DOCSLIB.ORG

Unifying Spatial and Temporal Methodologies to Understand Archaeological Looting in Egypt

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Unifying Spatial and Temporal Methodologies to Understand Archaeological Looting in Egypt ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: BUILDING A BASELINE: UNIFYING SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL METHODOLOGIES TO UNDERSTAND ARCHAEOLOGICAL LOOTING IN EGYPT Michelle R.D. Fabiani, Doctor of Philosophy 2019 Dissertation directed by: Dr. Laura Dugan, Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice Archaeological looting – the illegal excavation or removal of an antiquity from the ground or structural complex of an archaeological site – is a persistent issue in many countries. National and international laws, agreements, conventions, and statutes all proscribe the looting transporting, possession, and sale of antiquities illegally removed from archaeological sites. Looting has also generated a lot of academic attention, with scholarship developing in archaeology, sociology, criminology, and law (among others). Despite such legal proscriptions and scholarly contributions to understanding this phenomenon, current efforts have been unable to produce tangible solutions for preventing this crime. Not only has there not yet been extensive scholarship to understand the link between looting and contextual forces, there is a dearth of research on the most effective ways to study these interconnected variables. Using a framework of routine activity theory, this dissertation proposes a new possible approach that considers spatial, temporal, and spatio-temporal relationships to establish baseline data on patterns of archaeological looting attempts in Lower Egypt from 2015 to 2017 relative to sociopolitical, economic, and environmental stress — and to begin to address this research gap. Specifically, this dissertation proposes a methodology for collecting and coding data on archaeological looting attempts from satellite imagery. It then applies a series of spatial (clustering, proximity), temporal (SEM, VAR, ARDL), and spatio-temporal methods (clustering, hot spots analysis, spatial time series) to these data to demonstrate the importance of analyzing this phenomena multidimensionally. BUILDING A BASELINE: UNIFYING SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL METHODOLOGIES TO UNDERSTAND ARCHAEOLOGICAL LOOTING IN EGYPT by Michelle Rose Dippolito Fabiani Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2019 Advisory Committee: Professor Laura Dugan, Chair Professor Sally Simpson Professor Lauren Porter Professor Fiona Greenland Professor Richard Marciano © Copyright by Michelle Rose Dippolito Fabiani 2019 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, who has supported me throughout this journey and to whom I am eternally grateful. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my committee for their support, encouragement, and insightful comments in this dissertation: Dr. Sally Simpson, Dr. Lauren Porter, Dr. Fiona Greenland, and Dr. Richard Marciano. I would also like to specifically thank Dr. Laura Dugan, my committee chair, for the years of guidance, advice, and inspiration, both in the writing of this dissertation and in the years throughout my pursuit of this degree. I would also like to thank the large network of colleagues who have provided advice and guidance throughout this dissertation. In particular, Dr. Daren Fisher helped me to better prepare, write, and succeed in this work. And Dr. Jesse Casana provided critical guidance to help me understand the process of collecting and coding satellite imagery. Throughout this process and my education, I have been supported by a network of friends and family, both local and afar, who have helped keep me sane and on-track. I would particularly like to thank my sisters, Corinne and Laura, and their partners; my aunt and uncle, Marilyn and Mike Donovan; my cousins, Michael and Lily, Kathleen, and Mary; and my dear friends, Kelly and Gregor McGregor, Anna and Ted Wynfield, Ellen McCormick, Sarah Appleby and Curtis Winans, Lizabeth Remrey, Phoebe and Aaron Koenigsberg, Rebecca Koenigsberg, Mike Kohn and Tony Bowen, and Dennis Sendros and Alina George. Finally, I am eternally grateful to my parents for encouraging me throughout my life to believe in my intelligence, ambition, and abilities. This dissertation would not have been possible without my mother and father’s examples, their support, and their belief. Their inspiration is reflected here in this work and in my heart every day. iii Table of Contents Dedication ..................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .............................................................................................................. vii List of Figures .............................................................................................................. ix List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................. xii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Spatial and Temporal Theories of Crime .................................................... 7 Routine Activity Theory ........................................................................................... 8 A Spatial and Temporal Theoretical Framework for Archaeological Looting Attempts .................................................................................................................. 12 Formal and Informal Guardianship ..................................................................... 13 Archaeological Sites as Suitable Targets ............................................................ 16 Spatio-Temporal Influences on Looting ............................................................. 18 Chapter 3: Lower Egypt as a Case Study.................................................................... 21 Macro-level Conditions in Lower Egypt ................................................................ 26 Demographics ..................................................................................................... 27 Economics ........................................................................................................... 31 Environment ........................................................................................................ 35 Socio-political ..................................................................................................... 39 Lower Egypt’s Cultural Landscape ........................................................................ 41 A Brief Timeline of Ancient Egypt (8000 BCE – 1000 CE) .............................. 42 Archaeological Sites in Lower Egypt ................................................................. 43 Egypt’s Efforts to Protect Cultural Heritage ........................................................... 47 Chapter 4: Data Collection and Coding Strategy ....................................................... 50 Archaeological Site Satellite Image Data Collection & Coding ............................. 53 Phase 1 – Identification of the “universe” of archaeological sites in Lower Egypt ............................................................................................................................. 56 Phase 2 - Initial image collection and recalibration and construction of sampling strategy ................................................................................................................ 60 Phases 3 and 4 – Review data collection from Digital Globe and additional data collection from Google Earth Pro ....................................................................... 64 Data Coding Strategy .......................................................................................... 76 Limitations in Archaeological Looting Attempts Data Collection and Coding Strategy ............................................................................................................... 89 Sociopolitical Stress Data Collection & Coding ..................................................... 94 Limitations in Sociopolitical Stress Data Collection and Coding Strategy ........ 97 Economic Stress Data Collection & Coding ......................................................... 100 Limitations in Economic Stress Data Collection & Coding Strategy ............... 101 Environmental Stress Data Collection & Coding ................................................. 103 Limitations in Environmental Stress Data Collection & Coding...................... 104 iv Chapter 5: Spatial, Temporal, and Spatio-Temporal Methods ................................. 106 Spatial Analyses .................................................................................................... 106 Limitations ........................................................................................................ 115 Temporal Analyses ............................................................................................... 117 Spatio-Temporal Analyses .................................................................................... 125 Chapter 6: Results ..................................................................................................... 130 Descriptives..........................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The United States and the International Efforts Against Looting of Antiquities
    Cornell Law Library Scholarship@Cornell Law: A Digital Repository Cornell Law Faculty Working Papers Faculty Scholarship 2-19-2009 Protecting against Plunder: The nitU ed States and the International Efforts against Looting of Antiquities Asif Efrat Cornell Law School, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/clsops_papers Part of the Arts and Entertainment Commons, Commercial Law Commons, International Law Commons, and the International Trade Commons Recommended Citation Efrat, Asif, "Protecting against Plunder: The nitU ed States and the International Efforts against Looting of Antiquities" (2009). Cornell Law Faculty Working Papers. Paper 47. http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/clsops_papers/47 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at Scholarship@Cornell Law: A Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Cornell Law Faculty Working Papers by an authorized administrator of Scholarship@Cornell Law: A Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Protecting against Plunder The United States and the International Efforts against Looting of Antiquities Asif Efrat ∗∗∗ Word Count: 21,297 Abstract. In 1970 UNESCO adopted a convention intended to stem the flow of looted antiquities from developing countries to collections in art-importing countries. The majority of art-importing countries, including Britain, Germany, and Japan, refused to join the Convention. Contrary to other art-importing countries, and reversing its own traditionally-liberal policy, the United States accepted the international regulation of antiquities and joined the UNESCO Convention. The article seeks to explain why the United States chose to establish controls on antiquities, to the benefit of foreign countries facing archaeological plunder and to the detriment of the US art market.
    [Show full text]
  • Download Brodie Regulation Perspectives.Pdf
    Historical and Social Perspectives on the Regulation of the International Trade in Archaeological Objects: The Examples of Greece and India Neil Brodie* TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................ .. 1051 11. REGULATION AT THE SOURCE OF THE ARTIFACT .......... 1054 A. Example 1: The Greek Cycladic Islands .......... .. 1056 B. Example 2: India .............................................. .. 1059 111. DISCUSSION .................................................................. 1062 I. INTRODUCTION It is a well-established fact that the international antiquities market is responsible for the destruction and vandalism of archaeological and cultural sites worldwide.1 Material removed from these sites is traded across jurisdictions until it can be sold legally and acquired as "art" by private and institutional collectors in North America, Europe and, increasingly, East Asia.2 One consequence of this trade is that most countries outside the United States have now passed laws that protect archaeological heritage by proscribing the unauthorized excavation of antiquities, the export of antiquities, or both.3 Opinions are divided, however, as to the effectiveness and * McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3ER United Kingdom 1. See e.g., ROGER ATWOOD, STEALING HISTORY: TOMB RAIDERS, SMUGGLERS, AND THE LOOTING OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 11, 241 (2004); NEIL J. BRODIE ET AL., STEALING HISTORY: THE ILLICIT TRADE IN CULTURAL MATERIAL 8 (2000); PATRICK J. O'KEEFE, TRADE IN ANTIQUITIES: REDUCING DESTRUCTION AND THEFT 14-16 (1997). 2. BRODIE ET AL., supra note 1, at 33. 3. See 3 LYNDEL V. PROTT & PATRICK J. O'KEEFE, LAw AND THE CULTURAL HERITAGE: MOVEMENT 429-530 (1989). 1051 1052 VANDERBIL T JOURNAL OF TRANSNA TlONAL LA W {VOl. 38;/051 even the desirability of such strong regulations at the source of the artifacts.4 Opponents of such regulation argue that the prohibitions deter people from declaring antiquities that are discovered by chance.
    [Show full text]
  • For Recording Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa.', Geosciences., 7 (4)
    Durham Research Online Deposited in DRO: 29 September 2017 Version of attached le: Accepted Version Peer-review status of attached le: Peer-reviewed Citation for published item: Rayne, L. and Bradbury, J. and Mattingly, D. and Philip, G. and Bewley, R. and Wilson, A. (2017) 'From above and on the ground : geospatial methods for recording endangered archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa.', Geosciences., 7 (4). p. 100. Further information on publisher's website: https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences7040100 Publisher's copyright statement: This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. (CC BY 4.0). Additional information: Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in DRO • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full DRO policy for further details. Durham University Library, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LY, United Kingdom Tel : +44 (0)191 334 3042 | Fax : +44 (0)191 334 2971 https://dro.dur.ac.uk 1 Type of the Paper (Article, Review, Communication, etc.) 2
    [Show full text]
  • Using Open Source Data to Detect Archaeological Looting And
    Interferometric SAR and Machine Learning: Using Open Source Data to Detect Archaeological Looting and Destruction RESEARCH ARTICLE HASSAN EL-HAJJ *Author affiliations can be found in the back matter of this article ABSTRACT CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Hassan El-Hajj, PhD Candidate Archaeological heritage in the Near East is under an ever increasing threat from multiple Classical Archaeology vectors such as looting and systematic destruction, militarization, and uncontrolled Department, Philipps- urban expansion in the absence of governmental control among others. Physically Universität Marburg, monitoring endangered sites proves to be infeasible due to the dangerous ground Biegenstrasse 10, 35037 Marburg, Germany conditions on the one hand, and the vast area of land on which they are dispersed. In recent years, the abundant availability of Very High Resolution (VHR) imaging satellites [email protected] with short revisit times meant that it was possible to monitor a large portion of these sites from space. However, such images are relatively expensive and beyond the means of many researchers and concerned local authorities. In this paper, I present an KEYWORDS: approach that uses open source data from two of the European Space Agency’s (ESA) Coherence Maps; Near East; Archaeological Looting; Copernicus Constellation, Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 in order to generate disturbance Archaeological Destruction; patches, from which looting and destruction areas are classified using Machine Cultural Heritage; Open Source Learning. Such an approach opens the door towards sustainable monitoring over large swaths of land over long periods of time. TO CITE THIS ARTICLE: El-Hajj, H. 2021. Interferometric SAR and Machine Learning: Using Open Source Data to Detect Archaeological Looting and Destruction.
    [Show full text]
  • The Antiquities Market: It’S All in a Price
    heritage & society, Vol. 7 No. 1, May, 2014, 32–46 The Antiquities Market: It’s All in a Price Neil Brodie Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research, University of Glasgow, UK Abstract Antiquities have cultural and economic value. Scholarly experts create cultural value, and by creating cultural value they also unintentionally establish economic value. So although antiquities are collected as culturally-important objects, they have also been bought for investment purposes as tangible assets, though with mixed results. Collectors and investors must face the problem of how to assess accurately the cultural and economic value of an antiquity, though again the intervention of scholarly experts is crucial. Scholars themselves benefit finan- cially from even indirect involvement with the antiquities market, and their work can be appropriated and exploited financially as intellectual property. Anti- quities trading is often illicit, and in such conditions profits made from the anti- quities market are proceeds of crime, though that fact is generally overlooked. Resumen Las antigüedades tienen valor económico y cultural. Los eruditos crean valor cultural y, al hacerlo, también generan involuntariamente valor económico. Por lo tanto, aunque las antigüedades se coleccionan como objetos cultural- mente importantes, también se han comprado con fines de inversión como bienes tangibles, aunque con resultados ambivalentes. Los coleccionistas y los inversores deben enfrentar el problema de cómo evaluar con exactitud el valor cultural y económico de una antigüedad, aunque nuevamente la inter- vención de los eruditos es fundamental. Los eruditos se benefician económic- amente hasta de la participación indirecta en el mercado de antigüedades y su trabajo puede apropiarse y aprovecharse económicamente como propiedad intelectual.
    [Show full text]
  • Disentangling Strategic and Opportunistic Looting: the Relationship Between Antiquities Looting and Armed Conflict in Egypt
    arts Article Disentangling Strategic and Opportunistic Looting: The Relationship between Antiquities Looting and Armed Conflict in Egypt Michelle D. Fabiani ID Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA; [email protected]; Tel.: +1-301-405-4733 Received: 30 March 2018; Accepted: 11 June 2018; Published: 14 June 2018 Abstract: Antiquities are looted from archaeological sites across the world, seemingly more often in areas of armed conflict. While this is not the only context in which antiquities are looted, it is an important context and one for which much is still unknown. Previously, the relationship between antiquities looting and armed conflict has been assessed with qualitative case studies and journalistic evidence due to a lack of systematically collected data. This study considers the relationship between antiquities looting and armed conflict in Egypt from 1997 to 2014 with a newly collected time series dataset. Autoregressive Distributed Lag Models (ARDL) with a bounds testing approach are used to assess both the overall relationship between these two phenomena and their temporal ordering. This article finds that antiquities looting and armed conflict are, indeed, statistically related; and that antiquities looting more often precedes armed conflict rather than the other way around. This finding suggests that looting is more strategic than opportunistic. Implications and future directions are discussed. Keywords: antiquities looting; Egypt; armed conflict; strategic looting; opportunistic looting; open source data; ARDL 1. Introduction Antiquities looting has become increasingly prominent in news headlines. Newspapers around the world show headlines reporting antiquities looting from Israel, Cambodia, China, Greece, Italy, Egypt, Peru, Syria, and the United States.
    [Show full text]
  • Justice Journal of Contemporary Criminal
    Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice http://ccj.sagepub.com/ Congenial Bedfellows? The Academy and the Antiquities Trade Neil Brodie Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 2011 27: 408 DOI: 10.1177/1043986211418885 The online version of this article can be found at: http://ccj.sagepub.com/content/27/4/408 Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com Additional services and information for Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice can be found at: Email Alerts: http://ccj.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://ccj.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Citations: http://ccj.sagepub.com/content/27/4/408.refs.html >> Version of Record - Nov 14, 2011 What is This? Downloaded from ccj.sagepub.com at Glasgow University Library on July 31, 2012 CCJ27410.1177/1043986211418885Bro 418885dieJournal of Contemporary Criminal Justice Article Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 27(4) 408 –437 Congenial Bedfellows? © 2011 SAGE Publications Reprints and permission: http://www. The Academy and the sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1043986211418885 Antiquities Trade http://ccj.sagepub.com Neil Brodie1 Abstract The illicit trade in antiquities and other cultural objects is socially harmful in several respects. Private collectors and museums are generally considered culpable in providing end demand by acquiring illicitly traded objects, but this article suggests that the facilitating actions of academic experts have previously been overlooked. Through a series of case studies, it examines different ways in which academic expertise is indispensable for the efficient functioning of the trade and suggests that a knowledge-based ethical environment for academic practice would allow scholars to make more informed choices about the propriety or otherwise of their involvement with the trade.
    [Show full text]
  • The Destruction of Cultural Heritage: a Crime Against Property Or a Crime Against People?
    THE JOHN MARSHALL REVIEW OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW THE DESTRUCTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE: A CRIME AGAINST PROPERTY OR A CRIME AGAINST PEOPLE? PATTY GERSTENBLITH ABSTRACT The destruction of cultural heritage has played a prominent role in the ongoing conflicts in Syria and Iraq and in the recent conflict in Mali. This destruction has displayed the failure of international law to effectively deter these actions. This article reviews existing international law in light of this destruction and the challenges posed by the issues of non-international armed conflict, non-state actors and the military necessity exception. By examining recent developments in applicable international law, the article proposes that customary international law has evolved to interpret existing legal instruments and doctrines concerning cultural heritage in light of the principles of proportionality and distinction and a definition of intentionality that includes extreme negligence and willful disregard. As a result, international law may more effectively foster the preservation of cultural heritage for future generations. Copyright © 2016 The John Marshall Law School Cite as Patty Gerstenblith, The Destruction of Cultural Heritage: A Crime Against Property or a Crime Against People?, 15 J. MARSHALL REV. INTELL. PROP. L. 336 (2016). THE DESTRUCTION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE: A CRIME AGAINST PROPERTY OR A CRIME AGAINST PEOPLE? PATTY GERSTENBLITH I. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Remote Sensing and Geosciences for Archaeology
    Books Remote Sensing and Geosciences for Archaeology Edited by Deodato Tapete Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Geosciences www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences MDPI Remote Sensing and Geosciences for Archaeology Books Special Issue Editor Deodato Tapete MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade MDPI Special Issue Editor Deodato Tapete Italian Space Agency (ASI) Italy Editorial Office MDPI AG St. Alban-Anlage 66 Basel, Switzerland This edition is a reprint of the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Geosciences (ISSN 2076-3263) from 2017–2018 (available at: http://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences/special_issues/archaeology). For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as indicated below: Books Lastname, F.M.; Lastname, F.M. Article title. Journal Name Year, Article number, page range. First Edition 2018 ISBN 978-3-03842-763-6 (Pbk) ISBN 978-3-03842-764-3 (PDF) Articles in this volume are Open Access and distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution license (CC BY), which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. The book taken as a whole is © 2018 MDPI, Basel, Switzerland, distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons license CC BY-NC-ND (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). MDPI Table of Contents About the Special Issue Editor ..................................................................................................................... vii Preface to “Remote Sensing and Geosciences for Archaeology” ........................................................... ix Deodato Tapete Remote Sensing and Geosciences for Archaeology Reprinted from: Geosciences 2018, 8(2), 41; doi: 10.3390/geosciences8020041 ......................................
    [Show full text]
  • Marketing Archaeology William H
    University of Rhode Island DigitalCommons@URI Philosophy Faculty Publications Philosophy 2014 Marketing Archaeology William H. Krieger University of Rhode Island, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/phl_facpubs The University of Rhode Island Faculty have made this article openly available. Please let us know how Open Access to this research benefits oy u. This is a pre-publication author manuscript of the final, published article. Terms of Use This article is made available under the terms and conditions applicable towards Open Access Policy Articles, as set forth in our Terms of Use. Citation/Publisher Attribution Krieger, William H. "Marketing Archaeology." Ethic Theory Moral Prac, vol. 17, no. 5, 2014, pp. 923-939. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10677-014-9497-9 Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10677-014-9497-9 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Philosophy at DigitalCommons@URI. It has been accepted for inclusion in Philosophy Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@URI. For more information, please contact [email protected]. “Marketing Archaeology” William H Krieger Ethical Theory and Moral Practice ABSTRACT In the 19th century, ‘scientific archaeologists’ split from their antiquarian colleagues over the role that provenience (context) plays in the value of an artifact. These archaeologists focus on documenting an artifact’s context when they remove it from its original location. Archaeologists then use this contextual information to place these artifacts within a particular larger assemblage, in a particular time and space. Once analyzed, the artifacts found in a site or region can be used to document, to understand, and explain the past.
    [Show full text]
  • Weaponizing Monuments
    International Review of the Red Cross (2017), 99 (3), 937–957. Conflict in Syria doi:10.1017/S1816383118000462 Weaponizing monuments Ross Burns Ross Burns, a former Australian Ambassador to Syria, is the author of The Monuments of Syria (I B Tauris, 1992, 1999 and 2009) and of histories of Syria’s two major cities, Damascus and Aleppo (Routledge, 2005, 2016). His website, which catalogues the damage to Syria’s monuments, can be found at www.monumentsofsyria.com. Abstract The role normally played by monuments in conflict is that of passive and innocent observers, occasionally drawn into the fighting through their locations. In the Syrian conflict, monuments have been more deliberately used as pawns, as ideological weapons and as favoured strongpoints for combatants. The resulting damage to historical sites, particularly to the monumental centres of Aleppo and Palmyra, has been considerable. However, damage to heritage presents a small proportion of the harm compared to the destruction of civilian housing and facilities throughout the country and should not distract us from the irreplaceable loss of innocent life in the fighting. The country’s eventual recovery will require the return of refugees to their devastated communities, a precondition for any effort to restore the country’s rich monumental heritage. Keywords: Syria, conflict, monuments, archaeology, Hague Convention, Aleppo, Palmyra. The crisis in Syria since 2011 has broken many frontiers in terms of the horrific intensity of the fighting, its unpredictable spread across much of the country, its devastating effect on the civilian population and the indiscriminate use of terror and proscribed weapons. To this list can be added the number of deaths through the use of savagery for sheer shock effect and the vast displacement of the population, both internally and to neighbouring countries, even as far as Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • Provenience and Provenance Intersecting with International Law in the Market for Antiquities
    NORTH CAROLINA JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW Volume 45 Number 2 Article 7 4-1-2020 Provenience and Provenance Intersecting with International Law in the Market for Antiquities Patty G. Gerstenblith Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/ncilj Part of the Law Commons Recommended Citation Patty G. Gerstenblith, Provenience and Provenance Intersecting with International Law in the Market for Antiquities, 45 N.C. J. INT'L L. 457 (2020). Available at: https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/ncilj/vol45/iss2/7 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Carolina Law Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in North Carolina Journal of International Law by an authorized editor of Carolina Law Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Provenience and Provenance Intersecting with International Law in the Market for Antiquities Patty Gerstenblith† I. Introduction ............................................................... 457 II. Provenance and Provenience ..................................... 461 III. The International Legal Framework for Controlling the Market in Antiquities ................................................. 469 A. The 1970 UNESCO Convention and its Domestic Implementation by Market States ....................... 470 B. State Ownership .................................................... 475 IV. Legal Roles of Provenience and Provenance ............. 476 A. Where is Legality? The Problem of Location ....... 477 B. When is Legality?
    [Show full text]