Advance Publication by J-STAGE Concept of the Intermediate of 1906 Paper : Cultural Anthropology Concept of the Intermediate Olympic Games of 1906: Continuity with the Past Olympics Hisashi Sanada

Institute of General Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba 1-1-1 tennodai, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 305-8574 Japan sanada＠taiiku.tsukuba.ac.jp [Received July 6, 2009; Accepted December 22, 2009; Published online April 7, 2010]

Recently, some scholars conˆrm that the IOC o‹cially approved the Intermediate Olympics of 1906 and made a decision to hold them. It has also been pointed out that the Intermediate Olympic Games contributed to restoring conˆdence in the IOC following the failures of the 1900 and 1904 Games, which were held as a part of the World Fair. Many IOC members approved the Intermediate Games despite the opposition by Coubertin, and this fact suggests that the Games had a concept with which most of the IOC members agreed with other than Greek nationalism. This research seeks to identify and clarify the concept of holding the Intermediate Olympic Games. The following conclusions were reached. Many of the members of the IOC in the initial stage supported holding the Olympic Games in in the intermediate years. This was because it emphasized the continuity with the an- cient Olympics as a historical presence. The Panathenaic Stadium was a symbol of the con- tinuity with the ancient games. Also, many of the IOC members understood the relationship with the Greek Olympia Games held in the nineteenth century. Respect for Crown Prince Con- stantine, who supported the Olympia Games and devotedly worked for the 1896 Olympic Games, was also a reason for their approval. Because of the concept of continuity with the past Olympics, the 1901 IOC session unanimously approved holding the Intermediate Olympic Games in Greece, leading to the 1906 Olympic Games.

Keywords: Intermediate Olympics, modern Greece, , Olympic Games

[International Journal of Sport and Health Science]

1. Introduction Games. . . . The Greek people have suddenly fallen under an illusion of their past and become ob- The Intermediate Olympic Games were held in sessed with glory.'' (1932 pp.41-42) He also stated, Athens from April 22 to May 2, 1906. More than ``Greece ignored me and sought an opportunity to 60,000 spectators including the King and Queen of harm me.'' (1909 p.101) British Empire and the King and Queen of Greece Based on these statements by Coubertin, the In- attended the lavish opening ceremony at the termediate Olympic Games were positioned as ex- Panathenaic Stadium. A total of 826 athletes ceptional Olympic Games. However, recent competed in 74 events from 13 sports (Miller p.58). research by Young (1988), Lennartz (2002) and Fin- These Games are currently not recognized as o‹cial dling (2004) conˆrm that the IOC o‹cially ap- Olympic Games. The Brundage Committee de- proved the Intermediate Olympics and made a deci- cided in 1949 not to recognize the Games as o‹cial sion to hold them. It has also been pointed out Olympic Games by referring to Coubertin's writings that the Intermediate Olympic Games contributed (Findling p.47). to restoring conˆdence in the IOC following the Coubertin stated that Greek nationalism inter- failures of the 1900 and 1904 Games, which were fered with him with respect to these Intermediate held as a part of the World's Fair. Olympic Games. ``The royal family requested ex- The members of the IOC approved the Intermedi- clusive control over the restored Olympic ate Games despite Coubertin's opposition, and this

International Journal of Sport and Health Science 1 http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Advance Publication by J-STAGE Hisashi Sanada fact suggests that the Games had a concept with Olympic Games. has already been selected which most of the IOC members agreed with other by the International Athletic Congress for the at- than Greek nationalism. hletic meeting of 1900, but, as formal decision has This research seeks to identify and clarify the con- been come to regarding subsequent festivals, it is cept of holding the Intermediate Olympic Games, hoped that the paramount claims of Athens will be contrasting the opinions of IOC members with that duly recognized. The idea prevailing at the con- of Coubertin. The letters and writings by IOC gress – that the cause of peace and good will among members and writings by Coubertin regarding the civilized nations would be promoted by holding the Intermediate Olympics are adopted as useful histori- festival in the diŠerent great capitals – is laudable cal materials in this study. and worthy of consideration: but Athens possesses special attractions, and nothing like the Stadion is 2. Developments Leading to the Intermediate found elsewhere. The best arrangement would, Olympic Games perhaps, be to make the games biennial and hold them alternately in Athens and some other Europe- 2.1. Declaration by the Greek King Making Greece an or American city. Thus, on the one hand, the the Permanent Site for the Olympics design of the congress would be carried out, and, on the other, the game would still preserve their Hellen- King Georgios I of Greece made the following ic character.'' (THE TIMES April 16,1896) statement at a banquet on April 12, 1896 following the closing ceremony of the ˆrst Athens Games. 2.2. Coubertin's Response ``Greece, who has been the mother and nursery of the Olympic Games in ancient times and who had Coubertin was opposed to this development. He undertaken to celebrate them once more to-day, can expressed his opinion clearly in The Times.He now hope, as their success has gone beyond all ex- submitted the following statement in opposition to pectations, that the foreigners, who have honoured The Times supporting the continuous holding of the her with their presence, will remember Athens as a Olympic Games in Greece. peaceful meeting place of all nations, as the tranquil ``To the editor of the Times; and permanent seat of the Olympic Games (Couber- An article datelined Athens, no doubt written by tin 1897).'' an enthusiastic Philhellene, informed the European The Athens Games had ended in success, and the press that a decision has been made to hold the GreekKingwantedfutureOlympicGamestobe Olympic Games in Greece from now on. Nothing held in Greece as well. It was Americans who ˆrst could be further from the truth. The Olympic responded to the Greek King's statements. Ameri- Games will move about the globe, as was decided at can athletes and Americans who lived in Athens the international congress held at the Sorbonne two made a statement on April 14, 1896 supporting the years ago. The 1900 Games will be in Paris. In continuation of holding the Games in Greece. 1904, the committee will choose between New York, ``We also desire to acknowledge our entire satis- Berlin, and Stockholm. It is perfectly understand- faction with all the arrangements for the conduct of able that the brilliant success of our undertaking re- the Games. The existence of the Stadium as a cently inspired the Greeks to desire to monopolize it structure so uniquely ahead to its purpose; the to their advantage, but we cannot sanction such a proved ability of Greece to competently administer plan.'' (THE TIMES April 30,1896) theGames,and,aboveall,thefactthatGreeceisthe Coubertin was strongly opposed to holding the original home of the Olympic Games; all these con- Games in Athens following the ˆrst modern Olym- siderations force upon us the conviction that these pic Games. He thought that the Greek people Games should never be removed from their native would monopolize the restoration of the Olympic soil.'' (New York Times May 3, 1896) Games. In addition, The Times also made a statement supporting the continuation of the Games in Greece. 2.3. Discussion by the IOC concerning the The statement is as follows. Proposal to Hold the Intermediate Olympic Games ``The wish is generously expressed that Athens should in future become the permanent scene of the Vikelas did not support the proposal to hold the

2 International Journal of Sport and Health Science http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Advance Publication by J-STAGE Concept of the Intermediate Olympic Games of 1906 modern Olympic Games at Athens continuously. approved, consequently, it can be said that the As the ˆrst IOC President, Vikelas was not able to GamesheldinAthensin1906wereoneoftheOlym- overturn the decision made at the 1894 Congress to pic Games o‹cially approved by the IOC. hold the Games at a diŠerent site each time. Vike- Renovation of the Panathenaic Stadium was com- las wrote a letter (May 19,1896) and proposed to pleted in 1905, and the Games were held the follow- Coubertin and the IOC members to hold Intermedi- ing year. The Olympic Games in Athens were con- ate Olympic Games in Greece two years from each ducted from April 22 to May 2, 1906. The 826 at- Olympic Games. This was the same proposal as hletes from 20 participating countries were double that carried in The Times.TheseGameswerelater the number who participated in the Athens Games referred to as the Intermediate Olympic Games. 10 years earlier. The King and Queen of British The background to the IOC approving the Inter- Empire traveled all the way to Greece to attend the mediate Olympic Games was as follows. Games and highly praised them. This led to the The Second , held at Le Havre strong support from the English Royal Family for from July 23 to 31, 1897, was summoned because of the 1908 Games. Rowing and soccer were a strong request from Vikelas to the IOC members. added to the lineup of events in the 1896 Games, a A proposal was to be made to hold the International women'stenniseventwasheld,andaGreekathlete Olympic Games in Greece. Vikelas's proposal was won the singles event. In addition, the tragedy to hold the Greek Olympic Games in Athens two Oedipus was performed in the ˆeld of the years after each International Olympic Games. Panathenaic Stadium, and various other artistic and President Coubertin (1909 p.106) thought that this cultural programs were held including theater and proposal was premature, and it was not debated. musical performances in the city. The cultural e- Coubertin did not even put the matter on the agen- vents were also adopted including torch processions, da. a Venetian festival at the port of Zea, tours of ar- There were, however, many IOC members who cheological sites, and lectures on sports (Mallon supported the Greek proposal. According to 1999 pp.168-169). These artistic and cultural pro- Hamer (1971), at the 1901 IOC Session, three Ger- grams were the heritage of the artistic competitions man members of the IOC including W. Gebhardt held at the Greek Olympia Games approximately 50 discussed a proposal to hold Athens Olympic Games years earlier (Olympia Committee 1869). in the intermediate years between the o‹cial Games. Coubertin did not attend these Athens Olympic The 1901 Revue Olympique (March 1901) indi- Games. Instead, he planned to hold the IOC Con- cates that this proposal was debated and ultimately gress named ``Conference for Arts, Literature and approved. According to the Revue,itwasdesira- Sports'' in Paris in May of that year. The topic of ble to hold the Athens Olympic Games in accor- discussion at the Congress was the introduction of dance with Mercati, a Greek member of the IOC, artistic competition to the Olympic Games. and a unanimous decision was made for the IOC to Coubertin (1932 p.88) stated that the Congress was support the Athens authorities. an excuse for not attending the Athens Olympic Coubertin (1909 p.136) himself indicated that a Games. At the Congress, Coubertin decided to in- decision was made at the IOC Session to hold Inter- troduce ˆve artistic competitions to the Olympics: mediate Games. ``Additional Games were to be painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, and held in Greece in 1906. It was understood that the music. These ˆve art competitions had previously IOC would give its support as well as secure that of been held since 1870 in the Greek Olympia Games the bodies already set up in diŠerent countries by its (Olympia Committee 1869). members.'' The approximately 10 members of the IOC who In addition, holding the Athens Olympic Games attended the Intermediate Olympic Games proposed in 1906 was approved at the IOC Congress held in to appoint the Greek Crown Prince honorary presi- in 1905.(Coubertin 1932 p.85, M äuller 1994 dent of the IOC and discussed the issue of moving p.67) the site of the fourth Olympic Games for 1908 from It was through these democratic discussions that a Rome to London. A resolution calling for reform decision was made to hold the Intermediate Olympic of the IOC was also adopted. This was a request to Games in 1906. Most of the IOC members sup- Coubertin by the members who supported Greece. ported the decision, and President Coubertin also The President, Coubertin (1932 pp.93-94) used his

International Journal of Sport and Health Science 3 http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Advance Publication by J-STAGE Hisashi Sanada authority to veto all requests other than that to Major revisions were made by Herodes Atticus in move the Games to London. Subsequent to this, A.D.139 and 140 to make it into a Roman style Coubertin (1932 p.88) adopted an attitude of not stadium with the semicircular sphendone at one side recognizing the Athens Intermediate Olympic and sloped spectator seating. All 50,000 spectator Gamesaso‹cialGames. seats were made of white Pentelic marble (Travlos Recent assessments of the Intermediate Olympic p.498). Pausanias (1.19.6), an ancient travel writer Games by researchers have agreed that they restored in the second century, praised the stadium as the lost conˆdence in the Olympic Movement. B. Mal- most beautiful. lon(1999p.4)statesthatthe1900and1904Olympic The stadium was partially restored in 1869 by E. Games failed because they were held as a part of the Ziller, and in the following year and 1875 the Greek World's Fair, but despite the low position within the Olympia Games were held here. Later, prior to the IOC of the 1906 Games, ``these successful Athens 1896 Olympic Games, the stadium was repaired by Games of 1906 helped resurrect the ‰agging Olym- A. Metaxas, an architect, with funds donated by Ge- pic Movement. Also, Findling (2004 p.48) states, orge Averof, a resident of Alexandria, in response ``The Games were the most international to date, to a request by Greek Crown Prince Constantine, they were the best-held to date, and they had the and the stadium was used as the event venue for the most international media attention of any of the 1896 Olympic Games. The site, which was restored Games since the 1896 Olympics in Athens.'' The to nearly its ancient form, became a sacred ground most-recent history of the Olympics put out by the for sporting competition among the people. Only IOC makes the following statement: ``Though the ˆrst few rows of spectator seats were made of relegated to the sidelines of o‹cial records, the marble, however, and all seats were restored to mar- Greeks had done far more to enhance the durability ble at the time of the 1906 Intermediate Olympic of the IOC and the Olympic Games in 1906 than Games. they had at the inaugural Games of 1896; a fact Charles Waldstein (1856-1927), a British ar- quietly admitted by some of de Coubertin's col- cheologist, made the following statements concern- leagues.'' (Miller 2008 p.58) ing the ancient stadium. He praised the main- Another signiˆcant aspect of the 1906 Olympic tenance of artistic quality of the stadium, which was Games was recognition by the King of England, restored on the basis of documentary records. Desborough, and other persons associated with ``This Stadium, especially when ˆlled with such a sports of the value of Olympic competition by ob- vast population, brings us face to face with the gran- serving the Games. The 1906 Games had an im- deur and power of the ancient community of pact on the acceptance and successful holding of the Athens. . . . The Stadium now will convey to the 1908 Games in London after their return by Rome. visitor some impression of magnitude, not in a monument erected by slaves for the gloriˆcation of 3. Concept for the Intermediate Olympic one ruler, but in a structure to house a free and Games powerful community, uniting in the peaceful delight at physical strength and skill.'' (Waldstein 1896 3.1. Continuity with the Ancient Games p.490) Coubertin made the following statement concern- It is believed that the IOC Session approved the ing the restoration of the stadium: Intermediate Olympic Games despite Coubertin's ``The chief gift came from Alexandria. It was opposition because there was a concept with which this gift which made it possible to restore the the members agreed. Stadion to its condition in the time of Atticus Her- It can be concluded from the New York Times odes. The intention had been from the ˆrst to hold and The Times articles quoted above that Greece the contests in this justly celebrated spot. . . . had a continuity with ancient times. One symbol Thanks to the generosity of M. AveroŠ, Greece is of this was the existence of the ancient stadium as an now the richer by a monument unique of its kind, event venue. and its visitors have seen a spectacle which they can In ancient times, the Athens stadium was the site never forget.'' (Coubertin 1896 p.40) of the Panathenaic Games, the largest festival in And Coubertin (ibid.) added, ``Athens will in Athens. It was constructed in 330 or 329 B.C. truth possess the temple of athletic sports.'' The an-

4 International Journal of Sport and Health Science http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Advance Publication by J-STAGE Concept of the Intermediate Olympic Games of 1906 cient Panathenaic Stadium was truly a `temple of at- honorary members. Under this leadership, the Or- hletic sports'. It was only Greece that had this type ganizing Committee was established and the city of of shrine. Holding the Olympic Games at the Athens gave approval to conducting preparations stadium served to link the ancient with the modern. for the Olympic Games (Miller p.37). His actions led to deep respect among the people of Greece as 3.2. Respect for the Crown Prince well as the many foreigners who were involved in the Games. The approval of the Intermediate Olympic The sense of respect for the Greek royal family Games in Greece was the result of gratitude and and in particular for Crown Prince Constantine was respect for the Crown Prince. considerable among persons associated with the In fact, during discussions among IOC members 1896 Olympics. A report by Waldstein praised the who attended the Intermediate Olympic Games, a Greek royal family: proposal was made to appoint Crown Prince Con- ``Here the Greek Committee, and especially the stantine Honorary President of the IOC. This King of Greece and royal family, deserve especial proposal was ultimately vetoed by President gratitude from all. Throughout they have acted as Coubertin, but it is an indication of the respect for a powerful link between all the nationalities. At a the Crown Prince. grand luncheon, in the large hall of the royal palace, to which all the winner and foreign representatives 3.3. Modern Greece's Experience with the Olym- were invited, the King, in a graceful speech in pic Games French and then in Greek, thanked all the foreigners for coming and contributing to the great success of The Greek people based their assertions concern- this noble enterprise. He ended by saying, Not ing the Olympic Games to be held in their country good-by, but au revoir. Then he and his sons min- on the fact that the Olympics have their roots in gled among the guests, talking and jesting with all, Greece not only in ancient times, but in modern and making them all feel that they were really at times as well. In the second half of the nineteenth home in his country.'' (Waldstein 1896 p.490) century, the Olympia Games were held four times in Coubertin also praised Crown Prince Con- Athens. They were unique Greek sporting events stantine: following Greece's modern independence. Greeks ``Constantine inherits his ˆne blue eyes and fair living overseas such as Alexandria, , coloring from his Danish ancestors, and his frank, andotherregionsparticipatedintheGames,which open manner, his self-poise, and his mental lucidity were not limited to sporting competitions but also come from the same source; but Greece has given included an industrial exhibition and art competi- him enthusiasm and ardor, and this happy combina- tions (in architecture, sculpture, painting, music, tion of prudence and high spirit makes him especial- and literature). The Panathenaic Stadium was lyadaptedtogoverntheHellenes. Theauthority, used for the 1870 and 1875 Olympia Games. Greek mingled with the perfect liberality, with which he people believed that these Olympia Games were a managed the committee, his exactitude in detail, revival of the ancient Olympics. and more particularly his quiet perseverance when The revival of the Olympics by the Greek people those about him were inclined to hesitate and to lose in modern times was known to the IOC members as courage, make it clear that his reign will be one of a historical fact. President Phokianos of the Pan- fruitful labor, which can only strengthen and enrich hellenic Gymnastic Society wrote the following his country. The Greek people have now a better about the International Olympic Games. idea of the worth of their future sovereign: they ``The grand Olympic name has already been re- have seen him at work, and have gained respect for vived by the citizens of Athens. About 40 years and conˆdence in him.'' (Coubertin 1896 p.53) ago, artistic, industrial, and sporting competitions The Greek royal family played a key role in the were held with donations of vast assets from two success of the 1896 Olympic Games. The self- Greeks, Evangelis Zappas and Konstantinos Zap- sacriˆcing actions for the beneˆt of the Olympics by pas. The recent plans are bigger. They will tran- Crown Prince Constantine were particularly sig- scend the boundaries of the Greek people and have a niˆcant. He was a supporter of the Panhellenic wider eŠect.'' (Chrysaˆs 1930 p.183) Gymnastic Society, and two of his brothers were John Gennadius (1896 p.70), Greek Ambassador

International Journal of Sport and Health Science 5 http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Advance Publication by J-STAGE Hisashi Sanada to the United Kingdom, stated in 1896 that the 1894 session. The basis for their decision of the In- Olympia Games combining industrial exhibitions termediate Games was continuity with the ancient and sports competition were revived in Athens and games, respect for Greek Crown Prince, and the fact that the concept of athleticism prevailed along with of the Olympia Games that had already been held in the Games. modern Greece. From the viewpoint of the Greek people, the Coubertin (1909 p.101), however, was aware that Greek Olympia Games held in modern Greece devel- this decision would diminish his achievement in oped into the international Olympic Games. reviving the Olympic Games. Vikelas, who served as the ˆrst IOC president, told Coubertin about the Greek Olympia Games. 4. Coubertin's Olympic concept: From In a letter dated May 19, 1896 to Coubertin, Vikelas ``Revival of the Ancient Olympics'' to ``Crea- explained that the Olympia Games were held in tion of the Modern Olympics'' Athens in 1859, 1870, and 1875. Coubertin made a request to Vikelas that the Olympic name not be Coubertin believed that holding the Intermediate used with respect to any sports competition held in Olympics every four years would strengthen the Athens. Vikelas (June 8,1896) opposed this in his Greek nature of the games and hinder the interna- letter to Coubertin that ``The Zappas foundation tional Olympic Games. To weaken the Greek na- had nothing to do with establishing International ture of the games, he sought to establish a new, Olympics; the credit is yours. But the fact still modern Olympics rather than revive the ancient remains that there have been Olympic Games in Olympic Games. This is made clear in an article he Greece, and that nobody could delete the name. wrote in 1896 entitled ``The 1896 Olympic Games.'' Nobody among us has the right to deny the name ``The Olympic games which recently took place at `Olympics' to the Athens Games.'' Athens were modern in character, not alone because Vikelas reported to all IOC members that the of their programs, which substituted bicycle for OlympiaGameshadbeenheldinAthensandin- chariot races, and fencing for the brutalities of formed them that calling the games in the intermedi- pugilism, but because in their origin and regulations ate year the Olympic Games has a historical basis. they were international and universal, and conse- Georgiadis (2003) reported that Boutowsky (Rus- quently adapted to the conditions in which athletics sia), Guth (Czech), Kemeny (Hungary), Sloane have developed at the present day. The ancient (USA), and Gebhardt (Germany) had responded to games had an exclusively Hellenic character; they support Vikelas's opinion. Sloane replied (June were always held in the same place, and Greek blood 20,1896), ``No doubt the place and the association was a necessary condition of admission to them. It are such as to stimulate the contestants and prob- is true that strangers were in time tolerated; but their ably the Stadium is the most commodious arena in presence at Olympia was rather a tribute paid to the the world. I would therefore by very glad if superiority of Greek civilization than a right exer- periodic contests should take place there, open to at- cised in the name of racial equality. With the hletes from all the world. I am also aware that modern games it is quite otherwise.'' (Coubertin patriotic Greeks have long since prepared the 1896 p.39) reestablishment of the Olympic Games in Athens.'' Coubertin contrasted the Sloane recognized the Panathnaic Stadium and with the new Olympics and emphasized their diŠer- the Greek Olympia Games. Gebhardt (June ences. The former were Greek-centered, exclusive, 24,1896) replied to Vikelas that many IOC members andheldonlyinoneplacewithabeliefofthesu- had the same opinions as Vikelas's. He also sent a periority of Greek culture over other cultures. Un- letter (June 9,1896) to Coubertin to hold Intermedi- til prior to the start of the Olympic Games in Athens ate Olympic Games in Athens. in 1896, the term revival of the Olympic Games was Vikelas and Gebhardt believed that holding frequently used. Immediately after the proposal to Olympic Games in Athens in the intermediate years hold the Olympic Games in Greece in intermediate was not in contradiction with the International years was made, he emphasized the aspect of the cre- Olympic Games. At the IOC Session, there was ation of a new, modern Olympic Games. agreement to incorporate Greek elements in a man- ner that did not contradict the decision made at the

6 International Journal of Sport and Health Science http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Advance Publication by J-STAGE Concept of the Intermediate Olympic Games of 1906

5. Conclusion JeŠerson, North Carolina and London: McFarland & Com- pany, pp.27-29. Many of the members of the IOC supported hold- Mallon, B. (1999) The 1906 Olympic Games: Results for all competitors in all events, with commentary. JeŠerson, North ing the Olympic Games in Greece in the intermediate Carolina and London: McFarland & Company, pp.4, years. This was because it emphasized the con- 168-169. tinuitywiththeancientOlympicsasahistorical Miller, D. (2008) The o‹cial history of the Olympic Games and presence. The Panathenaic Stadium was a symbol the IOC: Athens to Beijing, 1894-2008. Edinburgh and Lon- don: Mainstream Publishing, pp.37, 58. of the continuity with the ancient games. Also, Minutes of the IOC session at Rome (1949) p.1. many of the IOC members understood the relation- M äuller, N. (1994) One hundred years of Olympic Congress ship with the Greek Olympia Games held in the 1894-1994. Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, p. nineteenth century. Respect for Crown Prince 67. Constantine, who supported the Olympia Games Newspaper ``New York Times'' (May 3, 1896) New York. Newspaper ``THE TIMES'' (April 16, 1896), (April 30, 1896) and devotedly worked for the 1896 Olympic Games, London. was also a reason for their approval. Because of Olympia Committee (1869). Royal Decree, Circulars, Testa- the concept of continuity with the past Olympics, ment of Evangelis Zappas and regulations of the Olympia for the 1901 IOC session unanimously approved hold- 1870. Athens: Ethniki Typograˆa. pp.7-11 (in Greek). Pausanias, Description of Greece. 1.19.6 (in Greek). ing the Intermediate Olympic Games in Greece, Revue Olympique (1901) p.35 (in French). leading to the 1906 Olympic Games. Sloane, M. (June 20,1896) Letter to Vikelas. Lausanne: Ar- But Coubertin did not recognize the concept of chives in the Olympic Museum. theIntermediateGamesbecausehetriedtoweaken Travlos, J. (1971) Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Athens. thenatureofGreeceoftheOlympics. Thames and Hudson: London. p.498. Vikelas, D. (May 19, 1896) Letter to Coubertin. Lausanne: Ar- chives in the Olympic Museum (in French). References Vikelas, D. (June 8,1896) Letter to Coubertin. Lausanne: Ar- Chrysaˆs, I.E. (1930) Contemporary International Olympic chives in the Olympic Museum (in French). Games. Athens: Tipis Sergiadou, pp.75-76, 183 (in Greek). Waldstein, C. (1896) The Olympic Games at Athens. Harper's Coubertin, P. (1896) The Olympic Games of 1896. The Century Weekly, May 16 1896. New York, p.490 Illustrated Monthly Magazine 53, pp.39-53. Young, D.C. (1988) : First President of IOC. Coubertin, P. (May 31, 1896) Letter to Vikelas. Lausanne: Ar- Stadion 14-1, pp.85-102. chives in the Olympic Museum (in French). Coubertin, P., Timoleon Philemon, Politis, N.G., Anninos, Ch. (1897). The Olympic Games; B.C.776-A.D.1896. Second Part. Athens: Charles Beck, p.107. Coubertin, P. (1909) A Twenty-One year Campaign (1887-1908). Carl-Diem-Institute ed. (1974) Ratingen: Aloys Henn Verlag, pp.101, 106, 136 (reprinted in German). Coubertin, P. (1932) Olympic Memoirs. Carl-Diem-Institute ed. (1987) Berlin: Sportverlag: pp.41-42, 85, 87-89, 93-94, 96 (reprinted in German). Findling, J.E., Pelle, K.D. (2004) Encyclopedia of the modern Olympic Movement. Westport: Greenwood press, pp.42, 47, 48. Gebhardt, W. (June 9, 1896) Letter to Coubertin. Lausanne: Archives in the Olympic Museum (in German). Gebhardt, W. (June 24, 1896) Letter to Vikelas. Lausanne: Ar- chives in the Olympic Museum (in German). Gennadius, J. (1896) The revival of the Olympia Games. Cos- mopolis 2, pp.59-74. Hamer, E. (1971) Willibald Gebhardt: 1861-1921. Durck und Verlag: K äoln, p.16 (in German). Georgiadis, K. (2003) Olympic Revival: The revival of the Olympic Games in modern times. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon S.A., p.204. Lennartz, K. (2002) The 2nd International Olympic Games in Athens 1906. Journal of Olympic History 10, pp.3-24. Mallon, B., Widlund, T. (1998) The 1896 Olympic Games: Results for all competitions in all events, with commentary.

International Journal of Sport and Health Science 7 http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm Advance Publication by J-STAGE Hisashi Sanada

Name: Hisashi Sanada

A‹liation: Institute of General Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba

Address: 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 305-8574 Japan Brief Biographical History: 1979-1981 Masters program in Health and Physical Education, University of Tsukuba. 1990-1996 Associate professor at Fukuoka University of Educa- tion 1999-2008 Associate professor at University of Tsukuba 2008- Professor at University of Tsukuba Main Works: Artistic Competitions at Greek Olympia Games in the 19th Century. IJSHS. Advance Publication by J-Stage.2009. `The Most Polite Savages'-The Participation of Ainu in the 1904 St. Louis Olympic Games-. Andreas Niehaus (ed.) Olympic Japan. Wuerzburg: Ergon Verlag, pp.133-149, 2007. Reorganization of Suijutsu led by Kano Jigoro. Japan J. Phys. Educ. Hlth. Sport Sci. 52: 315-326, 2007 (in Japanese). Membership in Learned Societies: Japan Society of Physical Education, Sport and Dance. Japan Society of Sport Anthropology Japanese Society of Sport Education Japan Olympic Academy North East Asian society of history of Sport and Physical Education

8 International Journal of Sport and Health Science http://www.soc.nii.ac.jp/jspe3/index.htm