2018 CHURCHILL FELLOWSHIP to investigate proven low-cost innovative water treatment solutions for regional and remote Australia

AWARDED BY THE WINSTON CHURCHILL MEMORIAL TRUST AWARD STATE: NORTHERN TERRITORY | YEAR OF AWARD: 2018 CHURCHILL FELLOWSHIP REPORT | ERIC VANWEYDEVELD | JULY 2019

Key words: water treatment, water management, water security, innovation, water treatment technologies, desalination, demand management, water conscious culture, regional and remote Australia.

1 We make a living by what we get, but we make a life by what we give.”

Winston Churchill

Eric Vanweydeveld Email: [email protected] LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-vanweydeveld/ Report available via https://www.churchilltrust.com.au/fellows/ detail/4419/Eric+Vanweydeveld

2

Attachment 3 Letter of support from CEO THE WINSTON CHURCHILL MEMORIAL TRUST OF AUSTRALIA

Report by Eric Vanweydeveld, Churchill Fellow.

2018 Churchill Fellowship to investigate proven low-cost innovative water treatment solutions for regional and remote Australia.

I understand that the Churchill Trust may publish this report, either in hard copy or on the internet or both, and consent to such publication. I indemnify the Churchill Trust against any loss, costs or damages it may suffer arising out of any claim or proceedings made against the Trust in respect of or arising from publication of this report submitted to the Trust and which the Trust places on a website for internet access. I also warrant that my Final Report is original and does not infringe the copyright of any person, or contain anything which is, or the incorporation of which into the Final Report is, actionable for defamation, a breach of any privacy law or obligation, breach of confidence, contempt of court, passing-off or contravention of any other private right or of any law.

Eric Vanweydeveld

23 July 2019

Information in this report related to sites was obtained by interviews or on institutional websites unless noted otherwise. While the information in this report is considered to be true and correct at the date of publication, changes after the time of publication may impact on the accuracy of the information. Dated 23 July 2019.

3 When the well is dry, we will know the worth of water”

Benjamin Franklin

4 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 7 Executive summary 9 Definitions and explanatory notes 12 Introduction 15 Diagnosing the problem 16 Fellowship objectives 19 Outcomes sought 19 Itinerary 19 Part 1: United Arab Emirates 20 Part 2: 30 Part 3: Oman 54 Part 4: Key findings and recommendations 70 Appendix A: Summary of activities carried out in UAE 84 Appendix B: Summary of activities carried out in Israel 86 Appendix C: Summary of activities carried out in Oman 90 Appendix D: Overview of relevant new technologies applicable in remote/rural Australia 92 References 96

Aerial photo of the MacDonnell Ranges near Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia  5 1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

6

7. 8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the Churchill I am particularly grateful (in no particular order) to:

Trust for this amazing and unique Xavier Baron (Proposals Director Middle East at opportunity. This experience has had Suez - UAE); a profound impact on me. I learnt a Dr Hassan Arafat (Director of the Center for lot personally and professionally and Membrane and Advanced Water Technology - UAE); Udi Zuckerman (Director Global Business I gained many great insights. It was a Development at Mekorot - Israel); truly enriching experience. Professor Avner Adin (Chair Professor of Environmental Sciences & Head of water I am deeply committed to sharing my treatment technology at the Hebrew University learnings with the Australian water of - Israel); industry and the broader community Raanan Adin (CEO of Adin Holdings and President of the Israel Water Association - Israel); and apply the learnings in a practical Hezi Bilik (Former water engineer at Israel Water way to influence and shape future Authority - Israel); water projects in Australia. Shifka Seigel (Project Manager - Israel-Australia, New Zealand & Oceania Chamber of Commerce - I would like to thank everyone I met Israel) along the way who supported me, Oved Idan (Farmer in Paran - Israel); inspired me and shared their views Chris Smith (Water Operations Advisor - Policy and Strategy Directorate at the Public Authority for and knowledge. Water - Oman); Richard Lakey (Hydrogeologist at Water Resources and Environment Group - Oman).

I would like to also thank

Power and Water Corporation, the Australian Water Association and Engineers Australia for their great support. And, last but certainly not least, I am particularly grateful to my wife Sara, my daughter Gabrielle, my parents Alice and Michel and my mother in law Susan who supported me and encouraged me during my journey.

1. Oved Idan, Paran Moshav, Israel  2. Mekorot operator (left) and Hezi Bilik (right), Hatseva, Israel 3. From left to right: Udi Zukerman, Zvi Livni, CQM Engineer & Isak Duenyas, , Israel 4. First row: Shifka Seigel (left) and Raanan Adin (right),Tel Aviv, Israe 5. Mekorot operator (left) and CQM technician (right), Jerusalem, Israel l 6. Dr. Jauad El Kharraz, Muscat, Oman 7. Sara & Gabrielle before my departure, Alice Springs 8.  Tea time with a farmer in Al Hamra, Oman 7 It always seems impossible until it is done”

Nelson Mandela

8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

While there is almost universal The Middle East presents an interesting comparison to Australia because it faces similar water scarcity access to drinking water across challenges, provides water services delivery to a large Australia, many small regional number of small regional and remote communities and is at the forefront of a series of water innovations and remote communities often in operational practices, technologies and institutions. experience inadequate water I spent eight weeks in the United Arab Emirates, quality and water security. Israel and Oman investigating innovative water treatment technologies and water management Existing advanced water treatment solutions, solutions and assessing the value for regional and designed for larger cities, are not an economically remote communities in Australia, in providing viable solution for replication across Australia’s potential alternatives to improve water quality and to hundreds of remote communities and small regional achieve water security. centres. In addition to a considerable technological The key findings from my experiences in Israel, gap between urban and remote systems, there Oman and the United Arab Emirates have been is consequent social and economic inequity and developed into nine recommendations that may be disadvantage. applicable to regional and remote communities in Significant differences between urban and remote Australia and are worthy of further exploration and contexts (economies of scale, logistics challenges, discussion across the water industry. long distances, etc.) don’t allow for transfer of innovation from urban systems to remote systems. There is potential for new insights to be gained from small scale systems overseas. My motivation to apply for a Churchill Fellowship was to discover what other nations, facing similar water scarcity challenges, are doing successfully to manage their small regional and remote communities’ water supplies and learn about their expertise and experience in dealing with similar challenges (remote, small-scale and water-scarce).

Panoramic photo of Paran moshav’s farms where cutting-edge methods of farming are used 9  to grow fruit and vegetables in the arid region of the Arava Desert using brackish water, Israel We know water is wealth and stored water is a bank. Water is a vital resource for Australia, but we need to strategically plan our future water infrastructure so we can better utilise this precious resource to drive prosperity and improve sustainability in rural industries and regional economies.”

Former Minister for Agriculture Barnaby Joyce (from the National Roundtable on Water Infrastructure, 29 October 2014)

10 Recommendation 1 Numerous innovative water treatment technologies have been developed by Israel’s water sector in recent years and they could have major benefits for remote and regional Australia including enhanced operating performance, no reliance on chemicals, simplicity and low operating and maintenance costs.

Recommendation 2 High-performance brackish water desalination technologies are becoming more practical, economical and energy-efficient and can represent a good option for regional and remote water systems facing water quality and water scarcity issues.

Recommendation 3 Renewable energy desalination, which combines energy efficient desalination technology with renewable energy power, is showing great promise to supply affordable, reliable and safe drinking water to regional and remote areas.

Recommendation 4 Establishing smart artificial groundwater recharge systems by using flash floods and water run-off to preserve and enhance groundwater resources as a practical measure to store and augment the availability of fresh water for future use and to enhance adaptative water management in response to climate change.

Recommendation 5 The use of smart data collection and management tools, using leading-edge technologies, to drive a comprehensive, probabilistic and integrated management approach has potential to revolutionise the way regional and remote water sources and services are managed.

Recommendation 6 Fostering the development of new technologies specifically designed for regional and remote water supply systems through public-private partnerships using experimental sites on existing operational systems to drive operational efficiencies and improve resilience of water supply systems.

Recommendation 7 An holistic approach to long-term planning for regional and remote water systems is necessary to mitigate risks associated with highly variable and changing economic, environmental and political contexts and to ensure security of supply at least cost.

Recommendation 8 Developing a water conscious culture in regional and remote Australia through extensive education and public awareness campaigns is a necessary step to reduce the need for additional infrastructure, establish effective water management under water scarcity conditions and contribute to the development of water security.

Recommendation 9 Establishing a central, independent water body may assist to provide strategic guidance about future water needs and ensure a coordinated approach to security of supply, optimise water management under conditions of scarcity by sharing data and knowledge and facilitate collaboration across the Northern Territory’s water sector, including governmental agencies.

 Panoramic photo of Alice Springs, Central Australia, Northern Territory, Australia 11 DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATORY NOTES

?

12 DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATORY NOTES

Regional and remote communities Drinking water or potable water the term ‘regional and remote’ encompasses all areas refers to water that is safe to drink or to use for food outside Australia’s major cities. Using the Australian preparation. Drinking water has a typical electrical Standard Geographical Classification System, these conductivity (one of the measures of the saltiness of areas are classified as Inner regional, Outer regional, the water) up to 800 µS/cm. Remote or Very remote on the basis of a measure of Freshwater relative access to services. For further information, refers to any naturally occurring water except please see the Australian Standard Geographical seawater and brackish water. Freshwater includes Classification System on the Australian Bureau of water in ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers, icebergs, ponds, Statistics website (https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/ lakes, rivers, streams, and even underground water [email protected]/mf/1270.0.55.005). called groundwater. Freshwater has a typical electrical Regional areas conductivity (one of the measures of the saltiness of are defined as geographic areas that are non-urban the water) value between 0 and 1,500 µS/cm. or non-metropolitan (located outside major towns Brackish water and cities). refers to water having more salinity than freshwater Remote areas but not as much as seawater. It may result from are defined as places that are either very isolated mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or well away from the main concentrations of or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. Brackish population and services. water can also result from certain human activities, Climate change in particular certain civil engineering projects such refers to significant changes in global and regional flooding of coastal marshland. Brackish water has a climate patterns including temperature, precipitation, typical electrical conductivity (one of the measures of wind patterns and other measures of climate that the saltiness of the water) value between 1,500 and occur over several decades or longer. 46,000 µS/cm. Water scarcity Seawater means a lack of fresh water resources to meet refers to water from a sea or ocean with a typical water demand. electrical conductivity (one of the measures of the saltiness of the water) value above 46,000 µS/cm. Water security means reliable availability of an acceptable quantity Desalination and quality of water for health, environment and refers to the process of removing salt and other food production. minerals from sea or brackish water. Desalination waste brine refers to the waste water (concentrated Water demand salt water) that is left after the desalination process. means the water quantity directly utilised by the Waste brine is typically twice as salty as seawater, and consumers. This generates variable flows in the advanced desalination plants produce approximately distribution network caused by many factors: users’ two cubic meters of waste brine for every one needs, climate, source capacity etc. cubic meter of clean water. Waste brine is generally Water treatment disposed back into the sea/ocean. means any process that improves the quality of water Conventional source to make it more acceptable for a specific end-use. refers to natural sources of water originating from The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, natural fresh surface water or groundwater. irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned Non-conventional source to the environment. refers to freshwater water produced from seawater / brackish desalination and reuse of urban or industrial Aquifer wastewaters with varying levels of treatment. refers to an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand or silt) which can contain or transmit groundwater. 13 PROJECT AIM

Investigate innovative water treatment solutions that could be applicable for regional and remote Australia. Key findings from Israel, Oman and the United Arab Emirates.

14 INTRODUCTION

While there is almost universal access My motivation to apply for a Churchill Fellowship was to discover what other nations, facing similar to drinking water across Australia, water scarcity challenges, are doing successfully to many small regional and remote manage their small regional and remote communities’ communities often experience water supplies and to learn about their expertise and experience in dealing with similar challenges (remote, inadequate water quality and water small-scale and water-scarce).

security (ATSE, 2007 [1] section 4). My goals are to: Delivering water supply services to regional and •  Apply the learnings of this research project in remote communities is a complicated and challenging a practical way to influence and shape future task that is impacted by economies of scale, low regional and remote water projects to improve cost recovery and political reticence regarding health, wellbeing, economic and social outcomes. consumers’ willingness to pay for improved water •  Influence strategic policy priorities, contributing services. Remoteness, long distances, high costs of to the development of resilient water supplies in transportation, challenging logistics associated with regional and remote Australia. the delivery of material, chemical and equipment, absence of trained and qualified personnel, •  Share knowledge and experience gained slow emergency response and lack of frequent overseas with the Australian water industry and preventative maintenance are a few of the challenges catalyse innovative thinking in the water sector. faced by water authorities, governments and local The objective of this report is to document key councils in charge of operating small regional and findings and insights related to innovative water remote water supply systems. treatment technologies and water management in Surface and ground water sources in arid and semi- the United Arab Emirates, Israel and Oman, and to arid regions of Australia are generally characterised assess the value for regional and remote communities by high concentrations of minerals and metals which in Australia, in providing potential alternatives to require advanced water treatment processes to improve water quality and to achieve water security. produce safe and reliable drinking water. The report is structured in four parts as follows: The potential impact of climate change on water •  Part 1 provides an overview of the UAE’s water infrastructure in regional and remote communities sector and key insights gained from their water has not been quantified yet however it is anticipated achievements and experience; that water scarcity and water quality issues will be exacerbated, requiring the use of more advanced •  Part 2 provides an overview of Israel’s water water treatment technologies and smarter ways of sector and key insights gained from their water optimising and managing water systems to guarantee achievements and experience; security of supply. •  Part 3 provides an overview of Oman’s water In recent years, my experience managing the delivery sector and key insights gained from their water of remote water infrastructure projects in the achievements and experience; Northern Territory highlighted the inadequacies of •  Part 4 identifies and discusses nine water current practice in dealing with complex water issues management recommendations that could be faced by small regional and remote communities. considered for regional and remote Australia.

Aerial photo of Borroloola (and the new Borroloola water treatment plant completed in  October 2018) in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern Territory – one of the most remote communities in Australia 15 DIAGNOSING THE PROBLEM

There is a considerable technological gap between urban and remote water treatment systems. Existing advanced water treatment solutions, designed for larger cities, are not an economically viable solution for small regional and remote communities. This significant difference doesn’t allow for transfer of innovation from urban systems to remote systems.

16 DIAGNOSING THE PROBLEM

Conventional and advanced water Significant differences between urban and remote contexts (economies of scale, logistics challenges, supply systems currently used long distances, etc.) don’t allow for transfer of in Australia have generally been innovation from urban systems to remote systems. developed for large cities. These There is potential for new insights to be gained from small scale systems overseas. systems have very high capital and The project aims to gain new insights and to learn operating costs, require a regular how other countries deal with water scarcities supply of various chemicals and daily in order to fill a void in current Australian water intervention by experienced and treatment knowledge, experience and expertise. By bridging the gap between large-scale, high-tech well-trained operators.. urban water treatment solutions and rudimentary In contrast water supply systems in small regional/ remote water treatment practices the project aims remote communities are relatively simple, often to facilitate the creation of a new and innovative providing only basic disinfection; biological and model for remote systems. mineral impurities with potential health impacts This project outcome will have the potential to remain untreated. support strategic policy priorities, contributing to the Existing advanced water treatment solutions, development of resilient water supplies in regional designed for larger cities, are not an economically and remote Australia. viable solution for replication across Australia’s hundreds of remote communities and small regional centres. In addition to a considerable technological Bamaga

gap between urban and remote systems, there Nhulunbuy is consequent social and economic inequity and Darwin Coen disadvantage. Katherine Kununurra

Karumba Cairns Access Remoteness Index Australia 2006 Broome Townsville Balgo Mount Isa ARIA+ and ARIA++ are indices of remoteness derived Port Headland from measures of road distance between populated Mackay Alice Springs Longreach localities and service centres. These road distance Emerald measures are then used to generate a Bundaberg Carnarvon Warburton remoteness score for any location in Australia. Hervey Bay Roma Thargomindah Coober Pedy Brisbane Gold Coast ARIA+ (2006) 1km grid Geraldton

Kalgoorlie Woomera Narrabri Major cities (0-0.20) Broken Hill Ceduna Port Augusta Port Macquarie Dubbo Perth Inner regional (>0.20-2.40) Newcastle Bunbury Esperance Griffith Port Lincoln Adelaide Sydney Outer regional (>2.40-5.92) Albany Canberra Echuca Horsham Remote (>5.92-10.53) Mount Gambier Bega Melbourne Bairnsdale Yarram Very remote (>10.53-15.00)

N Launceston Data souces: GISCA, The University of Adelaide, Strahan 0 250 500 1,000 Australian Government Geoscience Australia & km Hobart Australian Bureau of Statistics

Aerial photo of Borroloola water treatment compound prior the upgrade, 17  Borroloola, Northern Territory, Australia THE MIDDLE EAST

TURKEY

SYRIA LEBANON IRAQ PALESTINE IRAN ISRAEL

JORDAN KUWAIT

BAHRAIN EGYPT QATAR SAUDI ARABIA UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

OMAN

YEMEN

18 FELLOWSHIP OUTCOMES ITINERARY OBJECTIVES SOUGHT

• Travel to countries 1. Apply the learnings of this 1. Destination no.1: United experiencing water scarcity research project in practical Arab Emirates issues similar to those faced ways to influence and shape Duration: one week. in Australia (United Arab future regional and remote Places visited: Dubai and Emirates, Israel and Oman). water projects in Australia, Abu Dhabi. • Learn about the countries’ improving health, wellbeing, expertise in water economic and social Research activities: meetings, management, innovative outcomes for regional and interviews and site visits. water technologies and remote communities. water solutions for small, 2. Share knowledge and 2. Destination no.2: Israel experience gained overseas decentralised, regional and Duration: five weeks. remote water supply systems. with the Australian water Places visited: Tel Aviv, , • Understand how these industry to drive innovation , Jerusalem, Be’er countries promote, apply and in the water sector. Sheva, , Mitzpe embrace innovation in their 3. Influence strategic policy Ramon, Dead Sea, Arava water sector and their water priorities, contributing to Desert region, . industry in general. the development of resilient Research activities: meetings, • Assess if any water water supplies in regional and interviews, conference, site management strategies and remote Australia. visits and travelling. innovative solutions are 4. Build an international applicable in the context of network to share knowledge small regional and remote with leading water 3. Destination no.3: Oman Australian communities to professionals on an ongoing Duration: two weeks. address similar water basis about innovation and Places visited: Muscat region, scarcity challenges. remote water provision. Mutrah, Dibab, Tiwi, Sur 5. Support the Australian • Assist the Australian region, Jalan Bani Buhassan, water industry with the water industry with the Al Ashkharah, Nizwa, Sayq, advancement of the United advancement of the United Al Hamra and Jabal Shams. Nations’ Sustainable Nations’ Sustainable Research activities: Development Goal 6: Development Goal 6: meetings, interviews, site Ensure access to water and ensure access to water and visits and travelling. sanitation for all. sanitation for all.

19 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

One of the top 10 most water-scarce countries in the world, the UAE relies solely on sea water desalination.

Aerial photo of Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates 20 PART 1: UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

1. Why the UAE? 2. Summary of activities in the UAE The United Arab Emirates (UAE) was selected for: During my time in the UAE I met with Suez, one of the world’s leading water companies, the Dubai • Being one of the ten most arid countries in the Electricity and Water Authority, the Abu Dhabi Water world that faces an imminent water security crisis. and Electricity Company and the Masdar Institute of • Its capabilities in desalination technologies to Science and Technology (Centre for Membranes and overcome ever growing water scarcity challenges. Advanced Water Technology). • Being an international platform for global water For more details about the meetings and activities companies to pioneer technology innovation in please refer to Appendix A. one of the driest regions in the world. According to the UAE government, water scarcity has been a primary concern for the UAE since the Dubai nation’s establishment in 1974. Water demand in the UAE is projected to grow 30% by 2030 in a climate Abu Dhabi labelled “hyper arid” with an annual average rainfall Al Ain of less than 100mm, a groundwater recharge rate of less than 4% of the annual water used and no reliable United Arab Emirates perennial surface water resources (source: FAO [1]). OMAN SAUDI The UAE relies heavily on desalination technology to ARABIA compensate for its lack of surface and ground water and ever-growing water consumption. According to Map 1: places visited the Ministry of Energy, the UAE consumes about 15 percent of the world’s desalinated water (source: 3. UAE’s water sector UAE government [6]). 3.1 Overview Over the last decade, the UAE has been focusing Geography and climate on advancing energy and sustainable technologies, investing in research and development to improve The UAE is located on the eastern side of the the energy efficiency of its desalination technology. Arabian Peninsula in a highly arid and water scarce The vision is implementing commercial-scale coastal environment, with 80 percent of the country renewable energy-powered desalination plants in the classified as desert. country, as well as the wider region, by 2023 (source: The UAE has coastlines along the Gulf of Oman and UAE government [6]). the Persian Gulf and it shares borders with Saudi Many international water companies are based Arabia and Oman. in the UAE and deliver major water projects in The country has a varied topography and can be the gulf region. As such, this destination provided divided into three ecological areas: an opportunity to liaise with leaders of global • marine coastal areas; water companies to learn about the region, water challenges, latest trends and current projects being • the north-eastern mountain areas shared with delivered in the Middle East. Oman; and • sandy/desert areas stretching from the coast into a vast desert that blends into the Empty Quarter (al-Rub al-Khali - world’s largest sand desert). Rainfall is scarce and irregular, averaging less than 100 millimetre per year, concentrated in the winter months (Source: FAO [1]). 21 IRAN OMAN

7 6 Al Tawiyeen Persian Gulf Ajman Bih 4 Sharjah 2 QATAR 2 3 OMANI Dubai 3 Ham ENCLAVE 7 43 35 1 81 4 Gulf of Oman

8 Abu Dhabi Al ‘Ayn

Sabkhat as Salamiyah

Sabkhat Matti

Governorates 1 Dubai 2 Ajman SAUDI ARABIA OMAN 3 Shariqah 4 Al Fujayrah 5 Al Fujayrah/Shariqah 6 Umm al Qaywayn 7 Ras al Khaymah 8 Neutral Zone

MAP 2: UNITED ARAB EMIRATES (SOURCE: FAO [2])

Legend

International Boundary Administrative Boundary Capital, Town Zone of Irrigation Development River Intermittent River Salt Pan Dam

0420 080120 km

22 Albers EqualAreaProjection, WGS1984 Population distribution 3.2 UAE’s water supply management UAE’s population is concentrated in the northeast on Water governance the Musandam Peninsula; the three largest emirates - Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah - are home to nearly The UAE is an alliance of seven emirates. At the 85% of the population. The UAE’s population is federal level, the Ministry of Climate Change and characterised as urban. Environment coordinates water resource policies, strategies and plans. Water governance is flexible across the UAE - some governmental water authorities are federal, whilst there are also numerous authorities operating at an Emirate level. The water authorities responsible for the generation, transportation and distribution of water are: • The Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority • The Dubai Electricity and Water Authority • The Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority • The Ras Al-Khaimah Electricity and Water

Map 3: population distribution in the UAE[3] Authority • The Federal Electricity and Water Authority (which produces and distributes water in the Water resource other three Emirates). For its water, the UAE relies mainly on non- The water sector in Abu Dhabi (UAE’s capital), is conventional sources (desalinated water). based on a “single buyer” model. The Abu Dhabi For a long time, the UAE relied almost entirely on Water and Electricity Company purchases all groundwater resources as surface water is non- production capacity and on-sells it to distribution existent due to the hot climate, coupled with low and supply companies, who on-sell it to end-users. rainfall and high evaporation rates. As shown in the diagram below, all transactions in are based on true costs, with the exception of the The systematic over-abstraction of groundwater tariff paid by end-users (which is a subsidised uniform resources resulted in aquifer depletion, collapse tariff). of traditional irrigation systems and groundwater salinisation in the coastal zones. Desalination is now Sources: Fanack Water [5] and Department of Energy – Abu Dhabi [6]. the only viable option for stable and sustainable long- term potable water supply. According to the UAE government, in 2019, 99 percent of domestic water supplies are produced using thermal desalination. Desalinated water comes from some 70 major desalination plants, which account for around 14 percent of the world’s total production of desalinated water (source: Government UAE[4]).

23 Masdar’s Renewable Energy Seawater Desalination Program 2.1.

• The demonstration includes pilot plants located in Abu Dhabi. Each pilot plant will be operated over 18 months.

• The plants will showcase different advanced and innovative desalination technologies: 4 plants are currently under construction / commissioning

• The main objective is to demonstrate highly energy efficient desalination processes allowing future desalination plants to be cost-effectively powered by renewable energy sources.

• Ongoing discussions with Mascara NT to test a fully off-grid PV powered desalination pilot plant 2.

MASCARA NT Off-grid Reverse Osmosis 30 m3/d

6. 3.

24

4. Water production (desalination) Bulk water supply Distribution Customers

water Bulk Subsidised purchase Supply Tariff Tariff agreement Govermental Water Consumers (industrial, Private investments (eg. Abu Dhabi Water Distribution Commercial and (private companies) & Electricity Company) companies residential) Costs of production Water purchased Water purchased Water purchased and operation at real costs at real costs after subsidies

Government subsidies Production of Water supply & desalinated water distribution

Figure 2: Structure of UAE’s water sector

Due to the increased demand for water, the The strategy includes the establishment of six government has allowed private companies connecting networks between water and electricity to participate in its water sector for a number entities across the UAE of years. Recognising the link between water, energy and Privatization of water desalination started in Abu food, the UAE is investing heavily in cutting-edge Dhabi with large independent water projects in technologies to improve efficiency and reduce the the early 2000s. This allowed foreign companies to environmental impact of the desalination process. create joint ventures with national companies, which Masdar, a renewable energy company based in the contributed to the diversification of technology and UAE’s capital, has made a commitment to power the reduction of production costs. desalination using the region’s abundant renewable In recent times, financing schemes such as build- resources, such as solar and geothermal energy. own-operate (BOO) and build-own-operate-transfer Their aim is to improve water security, reduce the (BOOT) have been adopted in some of the new environmental impact of desalination and lower the desalination projects (source: Fanack Water[5]). cost of potable water. Government strategy Sources: UAE Government [7] and Masdar [11]. In 2017 the UAE Water Security Strategy 2036 was developed, to address water scarcity issues and support a rapidly growing population and economy. The purpose of the long-term strategy is to ensure sustainable access to water during both normal and emergency conditions. The long-term strategy covers all components of the ‎water supply chain over 20 years and has three main elements: Water Supply Management, Water Demand Management, and Emergency Production and Distribution. The strategy also addresses innovation and technical advancement, legislation and policy development.

1. View of Dubai, UAE  2. View of desalination plant (photo courtesy Arabian Business) 3. Figure 1: Renewable Energy Water Desalination Programme (source: Masdar) 25 4. Small solar powered water system for a remote community, UAE SOME FACTS AND COMPARISONS

The UAE compared to Australia and the Northern Territory UAE Australia Northern Territory 83,600 km² 1.42 million km² Surface area (km²) 7.69 million km² (1.12% of Australia) (18% of Australia) 9.6 million 244,000 Population (2019) 25 million (38.4% of Australia) (1% of Australia) Rural population 13.7% 14.1% 46% (outside of major cities) Average population density 132.3 people/km² 3.2 people/km² 0.2 people/km²

90mm/year 1,720mm/year (Darwin – Top End) Precipitation (North coast & East coast) 360mm/year (Tennant Creek – Barkly) (long term average) <40mm/year (desert areas) 280mm/year (Alice Springs – Central Australia)

Source: World Bank, Climate Data, Australian Bureau of Meteorology [8]

Water consumption Northern Territory Water consumption UAE (national value) Darwin Alice Springs Indicative water consumption per capita per day 550 L/person/day 400L/person/day 480L/person/day (based on residential supply)

Sources: Power and Water Corporation and EcoMENA [9]

Water pricing Tariff Emirate of Abu Dhabi Emirate of Dubai Northern Territory $0.82 (<0.7m3) & $1.02 (>0.7m3) For UAE nationals Apart. $3.07 (<0.7m3) & $4.07 (>0.7m3) $3.01 (0-27m3) Domestic water For expats $ 3.43 (27m3-54m3) $1.95 charge (AU$/m3) $0.82 (<7m3) & $1.02 (>7m3) $3.96 (>54m3) For UAE nationals Villa $3.07 (<5m3) & $4.07 (>5m3) For expats Commercial / $3.01 (0-45m3) Industry $3.06 $3.43 (45-91m3) $1.95 (AU$/m3) $3.96 (>91m3) Government $4.06 - $2.07 (AU$/m3) Agriculture $1.22 - - (AU$/m3)

Source: Power and Water Corporation and Abu Dhabi Distribution Co [10] AU$1 = AED 2.53 (Emirati Dirham) as of 13 June 2019

26 Masdar’s Renewable Energy Seawater 3.3 UAE’s main water challenges Desalination Programme The UAE faces several water management In 2013, sponsored by the Abu Dhabi Government challenges including: and with co-funding provided by industry partners, Masdar launched a renewable energy desalination • the scarcity of groundwater reserves; pilot programme to research and develop energy- • high salinity levels in existing groundwater; efficient, cost-competitive desalination technologies that may be powered by renewable energy. • high cost of producing drinking water; This programme aims to develop and demonstrate • limited re-use of water and limited collection and innovative and commercially viable renewable energy treatment of wastewater outside urban areas; and seawater desalination technologies that will reduce • developing a water conscious culture and energy consumption (to meet the UAE’ energy reducing water consumption per capita. reduction targets) while ensuring the country’s water security. With water demand growing annually, the country’s water infrastructure is under significant pressure. The programme is structured in two stages, a piloting phase (stage one) and an implementation phase (stage 2). The piloting phase was successfully completed in 2017 and involved five commercial partners building and operating a small-scale pilot energy- efficient desalination plant for around 15 months, demonstrating the technical and economic viability of solar powered desalination. The implementation phase consists of applying the piloted energy efficient/renewable energy desalination technologies to existing industrial scale seawater desalination plants in the UAE and the wider Middle East and North Africa region. The implementation phase is scheduled to be completed in 2020 (source: Masdar [11]). In 2016, Suez, (now ENGIE) launched a pilot desalination plant (100 cubic meters per day) in Ghantoot, Abu Dhabi, as part of the utility’s drive to incorporate newer technologies.

UAE’s water supply All 70 large-scale desalination plants are delivered through private-public partnership joint ventures, usually on a 40 percent/ 60 percent equity allocation basis, respectively. The majority of the population is connected to an interconnected water distribution network between the emirates, including most regional and remote communities. Only a few remote communities are not connected the main network; these communities are self- sufficient by operating small desalination plants (source: Fanack Water & UAE Government [12]).

27 KEY INSIGHTS FROM THE UAE

28 4. Key insights from the UAE’s The research activities are conducted through pilot water sector projects established within industrial desalination plants to analyse how the trials operate under Supporting the research and different conditions and to assess the viability of desalination powered by renewable energy from the development of renewable energy economic, social, technical and environmental point powered desalination systems of views. There is an increasing need to invest in infrastructure Sponsored by the UAE Government, with co-funding and water efficient technology to meet future provided by the industry partners, Abu Dhabi Water demand and to avoid a shortfall. However, budget and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) and Dubai cuts, as a result of falling government revenues due Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA) are planning to low oil prices, have affected existing projects to power the region’s desalination plants with a mix resulting in calls for proposals from the private sector of renewable energies by 2030. and more innovation. Combined with its long-term reliance on desalination, the urgent need to reduce its environmental impacts and to advance its Environment Vision 2030, the UAE government is actively leading research and development projects to advance and transform desalination technologies. This is done through international collaboration with European research centres and financed by public-private partnership with global water companies such as Suez and Veolia. Through its leading research centre, Masdar Institute, the UAE is pushing research to deliver more cost- effective desalination solutions and to introduce novel approaches for renewable energy desalination through the combination of renewable energy (solar and wind) and more energy efficient desalination technology to achieve high fresh water production at low cost with efficient energy utilization. Through its Renewable Energy Powered Desalination Program and other desalination R&D efforts, Masdar Institute is also focusing on the development of small- scale decentralized desalination systems to operate in remote or rural off-grid communities that lack access to the electrical grid as an alternative to large-scale centralized desalination plants.

29 ISRAEL

A culture that values water “Rain, rain, go away. Come again some other day!” (American nursery rhyme) “Rain, rain, from the skies. All day long, drops of water. Drip drop drip drop. Clap your hands!” (Israeli nursery rhyme) Source: Let there be Water - Seth M. Siegel

Aerial photo of a date palm tree farm near Eilat, Arava Valley, Israel 30 PART 2: ISRAEL 1. Why Israel? 2. Summary of activities in Israel Israel was selected as the second destination on my I spent five weeks in Israel – conducting meetings, Churchill itinerary for its status as a world leader in travelling, and discovering new things. This water management. included visiting several unique regions and remote communities to understand how they manage Over the past 50-60 years, water scarcity has shaped their water supply systems and attending a water the development of Israel’s water sector. conference in Hebrew! The country has had no choice but to adapt and develop a series of water innovations in operational practices, technologies and institutions. Many valuable lessons about water reforms have been Haifa learned along the way. To secure a reliable water supply, Israel has gradually implemented a policy that combines institutional Mediterranean Sea reforms and massive infrastructure investment Tel Aviv-Yafo that includes: JORDAN Jerusalem • significant demand management; • reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation;

• development of large-scale seawater desalination; Be’er Sheva • development of a national bulk water carrier

infrastructure; and ISRAEL • institutional reforms to promote financial EGYPT sustainability of the water sector and separate political decision making from infrastructure planning and operations. Over the past 15 years, Israel’s consistent approach to water policy has enabled major structural and infrastructural transformation through: Map 4: visited places • the establishment of government-owned water I met with experts from the national water utility and sewage corporations with the purpose of (Mekorot), the Israel Water Authority, the Israel improving and properly maintaining the municipal Water Association, the Hebrew University of water supply; Jerusalem, the Israel University of Technology, • the implementation of large-scale desalination the Grand Water Research Centre, the Israel- facilities and associated water supply systems to Australia Chamber of Commerce, the Ministry of increase water security; and Economy, the Israel Innovation Authority, various • the development of cutting-edge water technology water companies and start-ups, agribusiness and and innovative water treatment methods to an experimental (research and development) treat most of Israel’s wastewater for reuse in agricultural centre. Through these meetings I learnt agricultural and groundwater recharge. a lot about how Israel manages its water resource and the successful approaches they use to cultivate The extreme water security situation is what has innovation across the water sector. driven institutions, utilities, private companies, research centres and entrepreneurs to unite behind For more details about the meetings, site visits and the government’s long-term policy vision and activities please refer to Appendix B. develop innovative approaches, creative thinking, and advanced technologies. This transformation has changed the way the Israeli water sector operates and has led it to a new era.

31 LEBANON

SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC NORTHERN Haifa Lake Nazareth Mediterranean Sea HAIFA

Netanya CENTRAL DISTRICT WEST TEL AVIV STRIP Tel Aviv-Yafo BatYam Ashdod JERUSALEM Dead Sea JORDAN

Be’er Sheva

SOUTHERN DISTRCT

Araba

EGYPT

Elat SAUDI ARABIA

MAP 5: ISRAEL (SOURCE: FAO [1])

Legend

International Boundary Armistice Demarcation Line Administrative Boundary City, Town Zone of Irrigation Development River Intermittent River Canal Lake Salt Pan

0420 080120 km 32 Albers EqualAreaProjection, WGS1984 3. Israel’s water sector 3.1 Overview Geography and climate Israel is located in the Middle East between the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, bordering Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Egypt.

LEB.

Har Meron (1208m) Sea of Galilee SYRIA

WEST Judean Hills

BANK Dead Sea GAZA (north) STRIP (south) ISRAEL

Negev Desert JORDAN Map 7: Rainfall [3] Map 8: Population Distribution [6] EGYPT

North Arabian Desert Population distribution

Sinai Penin. Gulf of Aqaba According to Israel’s Central Bureau of Statistics, Israel’s population reached 8.7 million in 2017, which Map 6: represents a tenfold increase over the past 70 years ago (Source: World Bank[8]). Whilst Israel is a relatively small country, it is With an annual growth rate of about 2 percent, geographically diverse with a combination of Israel’s population is expected to reach 15.2 million desert (two-thirds of its land mass), mountains, by 2048 (source: Israel Central Bureau of Statistics[4]). plains and fertile land (Source: Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs[2]). According to World Bank development indicators (Source: World Bank[8]), 92.4% of the Israeli There are four distinct geographical regions - the population is classified as urban, mostly concentrated Mediterranean coastal plain, the central highland in and around Tel-Aviv and the Sea of Galilee. The region, the Jordan Rift valley and the Negev Desert. southern region remains sparsely populated with the Israel has a wide variety of climatic conditions, exception of the shore of the Gulf of Aqaba (Eilat). caused mainly by the country’s diverse topography. There are four major metropolitan areas: Gush Dan Northern Israel is characterized by a Mediterranean (Tel Aviv metropolitan area; population 3,854,000), climate, while the southern part is arid (desert), Jerusalem metropolitan area (population 1,253,900), with a narrow, semi-arid strip in between. Haifa metropolitan area (population 924,400), and Rainfall varies considerably by region and from year metropolitan area (population 377,100) to year. Multiple years of drought are not uncommon. (source: Israel Central Bureau of Statistics and Trading Economics[5]). Within a 200-kilometre radius, annual rainfall varies from 600 millimetres in the north to less than 100 millimetres in the south. Israel’s “desert line” which passes through the northern Negev, is defined as an area where the average annual rainfall is below 100 mm.

33 2. 1.

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3. Water resource and the southern slopes of Mount Carmel. On the south, the aquifer borders on Sinai. Israel draws its water from conventional The aquifer is currently used by hundreds (natural surface water and groundwater) and of wells spread across the foot of the main mountain non-conventional sources (desalination and chain which decreases aquifer water levels and reclaimed wastewater). reduces water flow in the springs. The aquifer faces Golan Heights Legend the problem of a gradual salinisation process, derived Sea of SYRIA International Border Haifa Galilee from the presence of a saline water body with a Coastal Aquifer salinity level close to that of the Mediterranean, Mountain Aquifers located at the north-western edge of the aquifer. Sea of Galilee JORDAN Non-conventional sources Tel Aviv In addition to natural water resources, Israel also has Jerusalem two significant artificial water sources: desalination Dead Sea and effluent reuse (reclamation). GAZA Be’er Sheva ISRAEL • Desalination is becoming a critical source of water for Israel. In 2018, desalinated water supplied EGYPT 85 percent of drinking water (domestic urban)

Map 9: Water Resource Overview [7] and 40 percent of the country’s total water consumption (source: Israel Water Authority). Conventional sources Nearly 90% of desalinated water is produced by five major seawater desalination facilities— The main natural water sources are the Kinneret , Palmahim, , Sorek, and Basin which includes aquifers and rivers that flow Ashdod—and the rest comes from other brackish into the Sea of Galilee,Sinai Penin. the CoastalGulf Aquifer of Aqaba and the water desalination facilities operating in regional Mountain Aquifer. parts of the country. (Source: Israel Water Authority [12]) • The Sea of Galilee serves as an operational • Reclaimed wastewater or effluent re-use is reservoir and is the primary source of water used primarily for agriculture irrigation and for the national water system. For operational groundwater recharge. Water scarcity, combined purposes, the lake was assigned a maximum with a fast-growing population and the policy level—the upper red line (209 meters below sea decision to stop over-exploiting aquifers, made level), which should not be exceeded for fear of it imperative for Israel to engage in a massive flooding in sites around the lake—and a minimum program of reuse of treated wastewater. level—the lower red line (213 meters below sea Gradually, reclaimed wastewater has become a level), at which point pumping is prohibited due major source of water for farmers, with more to concerns regarding water quality and damage than 87 percent of wastewater being reused - to the ecosystem. supplying more than 40 percent of the country’s • The Coastal Aquifer is a shallow groundwater needs for irrigation and (Source: Israel Water Authority [13]). reservoir that extends the length of the Israeli Israel is one of the few countries in the world that Coastal Plain. On the west, the fresh water has managed to almost entirely close the urban of the Coastal Aquifer borders the salt water water cycle (Source: World Bank[14]). of the Mediterranean Sea; as a result, over- pumping from the aquifer may reduce the hydraulic gradient and thereby allow saltwater intrusion into wells. The shallow depth of the Coastal Aquifer makes it easily accessible and therefore extremely sensitive to contamination. This sensitivity is evidenced in the permeation of contaminants from various sources such as industry and landfill leachate due to its close proximity of one the most populated and industrialized region in Israel. • The Mountain Aquifer (Yarkon-Taninim basin) lies between the mountain ridge of and Samaria on the east and the Mediterranean coast on the west. To the north, the aquifer borders the

1. Panoramic view of the Sea of Galilee (north of Israel)  2. Aerial view of Tel-Aviv 35 3. Panoramic view of the Negev desert – Sde Boker (south of Israel) SOME FACTS AND COMPARISONS

Israel compared to Australia and the Northern Territory Israel Australia Northern Territory 22,000 km² 1.42 million km² Surface area (km²) 7.69 million km² (0.285% of Australia) (18% of Australia) 8.7 million 244,000 Population (2017) 25 million (34.8% of Australia) (1% of Australia) Rural population (outside of 7.6% 14.1% 46% major cities) Source FAO Average population density 402.6 people/km² 3.2 people/km² 0.2 people/km² 670mm/year (Zefat – north of central highland region) 1,720mm/year (Darwin – Top End) 570mm/year (Jerusalem – east of central highland region) 580mm/year (Tel Aviv - Mediterranean coastal plain) 360mm/year (Tennant Creek – Barkly) Precipitation 195mm/year (Be’er Sheva – (long term average) north of Negev Desert region) 280mm/year (Sede Eliyyahu - Jordan Rift Valley) 90mm/year (Sede Boqer – Negev 280mm/year (Alice Springs – Central Australia) Desert region) 22mm/year (Eilat – south of Negev Desert region)

References World Bank [8]

Water consumption Northern Territory Water consumption Israel (National value) Darwin Alice Springs Indicative water consumption per capita per day (based on 250L/person/day 400L/person/day 480L/person/day residential supply)

Sources: Power and Water Corporation and EcoMENA [9]

Water pricing Tariff Israel Northern Territory $2.77 (<3.5mᶟ) Domestic water charge (AU$/m3) $1.95 $5.22(>3.5mᶟ) Commercial / Industry (AU$/m3) $5.22 $1.95 Government (AU$/m3) $5.22 $2.07 Varies depending on the source of water, Agriculture (AU$/m3) - the region and the time of the year.

Source: Israel Water Authority [10] and Power and Water Corporation [11] AU$1 = NIS2.48 (New Israeli Shekel) as of 13 June 2019

36 3.2 Israel’s water supply including that all water resources are public and management stipulating how water rights are allocated. Water governance In recent years, two other key elements have been added to Israel’s legal and regulatory framework for Administratively Israel is divided into 6 districts: water services: Jerusalem, Haifa, Tel Aviv and the Northern, Central and Southern districts (source: Fanack Water [15]). • The Municipal Water and Sewage Incorporation Law (2001) - which mandated the establishment Israeli water sector legal and regulatory of public ring-fenced corporations to manage framework local water and sewage services, to improve performance by centralising service delivery. In Israel, water is considered a public asset and the • Public health regulations setting quality standards government controls all water ownership and usage for reclaimed water (Sewage Effluents Quality including wastewater, sewerage and runoff that Standards and Sewage Treatment Rules, 2010), could be used commercially as well as water on a and drinking water landowner’s property. (Sanitary Quality of Government control of Israel’s water was formalised Drinking Water Law, in the 1950’s through a series of laws that established 2013). the centralized water philosophy of Israel and are still Source: World Bank [14]. enacted today. These include: • The Law for Water Measurement (1955) – relating to water metering to enable water management and control of water flows and uses. • The Law for Supervision of Water Drillings (1955) – relating to control over the production of the water, to safeguard aquifers from over-extraction. • The Law for Drainage and Flood Prevention (1957) - relating to minimising the impact of rapid urbanization on flood events. • The Water Law (1959) – relating to the overall guiding principles for managing the water sector,

Institutions involved in water management Map 10: [14] The key institutional players in Israel’s water sector are as follows:

Institution Scale Main responsibilities Ministry of Energy and Water National Policy Israel Water Authority National Planning, allocation, and tariff regulation for all water use Production and transmission of bulk water: • Aquifer pumping and potable water treatment from the Sea of Galilee Mekorot Water Company National • Desalination of seawater (as off-taker under build-operate-transfer) and brackish water • Operation of national bulk water network Municipal or Distribution of potable water to domestic and industrial Water and sewage corporations regional consumers, sewage collection and wastewater treatment Management of basins, aquifers, flash floods, and Drainage and river authorities Basin surface waters

37 2. 1. 2.

38

3. The Israel Water Authority Mekorot Water is also involved in commercial international activities through its two subsidiary The Israel Water Authority (IWA) is the national companies (EMS Mekorot Projects and Mekorot planner and regulator for the entire water sector— Development and Enterprise) to deliver a range of potable water supply and wastewater services, planning, construction and operation works (sources: irrigation services, and water resources management. Mekorot [16] and World Bank [14]). IWA is in responsible for planning infrastructure investment, allocating and overseeing water rights, regulating tariffs and performance of service Water and sewage corporations providers (including local water utilities). According to the IWA, in 2018, there are currently The establishment of IWA as a national, independent 55 water and sewerage government-owned water authority was essential to drawing a line corporations in charge of distributing potable water between the political level, which is responsible for and providing sewerage services (sewer collection policy, and the professional level, which manages the and treatment) to domestic and industrial consumers. water sector. The water and sewerage corporations serve 155

Source: Israel Water Authority [16]. local authorities out of the 183 authorities (source: Israel Water Authority [18]). Mekorot Water Company Other government stakeholders Mekorot is a government-owned company accountable to the IWA, responsible for managing The IWA coordinates the involvement of numerous the country’s water resources, developing new other government stakeholders including: sources and supplying wholesale water to urban • Ministry of Agriculture – involved in water communities, industries and agricultural users. allocations between crops and ecological regions Mekorot supplies 85 percent of Israel’s drinking • Ministry of Health – involved in drinking water water and 70 percent of the total water consumption quality and reuse standards and permits through a cross-country water supply network • Ministry of Environmental Protection – involved known as the National Water Carrier and runs in water resource protection and discharge 3,000 installations across the country for water monitoring supply, water quality, infrastructure, wastewater • Ministry of Finance treatment, desalination, rain enhancement, etc. • Ministry of Interior Affairs Mekorot also supplies water to Jordan and the (sources: Israel Water Authority [16] and World Bank [14]) Palestinian Authority. Mekorot operates a unique centre for technological entrepreneurship in the field of water – WaTech. Through WaTech, Mekorot is actively investing in research and development to develop future water technologies through joint ventures with the academia, industry and local and international companies. Over the years, more than 750 proposals for joint ventures and projects in the field of water technology have been examined by WaTech, and agreements have been entered into with about 28 partners.

1. & 2. Historical monument – Pioneering reverse osmosis desalination facility (brackish water) - 1968  3. Shafdan R&D and innovation Centre 39 Birkat-Ram Banias 7 million m3 Yosifon Dan Reservoir

Kiryat Shmona Golan

Kfar Heights Neot Giladi Reservoir 1.36 million m3 Einan Reservoir Works

Hakoren Reservoir Ein Aviv Alonei 3 Ayoun 2.5 million m Works Habashan Station Wells Rosh Damon Dalton Reservoir Reservoir 2.5 million m3 Pina 1.5 million m3 Dvash Akko Reservoir

Shefaram Sha'abania

Reservoir Heights Hagalil Gihon Amud Sapir Station Reservoir Krayot Golan Reservoir-New Bnei Israel 3 million m3 Reservoir Filtration Plant Haifa Hayarden Kursi Eshkol Canal Station Haifa Reservoir recycled Filtration Beit Netofa Plant Canal Tiberias Haon 140+ Station ”108 Nazareth Maagan Golani Meitzar Michael (9.5) Line Reservoir Oren-Hadera 3.2 million m3 Maayan Zvi Reservoir A Reservoir Maayan Zvi 5 million m3 2 million m3 B Reservoir 2 million m3 Menashe Nahalei Station Hof Hacarmel Menashe plants Station Menasheunnel for capturing T Maale Hakishon water Reservoir for running to 3 Hadera ground water Bikat Hanadiv 12 million m (127) Reservoir Beit Hashita Hedera Plant 3 1.8 million m Reservoir 2.5 million m3

Haviva Reservoir Line”108 3 ISRAEL Eastern Reservoir 2.5 million m 5 million m3 Recycled Netanya NATIONAL Hefer Recycled

Ramat Hakovesh Reservoir Reservoir 2.3 million 1.4 million m3 m3 WATER Plant Station

Merkaz Hashomron Petach T.T.A Tikva regulation Tapuach station Junction SYSTEM Tel Aviv-Yaffo Dan Line Ma'ale Efraim Reservoir Sorek Rishon le 3.5 million m3 (150) Zion Shafdan Sewage est Line Treatment and Fourth Reclamation Plant Jerusalem Ramallah Legend Reservoir Line to Ashkelon Plant arkon W0.5 million m3 Palmachim Y (Shmarim) (45) Heller Bitunia Hafetz Hayim Ponds (90 = future) Reservoir Station Shoeva Ponds arkon East Line Station Y the Negev Third Line to The National Carrier Ashdod Recovered water Fifth Line to Jerusalem Jerusalem (100) Granot Granot Ponds A Mei Ponds B Reservoir Bethlehem Potable water pipeline A Granot 3.5 million m3 Og Reservoir Reservoir 3.5 million m3 2.5 million m3 Hafetz Hayim Gat Reservoir Ashkelon Lahat 1.35 million m3 Menachem Shimshon Effluents pipeline (irrigation) (120) Ashkelon Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir 3.5 million m3 3.5 million m3 2 million m3 Noga Ponds Zohar Lake 100.000 m3 8 million m3 Brackish water pipeline Station Simcha Reservoir Makhtzeva Station 1 million m3 Ponds Nachal Oz Reservoir Amatzia Hebron 3.6 million m3 Towns Tekuma Mafsakh Reservoir Ponds B 100.000 m3 100.000 m3 Tekuma Ponds A 200.000 m3 Potable water reservoir

Tifrach Ponds Potable water ponds Shoket Ponds Be'er Sheva and Station (3) Reservoir Ponds Arad Ponds Avraham Yatir Station Desalination Station Be'er Potable water wells Lev Hanegev Reservoir Ye'elim Ponds of drinking 50.000 m3 Sheva and water for Magen Station Arad Hotels at the Mivtachim Reservoir Tze'elim Reservoir Dead Sea Ponds 100.000 m3 100.000 m3 Mevo'ot Tze'elim Tifrach Yerushalayim Recycled effluents ponds Ponds Reservoir Reservoir 3.7 Efeh Wells 3 million m3 Hevel Shalom 2 million m Rotem Plain Reservoir 3 4 million m Dimona Ponds 150.000 m3 Recovered water ponds Halutza settlements Dimona Ponds

Yerucham Salty water Ponds Brackish water desalination facility Ketziot Wells Nitzana (2.8) Yerucham Neot Hakikar Wells HaMakhtesh Hakatan Wells Brackish water desalination facility under construction

Sde Boker Ponds Sde Boker Brackish water wells Seawater desalination facility Neg e v

Ein Yahav Seawater desalination facility under construction Pumping station Paran

Legend by basins

Paran Ponds Paran Wells and Station Kinneret and Golan Basins

Tzichor Ponds Shita Ponds and Station Western Galilee Basins

Shizafon Ponds Tzukei Ovda Ponds Carmel Basin Ketora Coastal Basin Eastern Basins Sayarim Ponds Arava Basin

Arava

Elifaz B Reservoir Negev Basin 1.6 million m3

Be'er-Ora Mountain basin (Yarkon Taninim)

Eilat “Sabha ”salty (16) water and 40 sea water desalination facility for Eilat Role of the private sector for financing objective to improve operational performance and infrastructure and improving performance reduce costs. Subcontracting arrangements have been established for a wide range of operational Despite water’s significance as a public asset, the tasks, commercial services, data acquisition and long- private sector plays an important role in the Israel term operation and maintenance activities. Private water sector. Private companies contribute to Israel’s contractors now perform a large portion of tasks of water supply in two ways: the most advanced Israeli water utilities (source: Israel Water (1) by distributing drinking water and providing Authority [19] and The Research and Information Centre [20]). sewerage services to consumers and (2) by constructing, operating and maintaining Seawater desalination program seawater desalination plants. Most of the desalination facilities were implemented as part of public-private partnerships through BOT Water and sewage corporations subcontracting (build, operate, transfer) or BOO (build, own, arrangements operate), in which private entities financed the The underperformance of municipal water and investments and are responsible for the operation sewerage departments in the early 2000s prompted and maintenance for 25 years. the government to undertake an ambitious reform of By 2015, five major seawater desalination facilities water and sanitation services. were delivered – Ashkelon, Palmachim, Hadera, Over the last 15 years, municipal water and sanitation Sorek and Ashdod – each capable of producing 90 services have been gradually transformed into to 150 million cubic meters of water per year. corporatized utilities, owned by local municipalities In addition, several brackish water desalination plants and regulated under licences by the IWA. This were delivered across the country (sources: World Bank [14] and transformation has facilitated a variety of partnership Fanack Water [21]). contracts with the national private sector with the

Desalination Plants

MIZPE SHALEM (1983) MAAGAN MICHAEL (1994) 50 m 3 /day 3 1,200 m /day EIN BOKEK (1988) Haifa 50 m 3 /day

ׁ◌ (HADERA (2009) NEVE ZOHAR (1986 120 -150 Mm3/year 50 m 3 /day

ׁ◌ NEOT HAKIKAR ◌ׂ 1982 50 m 3 /day PALMACHIM (2007) Hadera 3 45 -87 Mm /year EIDAN (1983) Tel Aviv 50 m 3 /day SOREK (2013) (1992) 3 150 Mm /year 50 m 3 /day Ashdod Jerusalem LOTAN (1983) ASHDOD (2015) 50 m 3 /day 100 Mm3/year YAHEL (1979) 50 m 3 /day ASHKELON (2005) BeerSheva 3 KTURA (1983) 120 -130 Mm /year 50 m 3 /day

GROFIT (1974) *LAHAT-GRANOT-GAT(2010) 50 m 3 /day 43,000-94,000 m3/day YOTVATA (1973) EILAT-SABHA A-C (1978-97) 50 m 3 /day 3 55,000 m /day MAALE SHACHARUT (1985) 50 m 3 /day

ELIPAZ (1983) 50 m 3 /day

KFAR DAROM (1989) SAMAR (1979) 50 m 3/day 50 m 3 /day BEER ORA (1983) 50 m 3 /day SADE UVDA 1 (1979) Eilat 250 m 3 /day (1986) 50 m 3 /day SADE UVDA 2 (1980) 500 m 3 /day 22

Map 12: Desalination Plants Across The Country (Source: Mekorot)

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5. National water transmission system: transmission infrastructure enables Israel to regulate The National Water Carrier and dynamically adjust its management of natural water resources in response to prevailing hydrological The “National Water Carrier” is the largest conditions; for example conveying surpluses of water infrastructure project built in Israel in the last fifty from one resource to store in other resources, in years and consists of a system of giant pipes, open order to meet demand in various regions. canals, tunnels, reservoirs and large scale pumping stations that transport water from the Sea of Galilee The operational flexibility that the National Water in the north to the main populated areas in the System provides has been essential for the strategic centre and the arid areas of the Negev Desert in combination of water supply based on desalination the south. and reuse with sustainable exploitation of natural water resources (sources: World Bank [14], Fanack Water [22] and The first National Water Carrier, constructed in Mekorot [23]). 1964, is currently is being further developed into a New National Water Carrier (stage 2) to transmit Tariff-setting mechanisms: financing the water 95 percent of Israel’s drinking water (surface water, sector and driving demand management groundwater, and desalinated water) to regional providers that supply end-users (domestic, The construction and operation of desalination industrial, agriculture). plants under public-private partnership contracts are financed by the private company that owns the plant. Once completed, the New National Water Carrier will supply desalinated water from the seawater Mekorot buys water from the private company desalination plants along the Mediterranean coast to which include fixed and variable payments depending the national system, where it will be distributed in all on the plant’s performance. The fixed price is directions: from west to east, to central, northern an unconditional payment to the desalination and southern Israel, with operational flexibility and company based on plant capacity, agreed upfront energy efficiency. in the contract. This ensures a return on capital investment regardless of actual water consumed. This massive water infrastructure includes as many The variable price is the payment for each cubic as 3,000 installations and 12,000 kilometres of metre of desalinated water delivered to the state. transmission mains controlled by 10 main command This allows for the variable costs of production centres across the country. (energy, chemicals etc.). The overall level of water losses in the bulk Mekorot sells water to the water corporations which transportation system is reported to be extremely then recover their costs from consumers through low (3 percent). regulated tariffs set by the Israel Water Authority (IWA). Connecting almost the entire country (with exception of Eilat and the Arava region), this water

Figure 3: Structure of Israel’s water sector

Bulk water Water production transmission Water Distribution Customers water purchase agreement Desalinated water Private (seawater) Water & Sewer water Corporations purchase agreement Private (including Desalinated water subcontracting Consumers (brackish) arrangements & (industrial, Mekorot Water Company Mekorot Water Commercial and Water partnership Tariff Company purchase contracts) residential) water agreement purchase Surface water and Private agreement groundwater extraction Water purchased Water purchased Water purchased Mekorot Water Company at real costs at real costs at real costs

Production Water supply & of water distribution

1. , 2.&3. Various water meters and drip irrigation systems across the country  4. Water asset with extensive security protection near Be’er Sheva 43 5. Roundabout equipped with synthetic grass – landscaping with no irrigation system – north of Tel-Aviv 2.

1.

  

2.

44

3. IWA sets tariffs for all water and sewerage services, and Development of non-conventional water a uniform tariff level and structure has been instituted resources, water conservation and water use for the country, with all potable water and sanitation efficiency customers paying the same price, the result being cross- subsidies between consumers who live close to water After drawing on nearly all of its readily available water sources and those who live farther away and require resources, Israel has made a national commitment to additional pumping and associated costs. protect existing sources, drive extensive conservation programs and develop non-conventional water sources. On average, 44 percent of the tariff is allocated to water utilities for water distribution and sewage collection, Public water conservation campaigns coupled with 22 percent to Mekorot for bulk water transport and technical, economic and regulatory measures are freshwater production, 18 percent covers sewage being applied to reduce water demand and to increase treatment costs, 16 percent covers desalination costs, awareness of water scarcity across the country. and 4.5 percent covers subsidies associated with the In agriculture, the systematic adoption of innovative uniform tariff. water solutions to use less water and in more efficient The uniform tariff for potable water and sewerage ways (e.g. moisture-sensitive automated drip irrigation, services is based on the cost principle (actual costs) on automation, effluent re-use) has significantly reduced a two-tier increasing- block structure. The tariff for the water consumption whilst increasing production yields. first block, corresponding to consumption up to 3.5 In the domestic, commercial and light industrial sectors, cubic meters per capita per month (115 litres per day) comprehensive programs to reduce water demand and the tariff for the second consumption block imposes have led to major water efficiency improvements, a 61 percent mark-up per cubic meter. This increasing resource management, leak detection, control, block tariff structure is designed to encourage demand monitoring and data collection of municipal water management while still ensuring that the population has systems. Israelis are encouraged to save water – access to water at an affordable price (sources: World Bank [14], everyone knows the slogan “Don’t waste a drop. Fanack Water [22] and Mekorot [23]. Public spaces and parks have been placed under strict conservation regimes, including planting of drought- resistant plants, use of synthetic grass and watering at night (source: Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs [24].

Uniform average tariff (Israel Water Authority)

16% 22% 44% 18% Desalination Bulk supply & Water distribution (Water Sewage treatment (Water (Private operators) transmission (Mekorot) & Sewer Corporations) & Sewer Corporations)

Breakdown of consumer water tariff (2017) - Source: Israel Water Authority

1. One of the education campaigns about water scarcity in Israel - Israel Water Authority (source: Israel Water Authority [26])  2. A faucet and toilets are presented in a classroom in the ecological village in Nitzana for students to learn about desalination and how to save water. Source: http://www.thetower.org/article/how-israel-is-solving-the-global-water-crisis/ 3. Famous Israeli actresses faces dried out symbolizing drought, in a public service announcement from 2009 to save water and protect the Sea of Galilee. 45 (YouTube Screenshot) – Israel Water Authority Israel Water Authority (source: Israel Water Authority [26]) 2. 1.

2.

46

3. Israel’s regional water supply 3.3 Israel’s main water challenges Mekorot operates individual regional water supply Since its establishment in 1948, Israel has faced systems for the remote communities and settlements numerous water challenges relating to quality and (moshav and ) of the Arava region, which are security of supply. Progressive, long-term water not connected to the national water system. management policies, forward thinking pricing policy, technological innovation and advanced water To supply drinking water, Mekorot operates a myriad management have helped the country to address and, of small desalination plants across the region which is in some cases, overcome these challenges. from with brackish groundwater source from various aquifers (wells). Today, despite many technological advancements and innovative solutions, Israel’s water sector still faces The desalination systems include desalinated water long-standing problems combined with a new set of storage facilities, supply lines and the transfer of challenges including: water to residential and agricultural consumers. • fast growing water demand associated with The desalination units operate automatically (without steep population growth, rapid urbanization and the need for human intervention) and they are industrialization; connected to the Mekorot’s command centre in Eilat. • longer and more severe droughts associated with An average, each facility produces 360 cubic meters climate change; of desalinated water per day for drinking and household use. • general overexploitation of natural water resources which threatens water security and Mekorot also supplements the amount of water affects both the population and the environment; produced from the wells through a wide variety of activities such as operating advanced desalination • environmental damage associated with increasing systems, water recycling and stormwater catchment. use of desalination (marine pollution, accumulation of by-products, disposal of desalination brine); To improve security of supply and prepare for climate change adaptation, Mekorot is connecting the • economic impacts associated with the growing northern and the central Arava areas to the national energy usage required for increased reliance on water system via a series of projects. The aim is to desalination; and ensure that the Arava areas no longer rely on local • growing tension related to transboundary well water but have access to reliable and quality water management, water diplomacy and national water supply from the national system (sources: Mekorot [25] water security. and Wikipedia [26]).

1. Brackish water reverse osmosis desalination plant in remote location of the Arava – near Hazeva, Israel  2. Floating roof reservoir (left) and ground aquifer recharge (right) in remote location of the Arava – near Hazeva, Israel 47 3. Panoramic view of Ein Yahav’s water treatment plant in the Arava Desert, Israel KEY INSIGHTS FROM ISRAEL

48 4. Key insights from Israel’s growth and rapid urbanisation and to overcome water sector severe droughts and chronic water shortage associated with climate change. 1. Establishing a vision and focusing on The development of non-conventional water sources long-term planning to achieve water includes wastewater effluents reuse, intercepted security through an holistic approach runoff and artificial aquifer recharge, artificially- to water supply induced rainfall (cloud seeding) and seawater Israel has been at the forefront of effective and desalination. innovative water management for decades. This According to the Israel Water Authority, desalinated didn’t happen by chance - very limited water water now constitutes about 50 percent of the availability, survival necessity and no alternatives led quantity of fresh water supplied for all needs and to an enormous water technological transformation. about 85 percent of the all drinking water supplied Israel’s implementation of a long-term vision for its for domestic and industrial needs. water sector, through a National Long-Term Master Around 85% of all wastewater is treated and reused Plan, has been critical to its success. In the master (effluent reuse), mostly for agriculture irrigation, plan, Israel defined the vision, goals and objectives making Israel the world leader in water reuse. Israel of its national water sector as well as the necessary has the objective to reach 100 percent of effluent policy and regulatory framework. reuse from its wastewater stream in the next decade. In alignment with its long-term vision, Israel has successfully delivered several key strategic water 3. Smart use of groundwater aquifers as projects which are now critical pillars of its national storage reservoirs to counter balance security and economic development; these include: prevailing hydrological conditions experienced in different regions • delivery of the National Water Carrier, a visionary, nationwide water distribution system; One of the most important components of Israel is integrated water management approach is the smart • establishment of the Dan region wastewater use of groundwater aquifers as storage reservoirs reclamation scheme (Shafdan), the largest through artificial recharge. wastewater treatment and effluent reuse scheme used for unrestricted agriculture irrigation and With the large production of artificial water from groundwater replenishment (aquifer recharge); seawater desalination and reclaimed wastewater schemes and the effective use of the National • development of a large seawater desalination Water Carrier to transfer water throughout the program as a primary water supply source to country in all directions, aquifers have gradually been ensure security of supply; transformed from being over-exploited to becoming • delivery of the new National Water Carrier to major storage reservoirs. supply desalinated water to the national system; With the capability and ability and flexibility provided and by the interconnected national water system, to • development of regional systems to expand water transfer large volume of water between regional security across the country. water schemes at any given time, Israel operates aquifers as a method of storage to counter balance 2. Extensive development of non-conventional various hydrological conditions (droughts, floods, water sources to reduce dependence on rainfall recharge) experienced in different regions natural water resources and prepare for of the country. This operating method also reduces climate change adaptation. water losses by evaporation that would have occurred in conventional open reservoirs (such In recent decades, the Israel water sector has as a dam). focused on the development of non-conventional water sources to reduce the country’s dependence on natural water resources to better cope with growing water demand from steep population

49 4. Artificially recharge groundwater using Over the past 15 years Israel has gradually reformed flash floods and water run-off to preserve and transformed its water sector to achieve reliable and enhance groundwater resources water supply and to guarantee water security for the country. This was done by: Artificial recharge is part of Israel’s integrated water resources management strategy and has been in Corporatising service providers through extensive place since the 1960’s. Despite its small contribution, institutional reforms. in comparison to the desalination and effluent reuse programs, this activity underlines Israel’s efforts to The corporatisation reform transformed Israel’s harvest and utilise all available water. national water company Mekorot (government- owned corporation), which used to operate in a Israel has developed several methods to artificially cost-plus environment (cost overruns covered by recharge groundwater aquifers to increase government) into a regulated public company (still groundwater yields during years of high demand and owned by the government) designed to function as drought. This includes using flash floods and surface an independent commercial entity with clear financial water run-off experienced during wet years. performance and operational targets. Although the primary objective of this strategy is to The corporatisation reform also revolutionised local enhance groundwater resources, artificial recharge authorities and municipalities into corporate utilities. has also been used to: Still owned by local municipalities and regulated • control saltwater intrusion; by the Israel Water Authority, the corporate water and sewerage utilities rely solely tariff revenues to • reduce pumping and piping costs by contributing function. This reform aims to improve governance to the stabilisation or increase of the groundwater and operational performance, to promote the levels; and agglomeration of services into regional utilities and • improve water quality. to support the implementation of public-private partnerships. The nature of the landscape, characterised as rugged with very minimal vegetation cover, coupled with the Establishing a national regulator to oversee the pattern of short rainstorms produces flash floods and water sector as a whole. water run-offs that, unless harvested, are lost to the The establishment of the Israel Water Authority as desert, the Mediterranean or the Dead Sea. an autonomous regulating body (or governmental To capture and store this untapped yet ephemeral authority for water and sewerage) which combines water source, Israel invested in retention earth wall national regulation and planning functions was driven and dam infrastructure across the regions to support by the need to streamline and reduce the number natural ground infiltration which subsequently of entities involved in the management of the water recharge aquifers. sector (i.e. too many entities with conflicting interests Depending on the rainfall pattern and strength, and divided responsibilities was limiting progress) and some studies have demonstrated that this artificial to diminish the political interference in the day-to- groundwater recharge can achieve in average day management of the water sector (i.e. particularly 8 percent of increase in addition to the natural in relation to tariffs). replenishment. The Israel Water Authority is responsible for overseeing the entire water sector and is in charge 5. Undertaking major legal, institutional and of planning national water investments, allocating economic reforms of the water sector to and monitoring water rights, regulating tariffs and promote financial sustainability and maintain reviewing the financial and operational performance political separation from the water sector of services providers (including local water and It took several major droughts and three significant sewer utilities). national water crises (1986, 1989/90 and 1998) to undertake and drive ambitious and far-reaching water policy reforms and to modernise the water management institutional framework.

50 Changing water pricing to full cost recovery tariffs Israel has developed a range of integrated to contribute to full financial autonomy of the policy mechanisms to achieve effective demand water sector. management including: Pricing policies and economic reforms have been • establishment of a water metering law, which led another important aspect of the transformation to a comprehensive water metering system across of Israel’s water sector to achieve efficient water all sectors; management and security of supply under scarcity • establishment of strong control and enforcement conditions. of water allocation through a permit system; Pricing mechanisms that resulted in sharp increases in • implementation of a progressive and multiblock water tariffs were implemented to price water at its tariff structure to drive water conservation and true cost to drive behavioural change towards water demand management. Progressive block rates and its value, to support and implement effective are set for agriculture, domestic, commercial and demand management policies and to achieve financial industrial sectors; viability of the water sector. This was done in conjunction with the development of public-private • promotion of the development and installation of partnerships and financial incentives for operation technically advanced, water-efficient water fittings performance improvements. and systems in the urban, domestic, and industrial sectors; Almost all water infrastructure costs (both capital and operational) are now paid by consumers and users of • collection, analyse, interpretation and modelling the water cycle chain through tariffs. extensive water related data to survey and control natural water resource levels and to monitor in 6. Achieving self-financing of the water sector real time network components regulating flows, through the application of real cost tariff (full pressures in order to identify major losses and to cost recovery) and the implementation of prevent water network leakage; public-private partnerships • reduction of freshwater use through the By modernising its institutional framework and by establishment of a large-scale wastewater re-use implementing a range of reforms, Israel’s water scheme for agriculture irrigation and through the sector has increased its financial sustainability and development and implementation of advanced autonomy by: agronomic techniques and efficient irrigation technologies (e.g. drip irrigation techniques, • applying full cost recovery tariffs to ensure financial automated irrigation, and changing cropping viability and economic self-sufficiency of water and patterns); and sewerage utilities; • increased public awareness about the value • supporting the establishment of public-private of water and the need to conserve it through partnerships to improve operational performance extensive education, water conservation and and reduce operating and maintenance costs of public awareness campaigns. the water and sewerage corporations; and • partnering with the private sector to fund major 8. Promoting extensive education and public infrastructure investments through BOT (build, awareness about water conservation on a operate, transfer) and BOO (build, own, operate) national scale schemes. Public awareness about water scarcity in Israel is high. 7. Achieving effective demand management By being among the most water-scarce countries in across all sectors to increase water security the world where the majority of the country is made in the context of water scarcity coupled with up of desert and semi-arid land, Israel promotes a sharp population and economic growth water-conscious culture where water conservation is a way of life. This water-conscious culture is deeply Water conservation and demand management ingrained in the Israeli society and is translated have always been a critical component of Israel’s through a high awareness among the public about the overall water management strategy to achieve criticality of the water resource and the vital priority water security and to support population and to save it. economic growth.

51 According to the Israel Water Authority (IWA) about climate change” and consequently warned that if no 85% of the population is aware of the severe state of dramatic change in water consumption would occur the water crisis and agrees that water saving is equally immediately water would be turned off. important as building new water supply infrastructures Following this, the Israel Water Authority relaunched such as desalination plants. The surveys also revealed a major awareness campaign urging consumers to cut that about 70% of the public is interested in learning back on their water use under the slogan “Israel is more about water saving options. drying out again”. This public awareness is the result of decades of The combination of extensive public awareness investment in school programs and educational and education campaigns along with the application campaigns, on why and how to conserve water of a variety of governmental laws and regulations along with developing water saving technologies and and the steep increase of water tariffs (almost promoting water-efficient appliances and fixtures. double) in 2008/10 has proved to be effective. In the 1990s and 2000s, the government led several This has permitted to successfully reduce the campaigns at various levels to raise public awareness “per capita” water consumption by 24 percent to about water shortages and ways to conserve water. stand at less than 250 litres per capita for domestic The government also ran powerful TV and radio customers, one of the lowest water consumptions in advertising campaigns in which popular celebrities industrialized countries. and national figures were used to highlight water It is estimated that 8 percent of this reduction (24 scarcity, the “years of drought” and the “falling level percent) was due to educational activities and 16 of the Sea of Galilee”. percent to higher water tariffs and installation of In 2008, effort on demand management was water-saving devices (source: Israel Water Authority [25]). expanded through a large-scale water conservation campaign which lasted 18 months in response to 9. Fostering innovation through a unique a major drought. Once again, the government industry-utility-academic partnership model used extensive TV and radio advertising campaigns With a very strong innovation ecosystem fuelled by between 2008 and 2010 to educate and remind a dynamic entrepreneurial culture and supported by consumers about water use and the criticality of a highly skilled workforce and robust technological conserving water. infrastructure, Israel is actively cultivating innovation The theme of the campaign was “the basis for change within its water sector. is public acceptance” and was structured around Through its pioneering national program, called Israel a combination of educational and communication NewTech, Israel helps to advance the water sector activities, strategically targeting various segments by supporting academia and research, encouraging of the population. The campaign was built on clear implementation in the local market and by helping targets and objectives and was delivered with the use Israeli companies succeed on the international stage. of ongoing monitoring polls to achieve optimal results by monitoring impacts and allowing changes and The development of water innovation and cutting- adaptations along the way. edge water technologies is promoted through the establishment of unique industry-utility-academic Some TV ads used celebrities with cracking and ecosystem which brings together government, water peeling visual effects on their faces to symbolise utilities and private entrepreneurs. the effect of lacking water (in reference to dry soil cracking). The campaign left a strong impact on the Private entrepreneurs (academia, private companies, public and proved to be a cost-effective initiative with start-ups, individual entrepreneurs) bring new substantial results in terms of reducing urban water ideas, processes and technologies while water consumption. utilities provide operating sites/systems for trial and implementation. The government provides financial In 2018, Israel was entering in its sixth consecutive supports via an independent publicly funded agency: year of drought and alarming low levels were the Israel Innovation Authority. recorded from across all of its natural water sources. As reported in the media, the IWA reported publicly International partnerships are also actively that Israel entered “in a permanent situation of developed by the government to promote the Israeli

52 technological innovation around the world and to assist Israel companies to export water technologies and related services. Water innovations are broad and various and range from innovative water treatment processes, energy-efficiency systems, software and cloud-based applications, cyber security, smart automation, asset management and risk assessment management tools.

10. Supporting new technology integration and Implementation in the “real world” One of the unique aspects of Israel’s water sector is the way its foster collaboration between entrepreneurs and water utilities allowing research and development prototypes to be tested in operating environments (real field conditions). Leading water utilities such as Mekorot water company and Jerusalem’s water corporation (Hagihon) have successfully established business initiatives and cooperation frameworks with the private sector for testing and advancing innovative technologies developed by start-ups, individual entrepreneurs and established companies. With the establishment of experimental sites (pilot projects) on water utilities’ operational sites and systems, start-ups and entrepreneurs can deploy and test their prototypes in real world testing in the early stage of the technology development (alpha and beta stages) and monitor their performance. This allow start-ups and entrepreneurs to correct and improve their innovation and to collaborate with experts about technological applicability and validity before progressing to the following stage of development. With actual data collected during the initial technology development stage, start-ups and entrepreneurs are able to gain references to demonstrate technology performance to potential customers and investors.

53 OMAN

“Of all the gifts with which God has blessed us, water is the greatest. It must be cherished. Every effort must continue to be made to develop this resource. If extravagance is forbidden by Islam, it is even more applicable to water. Indeed, Islam emphasises in its teachings that it is our duty to conserve it. We cannot stress too strongly the need to observe the conservation measures laid down by the Government in this respect. The use of this vital resource throughout the world can have a great impact on future development strategies, and indeed could become a decisive factor in political tension and thus world security.” From the speech of his majesty Sultan Qaboss Bin Said Sultan of Oman - 21st Anniversary of Oman’s National Day 18 November 1991

Panoramic view of historic mountain village Wadi Misfah near Al-Hamra, Oman 54 PART 3: OMAN

1. Why Oman? 2. Summary of activities in Oman Oman was the final destination on my Churchill In Oman I met with various water professionals, itinerary and was selected for its similarities with governmental institutions, private organisations, remote Australia and more specifically with the research centres and universities to learn about Northern Territory in terms of: Oman’s water sector, the challenges, key innovative projects and what is being done to address water • Geography (various landscapes, different regions scarcity issues. and climates, long travel times between centres, relatively large population distribution in rural I had also the opportunity to travel to several regions and remote parts of the country). to visit remote communities and how they manage their water supply systems. • Water scarcity (arid climate, water shortages, extended droughts, high dependence on For more details about the meetings, site visits and ground water). activities please refer to Appendix C. • Provision of essential services to cover large Ras Al-Khaimah remote areas. Dubai

Muscat Over the past three decades, Oman has undergone Al Ain UNITED ARAB Nizwa considerable political and economic change and EMIRATES has undertaken many development projects SAUDI to modernize its economy, pursue sustainable ARABIA development, improve the standard of living, OMAN Arabian Sea education and health services for its communities and extend essential services such as water and power to all of its remote areas. YEMEN Salalah Since the 1970’s, desalination has played an important Map 13: Visited Places role in supplying the country’s potable water needs. In contrast to its neighbouring countries, Oman has favoured a 100 percent private sector ownership structure for its water infrastructure programmes. Through its policies, the government aims to move away from utilising groundwater reserves towards desalination in order to achieve better water security and to increase its climate change resilience. In 2015, Oman agreed to recognize and adopt the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Since then, Oman has established a governance framework to drive initiatives to progress these goals and to promotes international cooperation to encourage technological innovation. Visiting Oman provided an opportunity to understand their approach to remote water service delivery and how they deal with growing challenges such as water quality, security of supply, maintenance, etc.

55 ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN Persian Gulf Khasab MUSANDAM Oman Enclave

QATAR AL BATNAH Gulf of Oman Suhar As Suwayq Al-Sib UNITED ARAB Muscat Wadi Al EMIRATES Khoud Matrah Ibri MUSCAT AL DHAHIRA

A DAKHLIYA A SHARQIYA

Umm as Samim SAUDI ARABIA

AL WUSTA Gulf of Masira

Arabian Sea

an hih i S ad W Ghubbat Sawqirah DHOFAR

YEMEN Salalah

MAP 14: OMAN (SOURCE: FAO [1])

Legend

International Boundary Administrative Boundary Capital, Town Zone of Irrigation Development River Intermittent River Salt Pan Dam

0420 080120 km

56 Albers EqualAreaProjection, WGS1984 3. Oman’s water sector 3.1 Overview Geography and climate (3) The internal regions: between the coastal plain and the mountain range lie the internal regions, IThe Sultanate of Oman (Oman) is located in the covering 82 percent of the country. This area southeast of the Arabian Peninsula and is bordered by is mainly desert, sand and gravel plains with the United Arab Emirates in the northwest, by Saudi maximum elevation of 500 metres. Arabia in the west and by Yemen in the southwest. There is a smaller separate area of Oman located at Oman’s weather is characterized by limited and the tip of the Musandam Peninsula, along the Strait irregular rainfall, with a range of rainfalls between of Hormuz. regions. With a size comparable to France or Spain, 82 Mean annual rainfall in the coastal plains is around percent of the country is desert and 15 percent is 100mm, in the desert areas is less than 40mm and in mountainous. Oman’s landscape spans from rugged the mountain areas is up to 350mm. mountains to desert plains and can be divided into The general climatic trend in Oman in the past few three distinct regions: decades indicates decreasing rainfall with intermittent (1) The coastal plain: the most important parts devastating cyclonic events (sources: FAO [1], Oman Water Society [2] are the Batinah Plain in the north, which is the and Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources [3]). principal agricultural area, and the Salalah Plain in the south. The elevation ranges between sea level to 500 metres further inland. (2) The mountain ranges: there is a mountain range that runs from Musandam in the north to the Ras Al-Hadd in the southeast.

Map 15: Elevation in Oman (Source: Sciencedirect [4]) Map 16: Annual Rainfall in Oman (Source: Sciencedirect [4])

57 2. 1.

2.

58

3. Population distribution According to the Public Authority for Water, around 85 percent of Oman’s drinking water now comes Three-quarters of the Omani population live in from desalination plants, with the remaining 15 urban areas with about 50 percent in the capital city percent supplied by aquifers (wells). region (Muscat) including the Batinah coastal plain in the north of the country. Elsewhere the country is Following the government’s policy to increase sparsely populated. (source: World Bank [5]) reliance on desalination the Public Authority for Water will continue to construct and expand Water resource desalination plants around the country to achieve Oman’s water is sourced from conventional water water security (sources: Public Authority for Water [7] and International Water Management Institute [8]. resources (natural surface and ground water) and from non-conventional resources (desalination water and recycled water). Surface water is negligible and groundwater is the main water resource used for the agricultural sector. The systematic over-abstraction of groundwater resources has resulted in aquifer depletion, collapse of traditional irrigation systems and groundwater salinisation in the coastal zones. With limited natural water resources and growing water scarcity issues across the country, Oman is increasingly relying on water desalination to satisfy water demand. By the end of 2018, there were 47 small desalination plants (seawater and brackish desalination) and 9 large desalination plants.

Map 17: Population Distribution in Oman [6] Water Resources & Production

2010 142.4 million m3 3.4 million m3

Large Small 44.3 million m3 5 Desalinaton Plants 33 Desalinaton Plants 759 Wells

2018 302.1 million m3 13.0 million m3

Large Small 49.4 million m3 9 Desalinaton Plants 47 Desalinaton Plants 994 Wells

Figure 4: Water Resources and Production (Source Diam Annual Report 2018 [9])

1. Panoramic view of Al-Hamra – remote town, Oman  2. Panoramic view of Tanuf – remote town, Oman 59 3. Panoramic view of Al-Hajir – remote community in the mountains, Oman SOME FACTS AND COMPARISONS

Oman compared to Australia and the Northern Territory Oman Australia Northern Territory 309,500 km² 1.42 million km² Surface area (km²) 7.69 million km² (4% of Australia) (18% of Australia) 4.9 million 244,000 Population (2017) 25 million (19.6% of Australia) (1% of Australia) Rural population 16.4% 14.1% 46% (outside of major cities) Average population density 14.9 people/km² 3.2 people/km² 0.2 people/km² 90mm/year 1,720mm/year (Darwin – Top End) (North coast & East coast) Precipitation <40mm/year 360mm/year (Tennant Creek – Barkly) (long term average) (desert areas) 310mm/year 280mm/year (Alice Springs – Central Australia) (Hajar mountain areas)

References [10, 11, 12 & 13]

Water consumption Northern Territory Water consumption Oman (National value) Darwin Alice Springs Indicative water consumption per capita per day 300L/person/day 400L/person/day 480L/person/day (based on residential supply)

Sources: Power and Water Corporation and EcoMENA [9]

Water pricing Tariff Oman Northern Territory Domestic water charge (AU$/m3) $1.65 (0-23m3) $1.95 Commercial / Industry (AU$/m3) $2.46 $1.95 $1.65 (0-23m3) Government (AU$/m3) $2.07 $2.05 (>23m3) Agriculture (AU$/m3) - -

Source: Public Authority for Water [15] and Power and Water Corporation [16] AU$1 = OMR 0.266 (Omani Rial) as of 13 June 2019

60 3.2 Oman’s water supply various models and mechanisms depending on the management geographical location (refer to Figure 2). Water governance Some aspects of the water sector (desalination) is closely managed (combined or co-located) with the The Sultanate of Oman is a monarchy led by both electricity sector with some regulatory components chief of state and head of government (Sultan and being under the umbrella of the Authority for Prime Minister) and divided into nine governorates Electricity Regulation. and regions. The Governorate of Muscat is the most densely populated region in the Sultanate it is Oman’s The structure of the Oman’s water sector is as political, economic and administrative centre follows: (source: Fanack Water[17]. MUSANDAM There are various water authorities involved in Oman’s water management. Water resource AL BATINA AL-BURAYMI management (groundwater extraction, monitoring) is MUSCAT the responsibility of the Ministry of Water Resources AL ZAHIRA A SHARQIYA and Regional Municipalities while the water irrigation AL DAKHLIYA management is controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. AL WUSTA Wastewater services are managed by a national wastewater company Haya Water with the exception of Dhofar Governorate where wastewater DHOFAR services are the responsibility of the Salalah Wastewater Company. 200 km

The water sector (drinking water) is regulated by Governorates Regions the Public Authority for Water and is managed by Map 18: Governorates and Regions of Oman [17]

Water production >10,000m3 per day (urban systems)

Water production Procurement Transmission, & Contract distribution & Customers (desalination) Management Planning

water Bulk Subsidised purchase Oman Power Supply Tariff Tariff Private investments agreement and Water Consumers Public authority (industrial, commercial 15 or 20 years Procurement for water (private companies) Company and residential) Costs of production Water purchased Water purchased Water purchased and operation at real costs at real costs after subsidies

Government subsidies Production of Water supply & desalinated water distribution

Water production >10,000m3 per day (regional/remote systems)

Transmission, Water production distribution & Customers Planning

Desalinated water Rural Areas Electricity (sea & brackish water) Company (SAOC) Bulk Supply Tariff Public authority Consumers for water Subsidised Tariff Ground water Water purchased Water purchased extraction bores at real costs after subsidies

Government subsidies Production Water supply & of water distribution Figure 5: Structure of Oman’s water sector 61 2. 1.

2.

62

3. Large desalination plants have been built and are Oman’s urban water supply being operated by outsourced water contractors. According to the Authority for Water, around The Oman Power and Water Procurement Company 85 percent of urban drinking water comes from (OPWPC) is responsible for managing procurement nine large sea water desalination plants and the activities and water purchase agreements and for remaining 15 percent comes from major well ensuring that there is sufficient electricity and water fields (underground aquifers). Desalinated production capacity available at the lowest cost to water and groundwater are pumped into meet the growing demands. interconnected distribution networks that service most urban consumers. The Public Authority for Water is also the water service provider, responsible for supplying potable The Sur desalination plant supplies the Ash water to all customers of governorates and regions Sharqiyah region, where there is a separate except in the Dhofar governorate (sources: Oman Power and extensive water transmission system. Water Procurement Company [18], Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources [19] and Public Authority for Water [20]). These large desalination plants have been delivered under BOO (build own operate) arrangements and Restructure of the water sector are operated by private contractors. The Authority In Oman, private sector involvement in the water for Water purchases water produced by these plants sector is extensive mainly through large independent through Oman Power and Water Procurement water projects such as wastewater treatment and (OPWP) and manages the supply, storage and desalination plant projects. distribution (source: Public Authority for Water [20]).

Over the past decade, Oman has favoured a 100 Existing & Proposed Network percent private sector ownership structure for its independent water infrastructure programme, which is in contrast to neighbouring countries such as Saudi Arabia and the UAE, who maintain some degree of government ownership of large power and water projects. Privatisation in the water sector is part of the government’s broader strategy to increase private sector participation across a number of industries in Oman. Oman is currently restructuring its water sector to mirror its electricity sector structure. This involves combining all existing entities associated with the potable water distribution and wastewater segments of the industry under one operator combined with the introduction of a formal economic regulation to the sector. The overarching objective is to deliver new strategies to support water security by enhancing sustainable and integrated solutions, administrative and Annual Report 2017 | 15 Map 19: Overview of Oman’s Urban Water Supply [20] operational efficiencies and contributing to increase competition and private investments (sources: Public Authority for Water [20], LinkedIn [21] and Oman Observer [22]).

1. Aerial view of Barka desalination plant (Photo courtesy of Suez), Oman  2. Water truck fill-up station near Tanuf – remote community, Oman 63 3. Forward osmosis desalination plant located at Al Khaluf (Photo courtesy of H20me), Oman 2. 1.

2.

64

3. Oman’s regional water supply 3.3 Oman’s main water challenges Away from the main urban water distribution networks, regional and remote consumers are Oman’s economic development is at risk to the supplied with drinking water from small isolated potential impacts of climate change. Groundwater networks and tanker filling stations which are pollution and the increase of water salinity fed from small desalination plants and wells are of growing concern and soil salinity and (underground aquifer). desertification are increasing. Furthermore, a range of socioeconomic and institutional factors hamper These small desalination plants are delivered Oman’s ability to respond to current and projected through long-term “Build Own Operate” model changes in climate, including low national institutional and procured from the private sector. capacity, lack of long-term reliable data and technical Significant extension of the water distribution capacity to analyse data. network throughout the country is under progress. New reservoirs are also being built to provide Oman’s water sector faces numerous challenges more storage closer to customers and consequently including: improve the security of supply. An increase number - increasing water scarcity due to the impacts of of remote communities located in the mountain climate change and depletion of groundwater region, closed to the major urban centres, are resources; being connected to urban interconnected water -  increasing water demand and consumption distribution networks (source: Public Authority for Water [20]). due to population growth; - high volume of unaccounted water (metering and billing issues); - high water consumption in the domestic sector attributed to a lack of conservation measures, the low price of water, misdirected subsidies and a lack of awareness; - high costs of municipal water supply due to the increasingly reliance of energy-intensive desalination with high energy costs; - limited re-use of water and limited collection and treatment of wastewater outside the urban areas; and - lack of integrated water resources management principles by decision makers.

Source: Future Directions [23]

1. Elevated reservoir for a regional community (Photo courtesy of Public Authority for Water), Oman  2. Lift pump station in the mountains near Jabal Shams, Oman 65 3. Construction of a reservoir in a regional area (Photo courtesy of Public Authority for Water), Oman KEY INSIGHTS FROM OMAN

66 4. Key insights from Oman’s competition within the water sector and deliver water sector more integrated and sustainable solutions to support national water security. 1. Developing public-private partnerships in By integrating both water and wastewater segments regional development to deliver small water under a centralised system the government is also treatment projects in remote locations aiming to develop water reuse projects and foster Oman’s water authority is increasingly adopting the innovation in recycling and aquifer recharge. BOO (build, own, operate) project model to deliver remote water treatment projects in order to fast- 3. Supporting major water supply expansion track the government’s objective to connect and into regional areas supply drinking water to remote communities. To pursue its sustainable development goal to Remote water projects are procured through the improve the standard of living, education and health public-private partnership in which the private sector services for its communities, the government of takes responsibility for long term operation with Oman is actively expanding water supply networks to Oman’s Public Authority for Water to buy water regional communities to provide potable water to all under contract. residents, with the objective of supplying piped water to more than 95% of the population within the next This strategy allows the government to deliver better two decades. essential services across the country and to meet the growing demand for infrastructure in various regions In order to meet this demand, the Public Authority (driven by population growth). for Water is significantly investing in extending the water network throughout the country. New Through this strategy the government also aims to: reservoirs are also being built to provide more - introduce private sector technology and innovation storage closer to customers and consequently and provide better public services through improve the consistency of supply. improved operational efficiencies; and Regional and remote reverse osmosis water - develop local private sector capabilities through plant projects are underway to expand the joint ventures with large international firms and water production capacity and fully fulfil regional sub-contracting opportunities for local firms. communities’ water requirements.

2. Restructuring the water sector to increase 4. Supporting renewable desalination research private sector participation and to enhance With over 90 percent of its potable water being integrated, sustainable and innovative generated from energy intensive desalination solutions plants, Oman is actively supporting research into Oman is finalising a major restructure of its water harnessing renewable energy sources for small sector which aims to encompass all entities (water water desalination units. catchment and treatment, water distribution and The Middle East Desalination Research Centre wastewater collection and treatment) under a (MEDRC) is currently collaborating on a project single autonomous company. Envisioned in the with Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) to investigate post-restructuring scenario are three new the challenges and opportunities to develop companies, each of which will provide potable renewable desalination technologies. water and wastewater services within a specific geographical area. Feasibility studies are being conducted to develop small solar desalination plants to produce potable Through the restructure, the Oman government water from brackish water at a low cost for remote aims to centralize distribution and supply services to and rural communities. enhance technical and resource efficiencies and to reduce operating costs. Besides enhancing administrative and operational efficiencies, the restructure is designed to increase

67 The secret of change is to focus all of your energy, not on fighting the old, but on building the new.”

Socrates

68 5. Groundwater recharge dams using flash floods and water run-off to enhance groundwater aquifers Groundwater depletion from over-exploitation and seawater intrusion along coastal aquifers constitute a major challenge for Oman where groundwater is regarded as a vital source of water for many regional and remote communities. With suitable hydrological and hydrogeological conditions, Oman has invested heavily in groundwater recharge dams to artificially recharge groundwater aquifers by using flash floods and surface water run-off experienced during the wet seasons or during a cyclone. The nature of the landscape, characterised as rugged with very minimal vegetation cover, coupled with the pattern of short but intense storms produces flash floods and water run-offs that, unless harvested, are lost to the sea and desert. Although the primary objective of this strategy is to replenish groundwater resources and improve water quality, artificial recharge is also used to minimise seawater intrusion in the coastal areas and to provide some degree of protection against floods. To capture and store this untapped but ephemeral water source, Oman invested in 43 groundwater recharge dam infrastructures across the regions to support natural ground infiltration which subsequently recharge aquifers. The recharge dams are constructed on alluvial valley channels (across wadis) to store flood water and allow slow infiltration into the ground. Artificial recharge is part of Oman’s integrated water resources management strategy and has been in place since the 1970’s.

69 WHAT WATER MANAGEMENT LESSONS CAN REGIONAL AND REMOTE AUSTRALIAN COMMUNITIES LEARN FROM THE MIDDLE EAST? 70 PART 4: KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The key findings from my experiences in Israel, Oman and the United Arab Emirates have been developed into nine recommendations that may be applicable to regional and remote communities in Australia and are worthy of further explanation and discussion across the water industry.

Recommendation 1 Numerous innovative water treatment technologies have been developed by Israel’s water sector in recent years and they could have major benefits for remote and regional Australia including enhanced operating performance, no reliance on chemicals, simplicity and low operating and maintenance costs.

Recommendation 2 High-performance brackish water desalination technologies are becoming more practical, economical and energy-efficient and can represent a good option for regional and remote water systems facing water quality and water scarcity issues.

Recommendation 3 Renewable energy desalination, which combines energy efficient desalination technology with renewable energy power, is showing great promise to supply affordable, reliable and safe drinking water to regional and remote areas.

Recommendation 4 Establishing smart artificial groundwater recharge systems by using flash floods and water run-off to preserve and enhance groundwater resources as a practical measure to store and augment the availability of fresh water for future use and to enhance adaptative water management in response to climate change.

Recommendation 5 The use of smart data collection and management tools, using leading-edge technologies, to drive a comprehensive, probabilistic and integrated management approach has potential to revolutionise the way regional and remote water sources and services are managed.

Recommendation 6 Fostering the development of new technologies specifically designed for regional and remote water supply systems through public-private partnerships using experimental sites on existing operational systems to drive operational efficiencies and improve resilience of water supply systems.

Recommendation 7 An holistic approach to long-term planning for regional and remote water systems is necessary to mitigate risks associated with highly variable and changing economic, environmental and political contexts and to ensure security of supply at least cost.

Recommendation 8 Developing a water conscious culture in regional and remote Australia through extensive education and public awareness campaigns is a necessary step to reduce the need for additional infrastructure, establish effective water management under water scarcity conditions and contribute to the development of water security.

Recommendation 9 Establishing a central, independent water body may assist to provide strategic guidance about future water needs and ensure a coordinated approach to security of supply, optimise water management under conditions of scarcity by sharing data and knowledge and facilitate collaboration across the Northern Territory’s water sector, including governmental agencies.

Site visit of the Shafdan R&D and Innovation Centre, south of Tel Aviv, Israel  Inspection of the ROTEC pilot plant where enhanced recovery and reduced chemical consumption in reversed osmosis (RO) 71 systems, using the patented “flow reversal technology”, are tested. 72 1.

Recommendation 1: Numerous innovative (calcium and other alkali precipitate build-up) on water treatment technologies have been the electro cells. developed by Israel’s water sector in recent Advantages: Major improvement in operational years and they could have major benefits efficiency by providing ongoing cleaning (no shut for remote and regional Australia including down period) and by minimising cleaning chemical enhanced operating performance, no reliance use (low operating and maintenance costs). on chemicals, simplicity and low operating and maintenance costs. • “MnM” filtration for dissolved manganese removal without oxidation agents Water systems and treatment processes in regional and remote Australian communities are often MnM filtration is a highly efficient filtration process rudimentary, producing an inadequate water which removes dissolved manganese by adsorption supply and poor water quality with high risks of without the need of oxidation agents under both microbial and naturally-occurring chemical continuous operation. contaminations. Advantages: High efficiency of manganese removal, Contributory factors to poor water supply include no reliance on chemical and low operating and challenges such as long distances, high costs of maintenance costs. transportation and delivery, lack of appropriate • Ultra-high recovery reverse osmosis funding, limited on-site expertise, slow operational desalination systems response time and lack of frequent preventative maintenance. Ultra-high recovery reverse osmosis is achieved by applying “Flow Reversal” technology which A range of new water technologies have been alternates the desalination process direction flow developed and tested on operational facilities in Israel. (i.e. switching of the entrance and exit of the These new water technologies that have now been feed stream) before reaching the critical point proven have a number of benefits including enhanced of crystallization of minerals on the membranes operating performance, limited operator inputs, (formation of scaling). no reliance on chemicals, simplicity, easy retrofit Advantages: Enhanced performance (higher on existing assets, scalability through modular units recovery rates), lower waste brine volume, fewer and low operating and maintenance costs. These down-time periods (longer operating periods), characteristics suggest they would be well suited to lower maintenance costs and easy retrofit on regional and remote Australia. Some examples are existing assets. as follows: • Water suspended particle separation / • Activated carbon cloth module for filtration unit continuous nitrate removal The separation unit reduces turbidity (up to The activated carbon cloth (micron size woven 1000 NTU) using natural physical mechanisms of fibrous) encapsulated in a module (nitrate removal centripetal and gravitational forces to separate the module) removes nitrate and other common water particles without the use of any physical barriers contaminants by an adsorption process. or moving parts. Advantages: Easy retrofit on existing assets, very Advantages: Vast spectrum of applications, small small foot-print for high surface area, very low- foot-print, no moving parts, no backwash pressure loss which does not require additional requirements, high energy efficiency, very low pumping and low capital and operating costs. operating and maintenance costs and easy retrofit • Innovative electro-chlorination system on existing assets. with a self-cleaning mechanism Note: For further details about the various water The self-cleaning mechanism within the electro- technologies refer to Appendix D. chlorination system prevents scaling formation

 Panoramic photo: The Nahal Zin Canyon near Sde Boker, Negev Desert, Israel 73 74 2.

Recommendation 2: High-performance brackish scarcity issues associated with climate change. water desalination technologies are becoming One of the biggest drawbacks of inland desalination more practical, economical and energy-efficient and can represent a good option for regional is waste brine disposal. To overcome this, companies and remote water systems facing water quality and research organisations are investing in research and water scarcity issues. to develop innovative high-recovery reverse osmosis systems to: With a growing reliance on desalination to meet water demand and overcome increasing water - reduce brine volumes and increase process scarcity issues, the Middle East has been driving recovery; significant research and innovation in seawater and - inhibit and prevent mineral scaling; brackish water desalination technologies. - operate at maximum recovery achievable Over the last 15 years many research and innovation without experiencing excessive mineral scaling development programs have improved the energy on membranes; efficiency of desalination processes and especially membranes technologies with a focus on: - reduce high operating costs associated with high use of acid / anti-scalant chemicals; and - improving reverse osmosis membrane performance and reliability; - optimise brine management to minimise environmental impacts. - developing ultra-high recovery desalination systems to increase freshwater yields; - developing energy recovery devices; - reducing energy consumption and minimising chemicals use; - decreasing waste brine production; - developing new alternative in brine management, treatment and disposal; and - developing more versatile desalination methods to tackle broader water quality issues. Whilst this research and development has been primarily focused on urban applications, it is also supporting the development of high-performance brackish water desalination technologies that could be applied in regional and remote areas. Membrane desalination technology is becoming more economical due to technology advancements in membrane materials, pumping and energy recovery systems. As witnessed in Israel and Oman, brackish water desalination in inland regions is increasingly being used as the main method of drinking water production to overcome deterioration of natural water sources (water quality) and fresh water

Panoramic photo: The Negev Desert, Israel  75 76 3. 4.

Recommendation 3: Renewable energy Recommendation 4: Establishing smart desalination, which combines energy efficient artificial groundwater recharge systems desalination technology with renewable energy (or managed aquifer recharge) by using flash power, is showing great promise to supply floods and water run-off to preserve and affordable, reliable and safe drinking water enhance groundwater resources as a practical to regional and remote areas. measure to store and augment the availability of fresh water for future use and to enhance Application of renewable energy desalination adaptative water management in response (renewable desalination) for remote water supply to climate change. systems has received increasing academic and research attention. This technology is being tested Most small regional and remote communities through pilot projects by water utilities and private across Australia rely solely on groundwater for their companies in Oman and the UAE. drinking water supplies. Whilst the implications on groundwater is not well understood, climate change The coupling of renewable energy sources with is predicted to increase annual climate variability in water desalination systems holds great promise to Australia with major shifts in annual precipitation and provide a reliable and economical source of safe more extreme weather events. drinking water for Australian remote communities, whose water quality and water scarcity issues are Increased variability (caused by climate change) exacerbated by the deterioration of natural water are expecting to lead to longer periods of droughts resources and climate change. and floods, which will dramatically affect availability and dependency on groundwater. At the same Considerable technological developments and cost time, indirect climate change impacts such as the reductions in advanced membrane desalination intensification of human activities and land use changes processes and energy recovery systems combined will also increase the demand for groundwater. with the acceleration of renewable energy technologies are making renewable energy Strategic management of groundwater, especially in desalination a new and feasible method of enhancing regional and remote Australia, in a changing climate freshwater production from brackish waters. is a critical element of adaptive water management This aspect is particularly relevant to fresh water to ensure security of supply for regional and remote production in the remote areas, where fuel and communities across Australia. water supply is often very expensive but where As witnessed in Israel and Oman, artificial recharge of renewable energy sources are abundant. groundwater aquifers (or managed aquifer recharge) Additionally, autonomous modular desalination units as a way of enhancing underground storage of water powered by renewable energy systems are uniquely is an effective measure to augment the availability of suited to provide water and electricity in remote fresh water for future use and to enhance climate areas where water and electricity infrastructure is change resilience. lacking and require being decentralised. This measure, which involves building infrastructure and/or modifying the landscape to intentionally enhance groundwater recharge by capturing flash floods and water run-offs, can be used to effectively recover groundwater levels in over-exploited aquifers, store water for future use (water banking), control saltwater intrusion and provide some degree of protection against floods.

Panoramic photo: The Dead Sea (salt formation), Israel  77 78 5. 6.

Recommendation 5: The use of smart data Recommendation 6: Fostering the development collection and management tools, using leading- of new technologies specifically designed for edge technologies, to drive a comprehensive, regional and remote water supply systems probabilistic and integrated management through public-private partnerships using approach has potential to revolutionise the way experimental sites on existing operational regional and remote water sources and services systems to drive operational efficiencies and are managed. improve resilience of water supply systems. Data collection, management and analysis of The adaptation of advanced water treatment regional and remote water management systems is solutions developed from larger urban centres to logistically complicated and expensive due to the long small regional and remote communities has been distances, geographical remoteness, limited on-site largely unsuccessful due to insufficient economies of expertise and high costs of remote data collection scale (technology not modular), vast distances, high and transmission associated with the delivery and costs of transportation, limited on-site expertise, lack operation of communications infrastructure. of frequent preventative maintenance and absence of Despite these challenges, accurate, frequent and appropriate funding. reliable data that is meaningfully interpreted is a The development of new technologies specifically critical element to monitor groundwater, improve designed for regional and remote water supply the provision of water services, reduce water systems is necessary to drive viable advanced losses and to manage demand. Accurate data is water treatment solutions that can overcome these necessary to inform in an economically prudent, challenges in an economic way and to facilitate the financially sustainable and timely way, the delivery creation of a new technological model. and management of water and wastewater assets Building collaborative private public partnerships particularly in regional and remote areas where and establishing experimental sites (pilot projects) infrastructure funding is limited. on water utilities’ operational locations to deploy Considerable technological developments in and test prototypes in real world conditions will smart water measurement solutions and advanced support practical research and the development data analytics led by Israel could be leveraged for of water technologies suitable for the regional and application in regional and remote Australia to remote context. optimise the management of water systems, develop Innovative designs and new financing approaches new ways of using water sources and better manage driven by private public partnerships combined uncertainty associated with water scarcity and with real world testing and monitoring in the early climate change. stage of the technology development will lead to the Optimising the way water and wastewater services development of better infrastructure solutions that are are operated, allowing more efficient allocation designed and build for the challenges and operational of limited resources while adding flexibility to the conditions of the regional and remote systems. system, capturing real-time data and automating rapid data interpretation to monitor water resources and systems performance, minimizing operating costs through optimal use of extant assets and filling gaps in data using algorithmic predictions to enable events to be created and ensure that all system calculations continue are some examples of what can be achieved from the application of smart data management and analytics.

Panoramic photo: The Wadi al Shab near Sur, Oman  79 80 7. 8.

Recommendation 7: An holistic approach to Recommendation 8: Developing a water long-term planning for regional and remote conscious culture in regional and remote water systems is necessary to mitigate risks Australia through extensive education and associated with highly variable and changing public awareness campaigns is a necessary step economic, environmental and political contexts to reduce the need for additional infrastructure, and to ensure security of supply at least cost. establish effective water management under water scarcity conditions and contribute to the Due to their vulnerability, isolation, scattered small development of water security. populations and socio-economic status, regional and remote communities are frequently subject to Water consumption in regional and remote economic and financial uncertainty and extreme communities is generally very high, attributable to weather events. infrastructural and habitual causes. To counter balance this highly variable context and The lack of reliable data and long-term planning, appropriately manage factors such as drought, water funding unpredictability, absence of reliable statistics demand, water quality, climate change, population of population growth and economic development growth and capital infrastructure requirements, trends combined with the absence of holistic an holistic approach is critical to the sustainable approach, water infrastructure in regional and development of regional and remote water systems. remote communities is often over designed in order to compensate for the uncertainty. This creates a While long-term planning is necessary to develop false sense of abundancy and water security. strategic master plans in order to scale systems to current and future needs, the application Undetected and unreported leaks, extensive use of an holistic approach is vital to ensure water of sprinklers, excessive wastage from water taps infrastructure is well integrated, well managed and running open for long periods of time are some of economically efficient. the attributes of a low community awareness of water saving and a low sense of social responsibility. An holistic approach supports least cost outcomes as This is exacerbated by some users not being it enables government to foresee and compensate for responsible for paying their water bills. water scarcity, to use efficiently water resources in Combined with the multi-faceted approach (holistic accordance with current hydrological conditions, to approach to long-term planning, development of ensure a balanced approach to extraction by taking new technologies, utilisation of comprehensive, into account all conditions and to use appropriate probabilistic and timely data management and use of and suitable methods and technologies to ensure demand management), public awareness and education adequate security of supply. about water conservation are critical components of An holistic approach encompasses all cultural, social, balancing the need for new water infrastructures and environmental, technical and economic aspects and ensuring adequate water security in response to water contributes to deliver resilient and smart water scarcity associated with climate change. solutions that are fit for a specific purpose, location The process of using water in a more efficient and and in-community skills capacity. sustainable way often requires a “cultural shift” in addition to technical solutions and this can only be achieved by fostering an education of water conservation amongst the community to develop a water conscious culture. The establishment of a water conscious culture in regional and remote Australia is complex and cannot be duplicated from urban centres. Effective water conscious culture needs to rely on specific community-involved solutions. It also requires appreciation of the challenges of living in regional and

Panoramic photo: The Hawiyat Najm (sink hole 200 metres  inland from the Gulf of Oman) near Dibab, Oman 81 82 8. cont

remote areas and a good understanding of complex The opportunity to establish a central, independent cultural and social factors (i.e. Indigenous and non- water body to oversee strategic water planning and Indigenous perspectives). management has previously been recommended by School programs and educational campaigns on why other independent reviews (Australian Academy of and how to conserve water along with developing Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE) [1]). water saving technologies and promoting water- The organisation could be responsible for improving efficient appliances and fixtures need to be driven for water supply planning across the following key areas: a long period of time (generational). - Establishing regulatory instruments to drive and Awareness of why water conservation needs to be encompass long-term planning (beyond 20 years) in developed through early childhood, elementary and terms of demand and supply availability by aligning all junior high school education to create the “cultural agencies and departments’ water supply planning. shift” and to change behaviour over time. Good - Promoting the use of Territory-wide datasets understanding of the economic value of water needs across government agencies and Departments is also needed amongst communities to support to inform a comprehensive, probabilistic and change of behaviours. integrated approach towards long-term water Similarly, water utilities and service providers need to management and water supply planning by taking develop a greater understanding of the cultural, social into account population projections and impacts of and spiritual value of water from an Aboriginal and climate change. Torres Strait Island person’s perspective in order to - Developing a holistic water supply planning establish a common language in water conservation. decision making process that encompasses social, economic and environmental costs and benefits. Currently there is limited evidence of a triple bottom line approach for assessing demand reduction and supply enhancement options 9.Recommendation 9: Establishing a central, (though it is possible that these factors are taken independent water body may assist to provide into account informally). strategic guidance about future water needs and ensure a coordinated approach to security - Putting greater emphasis on addressing of supply, optimise water management under uncertainty, particularly in relation to climate conditions of scarcity by sharing data and change and land use change. knowledge and facilitate collaboration across The establishment of a central and independent the Northern Territory’s water sector, including water body could also assist with: governmental agencies. - Providing holistic views and strategic direction With a vast land mass, a relatively small population about Integrated Water Management, future water base, a wide variety of climate conditions combined needs and security of supply. with contemporary social, cultural, environmental - Optimising water management under conditions and economic issues, the Northern Territory is an of scarcity by sharing data and knowledge. inherently challenging jurisdiction for the provision of essential services. In particular, the Northern - Facilitating collaboration across the Northern Territory water sector is operating under increasing Territory water sector. external pressures including the unknown impacts - Enhancing knowledge sharing across government of climate change on water supply planning and a agencies and departments. disconnected institutional and regulatory framework - Promoting research and development of new for water resource management. Significant water technologies. opportunity exists to design a holistic and strategic - Ensuring adequate community education, awareness approach to water resource and supply system and engagement about water demand management. planning to guarantee water security across all urban - Developing and fostering industry and public- and remote centres. private partnerships within the water sector.

Panoramic photo: abandoned village ruins of Riwaygh as-Safil in  Necrosis Valley, Oman 83 84 A APPENDIX A: SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT IN UAE

Contact name Location Organisation Summary and position

• General overview of the water supply in the Mr. Xavier Baron UAE but also in the Middle East region. Dubai Suez Middle East Proposals Director • Discussed innovative water treatment technologies Middle East being developed by Suez in the Middle East countries.

• Discussed projects involving containerised solutions. Suez Water Mr. Mohamed • Discussed innovative water treatment technologies Dubai Technologies Eltaweel Channel used in the region. & Solutions Manager MEA • Discussed advantages, disadvantages and costs of containerised water treatment solutions.

• Provided general overview of the organisation’s activities. Mr. Mohamed • Discussed water demand in Dubai. Dubai Electricity and Hussain – Senior Dubai • Discussed challenges faced by DEWA. Water Authority Engineer Water • Discussed innovative water treatment technologies Network Planning used in the region.

Masdar Institute & Prof. Hassan Arafat • Discussed current projects being delivered by the centre. Khalifa University Professor – Water • Discussed assessment tools to assess water solution and Abu Dhabi Center for Membranes and Environmental sustainability approach (environment focus, economic feasibility and Advanced Water Engineering and social responsibility). Technology

• Provided general overview of the organisation’s activities. Abu Dhabi Water Mr. San Kumir • Discussed water demand in Abu Dhabi. Abu Dhabi and Electricity – Senior Water • Discussed challenges faced by ADWEC. Company Demand Manager • Discussed innovative water treatment technologies used in the region.

85 86 B APPENDIX B: SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT IN ISRAEL

Activity Location Organisation Contact name and position Activity

WEEK 1 Mr. Sivan Bleich • Provided general overview of the water Mekorot Water Meeting Tel Aviv Department Manager WaTech supply in Israel. Company (water treatment & supply) • Provided general overview of Mekorot’s activities. • Discussed innovative water treatment Mr. Udi Zukerman Mekorot Water technologies being developed WaTech Meeting Tel Aviv Director Global Business Company (Mekorot) Development • Discussed processes and mechanisms to promote and support innovation.

Prof. Avner Adin Chair Professor of Environmental • Provided general overview of The Hebrew Sciences & Head of Water Israel water sector Meeting Tel Aviv University of Treatment Technology and • Discussed current water issues Jerusalem member of the International and technological cycle Water Association -• Discussed water quality, wastewater reuse and desalination • Discussed holistic approach Adin Holdings applied in Israel’s water sector Water Consulting Mr. Raanan Adin Meeting Tel Aviv CEO of Adin Holdings & P • Discussed influence of Israel overseas in Israel Water resident of the IsWA terms of water expertise Association

Prof. Robert Armon Israel Institute • Discussed current research and studies. Associated Professor of Faculty Meeting Haifa of Technology - • Discussed water treatment applications of Environmental, Water and TECHNION suitable in remote areas Agriculture Engineering

• Discussed current water research Prof. Eran Friedler Israel Institute undertaken by Technion Professor at the Department Meeting Haifa of Technology - • Discussed advanced water technologies of Environmental Water and TECHNION (moisture harvesting, advance oxidation Agricultural Engineering process, etc .)

• Discussed water resources in Israel Prof. Alex Furman • Discussed water quality across Grand Water Director of the Stephen Meeting Haifa the regions Research Institute and Nancy Grand Water • Discussed national water system Research Institute • Discussed remote water supply systems

87 Contact name Activity Location Organisation Activity and position WEEK 2 Mr Zvi Livni President C.Q.M – Water Mr. Omer Livni • Provided general overview of the company and its activities Meeting & Treatment & • Discussed innovative electro-chlorination system with a Tel Aviv Chief Technology Officer Site visit Energy Savings self-cleaning mechanism Solutions Mr. Isak Duenyas • Visited factory and assembly line Director of Marketing • Provided general overview of the company and its activities AquaHD Ms. Yarden Ityel • Discussed innovative separation and filtration systems Meeting Tel Aviv Separation & Business Development • Discussed Israel’s approach to innovation and the structure Filtration Systems Manager available • Discussed how Mekorot manages Dr. Diego Berger master planning of its water assets Mekorot Water Meeting Tel Aviv Technical Coordinator for • Discussed pricing of water and the associated regulation Company International Projects • Discussed how cultural value is applied to water in Israel Mr. Ronen Shechter Chief Technology Officer • Provided general overview of the company and its activities Fluence Global & Co-Founder • Discussed innovative water and wastewater treatment Meeting & Water & solutions, including solutions for remote and rural sites. Mr. Ilan Wilf Site visit Wastewater VP Global Sales • Visited the R/D (Maayan Zvi) where a pilot plant is Solutions established on an existing WWTP to trial next generation of Mr. Rafi Laderman membrane aerated biofilm reactor (MABR) Regional Sales Manager Prof. Avner Adin • Discussed how Israel promotes and support innovation for Chair Professor of its water sector The Hebrew Environmental Sciences & • Discussed water quality guidelines applied in Israel Meeting Tel Aviv University of Head of Water Treatment • Discussed how Israel is managing challenges associated with Jerusalem Technology and member climate change and population growth in of the International Water regard to water management Association • Provided general overview of the company and its activities Suez Water • Discussed the structure of the water sector in Israel and the Mr. Roy Arviv Meeting Tel Aviv Technologies current situation Sales Director & Solutions • Discussed how private companies operate in Israel • Discussed desalination technologies used by Israel • Provided general overview of the water sector in Israel Hezi Bilik • Discussed the role of Israel Water Authority Engineering Former Water • Discussed water supply, water quality, new technologies Meeting Tel Aviv Consultant Engineer at Israel and their implementation Water Authority • Discussed how innovation is supported by the government and water utilities AST Clean Water Mr. Boaz Shitzer Meeting Tel Aviv Technologies CEO of AST • Visited the Shafdan R&D and Innovation Centre Shafdan • visited the ROTEC pilot plant where enhanced recovery and Wastewater reduced chemical consumption in reversed osmosis (RO) Mr. Boaz Shitzer (CEO of Treatment Facility systems, using the patented “flow reversal technology”, are AST) & Mr. Udi Zukerman Site visit Tel Aviv - Shafdan R&D tested on the effluent produced by the Shafdan Waste Water (Director Global Business and Innovation Treatment Plant. This case study is about novel flow reversal Development at Mekorot) Center (Mekorot RO approach to increase recovery from 75% to over 90% & WaTech) • Discussed government reforms in water sector • Discussed trends and markets associated with wastewater reuse Adin Holdings Mr. Raanan Adin • Discussed future trends in Israel (reduction in leakage, Meeting Tel Aviv Water Consulting CEO of Adin Holdings increase in desalination, water savings) • Discussed energy/water/food nexus • Discussed how Israel is integrating its water and energy sectors

88 Contact name Activity Location Organisation Activity and position WEEK 3 • Provided general overview of the organisation and its activities • Discussed how Israel is driving a national program to Ministry of promote technological innovation in the water sector. Economy and Mr. Oded Distel Meeting Jerusalem • Discussed collaboration between academia, research Industry – Israel Director Israel NewTech centres and water start-ups. NewTech • Discussed the implementation of innovative ideas in the local market with the support of well-established organisations. C.Q.M – Water Mr Zvi Livni • Visited a site equipped with electro-chlorination Site Visit Jerusalem Treatment & Energy President system with a self-cleaning mechanism Savings Solutions Ben-Gurion • Discussed how water is managed in Israel (overview) University of Prof. Adar • Discussed value of water (energy, national the Negev – Professor of Faculty commodity) Meeting Be’er Sheva Zuckerberg of Hydrology & Soil • Discussed how the entire water supply system is Institute for Water Water Engineering integrated Research • Discussed groundwater management Ramat Hovav, • Visited several sites to gain a good understanding Various site Mash’abei Sadeh, of the situation and how water is managed in Israel visits Sde Boker, through its regions. Mitzpe Ramon • General discussions about Israel innovation and Israel-Australia Ms. Shifka Seigel international opportunities (in terms of cooperation) Meeting Tel Aviv Chamber of Project Manager • Networking opportunities Commerce

• Provided general overview of the organisation Prof. Amit Gross The Zuckerberg and its activities Director of the Meeting Sede Boqer Institute for Water • Discussed work undertaken around decentralised Zuckerberg Institute Research systems for water/recycling and re-use for Water Research • Visited a few pilot installations • Attended the conference organised by the Israel Conference Hatseva (Arava Israel Association of Various Association of Water Resources & Site visits Desert) Water Resources • Networking opportunities Arava Valley • Visited experimental farm (research and development Multiple site region (Ein Yahav, Various ( in agriculture) Various visits Tsofar, Paran, and ) • Visited a remote water treatment plant Lotan) • Visited an artificial aquifer recharge system Mekorot Water Eilat Desalination Site visit Eilat • Site visit of desalination plant Company water treatment plant Prof. Loretta Singletary Professor Interdisciplinary Site visit Petra (Jordan) • Site visit of Petra (old water supply system) Outreach Liaison – University of Nevada (USA)

WEEK 4 Dr. Shai Ezra Mekorot Water • Discussed water quality requirements and Meeting Tel Aviv Director of Water Company performances of Mekorot systems Quality Division • Provided general overview of the organisation and its activities Ms. Karina Rubinstein • Discussed various programmes to support R&D Israel Innovation Senior Director of projects Meeting Jerusalem Authority Business Development • Discussed process and approach applied by the Start-up Division organisation • Discussed approach to risks when supporting research in innovation Israel-Australia Mr. Paul Israel Meeting Tel Aviv Chamber of Executive Director • Discussed possible opportunities with the NT Commerce

89 90 C APPENDIX C: SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES CARRIED OUT IN OMAN

Contact name Activity Location Organisation Activity and position WEEK 1 Mr. Zaher Khaled Al • Provided general overview of the organisation and its Sulaimani - Chairman activities Oman Water Meeting Muscat • Discussed water sector and water management in Oman Society Mr. Ahmed Bin Nasser • Discussed various programmes supported by the Al-Abri - Secretary government to develop water supply in remote regions Dr. Mohamed Al Rawahi General Manager The Research Research Strategic • Provided general overview of the organisation and its Council - Water Meeting Muscat Program activities Research Ms. Bishara Al Marzuqi • Discussed water research projects being conducted Strategic Program Wastewater Treatment Specialist Mr. Said Khalaf Al Abri - • Provided general overview of the organisation and its activities Oman Power Project Manager • Discussed how major water projects are procured and Water Meeting Muscat • Discussed water tariffs and subsidies Procurement Ms. Meera Al Abri • Discussed water regulations in Oman Company Senior Project Engineer • Discussed how remote water projects are delivered (delivery mechanisms) Public Authority Saud Said Hamed Al- • Provided general overview of the organisation and its for Water Nadabi - Senior Manager activities (DIAM)- General Investment Plannning • Discussed current restructure being undertaken Meeting Muscat Directorate Mr.Abdulhakeem Amur • Discussed how forecasting in water demand for regional and of Planning Al Dhuhli remote regions is performed and Assets Senior Master Planning • Discussed how groundwater is managed across the regions Management Engineer • Provided general overview of the organisation and its Middle East Meeting activities Desalination Dr. Jauad El Kharraz & Site Muscat • Discussed current research projects especially solar Research Center Head of Research visit desalination (MEDRC) -• Visited research centre Mr. Chris Smith • Discussed water network monitoring practices Water Operations • Discussed water quality (chlorination and free chlorine Public Authority Advisor residual) for Water • Discussed metering and billing issues Meeting Muscat Mr. Mohammed Abdullah (DIAM)- • Discussed water consumption, unaccounted water and Ali Al-Jabri Operations leakage Interface Project • Discussed current restructure being undertaken Manager • Discussed how the water sector in Oman functions • Discussed water resources planning in Oman Water Resources • Provided an overview of national water strategy for and Environment Mr. Richard Lakey Meeting Muscat groundwater Group, Kamel General Manager • Discussed issues regarding groundwater Establishment • Discussed how groundwater is managed in remote regions

WEEK 2 Daghmar, Dibab, Bimma, Tiwi and Fins Sur and Jalan • Visited various regions and communities to understand how Site visits Various Various Bani region water is managed and how people value water Nizwa, Sayq, Al Hamra Seifah, Khayran

91 92 D APPENDIX D: OVERVIEW OF RELEVANT NEW TECHNOLOGIES APPLICABLE IN REMOTE/ RURAL AUSTRALIA

Activated carbon cloth module for continuous nitrate removal An activated carbon cloth (micron size woven fibrous) encapsulated in a module (nitrate removal module) is designed to remove nitrate and no reliance on chemical and low operating and other common water contaminants maintenance costs. by adsorption process. The module, designed as ‘plug and play’ technology Note: manganese mud (manganese oxide precipitate) for easy retrofit on any asset, has a is found on the inner surface of pipes transferring very small foot print, high surface reclaimed effluent from the Shafdan soil aquifer area, very low-pressure loss treatment system to irrigation fields in southern Israel which does not require additional and shows superior and rapid manganese adsorption pumping requirements thus reducing considerably capacity under aerobic conditions compared to other operating and capital costs. commercially available manganese oxide catalysts. Source: http://welltodo.co.il/ Source: https://ascelibrary.org/action/downloa dSupplement?doi=10.1061%2F%28ASCE%2 9EE.1943-7870.0001234&file=supplemental_ Innovative electro-chlorination system data_ee.1943-7870.0001234_elkayam.pdf) with a self-cleaning mechanism A self-cleaning system electro-chlorination system Ultra-high recovery reverse osmosis was developed to prevent scaling formation on the desalination systems cells (calcium and other alkali precipitate build-up). The self-cleaning mechanism improves operational Ultra-High recovery reverse osmosis is achieved by efficiency by providing ongoing cleaning (no shut applying Flow Reversal technology in which the flow down period) and removes the use of cleaning direction of the saline stream in reverse osmosis chemicals (low operating and maintenance costs). pressure vessel arrays is periodically switched. Source: https://www.cqm-tech.com/

“MnM” filtration for dissolved manganese removal without oxidation agents Manganese mud (MnM) filtration is a novel water filtration process that uses manganese mud and anthracite media (hard coal) to remove dissolved manganese by adsorption without the need of oxidation agents. MnM filtration is highly efficient and operates continually with minimum maintenance requirement and without oxidative regeneration of the media. The main advantages of the MnM filtration are: high efficiency of manganese removal,

93 94 To avoid scaling, the system alternates the desalination process direction flow (switching of the entrance and exit of the feed stream) before reaching the critical point in which scaling forms. Flow reversal at the induction time halts the crystallization of minerals, lowers salinity levels in feed water and “cleans” membranes and pipes. The main advantages are: enhanced performance (higher recovery rates), lower waste brine volume, fewer down-time periods (longer operating periods) and lower maintenance costs. This application can be easily retrofitted on existing plants. Source: https://www.rotec-water.com/ technology/

Water suspended particle separation / filtration unit This innovative separation unit can reduce turbidity (up to 1000 NTU) using natural physical mechanisms of centripetal and gravitational forces to separate the particles without the use of any physical barriers or moving parts. The system can be adjusted to a particular situation (load, flow, turbidity removal) by using a complex mathematical model which takes into consideration an analysis of the feed water. The main advantages are: vast spectrum of applications, small foot print, no moving parts, no backwash requirements, high energy efficiency and very low operating and maintenance costs. The unit is designed as ‘plug and play’ technology and can be retrofitted on any system. Source: https://www.aquahd.net/technology

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Small solar powered water system for a remote community - UAB 100  101 Success is not final, failure is not fatal, it is the courage to continue that counts.”

Winston Churchill

102 Eric in the Eastern Mountain near Jebel Shams - Oman 103 104