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Caribbean Women and the Critique of Empire: Beyond

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Caribbean Women and the Critique of Empire: Beyond CARIBBEAN WOMEN AND THE CRITIQUE OF EMPIRE: BEYOND PATERNALISTIC DISCOURSES ON COLONIALISM By Jennifer Bagneris Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of MASTER OF ART In English December, 2011 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Professor Vera Kutzinski Professor Dana Nelson A question often asked by those sensitive to gender, race, and postmodernist discourse is: where are the women in the theorizing of post- coloniality? Although there are growing numbers of titular identifications of post-colonial feminist discussions, it seems so far that the discourse of post-coloniality is not, at this point in history, overly populated by “post- colonial women.” - Carole Boyce Davies, Black Women, Writing, and Identity I. Introduction “Where are the women?” This is a question I‟ve found myself asking on several occasions, a question which has been met with resounding echoes from scholars across numerous academic disciplines for whom this absence is all too noticeable, persistent, and systematically maintained. As Carole Boyce Davies illustrated in 1994 with her influential work Black Women, Writing, and Identity: Migrations of the Subject, there is a wealth of possibilities for new analyses within the study of literature and history when more substantial consideration is given to cultural, linguistic, and gender differences. Additionally, Davies work does not simply insist on an incorporation of gender within discussions of post-colonialtiy, but also demonstrates the necessity for further scrutiny of the terminology used to critically approach categories of difference. As such, Davies approaches a term like “post-colonial” with caution, asserting its inaccuracy as a “premature formulation” which fails to account for places in the world where colonial relationships remain in existence or where a colonizer is still actively present (i.e. Curacao and the Netherlands Antilles, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, Guadeloupe, Northern Ireland, and Palestine).1 Premature though it may be, post-coloniality as discussed within 1 Carole Boyce Davies. Black Women, Writing, and Identity: Migrations of the Subject, London and New York: Routledge, 1994, p. 81-3 1 Black Women, Writing and Identity more accurately describes ongoing discourses of resistance to slavery, colonialism, and imperialism. Since the publication of Davies‟ critical volume, black women‟s participation in what she deemed “uprising textualities” has been reconsidered and acknowledged by several scholars eager to similarly intervene within the field. More recent publications, such as Judith A. Byfield et al.‟s Gendering the African Diaspora, introduce their work with familiar concessions, acknowledging previous generations‟ insufficient gender analysis as well as the evolving place of gender within African Diaspora studies. Byfield et al. contend that “earlier generations of writing on the African Diaspora obfuscated women‟s engagement in the heavy work of traveling, building networks, and imagining the Diaspora.”2 However, as Gendering the African Diaspora illustrates, the inclusion of women within the discussion has not entirely resolved the challenging relationship of gender analysis to studies of this kind. They argue: We are a decade beyond the period Terborg-Penn identified as the infancy of African Diaspora studies about women. Nonetheless, Gunning, Hunter, and Mitchell insist that „the use of gender as a category of analysis remains something of a challenge for African Diaspora studies.‟ Their critique extends beyond integrating women into the conceptual analysis of the African Diaspora. They challenge us to examine the construction of the gendered identities female and male as well as their intersection with sexuality.3 2 Judith A. Byfield, LaRay Denzer, and Anthea Morrison ed., Gendering the African Diaspora: Women, Culture, and Historical Change in the Caribbean and Nigerian Hinterland. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2010. p. 3-4 3 Judith A. Byfield, p. 10 2 Through their acknowledgement of their predecessors (e.g. The Black Woman Cross- culturally, and more recently Women Pay the Price: Structural adjustment in Africa and the Caribbean), Byfield and her fellow contributors attest to the concerted efforts that have already been pursued to comparatively study the experiences of black women. Yet, as their commentary suggests, gender can‟t simply be incorporated as a category of discrimination within studies of the African Diaspora. Gender must be additionally analyzed as a construction which does not present scholars with a universal subject to discuss, lacking in class, cultural, and linguistic distinctions that are equally relevant. For when these differences go unacknowledged, they threaten to subsume the expansive historical, geographic, and linguistic parameters of this diverse group of intellectuals, authors, and activists. Such reductions eclipse the political developments of the 1960s and 70s, during which Civil Rights, the decolonization movement, and global black consciousness converged in a vision of Pan-Africanism, producing the international adaptation of blackness as a political category of struggle. More significantly, this adaptation occurred not just among Africans, Afro-Caribbeans, and African Americans, but among the globally dispossessed and racially oppressed everywhere. “It was a very important moment politically in Britain,” argues Jamaican-born Stuart Hall. “It isn‟t [however] the moment that we‟re in now.” Hall goes on to say, “That significance has gone. It is partly dissolved into a variety of new, more ethnically specific signifiers…Things have moved into a new kind of ethnicized politics of difference. And that has presented certain profound difficulties of political organization when the signifier „black‟ has 3 disappeared.”4 Once politically accessible and therefore unifying in the fight against white supremacist regimes, blackness has instead become progressively restricted in terms of its international portability outside of the U.S. For the purposes of my theoretical and literary analysis, I will critically engage with the work of Caribbean women writers. Each of these authors belongs to a tradition of African Diasporic literature with their own separate and distinct cultures of origin and each one of these women actively participates in anti-colonial and anti-racist discourses. Specifically, I will discuss the work and commentary of Maryse Condé who was born in Guadeloupe, Merle Hodge who was born in Trinidad and Tobago, and Jamaica Kincaid (otherwise known as Elaine Potter Richardson), who was born in Antigua. My particular emphasis on global positionality as a trajectory of relocation, dislocation, and, in some instances, return, derives from reading the work of these women and learning of their lived migratory experiences. For example, although she was born on the island of Guadeloupe (a territory of the French Caribbean), Maryse Condé was later educated in Paris at Lycée Fénelon. She also lived for a time in post-independence Guinea, was later jailed while living in Ghana, and then eventually relocated to Senegal with her family. She continued to travel, living and teaching in locations such as the U.S. Boyce Davies argues that the work of women such as Maryse Condé “exist more in the realm of the „elsewhere,‟ of Diasporic imaginings than the precisely locatable.” “Much of it,” she observes, “is therefore oriented to articulating presences and histories 4 Stuart Hall, “Subjects in History: Making Diasporic Identities,” in W. Lubiano The House that Race Built, New York: Pantheon Books, 1997. p. 295 4 across a variety of boundaries imposed by colonizers, but also by the men, the elders and other authorized figures in their various societies.”5 These critiques of empire are therefore characterized by what she terms “migratory subjectivity,” through which black women are constantly redefining their relationship to the constructs of identity, history/origins, home/place, and the discourse of post colonial theory. Similarly, within Gendering the African Diaspora, Byfield et al. reiterate this sentiment, acknowledging the continued centrality of local experiences and global positionality to Diaspora studies. Early on, they specify that “Travel is a cornerstone of many of the contributions to [their] volume,” citing their desire to further Boyce Davies‟ project arguing that “Boundary crossing is not only physical but it also inspires shifts in identity, the creation of new identities, or the familiarity and reconnections of old identities.”6 Thus, intellectual, professional, and cultural trajectories accompanied by a physical relocation or dislocation are important literary motifs; particularly, within the work of women writers of the African Diaspora for whom movement signifies the ever changing nature of identify formation. The concept of diaspora commonly describes a condition of displacement from a shared place of origin and the sense of perpetual exile and alienation from self, home, and culture. However, its meaning and definition are consistently discussed and contested. Within Tiffany Patterson and Robin K. G. Kelley‟s article “Unfinished Migrations: Reflections on the African Diaspora and the Making of the Modern World,” they suggest 5 Carole Boyce Davies, p. 88 6 Judith A. Byfield,. p. 8-9 5 that “population dispersal does not by itself constitute a diaspora.” 7 Responding to Patterson and Kelly‟s work, Byfield et
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