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Politics, Decolonisation, and the Cold War in Dar Es Salaam C

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A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick Permanent WRAP URL: http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/87426 Copyright and reuse: This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. For more information, please contact the WRAP Team at: [email protected] warwick.ac.uk/lib-publications Politics, decolonisation, and the Cold War in Dar es Salaam c. 1965-72 by George Roberts A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History University of Warwick, Department of History, September 2016 Politics, decolonisation, and the Cold War in Dar es Salaam, c. 1965-72 Acknowledgements 4 Summary 5 Abbreviations and acronyms 6 Maps 8 Introduction 10 Rethinking the Cold War and decolonisation 12 The ‘Cold War city’ 16 Tanzanian history and the shadow of Julius Nyerere 20 A note on the sources 24 1 – From uhuru to Arusha: Tanzania and the world, 1961-67 34 Nyerere’s foreign policy 34 The Zanzibar Revolution 36 The Dar es Salaam mutiny 38 The creation of Tanzania 40 The foreign policy crises of 1964-65 43 The turn to Beijing 47 Revisiting the Arusha Declaration 50 The June 1967 government reshuffle 54 Oscar Kambona’s flight into exile 56 Conclusion 58 2 – Karibu Dar es Salaam: the political geography of a Cold War city 60 Dar es Salaam 61 Spaces 62 News 67 Propaganda 72 Rumour 76 Intelligence 83 Conclusion 86 3 – The inter-German Cold War in Dar es Salaam 87 Post-Arusha politics and the GDR 90 Ostpolitik in Afrika 93 The visit of von Hassel 99 The invasion of Czechoslovakia and its aftermath 101 Tanzania reconsiders its relations with the Eastern Bloc 103 ‘No recognition by the backdoor’ 105 Conclusion 110 4 – Oasis of liberation? FRELIMO in exile and the assassination of Eduardo Mondlane 113 The liberation movements in Dar es Salaam 114 FRELIMO in the Cold War world 116 2 FRELIMO and its discontents 121 The crisis of 1968 123 Mondlane’s enemies in Tanzania 126 Who killed Eduardo Mondlane? 131 Conclusion 135 5 – Tanzania's '68: press, protest, and the Dar es Salaam public sphere 137 Arusha socialism, vigilance, and the TANU Youth League 139 Vietnam 140 Czechoslovakia 145 Internalising the international struggle: anti-imperialism and nation-building 148 Challenging the ‘imperialist’ press 151 Political ventilation and the purpose of protest 154 ‘Argue Don’t Shout’ and the demise of Lawi Sijaona 157 Conclusion 160 6 – Politics in the time of ujamaa, part one: openings 163 The deaths of Kassim Hanga and Othman Shariff 163 The mainland coup plot and treason trial 169 The Guinean invasion and the Ugandan coup 174 To the left? The politics of Mwongozo 179 Conclusion 182 7 – Politics in the time of ujamaa, part two: closures 183 The February 1972 government reshuffle 183 The crisis of the union 186 The assassination of Abeid Karume 187 Frene Ginwala and the Standard 193 Oscar Kambona, Tanzania’s enemies, and the June 1972 bombings 198 Conclusion 203 Conclusion 206 Bibliography 212 3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank the various funding bodies which have supported this thesis. The main project was made possible by an Arts and Humanities Research Council doctoral scholarship. Additional research funding was provided by the presidential libraries of Lyndon B. Johnson and Gerald R. Ford, the German History Society, the Society for the Study of French History, and a Martin Lynn Scholarship from the Royal Historical Society. A Hogan Language Fellowship, awarded by the Society for the History of American Foreign Relations, supported courses in Portuguese and Swahili. I would also like to express my gratitude to Professor David M. Anderson and Professor Daniel Branch for their help for this project. Finally, thanks to my family and friends for all their support over a long journey. 4 Summary This thesis uses the city of Dar es Salaam as a prism for exploring the intersection of the Cold War and decolonisation with political life in post-colonial Tanzania. By deconstructing politics in the city through transnational and international approaches, it challenges prevailing narratives of the global Cold War, African liberation, and the contemporary Tanzanian history. In the decade after Tanzania became independent in 1961, President Julius Nyerere’s commitment to the liberation of Africa transformed Dar es Salaam into a cosmopolitan epicentre of international affairs in Africa, on the frontline of both the Cold War and decolonisation. In shifting the focus away from superpower relations and the paradigm of the nation-state, this thesis shows how African politicians exercised significant influence over Cold War powers, but also how the global context pushed Nyerere’s government into increasingly authoritarian methods of rule. The political geography and public sphere of Dar es Salaam, as a ‘Cold War city’, provides an interpretative lens through which diverse but ultimately entwined narratives are understood. These include the international rivalry between East Germany and West Germany; the politics of the exiled Mozambican liberation movement, FRELIMO; the local experience of the global ‘1968’; and the course of elite politics in a critical period in the Tanzania’s recent history. This multilateral history is made possible by a multiarchival approach, to shed light on developments in Dar es Salaam from multiple, triangulated perspectives. 5 Abbreviations and acronyms The abbreviations and acronyms listed below cover the main text and footnotes, excluding the archival references, which are detailed in the bibliography. Non-English names are translated and the relevant state is mentioned where otherwise unclear. AA Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office) – FRG AAPSO Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Organisation – Soviet Union, GDR ADN Allgemeiner Deutscher Nachrichtendienst (General German News Agency) – GDR ANC African National Congress – South Africa ASP Afro-Shirazi Party – Zanzibar ASPYL Afro-Shirazi Party Youth League – Zanzibar BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BMZ Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit (Ministry for Economic Cooperation) – FRG CCM Chama Cha Mapinduzi (Party of the Revolution) – Tanzania CDU Christlich Demokratische Union (Christian Democratic Union) – FRG CIA Central Intelligence Agency – US CID Criminal Investigation Department – Tanzania CO Commonwealth Office – UK COREMO Comité Revolucionário de Moçambique (Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique) DAL Direction Afrique Levant, MAE (Africa and Middle East Division) – France DAM Direction Afrique Malgache, MAE (Africa and Madagascar Division) – France EAC East African Community emb. embassy FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office – UK FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Mozambique Liberation Front) FRG Federal Republic of Germany GDR German Democratic Republic HC high commission IMF International Monetary Fund KGB Komitet gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti (Committee for State Security) – Soviet Union LNS Liberation News Service – US MAE Ministère des affaires étrangères (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) – France MANU Mozambique African National Union MfAA Ministerium für Auswärtige Angelegenheiten (Ministry for Foreign Affairs) – GDR MfS Ministerium für Staatsicherheit (Ministry for State Security, ‘Stasi’) – GDR MNE Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) – Portugal MSZ Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) – Poland NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NBC National Bank of Commerce – Tanzania NEC TANU National Executive Committee NUTA National Union of Tanganyika Workers OAU Organisation of African Unity PAC Pan-Africanist Congress of Azania – South Africa PAIGC Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) PIDE Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado (International and State Defence Police) – Portugal PLA People’s Liberation Army – Zanzibar RENAMO Resistência Nacional Moçambicana (Mozambique National Resistance) SCCIM Serviços de Centralização e Coordenação e Informação de Moçambique (Services for the Centralisation and Coordination of Information for Mozambique) – Portugal 6 SED Sozialistiche Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party of Germany) – GDR SPD Sozialdemocratische Partei Deutschlands (Social Democratic Party of Germany) – FRG STC State Trading Corporation – Tanzania SWAPO South West Africa People’s Organisation TANU Tanganyika African National Union TASS Tyelyegrafnoye agyentstvo Sovyetskogo Soyuza (Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union) TAZARA Tanzania-Zambia Railway Authority TBC Tanzania Broadcasting Corporation TPDF Tanzania People’s Defence Force TPDF(Z) Tanzania People’s Defence Force (Zanzibar) TYL Tanganyika Africa National Union Youth League UDENAMO União Democrática Nacional de Moçambique (National Democratic Union of Mozambique) UDI Unilateral Declaration of Independence UN United Nations UNAMI União Africana de Moçambique Independente (African Union of Independent Mozambique) USAID United States Agency for International Development USARF University Students African Revolutionary Front – Tanzania USIA United States Information Agency USIS United States Information Services UWT Umoja wa Wanawake wa Tanzania (Tanzania Women’s Union) ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union ZAPU Zimbabwe African People’s Union ZNP Zanzibar National
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