“Punk Rock Is My Religion” An Exploration of Straight Edge punk as a Surrogate of Religion. Francis Elizabeth Stewart 1622049 Submitted in fulfilment of the doctoral dissertation requirements of the School of Language, Culture and Religion at the University of Stirling. 2011 Supervisors: Dr Andrew Hass Dr Alison Jasper 1 Acknowledgements A debt of acknowledgement is owned to a number of individuals and companies within both of the two fields of study – academia and the hardcore punk and Straight Edge scenes. Supervisory acknowledgement: Dr Andrew Hass, Dr Alison Jasper. In addition staff and others who read chapters, pieces of work and papers, and commented, discussed or made suggestions: Dr Timothy Fitzgerald, Dr Michael Marten, Dr Ward Blanton and Dr Janet Wordley. Financial acknowledgement: Dr William Marshall and the SLCR, The Panacea Society, AHRC, BSA and SOCREL. J & C Wordley, I & K Stewart, J & E Stewart. Research acknowledgement: Emily Buningham @ ‘England’s Dreaming’ archive, Liverpool John Moore University. Philip Leach @ Media archive for central England. AHRC funded ‘Using Moving Archives in Academic Research’ course 2008 – 2009. The 924 Gilman Street Project in Berkeley CA. Interview acknowledgement: Lauren Stewart, Chloe Erdmann, Nathan Cohen, Shane Becker, Philip Johnston, Alan Stewart, N8xxx, and xEricx for all your help in finding willing participants and arranging interviews. A huge acknowledgement of gratitude to all who took part in interviews, giving of their time, ideas and self so willingly, it will not be forgotten. Acknowledgement and thanks are also given to Judy and Loanne for their welcome in a new country, providing me with a home and showing me around the Bay Area. Finally an unpayable debt is owed to those bands mentioned in this thesis and to the many more, both past and still playing whose creativity, passion and integrity helped to shape this work in so many ways. 2 Abstract Using a distinctly and deliberately interdisciplinary approach to the subject of religion and spirituality as it presents itself within modern Western Societies today, this thesis argues that Straight Edge hardcore punk is a surrogate for religion. The term surrogate is used to denote the notion of a successor and a protector and provider of nourishment. It has been re-interpreted from Theodore Ziolkowski’s work on the same term in ‘Modes of Faith’, in which he examines surrogates for religion which emerged during the early part of the 20th century. An in-depth study, both theoretical and ethnographic in nature and presentation, of Straight Edge hardcore punk is provided to demonstrate that traditionally held categories of religion, secular, sacred and profane are being dismantled and re-built around ideas of authenticity, community, integrity, d.i.y and spirituality. Through the syncretic practices of the Straight Edge adherents they are de-essentialising religion and thus enabling us to re-consider the question of what religion is or could be. This thesis relies on theoretical ideas, interview quotes, informant quotes, researcher taken photographs, and interviewee created or utilised images, tattoos, graffiti and flyers. All of these are interspersed with song lyrics from various bands relevant to the time period under discussion and the themes being drawn out. Much like the adherents themselves, this thesis exists very much within the space of the ‘in-between’, which creates and reacts to necessary tensions throughout. 3 “Punk Rock Is My Religion”: An Exploration of Straight Edge Punk as a Surrogate of Religion Table of Contents Acknowledgements p.2 Abstract p.3 List of photographs p.8 Introduction (Never Back Down) – An introduction to the theoretical concerns and questions of thesis. P.10 – 34 New Waves p.13 – 24 Religious Surrogates p.24 – 29 Straight Edge p.29 – 31 Chapter Outline p.31 – 34 Chapter One “Not Just Talk” – The methodological approaches underpinning the research. P.35 – 66 Ethnography as a Methodological Tool p. 38 – 44 Substantive Ethnography p.44 – 45 Interpretative Ethnography p. 45 – 46 Reflexive Ethnography p.46 – 48 Expressive Ethnography p. 48 – 49 Specifics of Field Work p. 49 – 54 Ethnographic Methodology p. 54 - 55 Insider Status p. 55 – 58 Visual Ethnography p. 58 – 66 Conclusion p. 66 Chapter Two “Oh Bondage, Up Yours!” – A historical and sociological overview of the emergence and development of punk. P. 67 – 114 Working Definition of Punk p. 68 – 72 4 Family Break Up p. 72 – 75 Collapse of the 60s Dream p. 75 – 79 Hard Drug Usage p. 79 – 81 Politics p. 81 – 85 Social Environment p. 86 – 88 Socio-economic Factors p. 88 – 90 Race p.90 – 96 Gender p.96 – 101 The Evolution of Punk p. 101 – 108 Straight Edge p. 108 – 113 Conclusion p. 113 – 114 Chapter Three “Days of the Phoenix” – A cultural studies approach to the relationship between religion and punk. P.115 – 150 History between Punk and Religion p. 115 – 126 Factors Leading to the Rise of the New Departure p. 126 – 127 Syncreticism p. 127 – 131 Popular Culture p. 131 – 136 Globalisation p.137 – 140 Technology p.140 – 142 Straight Edge Understand and Expression of the New Departure p.142 – 146 Christianity and Straight Edge – a case study p. 147 – 150 Conclusion p. 150 Chapter Four “Screaming at a Wall” – The music(ology) of punk, hardcore and Straight Edge music. p.151 – 194 Description of Hardcore Punk Music p. 152 – 156 Music and emotion p.156 5 Effect of music on emotional state p.156 – 158 Notion of arousal p.158 – 163 Communal dimension p.163 - 168 Rapture p.168 – 169 Rapture, music and emotion p.169 – 171 Hardcore, Straight Edge and Rapture p. 171 – 176 Easternisation, orientialism and racism p.176 – 181 Krishnacore p. 181 – 185 Taqwacore p. 185 – 189 Dharma Punx p. 189 – 193 Conclusion p. 194 Chapter Five “One Family” – A sociological interpretation of results examining space / place and community. P. 195 – 238 Space / Place p.196 – 198 Finding Space p. 198 – 203 Redefining Space p.203 – 208 Virtual Space p. 208 – 215 Community p. 215 – 216 Straight Edge Community p. 216 – 221 Domestic Community p. 221 – 227 Symbolic Construction of Community p. 227 – 237 Conclusion p. 238 Chapter Six “Beliefs and Obsessions” – A theoretical interpretation of results examining authenticity and salvation. P. 239 – 305 Authenticity p. 242 – 246 Working Definition of Authenticity p. 246 – 258 6 Authenticity and Straight Edge p. 259 – 261 Inner Journey p. 261 – 266 Generation X p. 266 – 274 Lifetime Commitment p. 274 – 278 Straight Edge and Authentic Spirituality p. 279 – 292 Salvation p. 292 – 294 Straight Edge Understanding of Salvation p. 294 – 307 Why Adherents Imbue Straight Edge with Salvific Qualities p. 297 – 301 Salvation, Straight Edge and Surrogacy p. 301 – 305 Chapter Seven “This Time Is Nothing Is Sacred” – conclusions and further work. P. 306 – 336 Is Straight Edge A Religion? P. 306 – 315 Conclusions From Research p. 315 – 317 The Importance of Music p. 317 – 319 The D.I.Y. Ethic and Authenticity p. 319 – 320 Community p. 320 – 322 A Successful Surrogate? P. 322 – 327 Further Areas of Development and Inquiry p.328 – 336 Appendix 1 – photographs from the 70s p. 337 Appendix 2 – Gilman Street Image (enlarged) p. 338 Appendix 3 – interviewees’ details p. 339 – 342 Bibliography p. 343 – 354 7 List of illustrations Figure 1 Young punks in the late 1970s p69 Figure 2 Interviewee Billy in the late 1970s p70 Figure 3 Henry Rollins in Black Flag p104 Figure 4 Mia Zapata of The Gits performing live p104 Figure 5 Crowd shot at a Straight Edge show p153 Figure 6 Crowd shot at a Converge show in Glasgow, UK p160 Figure 7 Karl Buechner of Earth Crisis performing live p161 Figure 8 Crowd shot at Duck Hunt show p171 Figure 9 Bad Brains performing live p177 Figure 10 Noah Levine’s numerous tattoos p191 Figure 11 The interior of The 13th Note in Glasgow p199 Figure 12 The exterior of The 13th Note in Glasgow p200 Figure 13 The exterior of 924 Gilman Street venue p201 Figure 14 Spray painted rules of 924 Gilman p202 Figure 15 Section of the interior roof in 924 Gilman p204 Figure 16 large graffiti piece from 924 Gilman p206 Figure 17 Screen shot of Straight Edge website p213 Figure 18 Screen shot of Straight Edge discussion board p214 Figure 19 Crowd shot at Youth of Today show p217 Figure 20 Flat Back Four playing live in Glasgow p218 Figure 21 Exterior of a squat in San Francisco p222 Figure 22 Graffiti in a Manchester squat p224 Figure 23 Squatting as a political and social protest p226 Figure 24 Interviewee Karl with tattoos p229 Figure 25 & 26 Business cards from interviewees p230 Figure 27 Psychoskin clothing p233 Figure 28 Teenage punks in handmade clothing p233 Figure 29 Punk protestor in London p239 Figure 30 Plane at Encinal High School p270 Figure 31 – 33 Tito’s interview images p271 – 272 8 Figure 34 Straight Edge merchandise and tattoos p274 Figure 35 Business cards from the Bay Area p281 Figure 36 Tattoo created by S.T. for his interview p285 Figure 37 E.D. interview image p296 Figure 38 Frank’s interview image p299 Figure 39 Hardcore album covers with religious imagery p302 Figure 40 Gilman Street T shirt image p302 Figure 41 Karl’s interview image p312 Figure 42 Straight Edge, rise of a new era p336 9 Introduction (Never Back Down) “Right now, if you do not know the person standing next to you, turn to them, shake their hand, make a new friend. This is your family, this is your community. Now let’s sing.” Hearing Chris #2 saying this during Anti-Flag’s 2005 performance, not only did I do as he instructed, but I became acutely aware of two things.