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Isolation of Bioactive Compounds and in Vitro Studies on Pentanisia Prunelloides (Klotzsch Ex Eckl

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Isolation of Bioactive Compounds and in Vitro Studies on Pentanisia Prunelloides (Klotzsch Ex Eckl Isolation of bioactive compounds and in vitro studies on Pentanisia prunelloides (Klotzsch ex Eckl. & Zeyh.) Walp. used in the eastern Free State for the management of Diabetes Mellitus By Makhubu, FN Student number: 2008087963 A dissertation submitted in fulfilment for the award of degree of Master of Science in Botany, Department of Plant Sciences, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of the Free State, Qwaqwa Campus, Private Bag X13, Phuthaditjhaba, 9866 Supervisor: Dr. Ashafa AOT Co-Supervisor: Prof. Fouchè G January, 2017 DECLARATION I, Makhubu, Fikile Nelly, do hereby declare that the research project submitted for qualification for the Master’s Degree in Botany at the University of the Free State represents my own original work and has not been presented for a qualification at another university. MAKHUBU, FN This dissertation has been submitted for examination with our approval as the university supervisor Dr. ASHAFA, AOT ii DEDICATION To my beloved mother Malintja Belina Makhubu iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a great pleasure to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor Dr. Ashafa Tom Omotayo and also my co-supervisor Prof. Gerda Fouché for their effort, time, support and patience towards a successful completion of this study. It has been a challenging time but their advice and inspiration made the experience worth the while. I wish to gratefully thank the following people and institution for their contribution towards the success of this project: The UFS Team: Dr. Mutiu Kazeem, Mr Sabiu Saheed (Phd candidate) and Mr Balogun Fatai (Phd candidate) for their assistance and guidance in the biological screening The CSIR Team: Mr Jeremiah Senabe for guidance in the laboratory, Dr. Xolani Peter for assisting in isolation of compounds and structure elucidation, Prof. Paul Steenkamp for MS analyses, Dr. Chris Van der Westhuyzen and Dr. Gugulethu Mnguni for their assistance in NMR experiments. Mme maMokoena for assisting in collection of plant material Dr. Ojuromi Tessy for proof reading this work I also extend my gratitude to colleagues and friends, CSIR Natural Product Chemistry group and Phytomedicine and Phytopharmacology Research Group. Moses Mokoena, Sam Leshabane, Rudzani Nthambeleni, Mandisa Mangisa, Vincent Hlatshwayo, Valerie Ramaotsoa, Bongimplilo Mkhize, Martin Moloto, Iviwe Nokalipa, Odwa Gonyela, Valeria Xaba, Seadi Mofutsanyana, Sellwane Moloi, Sellwane Lehasa, Thumeka Tiwani, Nobuhle Mbhele, Kazeem Alayande, Dr. Lanre Akintayo Ogundajo, Anelisa Lingunya, Matshediso Dithlare Mokoena and Kalake Mallane. I am grateful for your advice, help and encouragement at all the times. The moments we shared in the office, lab and outside were the best. Thank you very much for everything. iv To my dearest mom (Malintja Belina Makhubu) for her support and giving me the strength and always believing in me, and to the rest of the family, Jabulani, Nkosana, Mamsy, Tshehofatso and my dearest new baby boy, Karabo for their continued encouragement, sacrifices and prayers throughout my educational pursuits and daily life. National Research Foundation for generously funding my studies and Maluti-A-Phofung Municipality for assisting in outstanding fees, CSIR and the UFS for opportunity to pursue my studies Most importantly, I would like to thank the Almighty God, this study would not be possible without Him. He gave me strength, good health and always remaining faithful to me. He is indeed magnificent God. I am nothing without Him. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ iv LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xii LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xiv LIST OF ABBREVIATION ............................................................................................ xvii ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... xx CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 General introduction .............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem statement ................................................................................................. 3 1.3 General aim ........................................................................................................... 4 1.3.1 Specific objectives ......................................................................................... 4 REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................................. 6 CHAPTER 2 ...................................................................................................................... 10 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 10 2.1 Diabetes mellitus ................................................................................................. 10 2.2 Types of diabetes mellitus ................................................................................... 10 2.2.1. Type I diabetes mellitus ............................................................................... 10 2.2.1 Type II diabetes mellitus .............................................................................. 11 2.2.2 Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) .......................................................... 11 2.2.3 Secondary diabetes ....................................................................................... 11 2.2.4 Other forms of diabetes ................................................................................ 12 2.3 Prevalence of diabetes ......................................................................................... 12 2.4 Mechanism of Type II diabetes ........................................................................... 13 vi 2.5 Risk factors of Type II diabetes mellitus ............................................................ 14 2.5.1. Physical inactivity ........................................................................................ 14 2.5.2. Unhealthy diet .............................................................................................. 14 2.5.3. Obesity ......................................................................................................... 15 2.5.4. Smoking ....................................................................................................... 15 2.6 Complications caused by Type II diabetes .......................................................... 15 2.7 Role of oxidative stress in diabetes mellitus ....................................................... 17 2.8 Glucose metabolism ............................................................................................ 18 2.8.1. Glucose regulation ....................................................................................... 18 2.8.2. Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates .................................................. 20 2.9 Treatment for Type II diabetes mellitus .............................................................. 21 2.9.1. Sulfonylurea ................................................................................................. 21 2.9.2. Metformin .................................................................................................... 21 2.9.3. Acarbose ...................................................................................................... 22 2.9.4. Thiazoldinediones ........................................................................................ 23 2.10 Side effects of synthetic antidiabetic drugs ..................................................... 24 2.11 Traditional medicinal plants and use ............................................................... 24 2.11.1 Traditional medicine in South Africa .......................................................... 25 2.11.2 Medicinal plants with confirmed antidiabetic activities. ............................. 26 2.12 What are phytochemicals ................................................................................. 27 2.13 Role and classification of secondary metabolites ............................................ 28 2.13.1 Phenolics ...................................................................................................... 28 2.13.2 Flavonoids .................................................................................................... 29 2.13.3 Terpenoids .................................................................................................... 30 2.13.4 Alkaloids ...................................................................................................... 31 2.13.5 Saponins ....................................................................................................... 32 2.14 The Rubiaceae Family ....................................................................................
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