010: 15). Dialectal stylistics deals with the study of stylistic levels and differentiation of language units within a specific regional or social dialect. Discourse stylistics concerns with language as function of texts in context, and how they are produced in a time, place, and in a cultural and cognitive context. In other words, it deals with “language as discourse, that is a text’s status as discourse, a writer’s employment of discourse strategies and the way text means as a function of language in context (how it functions as discourse) (Simpson 2004: 8). Feminist stylistics deals with the analyses of the way questioning gender impact on the production and interpretation of literary texts. Functional stylistics mainly deals with studying and analysing the peculiarities and regularities of language and how different types of speech and speech structures functioning. General stylistics deals with study of universal language means existing in any language and regularities of language without any focus on the content, aim, situation and domain of communication. Historical stylistics studies the langue of a language diachronically. In other words, it deals with the formation and evolution of functional styles of language chronologically. Linguistic stylistics aims to study the language units from the point of view in definite types of speech and it also investigates stylistic inventory of a national language and its organisation in different types of speech (Simpson 2004:2) Literary stylistics studies the artistic expressive characteristic of a literary work, literary trend and epoch and many other factors which influence it.

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Practical stylistics studies the general knowledge on language and speech styles, stylistic norms, means and ways to obtain a correct speech organization. Statistical stylistics investigates and analyses the peculiarities of language units in texts of different functional styles to obtain data by applying certain statistical methods. Stylistics of language studies the expressive resources and properties of a specific language. Stylistics of speech deals with the analyses of acquired properties appearing in the context.

1.4. Introduction to Collocations Collocation is broadly defined as “collocation means a natural combination of words; it refers to the way English words are closely associated with each other” (O’ Dell & McCarthy 2008: 4). Furthermore, collocations can be defined as bringing or connecting together two or more words in a language in natural and meaningful way. For instance, we say ‘heavy rain’, ‘strong wind’ ‘blonde hair’, ‘pay attention’, and ‘commit crime’. A collocation means, in other words, combination of two or more words in a language occurring frequently and naturally. Nesselhauf (2005) defines it as following: “The term ‘collocation’ is used in widely different and often rather in vague senses in linguistics and language teaching. The only common denominator is that the term is (at least mostly) used to refer to some kind of syntagmatic relation of words” (11). Sinclair (1991) defines collocations as “occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each other in a text” (170).

1.5. Classifications of Collocations Collocations are classified in many ways by scholars; we will explore how those scholars define them. O’ Dell and McCarthy (2008) broadly categorize them as: strong, fixed and weak collocations. A strong collocation means in which the words are closely connected and associated with each other. For example, mitigating circumstances or factors. His sentence was reduced because of mitigating circumstances. (8) Fixed collocations are so strong that they cannot be changed or altered in

10 any way. For instance, we can say she was walking to and fro. It means she was walking in one direction and then in the opposite direction (O’ Dell & McCarthy 2008: 8). Weak Collocations are those collocations which can be associated with a wide range of other words. For example, a broad smile, a broad avenue, and broad shoulders (8).

1.6. Grammatical Categories of Collocations Grammatical collocations are collocations which are phrases made up of a significant word and a preposition or grammatical structure such an infinitive and or clause (Ilson,2010: XIX). Noam Chomsky’s famous example, decide on a boat, mentioned in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), means ‘choose a boat’ contains the collocation on decide, he terms it as close construction, whereas decide on a boat meaning ‘to make a decision while on a boat’ is a free combination or loose association (Chomsky qtd. in Ilson 2010: XIX). “Any native speaker of English feels that the components decide on ‘choose’, and of other fixed phrases such as account for, accuse (somebody) of, adapt to, agonize over, aim at, etc., ‘collocate’ with each other” (Ilson,2010: XIX). On the other hand, free combinations are made up of elements which are joined in accordance with the general rules of English syntax and they allow free substitutions. O’ Dell & McCarthy (2008) divides grammatical collocations into seven categories as given below: A Verb + noun: draw up a list / contract. The teacher drew up a list for his students to sign. B Noun + verb: opportunity arise / standards slip. An opportunity may arise for me to work abroad in the future. In Turkey many people feel that economic standards have just slipped because of government’s cuts in certain sectors. C Noun + noun: a barrage of questions / a spate of attacks. The finance minister had to answer a barrage of questions posed by the opposition MPs in the parliament. A spate of attacks in the neighbourhood alarmed the police. D Adjective + noun: heavy rain, strong wind, mounting criticism. Due to heavy rain, the soccer match was cancelled. The Prime minister had to resign

11 from his post after mounting criticisms. E Adverb + adjective: stunningly attractive, amazingly beautiful. Derek’s sister is stunningly attractive. She is amazingly beautiful. F Verb + adverb or prepositional phrase: fail miserably, drive dangerously, foam at the mouth. Adam failed miserably at final exams. He was arrested as he drove dangerously on the highway (O’ Dell & McCarthy 2008: 10). G Complex Collocations: take it easy for a while, put the past behind. Ahmet tried to convince his father on his innocence but he failed miserably. You should put your past behind you to have a healthy mind.

1.7. Lexical Collocations We should state that lexical collocations do not contain prepositions, infinitives and clauses as opposed to the grammatical collocations. We know that typical collocations consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs (Ilson (edit.) 2010: xxxi). There are lots of collocations in English which consist of a verb and noun, such as bring in an acquittal. Lexical Collocations 1: Most lexical collocations consist of a verb denoting creating or activation as in the following examples. Come to an agreement, set a record, reach a verdict, set an alarm clock, fly an aircraft, launch a missile. Lexical Collocations 2: These types are generally made up of a verb meaning eradication or nullification or making void. Here are typical examples of it: reject an offer, reject an appeal, break a code, demolish a house, renege on a promise, ease tension, override a vote, annul a marriage, squander a fortune, withdraw and offer, suspend martial law, denounce a treaty (Ilson (edit.) 2010: xxxii). Lexical Collocations 3: They consist of an adjective and a noun. Here are one well known pair of examples: strong tea (not mighty tea), weak tea (not a feeble tea), warm regards, kind regards, best regards, crushing defeat, a formidable challenge, a chronic alcoholic, a sweeping generalization. Lexical Collocations 4: This category consists of a noun and verb. The verb means an action characteristic of the person or thing designated by the noun. For example, alarms go off, bees buzz, blizzards rage, blood circulates, bombs

12 explode, lions roar, cooks cook, bakers bake, dancers dance, fencers fence (Ilson (edit.) 2010: xxxiii). Lexical Collocations 5: This type indicates what unit is associated with a noun. These type of collocations may exhibit the large unit to which a single member belongs to: For example, a colony of bees, a herd of buffalo, a pack of dogs, etc. Moreover, they may indicate a specific, concrete, small unit of something larger. For instance, a bit/piece of word/advice, an article of clothing, an act of violence, ( Ilson (edit.) 2010: xxxıv). Lexical Collocations 6: This category consists of an adverb and an adjective. Here are examples, deeply absorbed, strictly accurate, hopelessly addicted, sound asleep, keenly aware. Lexical Collocations 7: They consist of a verb and an adverb. For example, affect deeply, amuse thoroughly, anchor firmly, apologize humbly. In addition to the above classifications O’Dell and McCarthy (2008) divides them into topics as given as: People: Friendship, youth and age, celebrities and heroes, criticizing people, references, appearance and personality: lifelong friends, platonic relationship, child prodigy, go through midlife crisis, senior moment. (O’Dell & McCarthy 2008: 2). The Modern World: regulation and authority, the environment, town and country life, personal finance, the economy, social issues, science and technology, health and medicine, criminal justice, war and peace: grant permission, faceless bureaucrats, damp waste, offset carbon emissions, rural idly, urban regeneration, clear one’s debts, agree credit limit, curb inflation, antisocial behaviour, dysfunctional family, cutting edge technology, adverse reaction, beyond reasonable doubt, deploy troops, collateral damage ( O’Dell & McCarthy 2008: 2). Leisure and lifestyle: social life, talking, news, current affairs, festivals and celebrations, advertisements and fashion, traffic and driving, travel and adventure, sport, plans and decisions, film and book reviews: play host to, juicy gossip, declare independence, decline to comment, movable feast, fashion victim, lengthy delays, off the beaten track, keep in shape, keep fit, deciding factor, tentative suggestion, star-studded cast, hold one’s attention (O’Dell & McCarthy

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2008: 1). Work and study: working life, new employment, thoughts and ideas, business reports, customer services, student life, writing essay, assignments and reports: make a living, take up a post, land a new job, menial tasks, widespread belief, bear in mind, hike in prices, fierce competition, kick up a fuss, grounds for complaint, talented child, mature student, confront issues, critical analysis ( O’Dell & McCarthy 2008: 1). Basic Concepts: time and space, sound, making things easier, difficulty, quantity and size, change: go down in history, waste of space, incessant noise, viable options, take the easy way out, hinder progress, encounter difficulties, finite number, endless supply, unknown quantity, sweeping changes, sudden shift. (O’Dell & McCarthy 2008: 2). Functions: stopping and starting, cause and effect, describing groups and amounts, comparing and contrasting, making an effort, social English, discussing issues, negative situations and feelings, positive situations and feelings: close off a street, dispel rumours, provoke an outcry, dire consequences, swarm of bees, stroke of genius, polar opposites, bear little resemblance to, abortive attempt, give it one’s best shot, to be brutally honest, take an exception to, suffer at the hands of, derive pleasure from (O’Dell & McCarthy 2008: 2). Besides these classifications mentioned above, Oxford Dictionary of Collocations (Lea (ed.). 2002) broadly defines them as the full range of collocations as well as implying collocations of different strengths. Adjective + noun: bright/harsh/intense/strong/light Quantifier + noun: a beam/ray of light Verb + noun: cast/emit/give/shed light Noun + verb: light gleams/glows/shines Noun + noun: a light source Preposition + noun: by the light of moon Noun + preposition: the light from the window Adverb + verb: carefully choose Verb + verb: be free to choose Verb + preposition: choose between two things Verb + adjective: make/keep/declare sth safe

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Adverb + adjective: perfectly/not entirely environmentally safe Adjective + preposition: safe from attack (Lea (ed.). 2002: ix).

1.8. Why We Learn Collocations Collocations are present in English and they run through the whole English. “No piece of natural spoken or written English is totally free of collocation. For the student, choosing the right collocation will make his speech and writing sound much more natural, more native-speaker-like, even basic intelligibility does not seem to be at issue” (Lea (edit.) 2002: vii). In English language, we know, most single words which are especially common ones embrace a wide range of meanings, some quite different and some that shade into each other by their certain degrees. As it is true, meaning, more specifically precise meaning, in any context, is determined by that context itself. Learning a foreign language, somehow, compels us to learn it well in a world which is rapidly changing and becoming a global village. We learn a foreign language to communicate with people, get a good job, or as a compulsory course taught at schools. Learning a foreign language has been an indispensable to our lives. Teaching and learning of collocations play a vital role in any language learning and teaching setting. Collocations are one of the most important parts of language teaching. Without a mastery of collocations it is almost impossible to express an idea, feeling, concept or phenomena in any particular language. Let us imagine a student who knows a language well and has knowledge in his field wants to write an essay or article on economics. Without a sound knowledge of collocations s/he will fail to come up with a satisfactory report (Şekerci 2006: vi). Learners of English as a foreign or second language generally devote themselves to mastering words –“ the pronunciation, forms, and meanings” (Ilson (edit.) 2010: xiii). But if they wish to express themselves accurately and fluently in speech and writing, they must learn how to deal with the combinations of words into phrases, sentences and texts. We may list the reason and importance of learning and mastering collocations as follows: (a) You will use the words you know more accurately, in other words, you

15 will make much fewer mistakes when you use that language. (b) You will sound more natural when you speak and write. (c) You will be fluent and sound like a native speaker. (d) You will vary your speech, more importantly, your writing. For example, instead of saying, very, good, nice, you are to be able to exploit a wider range of language. (e) You will understand when one departs from normal patterns of collocation and language.

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CHAPTER II GEORGE BERNARD SHAW AND HENRIK IBSEN

2.1. Some Notes On G.B. Shaw We would like to give some notes on George Bernard Shaw before we deal with his play Pygmalion. Concerning Shaw’s biography and his works we have mainly used Britannica and The Complete Play of Bernard Shaw and www.biography.com. George Bernard Shaw was born on July 26, 1856, in Dublin, the capital of Ireland. Shaw was third youngest child of George Carr Shaw and Lucinda Elizabeth Gurly Shaw. He comes from a Protestant family. His father, George Carr, was a civil servant and an unsuccessful merchant. Shaw was raised up in an atmosphere of urbane poverty. Her married Charlotte Payne-Townshend in 1876, and remained married till 1943 but this marriage was not more than a marriage based on friendship (Şekerci (tran.) 2015: 7). It was, somehow, a celibate marriage. It was much more humiliating to him than being simply poor. He was educated, at first, by his clerical uncle. He is known that he was against formal schooling but then he attended till the age of sixteen. He worked at a land agent’s office. Shaw had a deep interest in the worlds of the arts such as music, art, and literature thanks to her mother’s guidance and tutoring and regular visits paid to the National Gallery of Ireland. His mother left her husband in 1872 and took her two daughters with her to London. She went after her music teacher. After four years of his mother’s leave, Shaw went to London and started living with his mother to become a writer there. It was 1876. Shaw burst into lots of financial problems though her mother, somehow, supported him. Shaw spent much of his time at the British Museum’s reading room. He worked on his first novels there (“George Bernard Shaw”, www.britannica.com). He missed his classes so he did not attend school at all in London. In his 20s he experienced poverty and had frustrations. He was dependent on his mother’s weekly pocket money because her mother made her living as a music teacher. He spent his evenings by doing additional search of self-education in the lectures and debates which were characteristic of “the contemporary middle-class London intellectual activities” (“George Bernard Shaw”

17 www.britannica.com). Even though he wrote some fiction but his fiction was an absolute failure. His semiautobiographical novel titled: “Immaturity” (1879) was rejected by the publishing houses in London. It was only published in 1930. Not only his following four novels were also refused to be published but also lots of articles of him were rejected by the press. It is known he earned less than 10 shillings from his first literary work (www.britannica.com). In spite of his failure as a novelist in the 1880s, he realized his potentials during that decade. He turned into being a vegetarian, a teetotaller, a socialist, a magnificent orator, a polemist and “tentatively a playwright” (“George Bernard Shaw”, www.britannica.com). Shaw joined the Fabian Society which was founded in 1884 It was a left middle-class socialist group. It aimed to transform the British society into socialism through evolution rather than revolution. Shaw was deeply involved into this group and delivered lectures on the many aspects of life. He was editor of the Fabian Essays in Socialism (1889) (“George Bernard Shaw”, www.britannica.com). William Archer who was a leading drama critic of his time came cross Shaw’s journalistic works ranging from book reviews in the Pall Mall Gazette (1885-88) and art criticism in the World (1886-89) and as a brilliant musical columnist in the Star from 1888 to 1890 in the World as “G.B.S.” from 1890 to 1894. (www.britannica.com). To many drama critics, Shaw secured his place among the literary circles when he was hired as theatre critic to the Saturday Review by Frank Harris. He worked as drama critic there from 1895 to 1898. As theatre critic, he harshly attacked and criticized the artificialities and hypocrisies of the Victorian period and Victorian theatre. He started writing his own plays during that period (www.britannica.com). Sir A.W. Pinero and H.A. Jones who were trying to develop a modern realistic drama were the leading playwrights when Shaw wrote plays for the English stage. Both Pinero and Jones failed to “break away from the type of artificial plots and conventional character types expected by theatregoers. The poverty of this sort of drama had become apparent with the introduction of several of Henrik Ibsen’s plays onto the London stage around 1890, when A Doll’s House was played in London; his Ghosts followed in 1891, and the possibility of a new

18 freedom and seriousness on the English stage was introduced” (www.britannica.com) Shaw published The Quintessence of Ibsenism in (1891) (Innes (ed.) 1998: xxi). Widower’s Houses (1892) was a play bearing Ibsenite elements in tone. It was a social realist play dealing with “the notorious scandal of slum landlordism in London” (www.brittannica.com). A young English man falls in love with a girl. He finds out that his would-be father in law is a corrupt man as his income comes from exploitation of the poor. Though it is tragic situation, it is not a tragedy as Shaw avoided tragedy (www.britannica.com). The action of the play circles around within the ironic comedy. Mrs. Warren’s Profession (1893) deals with an organized prostitution and “its action turns on the discovery by a well-educated young woman that her mother has graduated through the “profession” to become a part proprietor of brothels throughout Europe. Again, the economic determinants of the situation are emphasized, and the subject is treated remorselessly and without the titillation of fashionable comedies about “fallen women.”’ (www.britannica.com). As many other Shaw’s plays and works, it is called a drama of ideas. The first plays of Shaw are called as ‘unpleasant plays’ as they make audience face the unpleasant facts of life. ‘Pleasant Plays’ followed the unpleasant ones. Arms and the Man (1894) deals with romantic falsifications of love and warfare. The setting is the Balkans. In this play Shaw criticizes the futility and senselessness of war. Candida (1897) depicts a heroine as forced to choose between her clerical husband and a Christian socialist who is also a young poet, in love with her. Candida chooses her confident husband as she finds the young poet as a weak character. The young poet seems to be an immature and hysterical though he has a great potential as an artist to achieve higher aims in life. Such themes are significant for Shaw (www.britannica.com).The play lays down the eternal conflict between man and woman. Man is given as a spiritual being while woman is depicted as “guardian of the biological continuity of the human race that is basic to a later play, Man and Superman” (www.britannica.com). You Never Can Tell (1899) is about hero and heroine who regard themselves as “an accomplished amorist and an utterly rational and emancipated woman, find themselves in the grip of a vital force that takes little account of

19 these notions” (www.britannica.com) Shaw, later, wrote Three Plays for Puritans (1901) which were in line with the traditional Shavian prefaces (www.britannica.com). The Devil’s Disciple (1897) is a melodrama with its setting in America; it deals with the character of General Buygone with humour. The action takes place during the Revolutionary War (Inness (ed.) 1998). Caesar and Cleopatra (1901) deal with imperialistic themes and leadership. Its setting is Egypt. The action takes place during the Roman conquest of Egypt. It depicts the maturity of Julius Caesar and naïve Cleopatra. Caesar tries to eliminate all obstacles on his way to the throne. It exhibits how assassination, conspiracy, intrigue, betrayal and romance are dealt with. According to the Britannica it is put as: Cleopatra is a spoiled and vicious 16-year-old child rather than the 38- year-old temptress of Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. The play depicts Caesar as a lonely and austere man who is as much a philosopher as he is a soldier. The play’s outstanding success rests upon its treatment of Caesar as a credible study in magnanimity and “original morality” rather than as a superhuman hero on a stage pedestal. At the end of the nineteenth century Major Barbara (1905), The Doctor's Dilemma (1906), Pygmalion (1912), Androcles and the Lion (1912) and Saint Joan (1923) made Shaw firmly an established playwright (Innes (ed.) 1998). Shaw would go to theatre on his own in Dublin. After his move to London he continued to go to the theatre in London too (Levy 1999: 94). He met William Archer Who was the critic, admirer and first translator of Henrik Ibsen in 1884. He translated Ibsen’s works into English (Levy 1999: 94). Shaw and William Archer tried to write a play together but they failed to do so. As a member of Fabian Society Shaw achieved success as socialist political activist. As Levy (1999) puts Shaw’s view of drama and theatre was hugely influenced by the Norwegian playwright, Henrik Ibsen. Most particularly A Doll’s House and Ghosts attracted Shaw’s attention as they were about social reform and women’s rights. In his The Quintessence of Ibsenism (1881, rev. 1913) consisting of Shaw’s series of essays on Ibsen. In his essays titled: “The Technical Novelty in Ibsen’s Plays” “Shaw praised Ibsen for transforming the well-made play into a play of ideas. Shaw particularly approved of Ibsen’s use of the conventions of

20 domestic drama to discuss a social problem from differing perspectives, and he thought that after Ibsen’s A Doll’s House” (94). Levy(1999) states his thoughts as follows: The serious playwright recognizes in the discussion not only the main test of his [Ibsen’s] highest powers, but also the real centre of his play’s interest…. In new plays the drama arises through a conflict of unsettled ideals rather than through vulgar attachments, rapacities, generosities, resentments, ambitions, misunderstandings, oddities and so forth as to which moral question is raised. The conflict is not between clear right and wrong,: the villain is as contentious as the hero, if not more so: in fact, the question which makes the play interesting (when it is interesting) is which is the villain and which is the hero (94). Shaw established Ibsen’s reputation in Britain and the United States of America. That’s why Shaw’s plays bear the influence of Ibsen. Especially Widower’s Houses, Arms and the Man, Major Barbara, and St. Joan are good examples of it. Arms and the Man (1894) is a romantic comedy. It is an antimilitary drama which is about the war in the Balkans (Levy,1999: 94). The protagonist, Bluntshili carries Swiss chocolates with him rather than ammunition. Candida (1898) deals with a firm minded woman who has absolute power over the household. She has total control and command over her husband. He does all what is told him to do. This play is regarded as a counterblast to Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. Actually it characterizes his family life, especially his domineering mother. The Devil’s Disciple (1896) is a historical play. It is a melodrama. It takes place during the American Revolution. The main character or protagonist, Richard Dudgeon admits a crime which he did not commit actually to save a young woman’s reputation. Man and Superman (1903) is comedy of manners. It takes place in a study in Portland Place, London. It is about life force behind man. It deals with the story of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s Don Juan. It is one of masterpieces of Shaw( 94). It blends an amazing philosophy and social satire. It exhibits the story John Tanner and Ann Whitefield. John Tanner is a rich man who values his freedom. Ann Whitefield is a young charming woman. She wants to marry Tanner. When Tanner finds out that Miss Whitefield is in search of rich spouse, he tries to keep

21 away from her. He loses his interest in her. The play actually reinvents the story of Don Juan. It is known that Don Juan is a womanizer, scoundrel and adulterous man. At the end of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s Don Giovanni, Don Juan is forced into Hell. Bernard Shaw’s Don Juan is actually seeking an answer to the questions ‘What happened to his soul?’ It answers that question. John Tanner represents the spirit of Don Juan. Rather than pursuing women, John Tanner is pursuing truth. Shaw represents John Tanner as a revolutionary man rather than a scoundrel and sinner. John Tanner fights for a better world so he is against the established system and social norms. But Miss Whitefield restlessly pursues her prey, Mr Tanner. Major Barbara (1905) exhibits the trials and hardships experienced by Barbara Undershaft who is a major in the Salvation Army. At the beginning of the play Lady Britomart tries to arrange money matters of the family and her son, Stephen, helps her. What we see is that Lady Britomart has just thrown out her husband from the work and she bullies her son to get help from his father, Andrew Undershaft. Lady Britomart is concerned with the finance of her daughters as her daughters prospective husbands cannot support themselves financially. We see that Andrew has been supporting the family for years. When Andrew arrives home to see his children first time after years, he finds out that his daughters’ fiancés are not the people who can support his daughters. The family business was actually passed onto a foundling. The foundling was adopted by the family. Barbara is Major in the Salvation Army. She does not like her father and his business as his father makes and sells weapons for a living. Andrew Undershaft and his daughter make a deal. The deal was that Undershaft would visit the Salvation Army headquarters and she would visit his factory. After the visits Barbara faces the shocking truth that her Salvation Army has been saved by an arms manufacturer and a whiskey distiller’s support. Back to Methuselah (1921) deals with Shaw’s views on history, politics, religion, science, life and death. It begins with “Genesis and temptation of Adam by Satan and ends with a vision of humanity in the distant future” (Bradford 1999: 95). At the beginning, Adam is in Eden and finds a dead fawn. Adam and Eve are aware that death will come to them. It seems that Adam is not happy with the idea of eternal life, so he gets rid of fawn and then the serpent comes up and tells Eve

22 that only birth can beat death. Eve finds out that Lilith gave birth to Adam and herself, so it must be to give birth. The serpent talks to Eve and tells her the big secret of love and birth. After a couple of centuries we find Adam is digging and Eve is spinning in Mesopotamia. Cain comes up and mocks Adam. He tells Cain that he killed his brother. Cain begs Eve to give more births in order to fight them. Cain boasts that he is much bigger and higher than a man. Eve does not hesitate to tell him that he is totally anti-man. To Eve, Lua who is Cain’s wife and her daughter are not good for anything. Eve is deeply worried that her grandchildren die before they taste the joy of life. Then she endeavours doing something better than spinning, killing and digging. In Act II we see the brothers Barnabas debate the theory of evolution and creation. They talk about how to live three hundred years to fulfil their dreams. Franklyn’s daughter and a clergy man join the brothers. Later on two politicians pay a visit to the brothers. The politicians think that the brothers will help them win the next election. In Act III, the president of the British Islands in 2170 begs Barnabas to see a film on the system how to breathe under water. They talk about Confucius a wise man that runs China. Barnabas attends and sees the film of higher officials drowned over last centuries. The four people from the past are the current archbishop of York. He became one of the most leading playwrights of his time. “Bernard Shaw was one of the very great figures of 20th-century life and literature is no longer disputed. His influence on three generations of English thought and behaviour was tremendous” (Shaw 1965: cover page). George Bernard Shaw was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1925. He passed away at the age of 94 in 1950 (Bradford 1997: 95).

2.2. Chronology of Shaw We have needed to give the chronology of Shaw to bear in mind how prolific playwright and thinker of his time he was. We have searched many sources to get the fullest chronology of Shaw. The Cambridge Companion to Shaw (Innes (ed) 1998) is the most precise one so we have used it extensively.

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1856 Born in Dublin 1876 First Essays published as a music critic 1878 Passion Play (unfinished) 1879 Immaturity 1882-83 Casbel Byron’s Profession 1886 First Essays published as an art critic 1887 An Unsocial Socialist 1889 Un Petit Drame (unfinished) 1889 Fabian Essays 1889-90 The Cassone (unperformed) 1891 The Quintessence of Ibsenism (revised in 1913) 1885-92 Widowers’ Houses 1893 Philanderer 1893-4 Mrs. Warren’s Profession 1894 Arms and the Man 1894 Candida: A Mystery 1895 The Man of Destiny 1895-6 You Never Can Tell 1896-7 The Devil’s Disciple: A Melodrama 1898 The Gadfly or The Son of the Cardinal (unfinished) 1898 The Perfect Wagnerite 1898 Caesar and Cleopatra: A History 1899 Captain Brassbound’s Conversion: An Adventure 1900 Love Among the Artists 1901 The Admirable Bashville or Constancy Unrewarded 1901-3 Man and Superman: A Comedy and Philosophy 1904 John Bull’s Other Island 1904 How He Lied to Her Husband 1905 The Irrational Knot 1905 Major Barbara 1905 Passion, Poison, and Petrification or The Fatal Gazogene ( A Brief Tragedy for Barns and Booths) 1906 Our Theatres in the Nineties

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1906 The Doctor’s Dilemma (A Tragedy in Four Acts and an Epilogue) 1906-7 Dramatic Opinions and Essays 1907 The Interlude at the Playhouse/The Inauguration Speech: An Interlude 1908 The Sanity of Art 1908 Getting Married: A Conversation Play 1909 The Shewing-Up of Blanco Posnet: A Sermon in Crude Melodrama 1909 The Glimpse of Reality: A Tragedietta 1909 Press Cuttings 1909 The Fascinating Foundling (A Disgrace to the Author) 1909-10 Misalliance (A Debate in One Setting 1910 The Dark Lady of the Sonnets: An Interlude 1911 Fanny’s First Play: An Easy Play for a Little Theatre 1912 Androcles and the Lion: A Fable (play) 1912 Overruled: A Demonstration 1912-13 Pygmalion (A Romance in Five Acts) 1913 Great Catherine (Whom Glory Still Adores) 1913 Beauty’s Duty (unfinished) 1913 The Music Cure: A Piece of Utter Nonsense) 1914 Common Sense About the War 1915 O’Flaberty, VC: A Recruiting Pamphlet 1916 The Inca of Perusalem: An Almost Historical Commedietta 1916 Macbeth Skit & Glastonbury Skit 1916 Augustus Does His Bit: A True-to-Life Farce 1917 Annajanska, The Wild Grand Duchess/Annajanska, The Bolshevik Empress: A Revolutionary Romancelet 1919 Heartbreak House (A Fantasia in the Russian Manner on English Themes) 1918-20 Back to Methuselah: A Metabiological Pentateuch (A Play Cycle in Five Acts) 1921-22 The War Indemnities (unfinished) 1922 Jitta’s Atonement

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1923 Saint Joan: A chronicle play 1926 Translations and Tomfooleries 1927 The Yahoos (unfinished) 1928 The Intelligent Woman’s Guide to Socialism and Capitalism 1928 The Apple Cart: A Political Extravaganza 1931 Music in London 1890-94: Criticisms contributed Week by Week to the World 1931 Our Theatres in the Nineties 1931 Immaturity 1931 Pen Portraits and Reviews 1931 Too True To Be Good: A Political Extravaganza 1931 Doctors’ Delusions: Crude Criminology: Sham Education 1932 What I Really Wrote About the War 1932 The Adventures of the Black Girl in her Search for God 1933 Village Wooing 1933 On the Rocks: A Political Comedy 1934 Short Stories, Scraps, and Shavings 1934 Prefaces 1934 The Simpleton of the Unexpected Isles: A Vision of Judgment (A Play in a Prologue and Two Acts) 1934 The Six of Calais (A Medieval War Story in One Act by Jean Froissart, Augusute Rodin and Bernard Shaw) 1934-35 The Millionairess (A Comedy in Four Acts) 1935 The Garden of the Hesperides (unfinished) 1935 The Girl with the Golden Voice (unfinished) 1936 Geneva 1936 Arthur and the Acetone (unfinished) 1937 London Music in 1888-89 As Heard by Corneto di Bassetto 1937 Sequence for the King’s People (unfinished) 1937 Cymbeline Refinished (A Variation on Shakespeare’s Ending) 1936-7 Buoyant Billions: A Comedy of No Manners 1939 In Good King Charles’s Golden Days: A True History that Never Happened

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1944 Everybody’s Political What’s What? 1948-50 Farfetched Fables 1949 Sixteen Self Sketches 1949 Shakes Versus Shaw (A Puppet Play) 1950 Why She Would Not: A Little Comedy (A Comedietta) (Only five of the six scenes finished) 1950 November 2, Dies: Ayot St. Lawrence (Innes (ed.) 1998: xxi- xxx).

2.3. Pygmalion (1912) It is well known that George Bernard Shaw, mainly, deals with identity, social justice, an assault to idealism, gender equality, and hypocrisy prevailing in society in any disguise (Şekerci, 2017: 88). Pygmalion is a romance in five acts. It was first staged in Veinna and Berlin as Shaw looked for a response from the continental audience who were unprejudiced by London critics (Bradford, 1997: 95). It became very successful in Europe. Broadly speaking it attacks the hollowness of the British middle class. Shaw emphasizes the importance of proper, decent speech, cleanliness, fashionable dress, good manners but they are not regarded as substitutes for a strong character. “The role of Eliza Doolittle was written for the actress Mrs. Patrick Campbell, with whom Shaw had a friendship that began in the early 1890s and ended in 1939 when he wrote his last letter to her” (Bradford 1997: 96). Shaw highlights his ideas and concerns with individualism and idealism in his works, most particularly in Pygmalion which is an ancient Greek myth theme turns into being a means of social mobility and a clear demonstration of the power of language to transform one in this Shaw’s masterpiece, Pygmalion. The origin of the play goes to Ovid’s “The Myth of Pygmalion and Galatea” (ca. A.D. 8) (Bradford, 1997: 96). The ancient Greek sculptor coming from Cyprus called Pygmalion who was dissatisfied with women so he decided to carve a statue out of ivory. The statue named as Galatea was so beautiful that Pygmalion fell in love with it and wanted to marry it thanks to help of Olympian goddess, Aphrodite. It is clear that Shaw exploited many aspects of this ancient Greek legend to

27 pen down such a work. The ancient Greek myth and Shaw’s play have lots of analogies. Shaw exhibits female dependence as his major theme, “ tying it metaphorically to the classic dyads of male and female, master and slave, colonizer and colonized. Henry Higgins, the Pygmalion who understands all about how people talk but grasps nothing of what they mean, thinks he can dispose of the new improved Eliza into the marriage market, but explicitly disavows this as an economic relationship” (Innes (ed.) 1998: 225). Henry Higgins who is a phonetician is trying to transform a Cockney- flower-girl Eliza Doolittle into a duchess by teaching her how to use language properly with a distinguished accent spoken by the upper class. Eliza Doolittle is hardly capable of raising herself to get a place in society which is above her station. But she proves that she is willing to transform herself with a formal teaching and education. Higgins is depicted as an idealist educator by Shaw in this play. Higgins’ idealism makes him to transform Eliza Doolittle into a duchess. The problem is that Eliza’s tongue should be fashioned to graceful speech by an idealist phonetician who treats her inhumanely.

LIZA: I sold flowers. Now you’ve made a lady of me I'm not fit to sell anything else. I wish you’d left me where you found me. HIGGINS: Tosh, Eliza. Don’t you insult human relations by dragging all this cant about buying and selling into it ( Ibid: 225).

The above quote shows that Higgins is not aware of his brutality used against Eliza. He regards her as an object which is there to be experimented on. Eliza is like a material to be used by people such as Higgins. Eliza’s father is a dustman and lacks of financial means to support himself and his daughter Eliza. Eliza comes from Wimpole Street and begs for speech lessons from Higgins who can educate the flower girl in a matter of months as a well-spoken duchess. Eliza offers Higgins to pay only a shilling for the lessons. Higgins makes fun of her mercilessly, but Eliza is amazed at the idea of working his magic on her. Once Eliza’s arrival at the Eynsford Hills, Higgins makes his housekeeper bathe her and she is given new clothing to wear. In Act II we see that the transformation starts when Eliza Doolittle comes

28 to Wimpole Street to ask Higgins to teach her how to speak like a lady. Colonel Pickering who is a friend of Higgins challenges him to prove that he can teach and train someone as low as Eliza to speak like a lady. The first test Eliza faces first when she comes up at Mrs. Higgins’s home for a cup of tea. In Act IV we find Higgins and Pickering are back in Wimpole Street, they congratulate themselves. They seem to ignore Eliza. In Act V, we come cross Alfred Doolittle again who is transformed into a gentleman, dressed in formal clothing. Higgins’ training her continues a number of months to make her speak properly. Eliza faces a couple of trials there to pass. She is introduced to mother, daughter and son of the Eynsfords. Freddy, the son, seems to be attracted to Eliza. Eliza’s small talks make him like her much. Higgins’ mother doubts that once the experiment is over, Eliza will end up with lots of problems. Another trial takes place at an ambassador’s ball in which Eliza demonstrates a resounding success. The ambassador’s ball proves that Higgins’ and Pickering’s bet won. After ambassador’s party we see that Higgins and Pickering are bored with the Eliza project that hurts her. As the project comes into conclusion, Eliza has no idea of what to become of her now. Higgins suggests that she marry one soon and continue her life as a married one. Eliza gives back the hired jewellery to him; Higgins harshly accuses her of being ingratitude. At the end, Eliza’s father comes up and demands the return of her daughter. When Eliza leaves the Eynsford Hills for her father’s wedding ceremony, the dustman is quick enough to recognize how clean and pretty flower girl Eliza is. It reaches its climax when Eliza utters the following on her transformation.

Eliza. When I think of myself crawling under your feet and being trampled on and called names, when all the time I had only to lift up my finger to be as good as you, I could just kick myself. Higgins. [wondering at her]. You damned impudent slut you! But It’s better than snivelling; better than fetching slippers and finding spectacles isn’t it? [Rising] By George Eliza, I said I’d make a woman of you and I have. I like you like this. Eliza. Yes: you can turn round and make up to me now that I’m not afraid

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of you, and can do without you. Higgins. Of course I do, you little fool. Five minutes ago you were like a millstone around my neck. Now you’re a tower of strength: a consort battleship. You and I and Pickering will be three old bachelors instead of only two men and a silly girl (Pygmalion Act V).

It shows that Higgins’ real sensibilities on her. The inherited hierarchy of power is once again at play here. No matter how Higgins treated her throughout the experiment, Eliza came up being capable of liberating herself with the help of Higgins’s training. Pygmalion was adapted to the screen in 1938. It was co-directed by Anthony Asquithe and Leslie Howard. My Fair Lady (1964), directed by George Cuckor; with Rex Harrison (Bradford 1997: 97).

2.4. Some Notes On Henrik Ibsen Henrik Johan Ibsen was born on March 20 in Skien, a coastal town, Norway. He was the second son in a family of six children. His father was Knud Ibsen and his mother was Marichen, He was baptized as Henrik Johan (McFarlane (ed.) 1994: xiv). Henrik Ibsen is regarded as the founding father of Modern European Drama. He is considered to be one of the most dominating figures in the history of modern drama. “His conquest of the theatre over one hundred years-first in Scandinavia, and then very quickly in Europe, North America and the wider world-makes him one of the most frequently performed playwrights in the world today” (n.p). Ibsen was a pioneering modernist playwright. His great contemporaries were Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Friedrich Nietzsche, and William Blake (Robert Adams: wwwbritannica.com). His plots were deliberate acts of cognition on realistic themes. He was a social realist playwright so his plays display persons stripped of their disguises and compelled to acknowledge their true self identities for better or worse. He, in his plays, makes the audience re-examine their lives with painful earnestness from a moral point of view (Ibid:). His dramas were built with materials of his age and he exhibits a great deal of “grey, massive, solid masonry, but at the same time he

30 appears to be doing astonishing things with his conventional material, to be reaching heights of sublime humdrum…” (McFarlane 1989: 57). We aim to look into Ibsen’s working methods in brief to get a wider picture of the messages of his dramas, particularly Ghosts which is the main topic of our study. Ibsen’s working methods and style is widely discussed in McFarlane’s Ibsen & Meaning. That’s why we have used McFarlane’s work to a great extent to put Ibsen’s working methods, in other words how he wrote his plays. Ibsen’s working methods became manifest in the 1880s and 1890s during which his fame spread (Ibid: 68). Henrik Ibsen’s biographer Henrik Jaeger is trying to answer to Ibsen’s working methods (qtd. in McFarlane). Jaeger reports it: When he has chosen his material, he ponders it carefully for a long time before he sets pen to paper. Much of this thinking takes place on his long walks; moreover, the long-time he takes over dressing is also given over to this preparatory thought. When he has thought the thing through in broad outline, he writes an outline sketch. I asked him: Presumably you work out your outline so carefully that you could just as easily write the last act first and the first one last? No, he answered. Many of the details do not emerge until during the work of composition, as I begin to make progress. On the basis of this outline, he then sets about giving the things shape, and this goes relatively swiftly. He also takes care, when he has finished for a day, still to have some pieces of dialogue ready in his mind which he can begin with the next day. He believes this helps him to keep going… In this way the first manuscript grows from day to day until it is finished. But this manuscript is then for Ibsen nothing more than a preliminary. Only when this is complete does he feel he is familiar with his characters, know their natures and how they express themselves. Then comes the revision in the second manuscript, and finally the fair copy in the third. He does not allow the work to leave his possession until there is a complete fair copy in existence (Jaeger qtd. in McFarlane 1989: 69). Once a German man visited him, Ibsen clarified his working method to him as following: I must see into inmost reaches of their minds. I always start from the character; the context, the setting, the dramatic ensemble, they all take shape of

31 their own accord just so long as I have first assured myself of the character in its human totality. I also need to visualize his appearance right down to the last button-how he stands and walks, how he gesticulates, what his voice sounds like. I don’t loosen my grip on him until his destiny is complete (McFarlane 1989: 69). The above quotes explicate clearly how Ibsen set his pen to his plays. What we infer is that good meditation, good order, literary discipline and determination were his distinguishing features as a playwright. It could be claimed that Ibsen, somehow, dated with his papers and furnished precise dates both top and tail. (72). There is evidence compulsion and consolidation in his works which is deliberated. To Ibsen scholars, is subject matters were extensions of himself into the speech and gestures. The characters of his plays are the embodiment of Ibsen. Richard Gilman, in his The Making of Modern Drama, argues “to most us now, Ibsen comes down as narrow, programmatic, the social philosopher he knew he had never been. And the name stands between our senses and the plays. Ibsen: cold light problems, living rooms, instruction. We can’t obliterate the name; there would be nothing left by which to refer to the work” (Gilman 1987: 50-51). The plays by Ibsen exhibit his consciousness rooted in them. They are accusatory, and cautionary fables of him. Ibsen once stated “to live is to battle with trolls in heart and mind; to write is to sit in judgment on oneself” (Gilman 1987: 59). As a social realist playwright, Ibsen chose his subjects from real situations of his contemporary society. Gilman states “he was a great reader and creative user of newspapers…Ibsen made his social plays out of nothing other than what might have occurred in what we call real life” (Gilman 1987: 63). Realism as a literary movement emerged in the nineteenth century. It was the time of Victorianism. It was first dominant in novel and then drama. Realism, basically, means what it sounds like. It focuses on the detail and an attempt to replicate the nature and life. In other words, it observes life as it develops. Ibsen was for idea behind idea by observing his society. Ibsen’s the middle plays are Rosmersholm (1886), The Lady from the Sea (1888), and Hedda Gabler (1890). What is striking about these plays is that the heroines play a central role rather than heroes. These heroines represent otherness from the very beginning. They are in clash with their own societies as they are

32 regarded as outsiders (Garton qtd. in McFarlane (ed). 1997: 106). They are unhappy characters and are not familiar with the mores of the society. They are expected to conform with the norms of the society, so they are forced to supress their wild side (Garton qtd. in McFarlane (ed). 1997: 106). Janet Carton depicts them as “they are pagansliving in a Christian society. All are passionate women who, it could be argued, have got themselves involved with the wrong man. Neither Rosmer, Wangel, nor Tesman are as their partners would have them be; they lack the passion to respond to their women’s needs” (Garton qtd. in McFarlane (ed). 1997: 106). The three plays are actually about the frustrated women. They are looking for a proper place in patriarchal society. The female characters realise that their dependence on their men restrain them from achieving their own independence. They sacrifice a lot to get rid of the bond of the patriarchy. The plays deal with many other issues of that time as Janet Garton states “Ibsen was an eager follower of contemporary debate, and alert to all burning issues of the day, including this one” (Garton qtd. in McFarlane (ed). 1997: 107). Rosmersholm (1886) is about a political awareness. It questions the political thinking from a sociological perspective in Norway in the nineteenth century. It also deals with the psychology of the character. Johannes Rosmer, the protagonist, has not enough courage to challenge the status quo or the established system on his own. Rosmer comes from an influential clerical family. He used to be a priest who resigned from his post. When the play opens we see his wife, Beate, drowned herself as she had no child. A young progressive woman, Rebakka, joins the Rosmersholms and Rosmer falls in love with her. Rebakka and Rosmer commit suicide at the end of the play as they failed to escape from their past crimes always haunting them. The Master Builder (1892), Little Eyolf (1894), John Gabriel Borkman (1897) and When We Dead Awaken (1899) are his last plays. These plays can be analysed from pre-Freudian psychological, symbolical, realistic and mythical perspectives. In these plays, once again, we see “powerfully realized women” (Ewbank qtd. in McFarlane 1997: 127). These plays actually emphasize the central themes, commonly exploited by Ibsen, such as vocation, sacrifice, demands of the society and the problems of

33 aesthetic versus the ethical life (Ewbank qtd. in McFarlane 1997: 128). Ibsen tries to create a world in which time and space have a significant independence in The Master Builder. Once Solness climbs to the top of the tower, Hilde pushes the past into the present. “At last! At last! Now I see him great and free again” (Ewbank qtd. in McFarlane 1997: 141). The heights and depths in this play are actually human artefacts. The characters are occupied with constructing buildings which are “burned down and erected, finished, and unfinished, buildings existing only as drawings or castles in the air” (Ewbank qtd. in McFarlane 1997: 141). Pillars of Society (1877 ), A Doll’s House ( 1879), Ghosts ( 1881), and An Enemy of the People (1882) are labelled as realistic problem dramas. These plays broadly deal with freedom and truth. They exhibit the liberty of the spirit, the liberty of the thought and the human condition (Ibid:. 69). The characters in these plays face the challenge posed by the society. The challenge is that law and order, norms, and conventions of the society belonging to the past. They are the pinion of the society is bereft of meeting their natural need of the individual freedom. All in all, these plays question the concept of marriage, property rights, religion and the disparate relationships between man and woman.

2.5. Chronology of Henrik Ibsen Concerning Ibsen’s chronology we have utilized James McFarlane’s Ibsen & Meaning, The Cambridge Companion to Ibsen edited by James McFarlane, and National Library of Norway accessible through the net. It is worth giving a detailed list of his works, and life to provide necessary tools for students and scholars. 1828 Henrik Johan Ibsen born on March 20 in Skien, Norway, the second son in a family of six children. Knud Ibsen, his father and Marichen, his mother. He is baptized as Henrik Johan. 1835 His father’s business goes bankrupt has to give up his business. The properties are sold at auction. His family moves to a smaller house at Venstop.Threy live there for eight years. 1843 Resident in Gjerpen church. 9 October amily moves to Snipetorp in Skien.Ibsen leaves home in November. Henrik leaves home to earn his

34 living as an apprentice at apothecary’s in Grimstad Where he lives for the next six years. 1846 Else Sophie, a maid in the house, bears him a child out of wedlock. The child is named Hans Jacob Henriksen. 1847 Lars Nielsen takes over ownership of the chemist’s, moving into a bigger one. 1848-9 Writes his first play Catiline, submitted to. And rejected by the Christiania Theatre. 1850 Catiline published privately under the pseudonym of Brynjolf Bjarme. Goes to Christiania to study for the university entrance examination on c. 19 May. Edits the Students’ Union paper Samfundsbladet and the satirical weekly Andhrimner. The one-act The Burial Mound is performed at Christiania Theatre on 26 September. 1851 Contributes occasionally critical articles and poems to periodicals from January to September. Moves to Bergen to begin directing productions at Det norske Theater. Study tour to Copenhagen and Dresden. 1852 Leaves on an extended study tour of theatres in Hamburg, Copenhagen, Dresden. 1853 The Three- Act St. John’s Night is first performed. Performed on the third anniversary of the founding of the Bergen theatre. 1854 The Burial Mound is performed in Bergen with little success. 1855 Lady Inger, a historical drama in five Acts, first performed at the theatre in Bergen. 27 November he reads a paper on “Shakespeare and his influence upon Scandinavian literature” to a Bergen literary society. 1856 2 January The Feast at Solhaug first performed in Bergen, followed on 13 March by a performance in Christiania. Engages to Suzannah Thoresen at the house of her step-mother, Magdalene Thoresen, author and dramatist. March-April he accompanies the theatre company on a short guest season in Trondheim. 1857 Olaf Liljekrans is first performed. Appointed as an artistic director of Kristiania Norske Theater. 1858 Marries Suzannah Thoresen on 18 June. The Vikings at Helgeland

35 first performed. A group of Ibsen’s friends form a literary association called ‘The Learned Holland’, with meetings at the house of Paul Botten- Hansen, the University librarian. 25 April The Vikings at Helgeland is published as a supplement to a journal. 1859 January The poem “On the Heights” is published in a journal. Sigurd, his son, is born on 23 December – the only child of his marriage. 1860 Winter Ibsen comes under attack in the press and from the Board of the theatre for the alleged lack of enterprise; these attacks continue over several months. Writes "Svanhild" - a draft for Love’s Comedy. 1861 Writes the poem "Terje Vigen". 1862 The Norwegian Theatre in Christiania goes bankrupt on 1 June. Ibsen goes on a study tour to the valley of Gudbrandsdalen and to the West Country to study folklore. Love’s Comedy printed as a New Year supplement in a journal on 31 December. 1863 Appointed literary adviser, on a temporary basis, to Christiania Theatre on 1 January. The Pretenders is published. Awarded a small government grant to allow him a year’s stay in Rome to study art, art history and literature. 1864 The Pretenders first performed at Christiania Theatre on 17 January. Leaves for Italy and lives in Rome for four years. Begins working hard on his dramatic poem ‘Brand’. 1865 Summer Completes Brand in Ariccia. 1866 Brand is published in Copenhagen on 15 March and becomes a success. Awarded one of the state stipends for artists on 12 May. June-September Moves to Frascati for the summer. 1867 Love’s Comedy in a revised version published. Writes and publishes Peer Gynt. October-November Returns to Rome from Sorrento via Pompeii and Naples. 1868 Leaves Rome and travles for five weeks with short stays at Florence, Bologna, Venice and Bolzano. Moves to Dresden, where the family lives for seven years. 1869 The League of Youth is published and given its first performance at

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Christiania Theatre. Taking part in a meeting on Scandinavian spelling in Stockholm. Goes to Egypt and is present at the opening of the Suez Canal. 1870 Writes the poem "Ballongbrev til en svensk dame" ("Balloon Letter to a Swedish Lady"). Leaves Dresden for Copenhagen via Lübeck. 1871 His selected poems published in an edition of 5,000 copies. Begins to write Emperor and Galilean in June. 1872 Emperor and Galilean is written partly. Edmund Gosse publishes an article on the Poems in the Spectator, the first critical discussion of Ibsen in England, and follows this with further articles in Spectator, Academy, Fortnightly Review and Fraser’s Magazine over the next two years. 1873 Completes and publishes Emperor and Galilean. Becomes a member of an international art jury at the world exhibition in Vienna. Revises Lady Inger for a new edition. Decorated by Norway with the Knight’s Order of St Olaf on the occasion of the coronation of Oscar II. 1874 Visits Norway (Christiania). Goes on to Stockholm. Publishes Lady Inger. Invites Edvard Grieg to compose incidental music to Peer Gynt on 23 January. Honoured by a torchlight procession by Christiania students on 10 September. 1875 Publishes Catiline. Moves to Munich, where he lives for three years. Writes the poem "A Rhyme-letter" 1876 First full-length translation of a work by Ibsen into English: The Emperor and Galilean by Catherine Ray. Attends a performance of The Pretenders in Berlin by the Meiningen players. 1877 Pillars of Society published on 11 October and first staged at Odense Teater. Receives an honorary doctorate from the University of Uppsala, Sweden. 1878 Moves to Rome again and stays there for seven. 1879 A Doll’s House published, and first staged at Det Kongelige (Royal) Teater in Copenhagen. 1880 Spends some weeks in Berchtesgaden on vacation before returning

37 to Munich end-September. ‘Quicksands’, an adaptation of Pillars of Society, played at the Gaiety Theatre in London on 15 December. 1881 Ghosts published on 12 December. The Ibsen family leaves Rome for Sorrento, where Ibsen works on the composition of Ghosts. 1882 An Enemy of the People written and published. ‘The Child Wife’, and adaptation of A Doll’s House, played at the Grand Opera House, Milwauke- the first performance in English of any Ibsen play in North America. 1883 Publishes The Feast at Solhoug in a new edition. Spends his summer in Gossensass and then in Bolzano, returning to Rome end October. 1884 The Wild Duck published on 11 November. Leaves Rome for Gossensass for the Summer on 30 June. 1885 Visits Norway (Christiania, Trondhjem, Molde and Bergen). Moves to Munich and stays there for six years. 1886 Rosmersholm published on 23 November. Attends a production of Ghosts at Meiningen as the guest of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen on 22 December. 1887 Spends the summer in Northern Jutland (at Sæby). Goes on to Gothenburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen. 1888 The Lady from the Sea published on 28 November (first performed at Hoftheater in Weimar and at Christiania Theater on the same day, 12 February, 1889). 1889 Attends performances of his plays in Berlin and Weimar on 3-15 March. A Doll’s House performed at the Novelty Theatre on 7 June. Die Freie Bühne in Berlin selects Ghosts as its opening play on 29 September. 1890 Hedda Gabler published in December. First collected edition of Ibsen’s dramas in English begins publication under the editorship of William Archer. Andre Antoine presents Ghosts at the Theatre Libre in Paris on 29 May. 1891 Returns to Norway and settles in Christiania. Meets Hildur Andersen. J.T. Grein’s Independent Theatre performs Ghosts in London on

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13 March, and causes a storm of criticism. 1892 The Master Builder published on 12 December (first performance at the Lessingtheater in Berlin on 19 January, 1893). Sigurd Ibsen marries Bergliot Bjørnson, daughter of the poet Bjornstjerne Bjornson. 1893 His first grandchild born on 11 July. 1894 Little Eyolf published in December (first staged at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin on 12 January, 1895). 1895 Moves into the apartment on the corner of Arbiensgate and Drammensveien in Christiania and stays there for the rest of his life. 1896 Gabriel Borkman published on 12 December. 1898 In Christiania, Copenhagen and Stockholm his 70th birthday is celebrated. His collected works in Norwegian and in German published. 1899 When We Dead Awaken published on 19 December. 1900 Suffers his first stroke which stops his writing. Suffers second stroke the following year. 1906 Dies on 23 May.

2.6. Introduction to Modern Drama and Scandinavian Modernism Henrik Ibsen is regarded as the founding father of Modern European Drama at the end of the Nineteenth century (Egan (ed.) 1972: 95). Toril Moi, in Henrik Ibsen and the Birth of Modernism, discusses that the Scandinavian dram has just been understood as a viable and important alternative to “European modernism’s emphasis on poetry or complex narrative schemes” (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 481). Strindberg and Ibsen are known to have contributed a lot to the European modernism in the late nineteenth century society. They made European public face the challenges to their public and private lives (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 481). Modernism and realism directly corresponds to the public. Ibsen’s and Strindberg’s plays had the power and potential to “make the private public, stage social conflict from individual perspectives, and travel in highly public (sometimes scandalous) forms through avant-garde and mainstream productions around Europe from the 1890s onward” (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 482). Ibsen’s Ghosts (1881) deals with hereditary syphilis, incest, mercy killing,

39 and blackmail. The play exhibits “a defining aspect of the Modern Breakthrough movement, namely a raging public debate over sexual morality, prostitution, marital double standards, and women’s political and economic emancipation” (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 482). The themes actually show that how they contributed to the development of modernism in Scandinavia. Scandinavian modernism clearly exemplifies and exhibits the sexualized power dynamic. Those topics incorporated into dramatic form as the constructions of masculinity and femininity (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 482). Ibsen wrote prose dramas. His prose drama represent modernist dramatic forms which account for “psychological complexity and irrationality as well as cultural context, not least in ways that combine detailed stage directions with dialogue full of contractions, parallelisms, and unresolved paradoxes” (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 482). Ibsen is regarded as Scandinavia’s first transnational modernist. Many of his plays’ setting is Norway though he lived in Rome and Munich for many years. For instance Ghosts was hardly performed in Scandinavia in 1880s (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012:482). It was staged by radical theatres such as Freie Bühne in Berlin, Theatre Libre in Paris and The Independent in London. Such performances made Ibsen known in “the Anglo-American modernism” (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 482). Ibsen’s plays, mainly, were translated into English by William Archer and they were planted into English. “Ibsen’s analytical method, framed in a complex metaphorical and structural world, while clad in an apparently simplistic prose of the everyday (arguably easier to translate into idiomatic English than verse) became particularly influential for Henry James, George Bernard Shaw and later James Joyce” (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 482). August Strindberg, Ibsen’s contemporary, deals with debates and conflicts of sexual morality to propel his experimental plays of the 1880s (Wollaeger & Eatough (eds.) 2012: 482). Strindberg is known to have been inspired and influenced by the naturalistic works by Emile Zola who also contributed a lot to the modern drama. Strindberg’s plays such as Miss Julie (1887), Creditors (1888), A Dream Play (1902), and Ghost Sonata (1907) are the good examples of modern drama. These plays are the “relinquishing of types in favour of an emulation of

40 human psychology that stresses irrationality, subjectivity, and incomprehensibility as in Ghost Sonata’s transformations of characters into living dead, mummies, and parrots” (482). Strindberg uses stage space and props. While a great majority of Ibsen’s plays are set in domestic locations, Strindberg’s plays, generally, move through locations.

2.7. Ghosts (1881) It is a domestic drama in three acts written by Ibsen in 1881 and was translated by James McFarlane (McFarlane (trans.) 1981: 89). The characters are Mrs. Helene Alving who is widow of late Captain Alving, Osvald Alving, her son, a painter, Paster Manders, Engstrand, a carpenter, Regina Engstrand, a maid of Mrs. Alving. The setting is Mrs. Alving’s country estate in West Norway. The play, in fact, aims to deal with a desperate wife whose futile attempts and to keep the dead buried in their graves (Johnston 1992: 190). Its major theme is about the relation of the living to dead. It is a family drama. Its subject matter refers to the subject matter of the ancient Greek tragedy (Ibid:, 191). Ibsen, somehow, resurrects “the spirit of Greek drama” (Johnston 1992:191). To Ibsen scholars, it is known that Ibsen was influenced and inspired by the Greek tragedies such as Oresteria, the Oedipus Tyrannous, and The Bacchae. Actually Ghosts attracts our attention to the themes and conflicts of individual, family and society. It questions ethical issues as the Ancient Greek tragedians did. Johnston, in his The Ibsen Cycle, puts its historical antecedents as: The World of Ghosts is a historically determined one, in which the condition of the present can be understood only by a process of imaginative historical recollection and analysis. Identities on the stage, for all their vivid particularity and immediacy, also are universal and archetypal: the priest, Manders; his “satanic” complement, Engstrand; the intellectually inquiring Helene; the artist, Osvald,….Religion, art, and intellectual inquiry, which are as important to the play’s meanings as the life histories and destinies of fictional individuals, did not drop full-blown from heaven onto the modern scene…( Johnston 1992: 192). What we understand from that quote is that Ibsen is assuming a culture crisis in the moment of history. The individual within a certain society

41 experiences a cultural crisis. Ghosts proves that an individual is a product of culture. William Archer puts it as: The complete human being is no longer a product of nature, he is as artificial product like corn, and fruit-trees, and the Creole race and thoroughbred horses and dogs, the vine, etc.- The fault lies in that all mankind has failed. If a man claims to live and develop in a human way it is megalomania. All mankind, and especially the Christian part of it, suffers from megalomania (Archer qtd. in Johnston 1992: 193). The major character, Helene Alving, represents “the pietistic and life- denying tradition of puritan Christianity” (Archer qtd. in Johnston 1992: 195). It is clear she has just set herself against the all joys of life. The individual consciousness against the conventional society is represented by Helene and Osvald. It reads: conflicts and problems experienced by the husband-wife, parent- child, brother-sister relationships. The conflict between the priest, Manders, who is spiritually a conventional and orthodox one, the spiritual quest of Helen is tested. The following quote demonstrates how hard Mrs. Alving faced the harsh reality of obedience to one sided law: ( 197). “Mrs. Alving: They’d drilled me so much in duty and things of that kind that I went on here all too long putting my faith in them. Everything resolved into duties-my duties and his duties, and-I’m afraid I made this home unbearable for your poor father” (Ibsen 1970: Act III). Mrs. Alving actually condemns herself for many things. But that condemnation is not about her personal independent character. Duty is the key term and leitmotiv in the play. The sense of duty is in clash with consciousness. Mrs. Alving’s affair in the past with priest, Manders violated her sense of duty. Rather than seeking her own spiritual duty, Alving seems to give herself to the society in which she lives and the society’s mores when the play starts. Ghosts also depicts Ibsen’s own times from a historical perspective. To Ibsen scholars that period was the making of modern consciousness. The grouping of the characters helps us visualize them. The characters’ representations are as following: Jakob Engstrand, a fallen man as told in Old Testament; Captain

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Alving, a Pre-Christian pagan man; Pastor Manders, Post-Christian; Johanna, body; Helene and Osvald, mind; Alving’s sailors’ home, Destruction of physical Eros; Orphange, collapse of artistic work and destruction of spiritual Eros (Ibid:, 206). The grouping clearly shows that it is an examination of a life based on erroneous paradigms. Engstrand, Captain Alving and Manders are male figures who were in the past of Helene Alving. Helene Alving’s attachment to Manders’s pietism and bigotry and “her bad conscience over the consequences of her husband’s way of life-all of these valuations emerging from her own particular upbringing and worldview” (Ibid:, 206). That point of the play is the most significant part of it. Jakob Engstrand, as a fallen man, is a graceless man. Captain Alving with his joy of life is given as energetic and creative with Eros. Manders represents Pro- Christianity with his spiritual tradition. Ghosts holds a mirror to nature by depicting such diverse characters. The history of Alving family is, somehow, representative of a wider spiritual history. The coastal town is the setting of the play. It seems that the town is isolated from the wider world so people of that coastal town are watchful, moralistic, suspicious, and unforgiving to anyone whose is bereft of moral values. Johnston argues it as: The geography-or topography-of the world of Ghosts, therefore, is a metaphoric landscape where even the most prosaic-seeming details (schoolhouse, chapel, sailor’s home, orphanage, and family home) carry universal as well as particular connotations, and when Ibsen invades this landscape with historical and cultural consciousness, larger perspectives open up (Ibid:, 211). In the First Act we see Jakob Engstrand talks to his daughter to persuade her to come and work at the sailor’s pub which he is to open. But Regina does not want to leave her job as Mrs. Alving’s maid. Her father goes off then Pastor Manders comes up. Manders begs for Regina to help her father. After Regina leaves, Mrs. Alving comes in. Osvald who has been abroad for a long time also comes down from upstairs. Osvald was sent to France by his mother many years in order not to inherit any ill manners of his late father. Manders and Osvald have an argument on living out of wedlock. Pastor Manders puts blame on Osvald’s mother for her son’s irresponsible and immoral

43 behaviour. Manders keeps on admonishing her for leaving her husband once years ago. Mrs. Alving responds to Paster’s accusations by saying that her husband caused her to have such a miserable life that is why she sent her son to France to save him from inheriting his father’s traits. Mrs. Alving reveals that Regina is the child of her husband and Johanna who was the former maid of the Alvings. While all going on, Osvald is seen to be making advances on Regina. The Pastor and Mrs. Alving talk about Osvald’s interest in Regina. Pastor Manders finds out that Osvald goes mad at his parents as they never told him the sheer truth about Regina. Jakob Engstrand comes in and tells the Pastor that he should give a prayer at the orphanage which has been built for the memory of late Captain Alving. Pasto Manders admonishes him as he did not tell the truth about Johanne’s and late Captain Alving’s affair. Engstrand states that it was only done to save Johanna’s name and repudiation from and gossip and rumour. After the Pastor and Engstrand leave, Mrs. Alving tries to talk to her son, Osvald. Osvald keeps on drinking. Mrs. Alving intends to tell Osvald the truth that Regina is half-sister of him. And she wants to tell him all about his father’s debauchery. The illness Osvald suffers inherited from his father. Actually, Osvald’s illness is syphilis. While he was in Paris, France, he went to a doctor to get examined, the doctor diagnosed his illness as syphilis passed on him from his father. During that time, as it was tradition, it was thought that the sins of a father visited his son. Osvald complains how gloomy it is in Norway and the misery and hypocrisy of the people. To him the misery and hypocrisy of Norwegians prevents him from enjoying life which he enjoyed much while abroad. Then the orphanage catches fire Pastor Manders and Engstrand comes back home, they announce that the orphanage has been destroyed by the fire. Jakob Engstrand threatens the Pastor that his unforgivable carelessness caused the fire as the Pastor let the prayer candles cause a fire, so the Pastor’s carelessness will bring about a public scandal. Engstrand does not hesitate to blackmail Pastor Mander to get some money from him to establish his sailor’s pub. Unless the Pastor gives him that money, Engstrand would tell everybody that the Pastor’s carelessness caused the devastation of the orphanage and it will tarnish the Pastor’s fame as a reverend

44 religious person. Engstrand tries to convince the Pastor that his sailor’s pub will be dedicated to the reform of the sailors. At the end Mrs. Alving makes Regina and Osvald face the sheer truth about their father. After hearing it, Regina is compelled to feel cheated and betrayed and claims her part of inheritance from the Alvings. Osvald seems to be partly relieved after facing the truth about his father and Regina. Osvald asks for her mother do a favour for him, when the relapse strikes him severely she should give him morphine pills to die peacefully. When the sunlight penetrates into room through the window Osvald dissolves into his chair and utters nonsense. His mother, Mrs. Alving recklessly fetches the pills and gives them to him as she seems to have lost all hope for her son’s recovery. All in all, at the end of the play we are left with a mother and wife who became a victim of the duty. After leaving her husband for Manders, then she came back to him. She stayed loyal to her husband and was determined to guard her husband’s fame with selfless devotion which caused her unhappiness. Her sending her son abroad to prevent him from inheriting his father’s ill manners proved fruitless. McFarlane beautifully sums it up in his Ibsen & Meaning, Studies, Essays, & Prefaces 1953-87: “To live in the present, to live for the future, one must escape from the past. Inevitably, however, the effort to break free brings the individual into immediate conflict with organized society and its institutions, with established mores that derived from past ages and stubbornly lived on” (McFarlane 1989: 239).

2.8. Comments and Criticism on Ghosts in the English Press It is worth mentioning the controversy and shock Ghosts caused in England after its production in London. We have narrowed our selection of criticism and reviews to certain papers and articles. The main source we have used is “Henrik Ibsen Critical Heritage” edited by Michael Egan and published the Routledge in 1972. The reviews and criticism appeared in Daily Telegraph 1891, Daily News 1891, Daily Chronicle 1891, Evening News and Post 1891, Evening News Post 1891, Evening Standard 1891, Sunday Times 1891, Hawk 1891,

45

Mirror 1891 and Pall Mall Gazette 1891 are our primary choices. It is a wretched, deplorable, loathsome history, as all must admit. It might have been a tragedy had it been treated by a man of genius. Handled by an egotist and a bungler, it is only a deplorably dull play. But out of all this mass of vulgarity, egotism, coarseness and absurdity we can at least select one character, if not for our sympathy, at least for our pity. Mrs. Alving stands out from the rest because she is human. It is all dull, undramatic, uninteresting verbosity—formless, objectless, pointless (Clement Scott, Daily Telegraph 14 March 1891, 3). Dramatic art never, in our deliberate judgement, had enemies more deadly than those who have recently clubbed together to bolster up the reputation of the Norwegian writer Henrik Ibsen, and who yesterday evening produced upon a semi-private stage his positively abominable play entitled Ghosts. Ay! the play performed last night is ‘simple’ enough in plan and purpose, but simple only in the sense of an open drain; of a loathsome sore unbandaged; of a dirty act done publicly; or of a lazar-house with all its doors and windows open. In Ibsen’s melancholy and malodorous world the ghosts that walk seem all of them, moreover, evil and miserable (Editorial comment, Daily Telegraph 14 March 1891, 5). The great life problem,’ ‘emancipated men and women,’ and so forth—by which the true Ibsenite is made manifest to his brother and sister enthusiasts, were, we need hardly say, once more in the air. The Ibsenite idiom, we had reached ‘the inner truth of the situation’—at last ‘the woman had the higher light’ (Daily News 14 March 1891, 6). We have alluded to Ghosts as revoltingly suggestive and blasphemous. The characters are either contradictory in themselves, uninteresting, or abhorrent. The only really respectable individual in the piece, Pastor Manders, is nerveless just when courage is required, is an easy prey to schemers, and is rather too addicted to figuratively bringing the pulpit into private houses. Osvald, ‘worm-eaten from his birth,’ with Regina. The one is detestable in his craft and hypocrisy, the other a pitiful, mean, and abject creature in the exposition of the doctrine of heredity (Daily Chronicle

46

14 March 1891, 3). It is all strong and masterful work in its way. If a play consisted in making characters reveal themselves in dialogue alone, Ghosts would be within measurable distance of a great play. Mr. Ibsen is a crank on the point of ‘heredity.’ She also fires off a lot of Ibsenite Social doctrine to confuse the aged cleric. The sanctimonious carpenter is a coarser study, and the mother, in some points, I cannot accept as a type of any conceivable mother, but it is all strong and masterful work in its way (Evening News and Post 14 March 1891, 1). Well, at any rate, Ghosts has been performed in a London theatre, and now surely the Lord Chamberlain must logically allow anything that has the excuse of art, however morally hideous, though Scotland Yard—or shall we say Clement Scotland Yard?—be eager for the fray (Sunday Times 15 March 1891, 7). As everybody knew it was extremely dirty, everyone connected with the new cult, especially women, was mad to enjoy it. That a judicious, but not Mrs. Grundyish, censorship of the stage isnecessary is amply proved by the production of Ghosts, which has neither wit, poetry, cleverness, nor common sense to recommend it, for it is as dull and stupid as it is dirty. Can anyone but a crazy Ibsenite really take these things as an average picture of humanity? It may be of Norwegian humanity, but certainly it is not of English. Some of the socialistic atheist school became positively ecstatic, and when a heavier lump of dirt than usual was shied at the audience, would look round with a triumphant glance, as much as to say— ‘What do you say to that, ye unemancipated? Where now are your babyish Shakespeares and Sheridans, and all the other weak-kneed dramatists, past and present? This is real art; this is the new revelation, the new Scriptures.’ (Mirror 17 March 1891). A mother who sacrifices all feelings to the love of her son; her son who being a prig does not consider his mother’s feelings; a parson who is worldly; a carpenter who trades on his assumption of sanctity; and a slavey who sighs for satin, scent and champagne. Nothing very new in these, I fancy. As a study of hereditary disease, to my mind, it is perfectly amateurish. I am afraid I cannot

47 discuss the subject, but if you doubt my word ask any intelligent doctor if I am not right. What merit, therefore, has it got? To my mind, absolutely none. As a man of the world, I saw nothing new and nothing true in it. It was merely dull dirt (Hawk 17 March 1891, 291–2). ‘Ibsen’s positively abominable play entitled Ghosts…. This disgusting representation…. Reprobation due to such as aim at infecting the modern theatre with poison after desperately inoculating themselves and others…. An open drain: a loathsome sore unbandaged; a dirty act done publicly; a lazar-house with all its doors and windows open….Candid foulness…. Kotzebue turned bestial and cynical. …Offensive cynicism…. Ibsen’s melancholy and malodorous world…. Absolutely loathsome and fetid…. (Pall Mall Gazette 8 April 1891, 3). Henrik Ibsen.—‘An egotist and a bungler.’ ( the Daily Telegraph, 1891). There was very little to offend the ear directly. On the Ibsen stage their nastiness is inferential, not actual. They call a spade a spade in a roundabout and circumlocutory fashion. It can no more be called Greek for its plainness of speech and candid foulness than could a dunghill at Delphi or a madhouse at Mitylene (William Archer, the Daily Telegraph of March 14). As the above quotes and extracts from the press reveal that while majority of them harshly criticize Ibsen and his work, the others are favour for it. It shows that the English public was divided into two spheres: Those who love Ibsen and those who hate him, not in between.

2.9. Collocational Reading and Analyses of Ghosts and Pygmalion We have tried to analyse and read both plays in hand act by act according to the seven types of collocations so here are the tables of Ghosts and Pygmalion given below.

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GHOSTS ACT I NOUN + NOUN %4 VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN %10 VERB + NOUN %27 ADVERB +ADJECTIVE %11 VERB +ADVERB %7 ADVERB + VERB %8 ADJECTIVE + NOUN %33

GHOSTS ACT II NOUN + NOUN %4 VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN %12 VERB + NOUN %24 ADVERB + ADJECTIVE %11 VERB + ADVERB %8 ADVERB + VERB %5 ADJECTIVE + NOUN %36

GHOSTS ACT III NOUN + NOUN %2 VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN %14 VERB + NOUN %24 ADVERB +ADJECTIVE %12 VERB + ADVERB %9 ADVERB + VERB %7 ADJECTIVE + NOUN %32

PYGMALION ACT I NOUN + NOUN %12 VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN %6 VERB + NOUN %27 ADVERB + ADJECTIVE %8

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VERB + ADVERB %7 ADVERB + VERB %2 ADJECTIVE + NOUN %38

PYGMALION ACT II NOUN + NOUN %5 VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN %10 VERB + NOUN %27 ADVERB + ADJECTIVE %13 VERB + ADVERB %9 ADVERB + VERB %1 ADJECTIVE + NOUN %35

PYGMALION ACT III NOUN+NOUN %7 VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN %15 VERB + NOUN %17 ADVERB + ADJECTIVE %17 VERB + ADVERB %7 ADVERB + VERB %7 ADJECTIVE + NOUN %30

PYGMALION ACT IV

NOUN + NOUN %10 VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN %5 VERB + NOUN %19 ADVERB + ADJECTIVE %15 VERB + ADVERB %4 ADVERB + VERB %4 ADJECTIVE + NOUN %43

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PYGMALION ACT V NOUN + NOUN %4 VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN %9 VERB + NOUN %23 ADVERB + ADJECTIVE %11 VERB + ADVERB %6 ADVERB + VERB %3 ADJECTIVE + NOUN %44

GHOSTS ACT I PYGMALION ACT I NOUN + NOUN NOUN + NOUN school house theatre fare orphanage job/building theatre door Sailors' Home copper's nark parish register fortune telling six months' notice music hall business side police whistle carpenter's shop kerbstone English bachelor establishment garden party model husbands/ fathers lady's maid business executer/advisor shop assistant servant girl oil shop purchase price song sheets %4 %12

The procedure that we will use and apply to the analysis of both plays are as following. First we give the numbers of collocations for each type then their percentages and finally comparing both plays act by act according to the specified collocational types. In Act I of Ghosts Ibsen uses thirteen noun + noun collocations while Shaw employs eleven noun + noun collocations in Pygmalion. In Act I of Ghosts the percentage of noun + noun is %4 while in Pygmalion is %12 per cent. Each percentage represents its own act and category.

51

GHOSTS ACT I PYGMALION ACT I VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN VERB + ADJECTIVE +NOUN use filthy language take down (every) blessed word roaming the high seas keep impertinent remarks (to self) get a nice little house cease detestable boohooing ask a big deposit utter depressing, disgusting sounds turn into pretty little piece do genuine scientific work have a little sleep/rest have a little joke have a soft point have a considerable fascination get to know new trends cover the running expenses dedicate to a higher purpose covering against all possible contingencies attach a certain importance have a proper faith have an inhibiting effect take a grave responsibility give the wrong impression enjoy a very special measure of protection have a good appetite have a similar expression have a good reason holding forth about outrageous immorality take a little walk say (every) single word address the assembled company guide stumbling steps

52 risk good name possess the necessary strength (of mind) live a quite irreproachable and affectionate life do a great wrong fight endless battle listen to obscene/stupid remark breath the foul air (figurative meaning) read old government gazette inherit a single thing %10 %6

While the number of Verb + Adj. + Noun collocations is 36 in Act I in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 5 but the percentage is %10 in Ghosts and %6 per cent in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT I PYGMALION ACT I VERB + NOUN VERB + NOUN say things get/take/have a cab have (a few)drinks drop (theatre)fares have rendez-vous's have (a bit of) gumption have a word with (you) give/ keep change finish work hold tongue (figurative) run Orphanage call by name take the (night) boat spare money resist temptation have a right come/go/leave home keep off the kerb bother head take Bible oath use language say a word drive (her) to death mean (no) harm make a mess lay a charge save (quite a bit of)money make (no) charge

53 lend a hand take down words lavish education on (you) do harm put (a lot of) money by get pneumonia make a start lose time slam doors make a living have a talk drop Kentish Town do (the whole) trip open mouth respect judgement seek shelter get consent have a jaw keep house go home feel affection/ respect settle business catch the boat take up art read books waste time examine publications have responsibility found Orphanage get down to business bring (a certain amount of) pressure draw up agreement have (details of) capital sum take exception reduce the burden run risk make attacks make good the damage give offence catch fire confess failings preserve (some) integrity (of soul) make a name

54 do (much) painting gather strength play tricks bear the name accomplish joys (of living) have opportunity set up a home start a family have a home cost money take trip have a look (around) get home say word have standards have courage refresh (your)memory unveil a memorial have right do duty commit excesses condone conduct tell the truth sit in judgement cast away the cross seek refuge lead to path (of duty) deny duty tolerate (any kind of ) restrain dispose of a burden raise memorial do wrong make a speech

55 make excuse pass judgement on use expression drag into bed take control ask questions get credit kick over traces kill rumours sweep away misgivings donate money pass money to sb. draw the corks %27 %27

While the number of Verb + Noun collocations is 93 in Act I in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 24 but the percentages are both %27.

GHOSTS ACT I PYGMALION ACT I ADVERB + ADJECTIVE ADVERB + ADJECTIVE dripping wet very helpless damned careful very well often enough nearly over very handy quite right right enough very curious very concerned quite fine quite right hard enough pretty busy quite well horribly tired very quiet quite nicely fairly well

56 particularly strong (character) quite happy awfully lonely extremely pleased quite convenient painfully conscientious newly erected (building) absolutely sound terribly easy true enough rather careless very touched extremely favourable quite small rather pleased quite pale really nice quite wrong particularly sham deeply concerned very serious very well utterly miserable extremely inconsiderate Disastrously selfish and stubborn quite dazed very good %11 %8

While the number of Adverb+ Adjective collocations is 40 in Act I in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 7 but the percentage is %11 in Ghosts and %8 per cent in Pygmalion.

57

GHOSTS ACT I PYGMALION ACT I VERB + ADVERB VERB + ADVERB know well (enough) Thank (you)kindly learn (quite)a lot out start worse do (pretty)well stay (any)longer stay(very)long say out loud talk (a bit)quiter cease instantly see(pretty) regularly make hop fast admit (quite)frankly come promptly think best examine closely think principally know perfectly well help considerably tell straight try very hard thank sincerely come along helplessly go on openly judge proper move immediately improve a little last long calculate carefully %7 %7

While the number of Verb + Adverb collocations is 23 in Act I in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 6 but the percentages are both %7 respectively. GHOSTS ACT I PYGMALION ACT I ADVERB + VERB ADVERB + VERB well believe simply get soaked really want really have (not)

58 sorely need honestly say really think really consider seriously believe quite agree honestly see easily take exception seriously misrepresent conceivably find partly intend undoubtly be made nearly have (fire) really feel desperately need certainly try well imagine distinctly remember rather think (to be) greatly pitied nearly jeopardize eventually come regularly call finally force simply take for granted %8 %2

While the number of Adverb +Verb collocations is 27 in Act I in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 2 but the percentage is %8 in Ghosts and %2 per cent in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT I PYGMALION ACT I ADJECTIVE + NOUN ADJECTIVE + NOUN

59 young master all this time last night/ time poor boy frail creatures sudden rain this morning/afternoon/time selfish pig pleasant journey kind lady posh people young gentleman little bitch a poor girl only child a good girl a lonely deserted widower a respectable girl a real classy hotel silly girl cheap dumps proper writing real classy people young women seafaring men nice thing dirty little brats a blooming busybody Little Harbour Road some day miserable rainy weather plain-clothes copper a guiding hand sporting whistle good girl frightening people a single man unmanly coward a good house a fat one (living) a proper gentleman human being blessed committees divine gift old things articulate speech the whole winter native language a nice, dutiful son bilious pigeon darling boy commercial millionairesses a sad/ good thing Miltonic lines natural feelings Indian dialect strange thing Spoken Sancrit personal opinion Universal Alphabet great world kind gentleman Memorial Home young man a great convenience (whole) blooming basket

60 attractive interest good mortgage investment (quite) a different thing a considerable body (amount) responsible opinion independent, influential position Divine Providence clear conscience painful position influential people zealous ones (people) certain papers general public a good workman bad leg Prodigal son young friend mortal view little room great beads (of sweat) a fine, enterprising man (very) early age a bright lad a very moot point proper place/ home artistic circles young artist/men/woman proper and comfortable homes illicit relationship so-called sham marriages (the)slight(est)sense (of decency) a poor young artist eager young people

61 blatant immorality accepted thing (from) very start regular Sunday visitor unconventional homes a run-away wife reckless women a gross exaggeration married life popular opinion debauched husband youthful indiscretions a debauched life a low voice very house secret drinking modest haunts respectable men glorious free life confounded tiredness life-long friend critical moment well-chosen time (the tenth) anniversary the very brink(of disaster) wanton idea sacred ties the last person a high(er) power close friend hysterical intentions lawful husband humble instrument

62 a tremendous blessing profligate ways a decent man a great benefactor (a very) efficient helpmate big mistake little boy final humiliation polluted house(figurative mean.) terrible ordeal useful innovations lucid intervals bad conscience a good match everlasting rain white/red wine Long, ghastly farce %33 %38

While the number of Adjective + Noun collocations is 126 in Act I in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 33 but the percentage is %33 in Ghosts and %38 per cent in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT II PYGMALION ACT II NOUN + NOUN NOUN + NOUN ironing room flower shop family life a lady friend (of mine) committee work day's income church register garden party dance halls housekeeping book Seamen's Home florist's shop fellow man porridge saucepan

63 dining room family feeling holiday spirits a bird cage winter night %4 %5

While the number of Noun + Noun collocations is 9 in Act 2 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 10 but the percentage is %4 in Ghosts and %5 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT II PYGMALION ACT II VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN swallow a single bite pronounce (24) distinct vowel sounds give a fair amount of money have an interesting accent do a foolish thing have a big offer get married to a fallen woman have a good ear and quick tongue marry to a fallen man have slight intention bring a cruel reckoning look a worn-out drudge of fifty build up a beautiful illusion order new clothes stand for funny business take better care of (you) have the right attitude of mind have (no) feeling heart give/lend a helping hand excuse the straight question make false entries use a certain word have possible excuse put(her) back into old things judge a poor woman have extraordinary ideas ask one little question have a certain natural gift (of rhetoric) take filthy gold or notes do a good deal do a good deed make a bad use show sincere regret have a good mind spend an improving hour pick up free-easy ways take good care earn good money get a very different explanation cut (your) old friends go for a little walk change into cold things( clothes) enjoy delicious cooking try on new things (clothes)

64 go in for reckless living take on a stiff job get violent pains start on a big new picture ask for a detailed explanation swill nagging thoughts down have serious shortcomings live a different life give a funny look have a heart-warming time %12 %10

While the number of Verb +Adjective + Noun collocations is 31 in Act 2 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 23 but the percentage is %12 in Ghosts and %10 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT II PYGMALION ACT II VERB + NOUN VERB + NOUN drop hints listen to sounds tell a tale do wrong arrange about wedding take interest take the blame on make records take counsel (with heart) give/ have lessons turn down an offer ask for (any) compliment keep secret make (no) mistake lead life bring business shatter ideals ask favour have ideals make compliment mess up life get (French)lessons come to arrangement teach language represent ideals hold (your) tongue( fig.) do duty wipe (your) eyes give ideas make (that)good observe the proprieties bet expenses descend from unions wash face and hands discuss questions lose a chance pick up newspaper take off clothes

65 do thinking give trouble submit to duty/obligations call police go home hurt delicacy conceal/ hide the truth make a lady (of you) want a word with go home finish up the evening earn living say a prayer make fuss leave service have / get feelings take oath see difficulty show confidence talk grammar withhold the information keep to the point raise the fallen take a taxi keep promise give orders get into trouble take rides (in taxi) screw up courage start life break heart refuse offer roam off sea take charge of commit a sin mean (any) harm bring up the child make friends provide a home live life give a pat take advantage put aside money speak English make a start call attention light candles have trouble brighten up the place get a place pass judgement extort money collect up documents ask for a brass farthing finish /smoke cigar say a word keep out the damp take Bible oath make difference give jaunt have heart give ride home get home tell story shake off thoughts take (a sort of) fancy

66 learn the truth save money ask questions give pleasure produce letters have hold on cause worry give presents have / fetch a glass take /give advice bear agony improve mind do (our)damnedest have a job believe in ideals give help lend a hand %24 %27

While the number of Verb + Noun collocations is 62 in Act 2 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 59 but the percentage is %24 in Ghosts and %27 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT II PYGMALION ACT II ADVERB + ADJECTIVE ADVERB + ADJECTIVE a little clearer really amazing quite bewildered (to be) quite done up completely inexperienced very common very well up very well quite clearer good enough (money) quite abject fully equivalent utterly different quite wrong terribly different real good utterly dissimilar almost irresistible really rather shocked deliciously low quite plainly (duty) horribly dirty closely related big enough (get) properly rid of easy enough (to be) simply lodged quite right

67 abysmally afraid (of) very clever decently married beautifully dressed remarkably well developed physically very frequently very well up very particular awfully glad a little impatient pretty bad particularly careful really solemn really grown-up very admirable (to be) firmly persuaded extremely careful entirely honourable very happy hardly right really ill damned silly blissfully happy (life) extremely silly really terrible hard enough quite ready really fashionable radiantly happy (faces) %11 %13

While the number of Adverb + Adjective collocations is 29 in Act 2 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 28 but the percentage is %11 in Ghosts and %13 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT II PYGMALION ACT II VERB + ADVERB VERB + ADVERB go out for a bit talk (more) genteel put up with (any)longer speak sensible mature very early do better work hard express clearly tell straight dress beautifully judge too harshly look ahead a little marry properly understand thoroughly change considerably speak beautifully ask very humbly put plainly and fairly go carefully speak properly

68 sit long handle carefully get on quite well swear a great deal too much stand any longer do habitually throw wantonly, thoughtlessly speak properly stay too long need less/more talk over quietly eat less hearty take seriously drink a lot more speak plainly grow big enough thank (you) kindly bring up too strictly come regularly %8 %9

While the number of Verb +Adverb collocations is 18 in Act 2 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 21 but the percentage is %8 in Ghosts and %9 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT II PYGMALION ACT II ADVERB + VERB ADVERB + VERB distinctly remember rather fancy honestly believe properly say nicely work out nearly choke simply (not) understand possibly know quite understand very nearly hit naturally admit half hope really care very much really notice very much simply (not) have %5 %1

While the number of Adverb +Verb collocations is 11 in Act 2 in Ghosts,

69 the number in Pygmalion is 4 but the percentage is %5 in Ghosts and %1 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT II PYGMALION ACT II ADJECTIVE + NOUN ADJECTIVE + NOUN shut door the whole show excellent dinner a fearful strain true/unfortunate state of affairs a young woman the whole thing a common girl a passing fancy queer people (in a) great hurry visible speech fancy going broad Romic (300)miserable dollars written transcript a fallen man last night a big difference a foolish ignorant girl a whole fortune a real French gentleman a daily guest a simple shilling near relatives silly girl sheer madness the greatest teacher alive strict accord (with) inspired follies (a very) wrong thing draggletailed guttersnipe poor man good fire an old reprobate new ones (clothes) the whole lot brown paper shocking idea a good girl a good thing an ungrateful wicked girl a miserable coward a great amusement legal marriage mere pronunciation a shocking union beautiful moustache old defunct theories/beliefs military man a nice harvest proper bedroom Disgusting, free thinking pamphlets back kitchen

70 loathsome thing black beetles hard struggle presumptuous flower girls pitiful defeat ungrateful and wicked girl great victory a great bully lawful husband good character secret thoughts a damned nuisance old days a confirmed old bachelor dreadful things American millionaires a young, defenceless girl the best looking women the best thing extreme and justifiable excitement a good idea brown bread all this time mere alliteration a simple, ordinary man personal cleanliness real gift little things right frame of mind personal habits clear conscience clean tablecloth the real story a better example late wife last week indefensible conduct Japanese dresses exactly the same a shy, diffident (sort of) man arbitrary, overbearing bossing (kind of) good looking ones(men) person gammy leg (a very) serious matter seafaring men sentimental rhetoric a fallen woman Welsh strain stormy seas little swine good fellow musical instrument a good father a blooming monkey a poor sinner a fine, handsome girl a loving husband callous rascal good will straight (sort of) person fatherly eye general way little girl positive crime

71 a funny thing a rough justice a real joy undeserving poor a great big baby middle class morality extravagant way of( expressing) deserving widow strong liqueur a thinking man little drop popular pulpit dull weather prime minister ordinary tiredness social reform a living death undeserving poverty terrible thing good spree simply overwork lawful husband ordinary headache a new fashion terrible state hot/ cold water leading doctor woolly towels old cynic hot towel horse the incredible truth soft brushes possible explanation a wooden bowl (of soap) a hopeless wreck old liar cold punch proper trade incessant rain fashionable clothes poor darling marvellous looking only hope best friend great mortal dread terrible feeling of (dread) a whole bottle miserable affair tremendous fun flaming judgement %36 %35

While the number of Adjective + Noun collocations is 89 in Act 2 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 79 but the percentage is %36 in Ghosts and 72

%35 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT III PYGMALION ACT III NOUN + NOUN NOUN + NOUN Seamen's Home At home' day public opinion a love affair guardian angel writing table a ship's forecastle canal barge garden party a fine lady's income Shakespeare exhibition gramophone disk %2 %7

While the number of Noun + Noun collocations is 3 in Act 3 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 9 but the percentage is %2 in Ghosts and %7 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT III PYGMALION ACT III VERB + ADJECTIVE+ NOUN VERB + ADJECTIVE + NOUN make slight difference get pretty postcards give careful consideration have strict orders give a helping hand have a quick ear have a better right learn a complete new language take a great burden off try on commonplace occasions have a boundless energy and vitality get used to new ways fill an official position give a smart emphasis have a single real friend reeking with the latest slang believe in old superstition eliminate sanguinary element (to be) rid of nagging and depressing thoughts get to the present pitch

73 turn into a helpless child play with a live doll make certain arrangements tackle the hardest job ask for last helping hand change into different human being suffer unspeakable terror create a new speech have a good long rest fill up the deepest gulf have a lovely day tackle the most absorbing experiment come as a great surprise have extraordinary quickness (of ear) make possible (sort of)sound find light employment %14 %15

While the number of Verb + Adjective +Noun collocations is 17 in Act 3 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 19 but the percentage is %14 in Ghosts and %15 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT III PYGMALION ACT III VERB + NOUN VERB + NOUN drive (me)to distraction go /get home snuff it(candle)out have a job set place on fire fall in love give speech keep to subjects do (anybody)good have (a sort of) bet have a seat win bet hear word talk English bring benefit hear voice have(any) say have manner take blame for sb. take oath get support have small talk say a word break up (whole) show find outlet have pleasure bring gaiety come through diphtheria look after invalids do harm catch the boat use expression

74 make difference get parties drink champagne utter sentence make home solve the problem drive(sb) home make (no) mistake take away remorse keep records take delight give advantage have a talk earn living bear the thought inherit the illness have attack set off back home give life fetch the doctor get into(sb's) head %24 %17

While the number of Verb + Noun collocations is 30 in Act 3 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 23 but the percentage is %24 in Ghosts and %17 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT III PYGMALION ACT III ADVERB + ADJECTIVE ADVERB + ADJECTIVE utterly incomprehensible very sorry horrible careless bad enough really serious really agreeable entirely valueless very cynical utterly unhappy quite right extremely useful very glad very late awfully funny quite strong- minded fairly blue dreadfully, pitifully afraid awfully well utterly revolting bloody likely horribly revolting very old fashioned

75 marvellously light-hearted really too much quite impossible very witty very soon quite innocent (to be) completely altered quite nice perfectly cracked quite proper jolly glad frightfully interesting quite different enormously interesting infinitely stupid happy enough %12 %17

While the number of Adverb + Adjective collocations is 15 in Act 3 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 23 but the percentage is %12 in Ghosts and %17 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT III PYGMALION ACT III VERB + ADVERB VERB + ADVERB chuck away straight lie too deep let off very lightly speak properly think best come fortunately stay out long run through regularly relax a bit move slowly suit a bit better do proper sit quite calmly get on quite well go quickly take very seriously see properly play quite beautifully bother very much talk quite quietly %9 %7

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While the number of Verb + Adverb collocations is 11 in Act 3 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 9 but the percentage is %9 in Ghosts and %7 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT III PYGMALION ACT III ADVERB + VERB ADVERB + VERB hardly (dare) think thoughtfully send honestly(not) remember seriously like quite distinctly see really love very well say really think really want surely believe suddenly feel positively reek honestly (not) allow (not) quite know necessarily prove regularly fill up half solve %7 %7

While the number of Adverb +Verb collocations is 8 in Act 3 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 9 but the percentage is %7 in Ghosts and %7 in Pygmalion.

GHOSTS ACT III PYGMALION ACT III ADJECTIVE + NOUN ADJECTIVE + NOUN Terrible night large talk a dreadful thing phonetic job a terrible business ordinary writing charitable institution nice looking young women a worth benefactor loveable woman spiteful accusations good boy the worst part (of) a common flower girl the whole affair middle-class pupils a terrible calamity celebrated son the original terms a damned thing

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official inquiry shallow depression dear fellow easterly direction seafaring men great change darling boy barometrical situation deadly feeling young man poor, tormented mind new straw hat a new light old woman a young lieutenant new 'small talk' lively, happy boy male creatures little provincial town respectable dinner table proper vocation early Victorian prudery tremendous exuberance damned nonsense a broken man bloody nonsense a fine woman poor child a nice, easy man nice boy a poor girl silly boy rotten old carpenter improper language a big shock exact state (of things) a terrible thought Indian dialects mere superstition excellent arrangement a sick man confounded vowels empty words human being early morning new change a real illness Continental dialect ordinary, fatal disease African dialect ghastly thing classical concerts an imbecile child poor woman terrible ideas delicious remarks a little boy brilliant sunshine cherry-red velvet curtain %32 %30

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While the number of Adjective + Noun collocations is 41 in Act 3 in Ghosts, the number in Pygmalion is 38 but the percentage is %32 in Ghosts and %30 in Pygmalion. CONCLUSION

In this study Ibsen’s Ghosts (1881) and Shaw’s Pygmalion (1912) were closely read, interpreted and analysed from a collocational perspective. We divided the plays into seven lexical collocational categories to demonstrate the similarities and the differences consciously or unconsciously employed by these enormously important dramatists as creating these inspiring and socially thought provoking masterpieces. The chief aim of us was to search and study the concerning plays in terms of a collocational perspective to show a new approach could be adopted and furthered in stylistics as well. We wished to come up with a problem to study with concrete data leading us to present measurable,objective and practical results. We extensively used Oxford Dictionary of Collocations (Lea (ed.). 2002) to determine the collocations and the categories. We did not omit or underestimate any related collocation according to its level such as elementary, intermediate or upper- intermediate; or basic, creative, ordinary, original etc. Every collocation available in the benefited dictionary (Lea (ed.). 2002) was included into the related category with the utmost care and importance. Collocations were calculated by using simple arithmetic calculation. The plays were in seven categories as following: noun + noun, verb + adjective + noun, verb + noun, adverb + adjective, verb + adverb, adverb + verb and adjective +noun. In act 1, act 2 and act 3 of Ghost and Pygmalion, the outnumbering usage of verb+noun and adjective+noun with strikingly obvious percentages can be seen respectively when compared to the other five categories applied in the qualitative analysis. The category of adjective + noun ranks first throughout the both plays in percentage. Both dramatists apparently prefer describing the nouns to portray accurate images and to elicit certain emotions in addressing to the audience or readers. Verb+ noun collocations categorised based upon Oxford Dictionary of

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Collocations (Lea (ed.). 2002) rank second common exploited type for the purpose of sounding natural and correct in colloquial language uttered in the dialogues of the plays. Verb +adjective +noun category in Ghost is slightly much than Pygmalion when considered the acts in themselves. The reason is why the dialogues are more explanatory and long, uttered by each character in general. In Pygmalion generally direct addresses are available while in Ghost inner worlds of the characters, long- term concerns, anxieties and past events are revealed a bit more. Adverb + adjective and verb+ adverb categories are nearly equal. In adverb + adjective category adverbs are generally common basic ones such as “quite”, “very”, “really”. The least exploited category in Ghost is noun+noun category while adverb+ verb is the rarest used type of collocation in Pygmalion with approximately %3 both. The collocational readings of both plays have shown that, though Shaw was greatly inspired by Ibsen’s social realist dramas, the style of both playwrights differ from each other in many respects. Although Pygmalion and Ghosts are social realist plays in terms of their themes, the usage of the collocations by Ibsen and Shaw are, to certain extent, different and various. What we have seen is that both plays are rich in terms of collocations which colour the style of both playwrights. This study has just touched some aspects of collocations and their usage in drama texts. It will open new horizons for the future researchers to interpret drama texts from different perspectives. We are of the opinion that teaching drama texts in suitable educational settings will contribute a lot to teaching and learning of collocations.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

KİŞİSEL BİLGİLER Ad, Soyad : Müjde Demiray Cinsiyet : Bayan Doğum Tarihi : 09.04.1989 Medeni Durum : Bekar Uyruk : T.C Askerlik Durumu : Muaf

İLETİŞİM BİLGİLERİ Adres Bilgileri : Cumhuriyet Mah. 1961. sokak no:18, kat:1 Efeler/AYDIN Ev Tel. : Cep Tel : 05549389576 E-posta : [email protected]

EĞİTİM BİLGİLERİ

Yüksek Lisans: SDÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı (tez aşamasında) Üniversite: Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi (2013) Lise: Aydın Efeler Yabanci Dil Agirlikli Lisesi (2007)

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İŞ DENEYİMİ

02/2013 –05/2015 : SDÜ Yabancı Diller Yüksekokulu (Sözleşmeli İngilizce Okutman)

2016- Ardahan Üniversitesi İnsani Bilimler Fakültesi, Arş.Gör.

YABANCI DİL BİLGİSİ İngilizce: İleri Seviye /YÖKDİL 98.75 Almanca: Başlangıç Ales: s88.445

YAYINLAR

ŞEKERCİ, Ö & Müjde DEMİRAY, (2016). " The Interplay of Linguo-stylistic and Literary Aspects in Dialogic Texts in Terms of Teaching Perspectives", The 2nd International Language, Culture and Literature Workshop, Akdeniz University, Faculty of Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Antalya, June 8-10, 328-336.

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