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W³adza, Media I Pieni¹dze W³adza, media i pieni¹dze Amerykañska ekonomia polityczna komunikowania (wybrane zagadnienia) Pobrano z https://repo.uni.opole.pl / Downloaded from Repository of Opole University 2021-10-01 UNIWERSYTET OPOLSKI STUDIA I MONOGRAFIE NR 508 S³awomir Czapnik W³adza, media i pieni¹dze Amerykañska ekonomia polityczna komunikowania (wybrane zagadnienia) OPOLE 2014 Pobrano z https://repo.uni.opole.pl / Downloaded from Repository of Opole University 2021-10-01 RECENZENCI Adam Chmielewski, Tomasz Goban-Klas REDAKTOR Grzegorz Staniszewski REDAKTOR TECHNICZNY Halina Szczegot SK£AD I £AMANIE Jolanta Kotura KOREKTOR Renata ¯emojcin PROJEKT OK£ADKI Marta Kraczkowska ã Copyright by Uniwersytet Opolski Opole 2014 ISSN 1233–6408 ISBN 978–83–7395–608–7 Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Opolskiego, 45–037 Opole, ul. H. Sienkiewicza 33 Nak³ad: 150 egz. Sk³adanie zam.: tel. 77 441 08 78; e-mail: [email protected] Druk: Quick DRUK s.c.; 90-562 £ódŸ, ul. £¹kowa 11; e-mail: [email protected] Pobrano z https://repo.uni.opole.pl / Downloaded from Repository of Opole University 2021-10-01 Wstêp „Uprawiamy teoriê z pistoletem przystawionym do skroni, natykamy siê na nowe zespo³y uwarunkowañ, które musimy nie tylko oceniæ, lecz podj¹æ wobec nich dzia³ania przed up³ywem godziny” (cyt. za: Merton 1982, s. 544) – w tak charakterystyczny sposób Robert L. Stevenson okreœla istotê nauki o komunikowaniu. Ze swej natury ci¹¿y ona ku ba- daniom interdyscyplinarnym, poniewa¿ w¹skie granice danej dyscypliny ograniczaj¹ nasze rozumienie rzeczywistoœci, w tym proces porozumie- wania siê miêdzy ludŸmi. To istotne, albowiem spo³eczna produkcja wie- dzy prowadzi do jej fragmentaryzacji, powstawania niezliczonych sub- dyscyplin, sub-subdyscyplin i specjalnoœci naukowych. Zapomina siê jednak, ¿e historyczny proces wyodrêbniania siê dyscyplin nauk o cz³o- wieku i spo³eczeñstwie kierowa³ siê nade wszystko racjonalnoœci¹ insty- tucjonaln¹. Jego motywem by³a koniecznoœæ przekonania siebie i in- nych, ¿e dana grupa ludzi – zw¹cych siê socjologami, psychologami czy politologami – posiada unikaln¹ i niezast¹pion¹ wiedzê o danym wycin- ku œwiata, wypracowa³a te¿ specyficzne metody badawcze, mo¿e zatem zasadnie domagaæ siê okreœlonych zasobów. W tej ksi¹¿ce próbuje siê wykroczyæ poza interdyscyplinarnoœæ, siêgaj¹c do podejœcia starszego, wywodz¹cego siê ze z³otych czasów oœwieceniowej humanistyki – ekono- mii politycznej. Olivier Boyd-Barrett i Charles Newbold rozpoczynaj¹ artyku³ do- tycz¹cy definiowania pola badawczego nauki o komunikowaniu w cha- rakterystyczny sposób, zauwa¿aj¹c, ¿e studia nad mediami s¹ polem bez wyznaczonych granic (Boyd-Barrett, Newbold 1995, s. 2). Znacznie mniej trudnoœci nastrêcza natomiast konceptualizacja ekonomii politycz- nej, któr¹ Fryderyk Engels okreœla jako naukê „o prawach rz¹dz¹cych produkcj¹ i wymian¹ materialnych œrodków utrzymania w spo³eczeñ- stwie ludzkim” (Engels 1956, cyt. za: Lange 1975, s. 786). Obie te trady- cje sk³adaj¹ siê na ekonomiê polityczn¹ komunikowania1, czyli „orienta- 1 Istniej¹ równie¿ odmienne okreœlenia tego podejœcia, w tym takie jak: „ekonomia polityczna mediów” (political economy of communications), „ekonomia polityczna mediów 7 Pobrano z https://repo.uni.opole.pl / Downloaded from Repository of Opole University 2021-10-01 cjê meta-teoretyczn¹” (Kowalski 1998, s. 15), pr¹d badawczy w dziedzinie komunikowania (Bas Portero 2001, s. 157–171), którego amerykañska odnoga stanowi przedmiot niniejszych badañ. Publikacje autorów na- le¿¹cych do tej orientacji znajduj¹ siê na pograniczu studiów kulturo- wych (cultural studies), studiów politycznych i teorii ekonomii (Mosco 2009, s. 3–4)2. Nale¿y zaznaczyæ, ¿e w ekonomii politycznej komunikowania wy- kszta³ci³y siê dwa nurty – anglojêzyczny (anglosaski) i francuskojêzycz- ny. Siêgaj¹ one do tych samych korzeni, jednak w du¿ym stopniu rozwi- jaj¹ siê oddzielnie, oddzia³uj¹c na siebie w niewielkim stopniu. Ze wzglêdu na barierê jêzykow¹ i odmiennoœæ tradycji historycznej dorobek badaczy francuskich, belgijskich czy kanadyjskich, którzy publikuj¹ w jêzyku francuskim, jest stosunkowo s³abo znany i nie znajduje nale¿- nego mu oddŸwiêku w œwiatowej nauce o komunikowaniu, pos³uguj¹cej siê jêzykiem angielskim (i odwrotnie). Podobnie jest z badaczami anglo- saskimi: amerykañskimi, brytyjskimi czy kanadyjskimi (anglojêzyczny- mi), którzy w doœæ ograniczonym stopniu – je¿eli w ogóle – odwo³uj¹ siê do prac frankofoñskich ekonomistów politycznych komunikowania. Na tym tle wyró¿niæ nale¿y francuskojêzyczne ma³¿eñstwo Michèle i Arman- da Mattelartów, których najwa¿niejsze prace stosunkowo szybko prze³o- ¿ono na angielski i inne jêzyki. Przez ponad dekadê mieszkali oni i pro- wadzili badania w Chile3, a wiêc kraju hiszpañskojêzycznym, który jednak – jak ca³a Ameryka £aciñska – znajduje siê w orbicie amerykañ- skich wp³ywów kulturowych. Ten stan rzeczy sta³ siê przedmiotem roz- licznych studiów Mattelartów: najs³ynniejsze poœród nich – napisane przez Armanda i chilijskiego pisarza Ariela Dorfmana (Dorfman 2007)4 – obna¿a³o imperializm kulturowy komiksów Walta Disneya (Dorfman, masowych” (political economy of mass media), „ekonomia polityczna komunikowania masowego” (political economy of mass communication), „ekonomia polityczna informacji” (political economy of information), „ekonomia polityczna kultury” (political economy of culture), „ekonomia polityczna komunikowania i informacji” (political economy of com- munication and information) czy te¿ „ekonomia polityczna komunikowania i kultury” (political economy of communication and culture). Zakres tych terminów nie jest to¿samy, w niniejszej pracy – co okreœlono ju¿ w tytule – przyjêto pojêcie „ekonomia polityczna komunikowania”. 2 W anglojêzycznym piœmiennictwie ekonomiê polityczn¹ komunikowania okreœla siê zwykle mianem approach, czyli podejœcia (badawczego, naukowego). 3 Mieszkali w Chile od 1962 do 1973 roku. Anga¿owali siê w demokratyczne reformy Salvadore Allende, kiedy wiêc junta genera³a Augusto Pinocheta przejê³a w³adzê, zostali zmuszeni do opuszczenia kraju. 4 Jego dramat Death and the Maiden zosta³ przeniesiony na ekran przez Romana Polañskiego w 1994 roku (w Polsce dystrybuowany jako Œmieræ i dziewczyna). Co ciekawe, obecnie Dorfman jest wyk³adowc¹ na amerykañskim Duke University w Durham (Karolina Pó³nocna) – por. www.adorfman.duke.edu/ (dostêp: 10.09.2011). 8 Pobrano z https://repo.uni.opole.pl / Downloaded from Repository of Opole University 2021-10-01 Mattelart 1971)5. Powy¿sza pozycja doczeka³a siê kilkudziesiêciu edycji, g³ównie w krajach latynoamerykañskich. Wzi¹wszy pod uwagê dwoist¹ naturê ekonomii politycznej komuniko- wania, warto rozstrzygn¹æ, która z tradycji naukowych, czyli ekonomia polityczna i komunikologia, zdobywa w jej ramach przewagê. £¹czeniu ró¿nych dziedzin wiedzy, np. politologii i psychologii czy geografii i eko- nomii, zawsze towarzysz¹ nadzieje, ¿e uda siê je scaliæ w jedno, zyskuj¹c zupe³nie now¹ jakoœæ, posiadaj¹c¹ najlepsze cechy obu i wyzbyt¹ ich s³aboœci. Trudno oprzeæ siê jednak wra¿eniu, ¿e dotychczasowe doœwiad- czenia przekonuj¹, i¿ jest inaczej: w ostatniej instancji okazuje siê, ¿e prowadz¹cy badania w ramach nowej dyscypliny dziel¹ siê z grubsza na dwa obozy, korzystaj¹ce g³ównie ze spuœcizny jednej z pierwotnych tra- dycji. W niniejszej pracy zak³ada siê, ¿e dyscyplin¹ dominuj¹c¹ jest eko- nomia polityczna (zw³aszcza myœl Karola Marksa), której regu³y próbuje siê zastosowaæ w badaniach nad komunikowaniem. S³usznoœæ tego sta- nowiska potwierdza fakt, ¿e nieraz w studiach medioznawczych u¿ywa siê jedynie pojêcia „ekonomia polityczna”, nie dookreœlaj¹c go ¿adnym innym terminem (Baran, Davis 2007, s. 276–277; Boyd-Barrett 1995, s. 186–192). Nie bez powodu równie¿ Janet Wasko, jedna z czo³owych badaczek tego nurtu, konsekwentnie pisze o „podejœciu ekonomii politycz- nej do badañ nad mediami i komunikacj¹” (Wasko 2004, s. 309). Jest to uprawniony pogl¹d, albowiem Marksowska teoria ewolucji i struktury systemu kapitalistycznego wywar³a wiêkszy i trwalszy wp³yw na myœli i czyny ni¿ jakikolwiek inny system idei og³oszony w czasach nowo¿yt- nych (Berlin 1999, s. 237). Celem niniejszej pracy jest przybli¿enie i krytyczna analiza wybranych teorii i perspektyw amerykañskiej ekonomii politycznej komunikowania. Myœl Marksa stworzy³a nowe narzêdzia krytyki i badañ, których rozwój i zastosowanie przyczyni³y siê do zmiany istoty i kierunku dzia³añ nauk spo³ecznych (Berlin 1999, s. 237), mo¿na wiêc przypuszczaæ, ¿e niemal ca³kowity brak tego podejœcia w rodzimej debacie naukowej powinien byæ przedmiotem troski. Co wiêcej, kierunek, który od lat siedemdzie- si¹tych znajduje siê w twórczym sporze z ekonomi¹ polityczn¹ komuni- kowania, a mianowicie studia kulturowe, rozwin¹³ siê – i rozwija nadal – stosunkowo dobrze. Powstaje coraz wiêcej wartoœciowych prac z ich za- kresu (np. Minkner 2012).. Jakkolwiek obydwa te neomarksowskie po- dejœcia zdaj¹ siê wzajemnie uzupe³niaæ, to – jak trafnie zauwa¿a Gra- ham Murdock – niestrudzenie ze sob¹ rywalizuj¹ (Murdock 1989, s. 436–440). 5 Angielski przek³ad – Dorfman, Mattelart 1975. 9 Pobrano z https://repo.uni.opole.pl / Downloaded from Repository of Opole University 2021-10-01 Tadeusz Kowalski w ksi¹¿ce Media i pieni¹dze (1998) pisze, ¿e poœród polskich prac, które ³¹cz¹ siê, jakkolwiek w ograniczonym zakresie, z nurtem ekonomii politycznej komunikowania, na uwagê zas³uguje pod- rêcznik Tomasza Goban-Klasa z 1978 roku (Goban-Klas 1978; Kowalski 1998, s. 16). Paradoksalnie jednak to w³aœnie w tej pracy Kowalskiego znajduj¹ siê zapewne najobszerniejsze i najbardziej ró¿norodne
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