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Women in Indira Gandhi's India, 1975-1977

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Women in Indira Gandhi's India, 1975-1977 This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights and duplication or sale of all or part is not permitted, except that material may be duplicated by you for research, private study, criticism/review or educational purposes. Electronic or print copies are for your own personal, non- commercial use and shall not be passed to any other individual. No quotation may be published without proper acknowledgement. For any other use, or to quote extensively from the work, permission must be obtained from the copyright holder/s. Emerging from the Emergency: women in Indira Gandhi’s India, 1975-1977 Gemma Scott Doctor of Philosophy in History March 2018 Keele University Abstract India’s State of Emergency (1975-1977) is a critical period in the independent nation’s history. The government’s suspension of democratic norms and its institution of many, now infamous repressive measures have been the subject of much commentary. However, scholars have not examined Emergency politics from a gendered perspective. Women’s participation in support for and resistance to the regime and their experiences of its programmes are notably absent from historiography. This thesis addresses this gap and argues that a gendered perspective enhances our understanding of this critical period in India’s political history. It assesses the importance of gendered narratives and women to the regime’s dominant political discourses. I also analyse women’s experiences of Emergency measures, particularly the regime’s coercive sterilisation programme and use of preventive detention to repress dissent. I explore how gendered power relations and women’s status affected the implementation of these measures and people’s attempts to negotiate and resist them. The thesis also highlights several ways in which women actively supported the Emergency agenda and participated in organised resistance, focusing on the manifestation of these activities in particular spaces. I utilise a diverse collection of sources, innovative methodologies and theoretical perspectives in order to bring these histories, which have hitherto been completely absent from the historiography of these events, to light. Table of Contents List of Figures and Tables………………………………………………………………………….i List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………………….iii Glossary of Terms………………………………………………………………………………….v Map of India……………………………………………………………………………………….viii Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………………ix Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….1 The Emergency…………………………………………………………………………………….3 Historiography……………………………………………………………………………………...8 Outline of chapters………………………………………………………………………………..15 Chapter One: Methodology: Locating women under Emergency…………………………...18 1.1 ‘They were all pushed aside post-Emergency’: Women’s absence from historiography……………………………………………………………………………….........21 1.2 ‘Herstories’ and gendering the Emergency………………………………………………..29 1.3 ‘Swamped with propaganda’: Discourse analysis and Emergency narratives………….40 1.4 ‘An assault on the bodies of the poor’: Emergency, women’s bodies and the archive…51 1.5 Towards a spatialised understanding of the Emergency…………………………………56 Chapter Two: Narrating the Emergency……………………………………………………….70 2.1 Performing gendered politics and Indira Gandhi’s leadership……………………………70 2.2 ‘It was the mother in her’: Nurturing the national family…………………………………...76 2.3 Femininity, the female body and representing the Emergency…………………………..94 Chapter Three: Representing women’s support for the Emergency………………………105 3.1 ‘All the minorities are with us’: Presenting the Emergency’s gains…...........................106 3.2 Rights, responsibilities and support for the Emergency…………………………………111 3.3 Symbolising popular support………………………………………………………………124 Chapter Four: Women’s bodies, women’s status and family planning under the Emergency………………………………………………………………………………………138 4.1 Locating women in narratives of nasbandi………………………………………………..142 4.2 ‘My wife had to get sterilised’: Women’s roles in negotiating coercion…………………157 4.3 Mother and Child Healthcare under the Emergency…………………………………….166 4.4 ‘Four daughters and no son’: Emergency sterilisation and the girl child……………….177 Chapter Five: Spaces of Emergency I: The home…………………………………………..185 5.1 Politicising the home………………………………………………………………………..185 5.2 ‘We fought back, we retained our spaces’: Resistance in the home……………………189 5.3 ‘Prices and women’: The Emergency’s economic programme…………………………201 5.4 ‘A great deal of fun with the middle class housewife’: Satirising the Emergency……...214 Chapter Six: Spaces of Emergency II: The prison…………………………………………..230 6.1 Political prisoners and carceral spaces…………………………………………………...231 6.2 Locating women within the Emergency’s prisons………………………………………..239 6.3 ‘Here in the jail it is a lot of fun’: Women’s narratives of imprisonment in Maharashtra……………………………………………………………………………………..251 6.4 ‘This jail experience is very precious to me. I will be a changed lady hereafter’: Politicised prison spaces……………………………………………………………………………………261 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………272 Appendix 1: Women detained under MISA in Yerwada Central Prison, Maharashtra……277 Appendix 2: Letter confirming ethical approval……………………………………………….281 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………..282 List of Figures and Tables Chapter One Table 1.1: Number (and percentage) of women in each Lok Sabha, 1951-2014…………...23 Figure 1.1: ‘Elections Results 1977’…………………………………………………………….65 Chapter Two Figure 2.1: Herbert Block Cartoon, Satyavani, 26 February 1977………………………….88 Figure 2.2: Cartoon from the Washington Post, Satyavani, 12 October 1976…………….89 Figure 2.3: Cartoon from the Herald Tribune, September 1975…………………………….90 Figure 2.4: Cover page India Today, 15 December 1975……………………………………96 Figure 2.5: ‘A better glimpse of the Emergency’……………………………………………...97 Figure 2.6: Cartoon from Satyavani, 26 July 1976………………………………………….100 Chapter Three Figure 3.1: Women at a rally in Siddhpur, northern Gujarat…………………………………127 Figure 3.2: ‘Women and children marching in hundreds to the Prime Minister’s residence on 14 June’………………………………………………………………………………………129 Figure 3.3: ‘A large contingent of women from the south’………………………………….130 Figure 3.4: ‘On 25 June, a group of pilgrims passed through Delhi’……………………...132 Figure 3.5: Socialist India’s Independence Day issue, August 1975……………………...133 Figure 3.6: Gandhi addressing an audience in Delhi on 1 March 1977…………………..134 Figure 3.7: ‘An Adivasi woman exercising her franchise’…………………………………..135 Chapter Four Table 4.1: Sterilisation operations performed and percentage of tubectomies, 1966-82...153 Chapter Five Figure 5.1: ‘Without price tags?’ Cartoon from Shankar’s Weekly, 31 August 1975……225 i Figure 5.2: Cartoon from Shankar’s Weekly, 3 August 1975……………………………...225 Figure 5.3: Ramakrishna cartoon from Shankar’s Weekly, 3 August 1975……………...226 Chapter Six Table 6.1: Arrests and Detentions in various States/Union Territories during Emergency………………………………………………………………………………………237 Table 6.2: Women detained under MISA and DIR in Maharashtra Central and District Jails………………………………………………………………………………………………248 ii List of Abbreviations ABWA All Bengal Women’s Association ACP Aurangabad Central Prison AICC All India Congress Committee AIR All India Radio APRM Anti-Price Rise Movement BCP Bombay Central Prison BJP Bharatiya Janata Party BLD Bharatiya Lok Dal CPI Communist Party of India CPI (M) Communist Party of India (Marxist) CPI (ML) Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) CSWI Committee on the Status of Women in India DAVP Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity DDA Delhi Development Authority DIR Defence of India Rules (1971) DMK Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, regional party in Tamil Nadu INC Indian National Congress IWY International Women’s Year JNU Jawaharlal Nehru University JP Jayaprakash Narayan LSS Lok Sangharsh Samiti (People’s Struggle Committee) MCH Mother and Child Healthcare MISA Maintenance of Internal Security Act (1971) MLA Member of Legislative Assembly MP Member of Parliament NCP Nagpur Central Prison NFIW National Federation of Indian Women iii NPP National Population Policy POW Progressive Organisation of Women PTI Press Trust of India RSS Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh SCI Shah Commission of Inquiry SNDT Shreemati Nathibai Damodar Thackersey Women’s University UP Uttar Pradesh YCP Yerwada Central Prison iv Glossary of Terms Adivasi scheduled tribe ashram spiritual hermitage or monastery, usually located amidst natural surroundings Ayah nursemaid/nanny balahar weaning food batashas sweets bazar market Bharat darshan India tour Bharat Mata Mother India Congress Seva Dal INC grassroots party organisation coolie labourer Dalit scheduled caste/members of castes considered to be untouchable detenue prisoner or a person detained in custody dharna non-violent, sit-in protest garibi hatao ‘remove poverty’ ghunghat veil or headscarf goonda hired thug Harijan term referring to dalits/members of castes considered to be untouchable Hindutva Hindu nationalism janata ‘the people’ jhuggi slum -ji a suffix indicating honour and respect in north Indian languages kirtan Hindu devotional songs lakh unit in the Indian numbering system equal to 100,000 v lokpreye loved by the people Lok Sabha the lower house in the Indian parliament mangal kalash vessel used in Hindu rituals or on important occasions as a sign of welcome Marathi Sahitya Sammelan Marathi literary festival Mausi Aunty (Mother’s sister) mohalla neighbourhood Mumkin ‘possible’, underground journal nasbandi
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