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The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School THE CRUCIBLE OF EMPIRE: THE AMERICAN EXPERIENCE IN THE CHINA RELIEF EXPEDITION OF 1900 A Dissertation in History by Xiangyun Xu 2019 Xiangyun Xu Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2019 The dissertation of Xiangyun Xu was reviewed and approved* by the following: Amy Greenberg George Winfree Professor of American History Dissertation Co-Advisor Committee Co-Chair David Atwill Associate Professor of History Dissertation Co-Advisor Committee Co-Chair Sophie De Schaepdrijver Professor of History Nicolai Volland Associate Professor of Asian Studies and Comparative Literature Michael Kulikowski Head of the Department *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ii ABSTRACT This dissertation explores the significance of the China Relief Expedition of 1900 in the history of the United States as an empire. It demonstrates how the American decision to intervene in the Boxer Uprising and their perception of the ensuing expedition were entangled with political, gender, and racial norms in the United States formed through westward expansion, Chinese exclusion, and the Spanish-American War of 1898. The transmission and application of these norms across national boundaries applied not only to statesmen and ordinary people at home, but also servicemen in China, even though the latter’s experience in China had the potential to modify some of those stereotypes. The dissertation also reveals that by observing other forces in action, U.S. servicemen learned valuable lessons that would later be of help in the Philippines and other future encounters, and formed opinions of other countries that would later influence their stance on issues like the Russo-Japanese War of 1904- 05 and World War I. Last but not least, it underscores contemporary American debates and controversies around the expedition, especially how both sides linked events in China with those in the Philippines to advance their respective arguments regarding imperialism and expansion, and elaborates on how the expedition contributed to the Republican victory in the 1900 election. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... v Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter One: Putting American Empire to the Test .............................................................. 18 Chapter Two: Fighting Alongside Other Forces and Interacting with Them ......................... 59 Chapter Three: Forming Opinions of Other Forces .............................................................. 99 Chapter Four: Images of China and its People, Transplanted and Transformed .................. 144 Chapter Five: Portraying, Experiencing and Debating the China Relief Expedition ........... 193 Epilogue ............................................................................................................................ 233 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 259 iv Acknowledgements Looking back at the journey that I have taken this far, I cannot express my gratitude enough for the Department of History at the Pennsylvania State University and all the wonderful people I meet here. I owe greatest debt to members of my committee. Without the kindness and offer from Professor Amy Greenberg and Professor David Atwill, I would not even have the chance to pursue PhD study here in the U.S. Along the way, Professor Greenberg is always there to answer my questions and concern about PhD study. Her encouragement and meticulous reading and editing help me get through the initial rough patch in PhD study, navigate the world of grant application, and smooth edges in the dissertation writing. Had it not been for Professor Atwill’s reminder, I would have never realized the vast potential and possibility in the field of the Boxer Uprising. In addition, I learn a lot about conducting researches in history by serving as both professors’ research assistant in different semesters. Professor Sophie De Schaepdrijver’s seminars on wars in the twentieth century Europe introduce me to recent trends in the study of military history, and broaden my horizon on the relationship between colonial wars and European wars, especially in the case of imperial Germany. Besides, the gatherings she and Professor Ronnie Hsia host in their house reduce international students’ homesickness and enhance the sense of community. Professor Nicolai Volland brings the inter-disciplinary perspective into my research, and demonstrates how literature could be powerful indicator of historical figures’ mindset. Other professors I meet in the coursework offer great help too. Professor Ari Kelman, v Professor Lori Ginzberg and Professor William Blair’s seminars provide keen insight into the nineteenth century U.S., especially the Civil War, the American west and gender perspectives, while Professor Gary Cross enhances my understanding of popular culture in the United States. Professor Anthony Kaye leads me into slavery and other forms of coerced labor as transnational systems, including the Chinese coolie labor. I truly felt a sense of loss when learning about his early demise. Professor Kate Merkel-Hess guides me through the world of late imperial China, and offers professional advice on teaching when I served as her teaching assistant. Professor Maia Ramnath introduces me to classics in the study of world history, and Professor Michael Kulikowski enriches my research methods by familiarizing me with representative methodology in the historical discipline. Last but not least, Professor On-cho Ng carefully reads through all my writing response in his course and gives valuable feedbacks and suggestions. The training I received at the Department of History, Peking University prepares me well for PhD study in the United States. Professor Niu Ke constantly reminds me of the need to figure out what the China Relief Expedition meant in terms of the American production of knowledge on China. Professor Wang Xi immerses me in the journey that African Americans took in the U.S. history, and inspires me to explore different ethnicity's experiences in the China Relief Expedition. Professor Wang Lixin introduces me to the study of transnational and international history in the first place, and always underlines the importance of delving into cultural aspects of the American diplomacy. Professor Li Jianming broadens my horizon on the study of political culture in the United States. Although his expertise lies in the colonial period and early republic, it turns out that political culture around the turn of the vi twentieth century shared a lot in common with its predecessors. Chen Xiao, a friend I met there in the undergraduate years, makes photo copies of Louis Livingston Seaman papers that loom large in the epilogue. Conducting archival researches is essential for a dissertation. In this aspect, I’m fortunate to receive the travel grant from the Department of History and the Center for Global Studies at Penn State, the Bentley Historical Library at the University of Michigan, and the Massachusetts Historical Society. During my archival trips to these institutions as well as the American National Archives, the Library of Congress, the British National Archives, the British Library, and two libraries at Harvard University, staffs and archivists there are always kind and responsive to my inquiries. The convenient online catalog and easy access to archives are everything that a scholar in history could wish for. Presenting one's work in academic conferences always comes as the nervy moment. In this aspect, I'm fortunate to have the friendly, encouraging, and constructive atmosphere in the Berlin Global History Student Conference 2017, Roosevelt Institute for American Studies in Middelburg, Netherlands, and the Association for Asian Studies annual conference 2018. It's so wonderful to know that there are other scholars in the world who share interest in the transnational history and the Boxer Uprising. My thanks especially goes to Professor Jeffrey Wasserstrom for organizing the awesome panel in the AAS annual conference, and refers me to various valuable sources and scholars through frequent correspondence. Professor Rana Mitter's chairing also leaves strong impression on me. In addition, the Jerry Bentley World History travel grant from the American Historical Association enables me to audit panels at vii AHA annual conference 2017, and observe how other scholars go about with their presentation. Pursuing PhD study is like a marathon. I cannot reach the finish line without the emotional support from my family. My parents, Xu Jingbo and Wang Lirong, always encourage me to pursue my dreams abroad, even though that means I cannot be around to accompany and look after them. My aunt Virginia Wang lends every help during my stay in the United States. I can always count on her welcome when visiting New York for visa applications and flights. My wife Yanan Qizhi gives me so much inspiration that I cannot even count. Besides, being my academic soul mate, her company makes the journey far less lonely. The time we spent in those great cities in Europe truly helps me get away from the U.S. centered perspective on history, and grasps the diversities and interconnectedness