DOCSLIB.ORG

Theories and Models of Parametric Design Thinking

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Theories and Models of Parametric Design Thinking Theories and Models of Parametric Design Thinking Rivka Oxman1, Ning Gu2 1Technion Israel Institute of Technology 2The University of Newcastle [email protected] [email protected] Due to significant recent design-related technological developments, design theories and processes are undergoing re-formulation and an epistemological shift. The tools and practices of parametric design are beginning to impact new forms of Parametric Design Thinking (PDT). The present work is motivated by the need to explore and formulate the body of theoretical concepts of parametric design. It is built around the intersection of three areas of knowledge: cognitive models of design, digital models of design, and parametric tools and scripts. The work identifies forms of cognitive mechanisms in parametric design; types of logical flow of information that can be applied in digital processes for performance-based design; generative design and form finding. It explores the impact of parametric models and tools upon styles of design thinking from conception to production. These are presented as a body of knowledge in the search for thinking and process models of PDT in design. Keywords: Parametric Design, Parametric Schema, Parametric Design Thinking, Generative Design, Performative Design INTRODUCTION sign methodology and new epistemological bases of Due to significant recent design-related technologi- design knowledge resulting in new forms of design cal developments, design theories and processes are thinking (Oxman and Oxman 2014). We refer to these undergoing re-formulation and an epistemological emerging phenomena as Parametric Design Think- shift. Parametric design systems today can adapt ing (PDT). to changing context (Woodbury 2010) under the in- The work presented in this paper is motivated by fluence of parametric languages and scripting tech- the need to explore and characterize current theories niques (Jabi 2013) and to diverse topological rela- and practices of parametric design and to reformu- tionships and generative processes of design (Ox- late the underlying concepts behind parametric de- man 2006). Among its forms of influence paramet- sign thinking. One of the bases for understanding ric design has affected the topological and formal these phenomena is the emergence of a body of cog- characteristics of designs produced in diverse design nitive and computational concepts that are expand- fields such as architecture, industrial design and fash- ing the role and overall design impact of paramet- ion design. Current research has also shown that ric design. This body of concepts is rapidly becom- the development of new tools and scripting envi- ing the nexus of theory and production in paramet- ronments are also contributing to a distinctive de- ric design. Terms and concepts such as parametric Generative Design - Concepts - Volume 2 - eCAADe 33 | 477 schema, algorithmic thinking and parametric reason- tween pure parametric tool manipulation and the ing are becoming an important body of new knowl- utilization of a broad understanding of architectural edge in the search for a general theory of PDT. knowledge in the parametric design process. For ex- Following upon recent studies on parametric de- ample, some designers who embrace what is referred sign methods and tools in academia and practice to as Parametricism may tend to abandon fundamen- (Hernandez 2006; Iordanova 2009; Cellini and Vaz tal architectural principles and concerns, having the 2012) we focuses in this research upon theoretical tendency to avoid comprehensive critical judgment and methodological issues, and the definition of con- and aim instead for formal novelty through comput- cepts while exploring their relationships in order to ing power without addressing other basics of archi- expand current design theory and knowledge. tectural design such as social, historical and environ- Our research is built around three areas of knowl- mental concerns, functional and programmatic re- edge: cognitive models of design, digital models of quirements, and user's psychological needs (Castel- design, and the examination of the impact of para- lano, 2011). metric tools and scripts. The research aims to explore The following three points are generally charac- their relationships and their mutual impact on PDT. In teristic of the parametric design process: the following sections a body of design topics is intro- • Designers design rules and define their logi- duced, discussed and presented with specific exam- cal relationships in the creation of 3D visual- ples from architectural design. ization models PARAMETRIC DESIGN The distinction of parametric design in comparison Parametric design thinking can be defined as hav- to traditional computer modeling is that rule-sets ing three characteristics - thinking with abstraction; become basic design procedures in configuring 3D thinking mathematically; and thinking algorithmi- models of parametric design (Abdelsalam, 2009). In cally (Woodbury, 2010). Thinking with abstraction is building parametric models, designers set variables a base that enables parametric design as a genera- and digital data flows, adjusting the values of param- tive approach for producing parallel alternatives and eters, and revising the rules accordingly. Rather than it also enables parts of the parametric model to be traditional configuration ways of the object itself, the reused. Thinking mathematically refers to the the- design of the generative rule set and their logical rela- orems and constructions used to define the script- tionships is becoming the main focus of design think- ing language for design representation and genera- ing. In this way, more alternative solutions can be ex- tion. Thinking algorithmically means that the script- plored by changing the parameters of the logical re- ing language provides functions that can add, repeat, lationships (Hernandez, 2006; Karle & Kelly, 2011). modify or remove parts in a parametric design. A recent cognitive design study (Yu et al, 2014) Woodbury claims that in a parametric design en- presents the following findings: Designers write their vironment designers need a different kind of knowl- rules referring mainly to geometric modeling focus- edge that can "predict persistent effects to under- ing on geometric elements. This suggests that wider stand the diversity and structure of the mathemat- comprehensive aspects of architectural knowledge, ical toolbox, and to shuttle between the intended principles and concepts are outside of this primary effect and mathematical invention that models it" focus. (Woodbury 2010). That means that parametrically • Designers can change and modify their de- discriminating designers would need to know more sign at any stage than merely basic architectural knowledge. How- ever, there should also be an informed balance be- 478 | eCAADe 33 - Generative Design - Concepts - Volume 2 Designers can change and modify their own rule- can be formulated and represented as generic para- based representations in any stage of the design pro- metric schema. The adoption of design patterns in cess. In processes of parametric design, the design certain domains is a phenomenon that has been ob- system is differentiated and correlated. In the para- served by a number of researchers in both traditional metric model, all design procedures and activities architectural design (Alexander et al., 1977) and in are related to one another and clearly defined (Schu- parametric design (Woodbury et al., 2007). macher, 2008). Therefore, designers can return back According to Brett Steele, parametric design in any stage and revise parameters or rules to mod- knowledge is a model of design thinking that in- ify their design or to pursue a different one. This al- tegrates topological patterns within generic typolo- lows them methodologically to keep the design pro- gies. This cognitive capability has been termed, the cess open and flexible. "serial sensibility" (Brett Steele, in Lee and Jacoby, 2007). • Design alternatives can be developed in par- allel in any stage The Role of the Cognitive Parametric Schema Designers often consider a relatively limited number The cognitive role and the logic of a generic knowl- of alternative solutions (Woodbury & Burrow, 2006). edge schema as a basis for understanding pro- In the parametric design process, once the rules are cess of schema adaptation and refinement by re- implemented, unlimited numbers of design alterna- representation can be demonstrated through exam- tives can be generated in parallel. The possibility ples of prior research (Oxman, 1992; 1997). The emer- to use parallel design generation is changing modes gence of a new schema is a fundamental cognitive of thinking and contributes to explorative processes capability of creativity in the human designer. In the (Hernandez, 2006; Holland, 2011; Karle & Kelly, 2011). process of design, engineering, and construction the schema can be modified and adapted. To summarize, PARAMETRIC DESIGN THINKING (PDT) the role of the parametric schema: Beyond any particular formal style or design tool, parametric design thinking is emerging as a theoret- • Providing an explorative mechanism ical topic (Oxman and Gu, 2013) and a key model • Providing a medium for generating variation of digital design. With the emergence of new lan- • Providing a medium for transformational pro- guages and tools, and in comparison to traditional cesses models of the parametric, the generic formulation of a Parametric Design Schema should be formulated The cognitive
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Parametric CAD Modeling: an Analysis of Strategies for Design Reusability
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Repositori Institucional de la Universitat Jaume I Parametric CAD Modeling: An Analysis of Strategies for Design Reusability Jorge D. Cambaa, Manuel Conterob, Pedro Companyc aUniversity of Houston. Houston, TX. [email protected] bUniversitat Politècnica de València. Valencia, Spain. [email protected] cUniversitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain. [email protected] Abstract CAD model quality in parametric design scenarios largely determines the level of flexibility and adaptability of a 3D model (how easy it is to alter the geometry) as well as its reusability (the ability to use existing geometry in other contexts and applications). In the context of mechanical CAD systems, the nature of the feature-based parametric modeling paradigm, which is based on parent-child interdependencies between features, allows a wide selection of approaches for creating a specific model. Despite the virtually unlimited range of possible strategies for modeling a part, only a small number of them can guarantee an appropriate internal structure which results in a truly reusable CAD model. In this paper, we present an analysis of formal CAD modeling strategies and best practices for history-based parametric design: Delphi’s horizontal modeling, explicit reference modeling, and resilient modeling. Aspects considered in our study include the rationale to avoid the creation of unnecessary feature interdependencies, the sequence and selection criteria for those features, and the effects of parent/child relations on model alteration. We provide a comparative evaluation of these strategies in the form of a series of experiments using three industrial CAD models with different levels of complexity.
    [Show full text]
  • Parametric Design Thinking About Digital and Material Surface Patterns
    INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ENGINEERING AND PRODUCT DESIGN EDUCATION 6 & 7 SEPTEMBER 2018, DYSON SCHOOL OF DESIGN ENGINEERING, IMPERIAL COLLEGE, LONDON, UNITED KINGDOM PARAMETRIC DESIGN THINKING ABOUT DIGITAL AND MATERIAL SURFACE PATTERNS Wenche LYCHE, Arild BERG and Kristin ANDREASSEN OsloMet – Oslo Metropolitan University ABSTRACT There is a growing need in contemporary society to understand new and emerging relationships between technology and creativity. In practice-oriented areas of education such as design, many instructors have come to understand the importance of different learning styles and how students benefit when presentation of new material is varied to reach all students. The concept of parametric design thinking enabled by advanced computational processes has recently been identified as a relevant approach to design education. The present research further explores parametric design thinking through two case studies of design workshops in an educational context and how this approach can promote diversity. The first case (Robotised Clay Workshop) documents material exploration and creative and aesthetic possibilities in digitalised clay processes. The second case (Surface Patterns in Textiles: From Tradition to Digitalisation and Back) explores digitalised processes in hybrid textile design. The two case studies contribute to the exploration of parametric design thinking as an educational approach and discuss digitalisation and the relations of body, hand and mind in terms of the Vygotskyan ‘zone of proximal development’. This content was synthesised for a workshop on surface patterns for third-year bachelor design students. The paper identifies some potentials and pitfalls of this pedagogical approach and concludes that students’ awareness of conformity and diversity in the design process can be used as a starting point to explore digital surface patterns, offering students a new way of learning about function, aesthetics and product semantics through parametric design thinking.
    [Show full text]
  • The Challenges of Parametric Design in Architecture Today: Mapping the Design Practice
    The Challenges of Parametric Design in Architecture Today: Mapping the Design Practice A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil) in the Faculty of Humanities 2012 Yasser Zarei School of Environment and Development Table ooofof Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Research ....................................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER 2: THE POSITION OF PARAMETRICS 2.1. The State of Knowledge on Parametrics ............................................................................................. 12 2.2. The Ambivalent Nature of Parametric Design ..................................................................................... 17 2.3. Parametric Design and the Ambiguity of Taxonomy ........................................................................... 24 CHAPTER 3: THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1. The Research Methodology ................................................................................................................ 29 3.2. The Strategies of Data Analysis ........................................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER 4: PARAMETRIC DESIGN AND THE STATUS OF PRIMARY DRIVERS The Question of Drivers (Outside to Inside) ............................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER 5: MAPPING THE ROLES IN THE PROCESS OF PARAMETRIC DESIGN 5.1. The Question Of Roles (Inside to Outside)
    [Show full text]
  • College of Architecture (08/31/21)
    Bulletin 2021-22 College of Architecture (08/31/21) dimensional and three-dimensional work, including drawing, College of drafting and making. The experiential qualities of architecture are introduced through basic considerations of scale and human interaction. The course work includes studio, work, lectures, Architecture presentations by students, readings, writing assignments and field trips. Credit 4.5 units. Phone: 314-935-6200 Email: [email protected] A46 ARCH 112 Introduction to Design Processes II Website: http://samfoxschool.wustl.edu This core design studio engages the basic principles of architectural design through iterative processes of drawing Courses and making, using a variety of tools, media and processes. The course work includes studio work, lectures, student • A46 ARCH (p. 1): Architecture presentations and local field trips. Prerequisite: A grade of C- or better in Arch 111 or co-registration in Arch 111. • A48 LAND (p. 29): Landscape Architecture Credit 3 units. Architecture A46 ARCH 112B Introduction to Design Processes II This introductory design studio course engages the basic Visit online course listings to view semester offerings for principles of architectural context, composition and experience. A46 ARCH (https://courses.wustl.edu/CourseInfo.aspx? Using the theme of Drawing and Observing, the studio integrates design and drawing to challenge the students to observe sch=A&dept=A46&crslvl=1:4). the world more carefully, creating narrative drawings that serve as a foundation for design proposals. Throughout the semester, students will engage various design processes -- A46 ARCH 108A You Are Here: Engaging St. Louis's Racial including freehand drawing, collage, orthogonal projection and History Through Site + Story model making -- that will serve as a window into the field of By acknowledging the pressures and pains of our political architecture.
    [Show full text]
  • Design of Parametric Software Tools: Optimizing Future Health Care Performance by Integrating Evidence-Based Knowledge in Architectural Design and Building Processes
    Lighting in Engineering, Architecture and the Environment 37 Design of parametric software tools: optimizing future health care performance by integrating evidence-based knowledge in architectural design and building processes J. B. Sabra & M. Mullins Department of Architecture, Design and Media Technology, Aalborg University, Denmark Abstract The studies investigate the field of evidence-based design used in architectural design practice and propose a method using 2D/3D CAD applications to: 1) enhance integration of evidence-based design knowledge in architectural design phases with a focus on lighting and interior design and 2) assess fulfilment of evidence-based design criterion regarding light distribution and location in relation to patient safety in architectural health care design proposals. The study uses 2D/3D CAD modelling software Rhinoceros 3D with plug-in Grasshopper to create parametric tool prototypes to exemplify the operations and functions of the design method. To evaluate the prototype potentials, surveys with architectural and healthcare design companies are conducted. Evaluation is done by the administration of questionnaires being part of the development of the tools. The results show that architects, designers and healthcare design advisors recon the tool prototypes as a meaningful and valuable approach for 1) integrating and using evidence-based information; and 2) optimizing design processes and health care facility performances. Further study focuses on parametric information relations in Building Information
    [Show full text]
  • Design Methods for Democratising Mobile Game Design
    Design Methods for Democratising Mobile Game Design Mark J. Nelson Abstract Swen E. Gaudl Playing mobile games is popular among a large and Simon Colton diverse set of players, contrasting sharply with the lim- Rob Saunders ited set of companies and people who design them. We Edward J. Powley would like to democratise mobile game design by ena- Peter Ivey bling players to design games on the same devices they Blanca Pérez Ferrer play them on, without needing to program. Our concept Michael Cook of fluidic games aims to realise this vision by drawing on three design methodologies. The interaction style of The MetaMakers Institute fluidic games is that of casual creators; their end-user Falmouth University design philosophy is adapted from metadesign; and Cornwall, UK their technical implementation is based on parametric metamakersinstitute.com design. In this short article, we discuss how we’ve adapted these three methods to mobile game design, and some open questions that remain in order to em- power end user game design on mobile phones in a way that rises beyond the level of typical user- generated content. Author Keywords Mobile games; casual creators; metadesign; parametric design; end-user creativity; mixed-initiative interfaces. ACM Classification Keywords H.5.m. Information interfaces and presentation: Miscel- laneous Introduction Fluidic Games Our starting point is the observation that mobile games To support on-device casual design, we are developing have attracted a large and diverse set of players, but a what we call fluidic games [5-7]. These blur the line smaller and less diverse set of designers.
    [Show full text]
  • GUI-Based Chinese Font Editing System Using Font Parameterization Technique
    Typography and Diversity http://www.typoday.in GUI-based Chinese Font Editing System Using Font Parameterization Technique Minju Son, School of Computer Science and Engineering, Soongsil University, [email protected] Gyeongjae Gwon, School of Computer Science and Engineering, Soongsil University, [email protected] Jaeyeong Choi, School of Computer Science and Engineering, Soongsil University, [email protected] Geunho Jeong, Gensol Soft, Seoul, Korea, [email protected] Abstract: When creating Roman fonts, about 256 characters should be designed. Whereas creating Chinese fonts, around 8,000 widely used characters should be designed from the total 80,000 to 100,000 characters. In order to solve these problems, many studies on programmable fonts have been performed since 1980s. METAFONT is a font designing system for improving the quality of TeX typesetting in TeX document, and it represents programmable fonts. However, as METAFONT is a programming language, it is very difficult for general font designers to design fonts directly by using it. In order to solve this problem, we propose a GUI-based Chinese font editing system by font parameterization technique, which can easily edit fonts in web browser. Key words: Font Editor, Programmable Font, Font Parameterization, METAFONT. 1. Introduction Recently, the development of portable devices has increased the number of places where fonts are essential, such as e-books, websites, mobile games, books, newspapers, etc. When creating Roman fonts, about 256 characters should be designed. Whereas creating Chinese fonts, around 8,000 widely used characters should be designed from the total 80,000 to 100,000 characters. When generating fonts, characters are generally described as ‘outline’.
    [Show full text]
  • From Design Automation to Generative Design in AEC
    The Journey from Design Automation to Generative Design in AEC Dieter Vermeulen Technical Sales Specialist AEC Generative Design & Engineering @BIM4Struc © 2020 Autodesk, Inc. DESIGNS TODAY @BIM4Struc TRADITIONAL DESIGN PROCESS @BIM4Struc @BIM4Struc @BIM4Struc @BIM4Struc GENERATIVE DESIGN: A form of artificial intelligence, dedicated to the creation of better outcomes for products, buildings, infrastructure and systems. @BIM4Struc GENERATIVE DESIGN PROCESS PEOPLE COMPUTER PEOPLE @BIM4Struc STADIUM DESIGN CONSTRUCTION PLANNING SITE DRAINAGE NEIGHBORHOOD PLANNING SPACE PLANNING FAÇADE DESIGN @BIM4Struc Generative design is a methodology and a process more than a singular product or tool @BIM4Struc Benefits of Generative Design @BIM4Struc What level of design progression ? @BIM4Struc Traditional Design @BIM4Struc Sketching @BIM4Struc Computer Aided Drafting @BIM4Struc Parametric Design @BIM4Struc PARAMETRIC DESIGN Designer/engineer uses computer as passive machine one one limited human + computer = design @BIM4Struc PARAMETRIC MODELING @BIM4Struc Parametric Modeling a = 2 b = 1 a – b = c @BIM4Struc Parametric Modeling a = 2 b = 1 a – b = c f(x) @BIM4Struc Parametric Modeling a = 2 b = 1 a – b = c @BIM4Struc Conceptual Tower Mass – Design Model Assign Parametric Create Geometry Modify Parameters Document the Idea Constraints @BIM4Struc Design Automation @BIM4Struc input design output automation @BIM4Struc Dynamo Ecosystem to increase capabilities REVIT API Difficulty REVIT DYNAMO Expressive Power @BIM4Struc Dynamo to simplify things PROGRAMMING
    [Show full text]
  • Communication and Participation in Virtual Environments
    P. Rajagopalan and M.M Andamon (eds.), Engaging Architectural Science: Meeting the Challenges of Higher Density: 52nd 727 International Conference of the Architectural Science Association 2018, pp.727–734. ©2018, The Architectural Science Association and RMIT University, Australia. Communication and Participation in Virtual Environments Towards a parametric participatory urban design decision-making platform Shuva Chowdhury Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand [email protected] Marc Aurel Schnabel Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand [email protected] Abstract: We seek a framework for engaging people in urban design decision-making process by employing virtual tools. We adopt our previously developed parametric tools for design communication as a bridging method between conventional and participatory urban design approaches. We hypothesise that a virtual participatory urban design platform can provide more design associated information for laypeople to participate in design decision-making. The conventional urban design approaches investigate urban form as purely through the lens of urban professionals. In participatory urban design approaches the design decisions remain as general assumptions because of lack of enough associated information. Therefore, we have developed a methodology to produce urban forms by taking advantages of computational tools to engage stakeholders in complex urban design decision-making processes. This paper focuses on designing the charrette tools. We propose a mixed method of virtual and actual to orient people in the design discussion. We investigate our tools for Karori, a neighbourhood in New Zealand. We critically conclude the paper with an overview of our virtual design communication tools which is destined to engage people in a later stage.
    [Show full text]
  • The Use of Metaphors As a Parametric Design Teaching Model: a Case Study
    The Use of Metaphors as a Parametric Design Teaching Model: A Case Study Asli Agirbas, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakif University, Istanbul, Turkey Abstract Teaching methodologies for parametric design are being researched all over the world, since there is a growing demand for computer programming logic and its fabrication process in architectural education. The computer programming courses in architectural education are usually done in a very short period of time, and so students have no chance to create their own designs. This paper describes a course in which metaphors are used as a teaching methodology in parametric design, in order to let students create their own designs and learn the basic elements of parametric programming language in a short period of time with deductive reasoning. In this course, it was intended to teach visual programming language to undergraduates. Advancing under the metaphor theoretical framework, the students obtained experience in achieving form-finding process for their projects in accord with the certain constraints. Using this methodology, the students, who experienced all design stages from 3D modeling to the digital fabrication, additionally were able to develop their ability for versatile thinking and the use of more than one tool in combination, in the early years of their architectural education. Key words metaphors; Parametric Design; Form-finding; Teaching Model; Architectural Education. Introduction When parametric design is referred to, two perspectives come to mind in architecture, as was noted by Stavric and Marina (2011). One of these is the architectural constructive parametric design, and the other is the architectural conceptual parametric design. In architectural constructive parametric design, focus is made upon the forms, which are easier to produce in real life, and the work is carried out using pre-drawn 3D objects: BIM programs (such as Revit and ArchiCAD) are used for this purpose.
    [Show full text]
  • CAD/CAM, Parametric Design and Interactivity
    Teaching Technology: CAD/CAM, Parametric Design and Interactivity Martin Bechthold Harvard University, Graduate School of Design http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/people/faculty/bechthold/index.html [email protected] The paper discusses a project-based approach to technology teaching, and examines the case of the mobile information unit (MIU) for Harvard University and its art museums. A student competition was held to explore design alternatives for this unit. The winning entry proposed an interactive, pixilated fiber-optics display as well as touch screens. Parametric digital modeling was used in the design and design development of the scheme. Research included the study of structural alternatives, fabrication methods and the modes of interaction between users and the MIU. Keywords: Computer-aided design and manufacturing; fabrication; simulation; prototype; fiber optics. Integrating new technologies – an has taught the subject over the past two years. The introduction teaching objective is to provide an in-depth under- standing of the technology itself, and how it is ap- Computer-aided design and manufacturing (cad/ plied in practice. The teaching methods include lec- cam) techniques have been used by fabricators since tures, workshops, design exercises, case studies and the 1980s, but only fairly recently have architects field trips. In the second part of the course a more become aware of these technologies, and, more im- comprehensive design and prototyping projects portantly, have adjusted their design paradigms and has successfully allowed students to synergize the methods accordingly. Teaching efforts in this area various aspects of cad/cam technology with archi- differ significantly from teaching traditional CAAD tectural design.
    [Show full text]
  • Structure, Architecture, and Computation: Past and Future
    Structure, Architecture, and Computation: Past and Future [One must not] fear that the adoption of forms and volumes closely following natural laws must lead to a monotonous and unsupportable uniformity of products. —Pier Luigi Nervi RENAUD DANHAIVE INTRODUCTION Massachusetts Institute of Technology In architectural design, the past decades have been marked by the evolution of the computer from a drawing instrument to a design tool. It is clear that computation has had, and will CAITLIN MUELLER continue to have, a significant impact on the design process. Bill Addis (2007) identifies the Massachusetts Institute of Technology post-1960’s period as the Computer Age in structural design, and this classification is, if not absolute, relevant for architecture as well. Computers have not only enabled the construc- tion of some of the world’s most daring structures, but also have also given birth to new styles and visions. Styles were constructed based on the new modeling possibilities offered by software and the computer played a crucial role in the development of new architectural visions in the second part of the twentieth century (Picon, 2010). However, computation and, specifically, the development of numerical solvers for structural analysis, did not mean that engineers designed more efficient structures. On te contrary, the rise of finite element analysis enabled a ‘make-it-work’ approach, exemplified first by the Sydney Opera House of the Utzon-Arup duo and many projects after. In terms of design thinking, this represented a huge shift compared to the philosophy of engineers and architects of the 1950’s, or even of the Architectural Engineering Age in general as described by Addis (2007).
    [Show full text]