VOL. 61, NO.6

NEWS LETTER University of Virginia • Institute ofGovernment FEBRUARY 1985

THE 1984 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION IN VIRGINIA: A REPUBLICAN ENCORE by Larry Sabato

Mr. Sabato is associate professor in the heavily favored Warner. By winning the percent of the vote, and Gary Hart, despite Woodrow Wilson Department of Govern­ nomination, Harrison became the first being the only candidate able to buy a ment and Foreign Affairs at the University woman ever nominated by the Democratic noticeable amount of media advertising, of Virginia. party for statewide office. (Republicans had finished last, with just 17.4 percent. nominated a woman, Hazel K. Barger, for As in many other states, Jackson was lieutenant governor in 1961; Barger lost the The 1984 election in Virginia proved to unable to translate his vote plurality into a general election to Democrat Mills E. be the least surprising election year since the delegate lead. Because his votes were heavily Godwin.) heyday of the Byrd Organization, and it concentrated in a relatively few localities The Democratic presidential contest bequeathed a roster of predictable results. where his supporters turned out massively, absorbed the state's political interest through­ President Reagan and Senator John Warner Jackson could win all ofthe delegates in these out the spring. Governor Charles Robb and were treated to an electoral encore by the areas-but this surfeit of votes could not win other key Democratic officeholders had voters, and all incumbent U.S. House Jackson any more than the number of endorsed Senator John Glenn of Ohio in members who sought another term were delegate slots previously allocated to his 1983, but after Glenn's withdrawal as an returned to office (leaving the Virginia strongholds on the basis oftheir past backing active presidential contender in early 1984, delegation split with six Republicans and four of Democratic candidates. Thus, Walter Robb urged his supporters to back an Democrats). The Republican landslides in the Mondale was able to win a 30.4 percent uncommitted delegation. Most state Demo­ presidential and senatorial races were so plurality of state convention delegates despite crats, however, did not follow Robb's advice massive, however, that two Democratic Jackson's raw vote lead. Jackson, with 26.7 in the party caucuses held on March 24 and congressmen (James Olin of the Roanoke percent of the state convention's delegates, 26. Jesse Jackson received a plurality of all Sixth and Frederick C. Boucher of the also finished behind the uncommitted slate's the votes cast in the caucuses (32.8 percent), Southwest Ninth districts) narrowly escaped 28.2 percent, for much the same reason. as Table 1 indicates. Jackson built his ouster, though in both cases their winning unexpected victory on the strength of huge By the time of the Democratic national margins in 1984 exceeded their paper-thin margins in the Tidewater area's First, Second, convention, Jackson's percentage of the state first-term victories in 1982. Overall, the GOP and Fourth congressional districts, where delegation (28.2 percent) had come a bit added another banner year to its nearly Jackson' personally campaigned twice just nearer his original vote proportion, thanks unbroken string of statewide successes in before the caucuses were held. (Jackson was to some support from a shrinking uncom­ recent years. the only Democratic candidate to visit mitted group. Mondale had gained much Virginia.) Even some overwhelmingly white more, though, and eventually captured 37.2 Tidewater localities such as Virginia Beach percent of Virginia's national delegate votes. THE 1984 NOMINATING CONTESTS emerged from the caucuses with a Jackson Hart concluded the contest at about where Republicans in Virginia had no nominating plurality. Enthusiasm 'in the black commun­ he started in the original state caucuses, with contests at all in 1984; President Reagan and ity, combined with miniscule turnouts of 17.9 percent of the Virginia delegation. first-term u.s. Senator John W. Warner were registered voters, accounted for these surpris­ renominated without opposition at the GOP ing results. Overall, just under 24,000 voters RESULTS OF THE GENERAL ELECTION state convention in late May. Democrats were participated in the caucuses statewide-about hardly so unified. In the senatorial contest 1 percent of the state's registered voters. Still, Given Virginia's predictably Republican liberal former Delegate Edythe C. Harrison the turnout was more than double the 1980 voting habits in presidential years, it is not of Norfolk managed to win her party's nod caucus participation total of approximately surprising that neither presidential candidate, by acclamation at the state convention on 10,000. nor either of the vice-presidential nominees, May 18-19, but only after Governor Charles Walter Mondale, who had been expected set foot in the Old Dominion during the 1984 Robb and other party leaders unsuccessfully to win the caucuses outright, finished qehind general election campaign. Precious cam­ attempted to recruit more than a dozen other Jackson with 29.1 percent of the votes cast. paign resources on both sides were under­ individuals to make the race against the Robb's uncommitted candidates secured 20.7 standably diverted to more marginal states, 34

Table 1 Warner swept all ten congressional districts. Results of the 1984 Democratic Party Caucuses in Virginia Even the reliably Democratic Southside Fourth District turned in substantial Repub­ Eventual Number lican majorities; and the margins reached Total Number of Number of State of National Convention enormous proportions in the Republican Candidate Voters Statewide (%) Convention Delegates (%) Delegates (%) Seventh District in the Piedmont region, where Reagan secured 68.5 percent and Warner 76.8 percent of the vote. Walter Mondale 6,971 (29.1) 1,050 (30.4) 29 (37.2) THE URBAN VOTE Jesse Jackson 7,858 (32.8) 920 (26.7) 22 (28.2) Gary Hart 4,168 (17.4) 507 (14.7) 14 (17.9) The Republicans rolled up huge majorities Uncommitted 4,959 (20.7) 972 (28.2) 13 (16.7) in both suburban and rural localities (see TOTALS 23,956 (100.0) 3,449 (lOO.O) 78 (lOO.O) Table 2). Even in the normally heavily Democratic central cities, Reagan nearly obtained a majority, and Warner won 57.6 SOURCE: Provided by state and national Democratic parties. percent of the vote there. In the Republican­ leaning suburbs, the GOP candidates grabbed an unusually large share of the vote (66.8 percent for Reagan and 72.9 percent' for Warner), as Table 3 shows. Overall, of all Republican nominees in the last one-and-a­ and Virginia enjoyed a quiet autumn punc­ election was the worst presidential defeat for half decades, only Richard Nixon secured a tuated only by some competitive contests for the Democrats in Virginia since Richard greater proportion in the central cities than U.S. House seats in six of the state's ten Nixon buried George McGovern in 1972 by did Warner-and Warner bested Nixon in the congressional districts. The skeletal staff of a margin of 67.8 to 30.1 percent. suburbs, pulling the biggest proportion ofthe Democrat Walter Mondale in Virginia Democratic U.S..Senate nominee Edythe suburban vote of any Republican candidate actually devoted more effort to aiding the Harrison lost to Republican John Warner by in this century. The GOP's grip on the suburbs party's congressional candidates, and the only an even larger margin, 70.0 percent (1,406,194 in 1984 was more important than ever before, visible stumping on behalf of the Democratic votes) to 29.9 percent (601,142 votes). Warner with suburban localities contributing nearly presidential nominee was done by liberal received the largest percentage in a two-party half (49.3 percent) of the total statewide vote, former Lieutenant Governor Henry E. contested Senate election since Harry F. Byrd, their largest proportion ever. The central city Howell, Jr., on his own initiative. And despite Sr. won his first full Senate term in 1934, vote, by contrast, continued its uneven but protestations to the contrary, the state's with 76.0 percent. Harrison's proportion was gradual decline; central cities were the source leading politicians of both parties spent more the lowest for a Democratic Senate candidate ofjust 16.8 percent ofthe statewide vote total. time and energy on the already full-scale in this century, a proportion below even maneuvering for Virginia's 1985 guberna­ George Rawlings's 31.2 percent in a 1970 TRENDS IN BLACK AND torial election. three-eandidate general election won by the WHITE VOTING The expected occurred on election day, and incumbent, Independent Harry F. Byrd, Jr. Cracks also appeared in the normally Ronald Reagan trounced Walter Mondale, Harrison won only two small counties monolithic black voters' support of Demo­ securing 62.3 percent (1,337,078 votes) to the (Buchanan and Charles City) and no cities, cratic candidates. Ronald Reagan was held Democrat's 37.1 percent (796,250 votes). As and Mondale did scarcely better, with to 8.2 percent in the selected predominantly in 1980, Reagan's state showing was a bit victories in just ten ofninety-five counties and black precincts of Table 4-only a little better better than his national average, while the seven of forty-one cities. Both Reagan and than average for a GOP nominee, though an

Table 2 The Urban Vote in the 1984 Virginia General Election for President and U.S. Senator Percent of Votes Cast for Percent of President Senator Urban Measure Total Vote Mondale(D) Reagan(R) La Rouche (I) Harrison(D) Wamer(R)

Urban Corridora 59.4 37.7 61.8 0.5 31.0 69.0 Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areasa 66.1 37.5 62.0 0.5 31.0 69.0 Central Cities 16.8 51.5 47.9 0.6 42.4 57.6 Suburbs 49.3 32.8 66.8 0.4 27.1 72.9 Rural Areasa 33.9 36.2 62.9 0.9 27.9 72.1

SOURCE: Compiled from official election results provided by the State Board of Elections. aSee Larry Sabato, Virginia Votes 1979-1982 (Charlottesville: Institute of Government, University of Virginia, 1983), p. 111, for definitions of these terms. 37

Table 5 Costello had been enthusiastically backed by Demographic Breakdowns of 1984 Vote Percent for President and U. S. Senator Governor Robb and his associ~es, but the Percent of Votes Cast for daunting Warner and Reagan margins in the Seventh made Costello's task impossible President Senator (though Costello did manage to run far ahead Groupings Mondale (D) Reagan (R) Harrison (D) Warner (D) of both of his Democratic ticketmates). Party The two Northern Virginia districts, the Republican 3 97 4 96 Eighth and Tenth, produced twin victories Democratic 88 12 75 25 for the incumbent Republican congressmen. Eighth district Congressman Stan Parris Independent 22 78 17 83 obtained his first full-fledged majority ever Ideology in defeating Democratic state Senator Liberal 63 37 54 46 Richard L. Saslaw, with 55.8 percent of the Moderate 40 60 31 69 vote.2 In the Tenth District incumbent Conservative 15 85 14 86 Frank R. Wolf won what for Northern Sex Virginia was an unusually large 62.5 percent Men 31 69 26 74 in turning back the challenge of Democrat Women 40 60 33 67 John P. Flannery II. Flannery's wife and Race campaign manager, ABC newswoman Bet­ White 25 75 21 79 tina Gregory, attracted a fair amount of media attention for her husband-candidate. Black 90 10 76 24 Three other congressmen-Republican G. Age William Whitehurst of the Second District, 18-24 32 68 28 72 Democrat Norman Sisisky of the Fourth 25-49 35 65 30 70 District, and Democrat W. C. "Dan" Daniel 50-64 36 64 30 70 of the Fifth District-were unopposed, and 65 or over 37 63 28 72 Third District Republican Thomas J. Bliley, Occupation Jr. drew only a minor independent candidate Professional- as opposition. Bliley greatly outspent his Managerial 35 65 29 72 underfinanced challenger, and in fact all of White Collar 27 73 24 76 the congressional winners drew upon a larger warchest than their unsuccessful foes. Blue Collar 41 59 36 64 Overall, Republicans secured a comfort­ Labor Unions able majority (55.1 percent) of the congres­ Union Member 50 50 43 57 sional vote in party-contested districts in Non-union 32 68 27 73 Virginia. The GOP House candidates con­ Religiona sistently have amassed more votes than their Protestant 30 70 25 75 Democratic foes in party-contested districts Cat~olic 34 66 29 71 since 1966. Further, the 1984 totals show the Education Republicans rebounding from their relatively Less than High slim 52.4 percent to 46.3 percent edge over School Graduate 42 58 34 66 the Democrats in the midterm recession year of 1982, when Democrats picked up three High School Graduate 32 68 30 70 House seats. Unfortunately for the GOP, the Some College and Republican resurgence in 1984 was fairly College Gr duate 32 68 25 75 evenly distributed, and the proportionate More than College increase in votes did not translate into seat Graduate 45 55 39 61 gains. Annual Income Less than $20,000 46 54 40 60 CONCLUDING COMMENTS $20,001- $30,000 32 68 25 75 In contrast to some ofthe U.S. House races, $30,001- $40,000 33 67 28 72 the 1984 elections for president and U.S. More than $40,000 32 68 28 72 Senate in Virginia were among the least competitive in the state's post-Byrd Organ­ SOURCE: These figures are taken from the NBC News Election Day Exit Poll of Virginia. ization history. The Senate race was as A total of 2,550 Virginia voters were interviewed as they left their polling places on election day. The margin of error for the breakdowns shown in this table 2Parris had been elected with less than 50 percent of the vote is ab0ut plus or minus 3 percent. (due to multi-eandidate fields) in 1972, 1980, and 1982. He was aMembers of "other" religions are too few to include in the calculations shown here. defeated for re-election in 1974 and did not run in 1976 and 1978.

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Table 4 Voting in Selected Predominantly Black Precincts in Virginia Cities, 1984 General Election for President and U.S. Senator

Total Percent of Percent of Votes Cast for Number of Votes Registered President Senator City Precincts Cast Voting Mondale Reagan La Rouche Harrison Warner Black Precincts Charlottesvillea 1 1,026 69.4 81.1 18.6 0.3 63.0 37.0 Virginia Beachb 1 1,178 74.8 66.2 33.6 0.2 62.9 37.1 HamptonC 2 3,532 76.9 79.0 19.0 2.0 74.8 25.2

Newport Newsd 8 8,122 74.1 91.8 7.3 0.9 82.7 17.3 Norfolke 10 15,282 72.5 94.9 4.9 0.2 89.4 10.6 Portsmouthf 2 3,543 81.8 94.5 4.9 0.6 82.9 17.1

Richmondg 15 16,702 70.4 91.2 7.9 0.9 68.6 31.4 h Emporia . 1 387 38.8 90.5 7.7 1.9 68.6 31.4 Petersburgl 4 3,764 74.9 91.6 7.6 0.8 79.4 20.6

TOTALS 44 53,536 72.6 91.1 8.2 0.7 78.8 21.2

SOURCE: Official election results provided by the State Board of Elections. aFirehouse precinct bSeatack precinct cPhenix & Pembroke precincts dDunbar, Lee, Marshall, Chestnut, Jefferson, Huntington, Washington, and Newsome Park precincts. eprecincts 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 17, and 42. fprecincts 26 and 27. gPrecincts 301, 303, 304, 306, 602, 603, 604, 605,701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 707, and 801. hWard II. i5th Ward-lst precinct, 5th Ward-2nd precinct, 6th Ward-lst precinct, and 6th Ward-2nd precinct.

governor, or president has received a majority those with less than a high school education ford with 52.0 percent. As close as these of the white vote in Virginia. I (as well as those with more than an under­ results were, Olin and Boucher actually Reagan's support among various age graduate college degree), and those who made increased their winning percentages from groups was the reverse of the usual pattern: less than $20,000 annually. their 1982 showings of 49.7 percent and 50.4 the younger the voter, the more likely he or percent, respectively. Both Democrats out­ she was to vote Republican. (Warner's ELECTIONS FOR THE spent their GOP foes; and that factor, backing, in contrast, was spread evenly across HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES combined with incumbency, moderate voting the age spectrum.) All occupational categories records, and good constituency service over favored the GOP, blue collar workers The 1984 elections brought no change to the prior two years was sufficient to secure somewhat less so than others. the party line-up of Virginia's congressional second terms for them. Labor union members, presumably Mon­ delegation . Incumbents in nine districts were dale's strength, actually split their ballots reelected and a Republican, D. French None of the other cOQgressional contests evenly between the Democratic and Repub­ Slaughter, replaced retiring GOP Congress­ was nearly so close. In the eastern First lican presidential candidates, and Warner man J. Kenneth Robinson in the Piedmont District, freshman incumbent Republican secured 57 percent of their votes. The Seventh District. But this placid result Herbert Bateman easily won a rematch with Republicans also carried all religious, obscures the competitive battles that were Democrat John McGlennon, securing 59.1 educational, and income groups, although waged in six ofthe ten congressional districts. percent in 1984 compared with 53.9 percent their support was weaker among Catholics, In the Roanoke Sixth and the Southwest in his initial 1982 victory over McGlennon. Ninth districts, freshman Democrats James In the Piedmont-area Seventh District-the Olin and Rick Boucher were hard pressed state's most Republican-a heated and hard to survive the Reagan and Warner landslides fought campaign melted into a landslide for 'The last to do so was William B. Spong, Jr., in his successful in their districts. But the incumbents were Republican D. French Slaughter, as he general election contest for the U.S. Senate in 1966. But even beneficiaries of widespread ticket-splitting, defeated Democrat Lewis Costello by 56.5 Spong had received a minority of the white vote in that year's and Olin defeated former state Senator Ray percent to 40.2 percent (with conservative Democratic primary, when he upset incumbent A. Willis Robertson; and Spong subsequently was defeated for re~lection Garland with 53.5 percent of the vote, while independent Robert E. Frazier, Jr. receiving in 1972, when he received less than 40 percent of the white vote. Boucher bested Delegate C. Jefferson Staf- 3.3 percent). The moderate-conservative 35

improvement over Reagan's 3.4 percent in (72.6 percent of those registered) fell well smallest in this century, and the state's voter 1980. But John Warner posted an average below the state average of81.5 percent. Black turnout moved upwards muoo more substan­ 21.2 percent, about triple the 7.1 percent he turnout actually decreased proportionally tially than the minimal national gain of 0.3 gained in his initial 1978 Senate bid. Only from both its 75.4 percent mark in 1980 and percent. Virginia's gain in potential votes cast Linwood Holton (with 37.2 percent in his its 76.4 percent standard of 1976. White in 1984 (compared to the previous presidential successful 1977 race for attorney general) has turnout was up substantially in 1984, to election) was 3 percentage points; this was exceeded Warner's proportion of the black almost 84 percent ofregistered white voters­ second best among the fIfty states, coming vote among Republican candidates in modem fully 11 percent higher than black turnout. only after North Carolina's 4.1 percent times. Despite these black defections to the The increased participation of white voters increase. Since the percentage of registered Republicans, about a third of all the votes helped to fuel Virginia's best turnout ever. Virginia individuals actually voting in 1984 received by Mondale and Harrison statewide While the state's participation rate of 51.9 (81.5 percent) was approximately the same were cast by blacks. percent of the voting age population (age 18 as in 1980 (81.4 percent), the state's increased Not only was the black vote more bipar­ and over) still fell a bit below the national participation was a direct result of the tisan than usual, but black turnout in 1984 average of 52.9 percent, the gap was the vigorous efforts at new voter registration undertaken by the State Board of Elections, local registrars, and many political and religious groups. Table 3 Central City and Suburban Voting in Major Statewide Elections in Virginia, 1969-1984 DEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS While the margins were swollen, the pattern Percent for Wmner of Reagan's and Warner's support among Central voters resembles that of other recent success­ Election and Wmning Candidate Cities Suburbs ful GOP nominees. As Table 5 indicates, General Elections Reagan and Warner secured near-unanimous 1969 Governor, Linwood Holton (R) 50.9 56.5 support from Republican identifiers, and from about four-fIfths of the self-described 1970 U.S. Senator, Harry Byrd, Jr. (I)a 52.2 55.9 independents as well. Warner was about twice 1971 Lieutenant Governor, Henry Howell (I)a 50.6 39.8 as successful as Reagan in attracting Dem­ 1972 President, Richard Nixon (R) 60.3 70.1 ocratic crossover votes, with a quarter of all 1972 U.S. Senator, William Scott (R) 42.5 52.7 Democrats casting their ballots for Warner 1973 Governor, Mills Godwin (R) 43.2 54.6 and only 12 percent for Reagan. Overwhelm­ 1976 President, Gerald Ford (R) 43.6 53.9 ing support for the GOP candidates was 1976 U.S. Senator, Harry Byrd, Jr. (I) 51.4 55.9 evident among conservatives, as expected, but 1977 Governor, John Dalton (R) 47.9 59.9 moderates also sided decisively with the 1977 Lieutenant Governor, Chuck Robb (D) 61.2 51.1 Republicans in 1984. Amazingly, Warner garnered votes from nearly half (46 percent) 1977 Attorney General, Marshall Coleman (R) 47.7 56.6 ofthose who described themselves as liberals, U.S. Senator, John Warner (R) 45 4 53.7 1978 r and even Reagan won well over a third (37 1980 President, Ronald Reagan (R) 41.3 58.4 percent) of the liberal vote. 1981 Governor, Chuck Robb (D) 64.5 49.5 1981 Lieutenant Governor, Dick Davis (D) 67.2 52.3 A sizeable "gender gap" existed in Virginia 1981 Attorney General, Gerald Baliles (D) 62.7 45.4 in 1984, but both sides of the chasm were 1982 U.S. Senator, Paul Trible (R) 39.6 55.1 in the Republican camp. Reagan's support \984 President Ronald Reagan (R) 47.9 66.8 among men was about 9 percent greater than 1984 U.S. Senator, John Warner (R) 57.6 72.9 among women, but 60 percent of the women also backed him. Warner's "gender gap" was Democratic Party Elections a slightly smaller 7 percent, and fully two­ 1969 Governor, William Battle (first primary) 31.8 40.6 thirds of the women voting in 1984 chose the male Senate candidate over the first female 1969 Governor, William Battle (runoff) 40.7 51.2 candidate for the U.S. Senate in Virginia's 59.6 50.6 1977 Governor, Henry Howell history. 1977 Lieutenant Governor, Chuck Robba 35.0 39.1 a 1977 Attorney General, Edward E. Lane 37.8 32.0 As we saw earlier, blacks favored the Democratic candidates, but the mirror image of this result deserves attention, too: whites SOURCE: Calculated by the author from data supplied by the State Board of Elections. voted heavily Republican. Reagan received three-quarters of the white vote (and about NOTES: Party affiliations ofwinning general election candidates are abbreviated as follows: 80 percent of the white male vote). In the D =Democrat; R =Republican; I = Independent. Figures for the 1970 Democratic Senate race, whites actually voted more en primary for U.S. senator are not included in this table; voter turnout in that masse for Warner than blacks did for election was miniscule. Harrison; Warner won 79 percent ofthe white See also footnote "a" in Table 2. vote (and about 83 percent of the white male vote). It has been almost two decades now aElection involved three or more major contenders. since a Democratic nominee for senator, 38

lopsided as an election probably can be in campaign warchest (the most ample ever in last nine). Except in extraordinary circum­ the era of two-party competition. Harrison Virginia), Warner enjoyed wide popularity stances, Virginia can be safely counted in the was outspent by Warner, $500,000 to $2.4 and favorable evaluations of his job perfor­ GOP column on presidential election days. million; she was a liberal in a conservative mance. As a veteran, a former Secretary of From the outset of the 1984 campaign, it was state in a conservative year; while her sex the Navy, and the next-in-line to become almost inconceivable that Ronald Reagan was an asset in some ways (attracting free chairman of the Senate Armed Services could lose Virginia, or that a ticket as liberal media attention because of its novelty, for Committee, Warner was in a far better as Mondale-Ferraro could carry the state. example), more than one-third ofthose polled position than Harrison to appeal to military­ These assumptions were clearly borne out in on election day by NBC news admitted to minded Virginia; and, of course, Warner November, to the delight of Republicans and a belief that "Virginia was not ready for a benefitted from the same Republican "era of the chagrin of Democrats in the Old Domin­ woman senator"; and she was little known, good feelings" (generated by a robust ion. For both groups, it was merely another without any real electoral base, having been economy and other conditions) that catapult­ chorus in an increasingly familiar electoral defeated in 1982 for reelection to the state ed Reagan to a landslide reelection. tune heard since 1952, when Dwight Eisen­ House of Delegates from Norfolk. hower began the almost unbroken string of Warner had his own substantial advan­ Mondale's crushing defeat stretched the modern GOP presidential victories in tages. In addition to his moderate­ Republican string of presidential victories in Virginia. conservatism, his incumbency, and a lavish Virginia to five in a row (and eight of the

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VIRGINIA VOTES 1979-1982, by Larry Sabato. This volume, the fourth in a continuing series, provides an analysis of major Virginia elections during these years. A set of appendix tables includes official election results, by individual city and county, for five of these elections, as well as two special elections on constitutional referendums. $7.50.

VIRGINIA GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS: READINGS AND COMMENTS, edited by Thomas R. Morris and Larry Sabato. This book of readings is a completely revised version of the original work, published by the Institute in 1976. The anthology, which includes many articles originally published in this News Letter, will be valuable to classroom teachers and college-level government classes, as well as anyone who desires a comprehensive picture of government in Virginia. $12.48.

REGULATORY DECISION MAKING: THE VIRGINIA STATE CORPORATION COMMISSION, by Laurence 0700le and Robert Montjoy. The decision-making process of the Virginia State Corporation Commission (SCC) is examined with an emphasis on the interaction between the SCC and the state legislature. Two case studies are included in the volume, as are comparisons with similar regulatory agencies in selected other states. (Hardbound) $32.50.

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