PERSPECTIVAS Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice

Spring 2016 A Policy Brief Series sponsored by the AAHHE, ETS & UTSA Issue No. 5 Mexican Americans’ Educational Barriers and Progress: Is the Magic Key Within Reach?

progress and engage intersectional also proffer strategies of resistance Executive Summary analytic frameworks. We explore that Mexican Americans employ to This policy brief is based on the how historical events and consequent overcome pernicious stereotypes and edited book The Magic Key: The practices and policies depleted the prejudicial barriers to educational Educational Journey of Mexican accumulation of human capital and achievement. Reaffirming how little Americans from K–12 to College contributed to disinvestments in has changed, we engage in a process and Beyond (Zambrana & Hurtado, Mexican American communities. of recovering dynamic history to 2015a), which focuses on the This scholarship decenters cultural inform Mexican American scholarship experiences of Mexican Americans problem-oriented and ethnic- and future policy and practice. in education. As the largest of the focused deficit arguments and Latino subgroups with the longest provides substantial evidence of history in America, and the lowest structural, institutional and normative AUTHORS levels of educational attainment, racial processes of inequality. New Ruth Enid Zambrana, Ph.D. this community warrants particular findings are introduced that create University of Maryland, College Park attention. Drawing from an more dynamic views of — and Sylvia Hurtado, Ph.D. interdisciplinary corpus of work, the new thinking about — Mexican University of California, Los Angeles authors move beyond the rhetoric of American educational trajectories. We

Eugene E. García, Ph.D. Loui Olivas, Ed.D. José A. Vicente, Ph.D. NATIONAL Professor Emeritus, School of Transborder President, American Association of Hispanics President, Wolfson Campus, Studies and Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, in Higher Education, Professor Emeritus, Miami Dade College EDITORIAL BOARD Arizona State University Entrepreneurial Studies, W.P. Carey School Joel Gómez, Ed.D. of Business, Arizona State University Estela Mara Bensimon, Ed.D. Associate Professor of Educational Leadership, Noé Ortega EDITORS Professor and Co-Director, Center for Urban Graduate School of Education and Human Assistant Director and Senior Research Associate, Education, University of Southern California Development, Director, Institute for Education National Center for Institutional Diversity, Editor: Laura I. Rendón, Ph.D. Studies, The George Washington University University of Michigan Professor and Co-Director, Center for Yvette Donado Research and Policy in Education, Senior Vice President and Chief Administrative Kris D. Gutiérrez, Ph.D. Clara E. Rodríguez, Ph.D. The University of Texas at San Antonio Officer, Educational Testing Service Distinguished Professor, School of Education, Professor, Department of Sociology & University of Colorado at Boulder Anthropology, Fordham University Associate Editor: Vijay Kanagala, Ph.D. Richard P. Durán, Ph.D. Assistant Professor and Program Coordinator, Professor, Gevirtz Graduate School of Education, Sylvia Hurtado, Ph.D. Victor B. Sáenz, Ph.D. Department of Leadership and Developmental University of California, Santa Barbara Professor, Graduate School of Education Associate Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, The University of Vermont and Information Studies, Administration, Executive Director, Project Luis Ricardo Fraga, Ph.D. University of California, Los Angeles MALES and Texas Education Consortium Managing Editor: Demeturie Toso-Lafaele Gogue, Arthur Foundation Endowed Professor of for Male Students of Color, Graduate Research Assistant, Higher Education Transformative Latino Studies, Professor of Pedro A. Noguera, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin and Student Affairs Administration, Political Science, University of Notre Dame Distinguished Professor and Director, Center for The University of Vermont the Study of School Transformation, Graduate Gerardo E. de los Santos, Ph.D. School of Education and Information Studies, President and CEO, League for Innovation University of California, Los Angeles in the Community College

1 DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS

& Patten, 2012; U.S. Department of educational challenges in the Introduction Education, 2010). United States. A first-generation, college-bound In the edited book The Magic Mexican American female was Key: The Educational Journey of Locks & Keys: interviewed and was asked about Mexican Americans from K–12 to her inspiration to persist in school College and Beyond (Zambrana The Educational Journey and meet challenges. She told the & Hurtado, 2015a), we highlight following story: how Mexican American families Mexican American educational progress My father took me to the fields and institutional agents in schools is difficult to assess where he worked and told me and colleges motivate students to because research and interpretations “that I would not have to work obtain an education as the pathway of their lived experiences are in the fields if I stayed in school beyond their current economic often presented as ahistorical and and studied hard. He said, circumstances. From this book we neglect the continuing forces of ‘You will have the Magic Key, offer a set of lessons learned, which structural inequality. which is your education’ … My are expressed in the form of “locks” (barriers) and “keys” (solutions) father’s story made me want to Understanding the unique patterns that summarize chapter findings. study more. and processes of educational Book chapters are written through trajectories demands an examination The story of the Magic“ Key reveals the collaborative efforts of senior of historical features and the ways a culture of resilience and resistance and early career scholars who focus that empirical data are collected and provides insights into how their attention on Mexican American and used to explain patterns of Mexican Americans1 manage to education. This scholarship brings educational underperformance. overcome barriers to success to light and resists suppression of Mexican Americans’ educational (Zambrana & Hurtado, 2015b). Not vital knowledge that helps provide a progress tells a harrowing story of foretold in this interaction are the realistic assessment of progress and the historical practices of exclusion continuing challenges that students affirms and supports the voices of and denial of basic rights to encounter in their journeys that Mexican American students in the education under the Spanish and require critical strategies of resistance challenges encountered along their American rule until the mid-20th on their part to contend with educational journey. century (MacDonald & Rivera, obstacles associated with incremental 2015). A history of exclusion progress and common practices Purpose yields a legacy of segregation, across changing sociohistorical stereotypic representations of This brief seeks to improve the contexts. Mexican Americans are the inferior intelligence, and resistance understanding of structural inequality largest (64.6%) Hispanic subgroup to learning that continue to shape in educational pathways for Mexican nationally, but the most starkly how Mexican American students are Americans; challenge the deficit underrepresented (Gonzalez-Barrera viewed and treated in many public model approach as an explanatory & Lopez, 2013). They are a much school systems. research paradigm; and call for neglected population group in terms ways to institutionalize effective While investigators offer a variety of of research and policy, with lower educational policies and practices. different paradigms and theoretical rates of retention in P–12 and in Most importantly, we encourage explanations that discuss why college than other populations. These more research using an intersectional, enrollment and retention in higher realities pose critical challenges historical and life-course lens on education remain low for Mexican for educational administrators and Mexican Americans, who not only American men and women, the personnel and, consequently, for the compose the largest Latino ethnic historical and social contexts reveal progress of their communities (Motel group, but also face the most the larger structural forces associated

1 Mexican American/Chicano/Chicana is used throughout this brief interchangeably. Chicano is a term that many speculate has multiple origins, but many agree the term was adopted by Mexican American activists that emerged with a political movement (el movimiento, in the 1960s–1970s) for social justice and self-determination. It is also important to note that identity is fluid and varies by geographic region. In the five states that were originally northern Mexico (California, Colorado, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona), Mexican-origin people have extensive generational roots and perceive their identity as Hispanos, Americans of Mexican heritage or descent, Mexicanos, Americans, Tejanos, etc. The term Hispanic is used typically when referencing U.S. government data, since that is the category used in U.S. Census and National Center for Education Statistics data collection and reports.

2 PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice with these realities. All researchers perspective is warranted to formulate Mexican American economic, social conduct their studies within contexts a broader theorizing discourse of and political outcomes. Differences, that are bound by historical time. In educational processes and outcomes however, are not necessarily the study of the Mexican American among Mexican Americans. An deficits, and low attainment and educational trajectory, the role of intersectional lens examines patterns performance are due to a host of historicity and its force in shaping of educational attainment, taking into economic and social factors that structural educational inequality account power relations that shape shape opportunity structures (e.g., cannot be excluded. institutions in which historically quality health services, employment, History informs and, more underrepresented women and men access to quality educational importantly, shapes group have participated, as well as patterns institutions) and pathways for these experiences and patterns, as well of inequality, which include both students. Moreover, cultural deficit as helps us assess progress or hegemonic and disciplinary power assumptions not only ignore wealth stagnation. Historically, children (Covarrubias, 2011; Ramírez, 2013; and color privilege associated with were forced to attend segregated Zambrana & Hurtado, 2015c). This (in)equality, but cannot account for schools, were prohibited from approach allows for an expanded social agency, resilience and success speaking Spanish and were understanding of the complex role among Mexican Americans who subjected to inferior instruction that historical conditions play in overcome the barriers associated (Carter & Segura, 1979; Moreno, family development, socioeconomic with being low-income and first- 1999; San Miguel, 2013). Attitudes status and racial formation. Structural generation to achieve success in of racism and classism prevailed and other institutional factors schools and colleges. What explains and marginalized these students. As are equally associated with the the success of the first-generation of Carter and Segura (1979) observe: successful completion of various college-educated Chicanas, whom “Educators shared the community’s educational milestones in the P–16 we call pioneras (Zambrana, De view of them as outsiders who pathways and beyond to the long- Jesús & Dávila, 2015)? How can we were never expected to participate term career trajectory. explain the large numbers of low- fully in American life” (p. 15). The income and first-generation college neglect of Mexican Americans over The cultural-deficit model students who are beating the time by the political and educational and deficit-thinking still odds and enrolling in four-year system is the result of persistent dominate views and institutions today? structural inequalities associated interpretations of educational with disproportionate academic research on Mexican American Using an asset-based underperformance. students at all levels. approach is central to While the history of racial/ethnic understanding Mexican An examination of structural exclusion remains relatively American students’ success in spite of and historical forces using unknown and structural inequality obstacles associated with low-income an intersectional lens is is rarely taught in schools, pervasive and first-generation status. fundamental to analyzing the social constructions of inferiority First, Mexican American parents experiences of Mexican Americans. have marked the life experiences of socialize children to navigate the The dearth of educational personnel, Mexican origin peoples in the United educational process by offering from teachers to counselors to States. This often takes the form emotional support and teaching higher education staff and faculty, of, and is known as, a culturally their children defensive strategies and the low rate of four-year deterministic approach, wherein for navigating between cultures. college completion among Mexican ethnic values regarding education Second, the long history of Americans are two striking issues are assumed to be the cause of low resistance and social agency have that highlight the multiple factors attainment and performance. The resulted in some victories for associated with the accumulation approach in research and practice Mexican American education and of educational advantage or is deployed to focus on individual more than likely have served as disadvantage. To advance our and ethnic group deficits without examples of ethnic empowerment understanding of these two issues, a regard to structural inequality or that have translated into the success more interdisciplinary, intersectional institutional factors that shape of Mexican American children.

3 DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS

Several researchers (Rendón, Nora, differential, racist treatment of about students’ lives by examining & Kanagala, 2015; Yosso, 2005, students are significant barriers failure (see Zambrana, 2011). The 2006; Zambrana & Burciaga, 2015) to educational performance. major shortcoming of this approach now use the concept of community is its narrow focus on the individual Although low-income, first- cultural wealth that includes 1) or cultural aspects of the phenomena generation college-bound Mexican resistant capital, when Mexican without an understanding of the American youth still face many Americans and other Latinos relationship of ethnic groups, financial and social obstacles such challenge inequality; 2) linguistic specifically Mexican Americans, to as discrimination and racism, family capital, where communication in the historical record and existing transmitted strengths enable them another language is beneficial; 3) power relations that shape racial to overcome and succeed through navigational capital, where Mexican hierarchy and institutional structures. various educational pathways. While Americans and other Latinas/os Critical race theory (CRT) posits learn to navigate social institutions deficit-based studies on Mexican American educational attainment racism’s intersections with other and barriers; 4) social capital, where forms of marginality. It informs the resources are accessed through erroneously assert that families are not supportive (Valencia & study of educational inequalities social networks; 5) familial capital, with an asset-based lens of inquiry, which signifies the strength of Black, 2002), research shows that structural inequality and limited as opposed to conventional deficit cultural knowledge and family models of inquiry (Rendón, Nora, & material resources are critical histories; and 6) aspirational capital, Kanagala, 2015; Solórzano & Yosso, factors in the decreased access to where aspirations and hope are 2000). The Community Cultural the opportunities that influence motivating factors despite challenges. Wealth (Yosso, 2005) framework educational careers and shape the Many academic support programs informed by CRT is especially life course for Mexican American for student access and success useful as it centers gender, race, youth (Contreras, 2011; Telles & (e.g., PUENTE, GEAR UP, Parent ethnicity and socioeconomic status Ortiz, 2008). Institute for Quality Education) now — among other intersections of also take an asset-based approach A growing body of knowledge marginality — with respect to involving parents and families in depicts the myriad roles families educational attainment. Community early educational activities, creating play in the successful academic cultural wealth highlights values communications in Spanish and performance of Mexican American and capacities nurtured by Mexican English, and integrating cultural girls (Burciaga, 2007; Ceja, 2004; American communities that enable activities. Further, inclusive activities Flores Carmona, 2010; Villenas, 2006; persistence and social mobility in the in the classroom integrate and Villenas & Moreno, 2001). Less is face of significant challenges. These validate the backgrounds and known, however, about the pioneras resources are often overlooked in perspectives of Mexican American — what types of family strengths widely used analyses of cultural students as contributions to the and social capital did the families of capital and social mobility, learning process. the first Mexican American women which tend to frame historically cohort transmit to their daughters underrepresented minorities as The erroneous belief that to help them successfully navigate merely deficient with respect to families are major the educational pipeline, from a constructed norm (Bourdieu & impediments to Mexican K–12 through college and beyond Passeron, 1977). American youth’s educational success (Gándara, 1995, 1997)? has blinded institutional educational Research examining structural The discourse on the role agents to the role that family inequality using asset-based of low-income Mexican socioeconomic status (SES), including approaches challenges overly American families in the parental education and social capital simplistic inquiry that often educational performance of their (resources and benefits received from examines delinquent behaviors or offspring must be informed by both social class status networks), plays pregnancy as a catalyst for why the economic context of family in determining where parents live. Mexican American girls have left resources and access to social capital. The quality of schools in low-SES school. Such deficit-based research Mexican American families have the neighborhoods, unevenly distributed seems to assume that one learns best resources, implicit bias and highest poverty rate of any ethnic

4 PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice group, yet they have motivated their personnel all too often dampen The documentary Precious children to obtain an education Mexican Americans’ educational Knowledge (McGinnis & Palos, (the Magic Key) that has opened aspirations. 2011) interwove the stories of a pathway of social mobility students in the Mexican American There is much to learn about how Studies Program at Tucson High beyond their current economic educators and school leaders work circumstances. However, a greater with Mexican American families School. While 48% of Mexican understanding of the socioeconomic who — because of long work hours, American students at Tucson High challenges confronted and the unwelcoming climate by institutional School dropped out, their Mexican simultaneous familial cultivation of school agents and unfamiliarity American Studies Program became community cultural wealth seeks with or fear of the school system a national model of educational to interrupt the more conventional — may be unable to fulfill success, with 100% of enrolled deficit interpretations of Mexican traditional expectations for parental students graduating from high American families as unable involvement. Despite these obstacles, school and 85% going on to to help their children pursue families display clear investment in attend college. The documentary higher education. their children’s educación. Because highlighted an entire year in Based on family-focused narratives low expectations for Mexican the classroom, documenting the of a large cohort of Mexican American students are so prevalent transformative impact on students American women who successfully (Valencia & Black, 2002), much who become engaged, informed and navigated the educational pathways work remains in areas of teacher active in their communities. through college and beyond education, principal certification and Students highlighted in the (Zambrana & Burciaga, 2015), professional development in schools. documentary and Mexican American findings show that family factors, in Valenzuela (1999) describes how respondents indicated they all tandem with other school factors, traditional comprehensive high had compelling aspirations and are associated with high educational schools are organized formally approaches of resistance. Five major performance. These data contribute and informally to divest Latina/o themes emerged: 1) some had a to extending our theorizing lens students of “important social hunger to learn; 2) some wanted on family socialization processes and cultural resources, leaving to prove themselves; 3) some of Mexican American women who them progressively vulnerable to had a desire to achieve upward successfully completed higher academic failure” (p. 3). Based mobility; 4) others did not want to education, an area of inquiry on an ethnography of Mexican experience their parents’ challenges; decidedly absent from conventional American and Mexican immigrant and 5) many wanted to follow in scholarly discourses. A critical review students in a Houston high school, the footsteps of siblings or received of past social science scholarship Valenzuela observes that “rather than special encouragement from contributes to challenging the master building on students’ cultural and a sibling. linguistic knowledge and heritage narrative of Mexican Americans as The documentary clearly identified to create biculturally and bilingually not valuing education (Zambrana, the importance of institutional competent youth, schools subtract 2011). In turn, these data on agents. Teachers and other school these identifications from them to Mexican American women and their agents often served as bridging their social and academic detriment” educational trajectory challenge institutional agents (De Jesús, 2005; (p. 25). the ideal and mythical role of the Stanton-Salazar, 2010), transmitting poor family by contextualizing social/cultural capital to students Bridging institutional agents family processes and drawing on and supporting them in developing can provide instrumental intersectional theorizing constructs a bicultural and social network support that allows for of history, power and racialized orientation. This finding is instructive the transmission of social/cultural ethnicity. for institutional agents or school capital to students and its activation personnel seeking avenues to in their lives, developing among High schools have become promote success and institutional them a social network orientation subtractive in nature rather integration for Mexican American and increased chances of attaining than pedagogical, inclusive students. These asset-building academic success. and uplifting institutions. School interactions can be described

5 DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS as educational pivotal moments Mexican American students continue selective institutions. Thus, Mexican (Espinoza, 2011) that can promote to be the target of microaggressions American representation in specific college and professional success. on predominantly White campuses, institutional contexts plays an In the chapter by Zambrana, as well as on campuses that are important role in whether students De Jesús, and Dávila (2015), the more diverse. However, little is sense that they are academically data showed that while many done to train staff and faculty or validated in classrooms, feel respondents confronted barriers in educate students about Mexican empowered as learners, sense they their schools, these high-achieving American culture and backgrounds. belong on campus, or experience Chicanas resisted assumptions that Microaggressions are defined as discrimination and bias. they did “not care,” and focused on “subtle insults (verbal, nonverbal, academic achievement and decision visual) directed toward people Improving Mexican making about college as a way to of color, often automatically or American representation “prove them wrong” and overcome unconsciously” on the part of the in college is a first step pernicious stereotypes. Educators offending individual (Solórzano, in reducing racial isolation and must recognize the persistent Ceja, & Yosso, 2000, p. 60). alleviating issues of unwelcoming stereotypes that Chicanas face Stereotyping, discrimination, bias campus climates. in their educational pursuits and and even harassment happen Mexican American students may incorporate efforts in their work to more frequently when Latinas/os seek “safe spaces” in cultural centers, dismantle such pervasive attitudes are underrepresented in college, Latina/o Greek organizations, and in schools. but can also occur in more ethnic campus organizations to The data on pioneras confirm diverse institutions. Perceptions promote awareness, enhance healthy what the documentary seeks to of the campus climate and actual identity development and get emphasize: that Chicana/o and other experiences of hostile interactions respite from discrimination and bias ethnic-identity academic enrichment can “affect how students develop (Cabrera & Hurtado, 2015). Faculty programs and Mexican American a sense of their racial/ethnic self” and staff serve as institutional school agents provide considerable and their sense of belonging in agents to help students navigate the support to Mexican American college (Cabrera & Hurtado, 2015, institution (Stanton-Salazar, 2010) students. These ethnic-focused p. 151). Ruiz Alvarado & Hurtado and confront challenges associated programs are linked to the success (2015) found that institutional with intersectional identities. climate is perceived and experienced of Mexican American students and Moreover, research findings differently based on intersections to broader goals of community and indicate that academic validation of multiple social identities such ethnic group progress. Schools and curbs feelings of a hostile climate as gender, sexual orientation, their institutional agents must respect by diminishing discrimination income and generational status. the identity and heritage of the and bias and increasing students’ The researchers measured academic student body, increase the number sense of belonging (Ruiz Alvarado validation (Rendón, 1994) as of ethnic-focused programs and & Hurtado, 2015; Hurtado, Ruiz valuing students’ contributions integrate them into the curriculum Alvarado, & Guillermo-Wann, 2015). in class, receiving feedback from to augment successful Mexican This strongly suggests that faculty instructors that helped them judge American educational performance. and staff development should focus their progress, attending to students’ To bridge intergenerational on the use of inclusive practices level of understanding of course differences regarding college and to create safe spaces for personal material, and encouraging questions career opportunities, educators must growth and development. It also and participation in class. In terms engage in outreach to parents (and suggests the need to train staff and of Mexican American experiences, siblings) to educate entire families. instructors to facilitate engagement classroom contexts matter. Mexican across multiple social identities to American students are more likely Mexican Americans from improve classroom and campus to experience academic validation marginalized social climates, minimize inadvertent in community colleges than they identities (e.g., low-income, microaggressions, and diminish are in universities, and least likely LGBTQ students) continue to report discrimination and bias directed at to receive validation in the most unwelcoming college environments. Mexican Americans.

6 PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice

College affordability Table 1. Financial Concerns Among Mexican American Freshmen and Location of First 4-Year College Attended is a key concern for Chicano Chicana Mexican Americans. 1972 1992 2012 1972 1992 2012 When data are disaggregated, Mexican Americans are more likely Concern About Financing College to live in poverty (28%) and are None (I am confident that younger than other racial and I’ll have sufficient funds) 26.1 20.6 19.5 10.5 12.3 11.3 ethnic groups, with 40% under the Some (but I probably will age of 19 (U.S. Census Bureau, have enough funds) 47.2 56.8 62.9 59.7 53.7 62.4 2012). This means that many more Major (not sure I will have enough Mexican Americans are within funds to complete college) 26.6 22.6 17.6 29.7 34.0 26.3 the traditional college age range, Work Expectations During College* but often make choices based I expect to get a job to help on affordability. Financial issues pay for college expenses 36.9 39.1 51.3 41.5 46.6 63.2 play a role in not only deciding Proximity of the College to Home which college to attend, but also in decisions about whether to Less than 50 miles 38.6 45.6 58.3 48.5 45.5 58.1 remain in college. Differences More than 50 miles from home 61.4 54.4 41.7 51.6 54.5 41.8 between Mexican American men and women’s financial concerns and Source: Data archives, Higher Education Research Institute, The Freshman Survey, CIRP. *Percentage reporting there is a “very good chance.” the location of the first four-year college they have chosen to attend reveal interesting trends over time. Increasing students’ and learn” in undergraduate research Hurtado’s (2015) historical trend financial literacy and that will be helpful in advancing analyses demonstrate that Mexican providing tools to their careers. Most of the growth American women, relative to men, calculate real costs are important in new jobs will be in STEM fields, have historically been less confident to helping Mexican Americans and ensuring that Mexican American about their ability to finance college choose colleges. students have both the academic (see Table 1). Over the decades, the preparation and opportunities to be It is important to advise students to proportion of students who expect successful in college is central to apply in a timely fashion for student to get a job to help pay for college their progress in those fields. expenses has increased, with 63% aid, seek scholarships and evaluate of women and more than half of the net cost of college at a variety of At a policy level, reduction of men (51%) expecting to do so in institutions. Some of this information funding for institutions causes recent cohorts of Mexican American is already on college websites and increases in tuition costs to students, first-year students entering four- College Results Online (sponsored creating a see-saw effect that must year institutions. It is no wonder, by the Education Trust). However, be balanced or offset by increasing as college expenses have risen and to keep Mexican Americans in aid to students. College affordability students have extended their time college, institutions of higher is an important component of to degree completion, that more education must find ways to reduce a national policy agenda that Mexican American men and women the number of hours students are significantly affects Mexican are opting to choose a four-year working. Ensuring adequate financial American students and families. college that is close to home and aid and good pay for work-study work. Hence, a growing number opportunities that will contribute The educational future of Hispanic-Serving Institutions to academic achievement and long- of Mexican American (reaching 25% Latina/o enrollments term career goals also are important. male students is in a or higher) are located nearest to For example, many interventions in state of peril. Mexican American population centers. the science, technology, engineering Data show that first-time, full-time and math (STEM) majors provide Mexican American male students opportunities for students to “earn outnumbered females in entrance

7 DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS to four-year institutions in the Project MALES encompasses an Just as more Mexican Americans are early 1970s. But by the mid-1980s, ongoing research agenda focused enrolling in institutions of higher women’s representation surpassed on understanding the experiences education, onslaughts of policies men — a trend that has continued to of Latino males in the education have intensified to close the door to accelerate since the 1990s (Hurtado, pipeline. The project includes the highest-resourced institutions. 2015). The gender gap has taken a mentoring program that aims Further, achievement data show that on a new narrative and is more to cultivate an engaged support Chicano/Latino students are six times complex. Many of the origins of network for males of color at UT- less likely than White students to be gender disparities begin early, as Austin and throughout the Central enrolled in an Advanced Placement® Latino males are more likely to Texas community. Also included is a (AP®) mathematics or science encounter disciplinary problems, statewide P–16 Consortium focused course due to the tremendous be suspended from class, drop out on the success of male students of variation in the availability of these of school and exhibit suicidal and color. Several interventions have courses in high schools or tracking depressive tendencies (Ponjuán & emerged to address the needs of systems that limit their enrollment. Sáenz, 2015). Historically, Mexican Mexican American males that involve Accountability policies in 28 states Americans have had among the families and/or peers and often take with tests for high school graduation highest participation rates in the a community-based approach, such have not minimized achievement labor force, but they tend to work as Fathers Active in Communities gaps or raised graduation rates in low-wage occupations with little and Education, Encuentros primarily because they have not or no health insurance and in more Leadership and XY-Zone. Important altered “sources of inequity” (e.g., hazardous occupations (Maldonado policies recommended by teacher quality, resource allocation, & Farmer, 2006). Ponjuán & Sáenz researchers include improving access school quality) (Contreras, 2015, p. (2015) confirm that, compared to a college-ready curriculum, having 236). In contrast, federal and state intervention programs continue to to other Latino males, Mexican greater transparency regarding play a critical role in promoting American males are least likely to financing college, creating tools for college readiness and in providing have earned a bachelor’s degree, financial aid literacy and increasing access to academic resources have the highest percentage earning Mexican American male role models for Mexican American students. less than $34,999 a year (22.1%), in schools by recruiting Mexican Although effective programs show are least likely to hold management American male teachers through successful outcomes, reductions positions and are more likely to be loan forgiveness programs. in public funding for these in blue-collar jobs. These scholars interventions (e.g., TRIO, GEAR contend that the larger crisis is Educational policies in the UP, Talent Search, Upward Bound) that few meaningful discussions United States have not portend devastating consequences are taking place to resolve these promoted equity and for Mexican American students. issues. Young Mexican American access to resources to sufficiently move the needle on the educational males constitute the fastest-growing Addressing unequal employment pool, yet their talent progress of Mexican Americans. resources in schools and is underutilized. Contreras (2015) identifies key eliminating high-stakes anti-Mexican and anti-immigrant testing when the onus is placed on the Applying research to policy policies affecting student progress student instead of the institution for and program development in education from 1994–2013. low achievement constitute the most is necessary to improve These include state policies that important public policy agenda for Mexican American male educational bar undocumented students from Mexican American students. success and opportunity. Research attending public institutions or Because change in schools has not helps highlight the specific needs of opportunities to receive aid, happened fast enough to adequately Mexican American males at different immigration policies, linguistic serve Mexican American students, life stages, focusing on the Pre-K– policy restrictions, the banning of intervention programs must continue college continuum as sites ethnic studies in schools (Arizona) to garner federal and state support for intervention. and anti-affirmative action policies. or risk the economic and societal

8 PERSPECTIVAS: Issues in Higher Education Policy and Practice costs of large numbers of Mexican scholarships for less-affluent students American youth who fail to graduate who come from families whose Conclusion from high school and college. parents have not graduated from The educational agenda for Mexican Other recommendations include high school, and strengthening Americans in the United States has instituting cost controls for public Hispanic-Serving Institutions to remained relatively unchanged four-year colleges and expanding prepare Mexican Americans for for decades, as evidenced by the financial aid options to open selective graduate programs that ongoing White House Initiative doors for more Mexican American will build the Mexican American on Educational Excellence for students to address the college professional work force. According Hispanics (WHIEEH) (1990–present). affordability issue that relegates to the American Association of The agenda calls for more access students to institutions with the Colleges for Teacher Education to educational institutions and lowest resources. Contreras (2015) (AACTE) (2013), across the nation increased educational opportunities suggests restoring affirmative action more than 80% of the bachelor’s at all educational levels. Yet one policies for achieving greater equity degrees in education awarded wonders why so little has changed and opportunity for underserved during the 2009–2010 school in the educational progress of Mexican and underrepresented student year went to non-Latino White Americans. New transformative populations. A policy agenda for students. Only 4.2% were awarded research forces us to address the Mexican American students is to Latinos, and Mexican Americans way critical race/ethnic findings by urgently needed because the nation’s constituted only 2% of all faculty and/or about Mexican Americans ability to sustain itself rests on the in colleges and universities. Most are often neglected by policymakers shoulders of the growing numbers of importantly, institutional agents and researchers who reject theories young Mexican American students. play a critical role in academic and explanations that underscore The next stages of this work should validation that can counter structural flaws in the social system. focus on the contours of such an experiences of discrimination and To put it more bluntly, Mexican agenda that will open locked doors neglect. Thus, important steps to American scholarship has been and demonstrate real progress in move forward include training ghettoized, and its segregation closing inequities in education and and developing more Mexican has stunted the growth of the field. the workplace. American teachers throughout the Thus, through this brief, we were Past and current proposed solutions pipeline, including at the master’s committed to including the voices include universal early childhood and doctoral levels; providing a of scholars whose lived experiences programs, after-school educational more robust and informed teacher and observations resonate with those enrichment programs and high education curriculum on issues that whom they study and who deeply school counselors who are low-income and migrant children care about issues of educational knowledgeable about, and interested confront; and engaging in a self- inequity. Meanwhile, the debate in, helping students attend college. reflexivity process of discovery of rages on as to whether the failure of At the high school and college implicit bias to address stereotypes Mexican Americans in schools is due levels, many bridge programs have and history of inequity for all to poor role models in the home or been defunded, which creates teachers. Moreover, promoting and racist stereotypes and attitudes in the a large gap for those who are training high-performing Mexican school or campus climate. economically and educationally American teachers and race/ethnic In effect, whatever the explanation, disadvantaged. Such programs competent teachers into leadership Mexican American children and include, for example, full-time positions can initiate new ways of adults continue to be denied access summer programs that focus on addressing the achievement gap to important educational pathways educational and social skills to for low-income Mexican American that lead to social mobility. The help prepare students for entrance children. Transformative practice educational performance of a large into community colleges and involves empowering students to number of Mexican-origin students four-year colleges. learn and being aware of one’s own in K–12, college and beyond will role as teacher, counselor or scholar Other common-sense proposed not improve without better policies in the reproduction of inequality. solutions include increases in and a greater investment of human and financial resources, delivered

9 DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS by individuals who understand and Contreras, F. (2015). The role of education Hurtado, S. (2015). Trend analyses from can incorporate ethnically responsive policy in Mexican American college 1971 to 2012 on Mexican American/ and asset-based practices for student transition and completion. In R. E. Chicano freshmen: Are we making success. Obtaining and employing Zambrana & S. Hurtado (Eds.), The progress? In R. E. Zambrana & S. research and data can assist in this magic key: The educational journey Hurtado (Eds.), The magic key: The edu- of Mexican Americans from K–12 to cational journey of Mexican Americans process by improving assessment college and beyond (pp. 215–238). from K–12 to college and beyond (pp. of progress and identifying areas Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. 53–75). Austin, TX: University of Texas. that pose continuing challenges to the attainment of the Magic Key by Covarrubias, A. (2011). Quantitative in- Hurtado, S., Ruiz Alvarado, A., & Guiller- Mexican Americans. tersectionality: A critical race analysis mo-Wann, C. (2015). Creating inclusive of the Chicana/o educational pipeline. environments: The mediating effect Journal of Latinos and Education, of faculty and staff validation on the References 10(2), 86–105. relationship of discrimination/bias to students’ sense of belonging. Journal American Association of Colleges for De Jesús, A. (2005). Theoretical perspec- Committed to Social Change on Race Teacher Education (AACTE). (2013). tives on the underachievement of Latino and Ethnicity, 1(1), 60–81. The changing teacher preparation students in US schools: Toward a frame- profession: A report from AACTE’s work for culturally additive schooling. MacDonald, V. M., & Rivera, J. (2015). His- professional education data system In P. Pedraza & M. Rivera (Eds.), Latino tory’s prism in education: A spectrum (PEDS). 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11 DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EQUITY AND EXCELLENCE AT HISPANIC-SERVING INSTITUTIONS About PERSPECTIVAS PERSPECTIVAS is produced in partnership with the American Association of Hispanics in Higher Education (AAHHE), Educational Testing Service (ETS), and the Center for Research and Policy in Education, The University of Texas at San Antonio. Its purpose is to provide a venue for policy formulation, to highlight best practices, and to disseminate cutting- edge research to improve access, retention, and graduation of Latina/o students in higher education. The vision of PERSPECTIVAS is to be recognized by the P–20 education community as the premier publication addressing research and policy related to Latina/o student success and solutions to improve access, persistence, retention, and college completion.

All questions regarding this policy brief may ETS Strategy, Marketing & Growth Staff be directed to: Frank Gómez, Strategic Alliances Executive Editor, PERSPECTIVAS Elizabeth M. Hancock, Internal Communications Leader Center for Research and Policy in Education Eileen Kerrigan, Creative Writer & Editor The University of Texas at San Antonio George Barrett, Design Department Manager 501 W. César E. Chávez Blvd. Sally Acquaviva, Designer San Antonio, TX 78207 Sherri Lutz, Traffic Manager Phone: 1-210-458-6503 / Fax: 1-210-458-5848

About The Authors Ruth Enid Zambrana is a professor in the Department of Women’s Studies, Director of the Consortium on Race, Gender and Ethnicity at the University of Maryland, College Park, and adjunct Professor of Family Medicine at the University of Maryland, Baltimore, School of Medicine. Dr. Zambrana’s scholarship applies a critical intersectional lens to structural inequality as well as racial, Hispanic ethnicity, and gender inequity in population health and higher education trajectories. She has published extensively and serves on many social science and public health journal editorial boards. Her recent work includes an edited volume with Virginia Brennan and Shiriki Kumanyika titled Obesity Interventions in Underserved U.S. Communities: Evidence and Directions (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014); Latinos in American Society: Families and Communities in Transition (Cornell University Press, 2011); and an edited anthology with Bonnie T. Dill titled Emerging Intersections: Race, Class and Gender in Theory, Policy and Practice (Rutgers Press, 2009).

Sylvia Hurtado is a professor and former director of the Higher Education Research Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Graduate School of Education and Information Studies. Prior to coming to UCLA, she served as Director of the Center for the Study of Higher and Postsecondary Education at the University of Michigan. She has published numerous articles and books related to Latina/o students, campus climates, college impact on student development, diversity in higher education and STEM education. She is past president of the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) and is an AERA Fellow. She received her Ph.D. from UCLA, M.Ed. from Harvard Graduate School of Education, and A.B. from Princeton University.