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Home , City map, Cosmas Indicopleustes, Farnese Atlas, Gautier de Metz, Geography (Ptolemy), George Kish

THE HISTORY OF

VOLUME ONE EDITORIAL ADVISORS

Luis de Albuquerque J. H. Andrews David B. Quinn J6zef Babicz Maria Luisa Righini Bonellit Marcel Destombest Walter W. Ristow o. A. W. Dilke Arthur H. Robinson L. A. Goldenberg Avelino Teixeira da Motat George Kish Helen M. Wallis Cornelis Koeman Lothar Z6gner tDeceased

THE

1 Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval and the Mediterranean

2 Cartography in the Traditional Asian Societies 3 Cartography in the Age of and Discovery

4 Cartography in the Age of Science, Enlightenment, and Expansion 5 Cartography in the Nineteenth Century 6 Cartography in the Twentieth Century THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME ONE

Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean

Edited by J. B. HARLEY and DAVID WOODWARD

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS • CHICAGO & J. B. Harley is professor of at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, formerly Montefiore Reader in Geography at the University of . David Woodward is professor of geography at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1987 by The University ofChicago Allrights reserved. Published 1987 Printed in the ofAmerica 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 8 7 654

This work is supported in part by grants from the Division of Research Programs of the National Endowment for the Humanities, an independent federal agency

Additional funds were contributed by The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation The National Geographic Society The Hermon Dunlap Smith Center for the History of Cartography, The Newberry Library The Johnson Foundation The Luther I. Replogle Foundation The British Academy and the following individuals Richard B. Arkway John T. Monckton Joe C. W. Armstrong Mr. and Mrs. Kenneth Nebenzahl Clive A. Burden Rear Admiral G. S. Ritchie Gerald F. Fitzgerald Walter E. Scott Peter J. Guthorn Richard H. Sigel Arthur Holzheimer Mrs. L. M. C. Smith Mr. and Mrs. Roderick Webster

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

The history of cartography.

Bibliography: p. Includes index. Contents: v.I. Cartography in prehistoric, ancient, and medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. 1. Cartography--History. I. Harley, J. B. (John Brian) II. Woodward, David, 1942- GA201.H53 1987 526'.09 86 6995 ISBN: 0-226-31633-5 (Vol. 1) 0-226-31635-1 (Vol. 2, Book 1) 0-226-31637-8 (Vol. 2, Book 2)

§ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements ofthe American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI 239.48-1992. Contents

List of Illustrations IX PART Two Cartography in Ancient Europe and the Mediterranean 103 Preface xv J. B. Harley and David Woodward 5 Cartography in the Ancient World: An Introduction 105 1 The and the Development of the History of o. A. W. Dilke Cartography 1 The Historical Importance of the Map Renaissance to Enlightenment: The Early Antecedents 6 Cartography in the Ancient Near East 107 of the History of Cartography Babylonian Geographical Knowledge The History of Cartography as Handmaiden: Babylonian Mensuration and Calculation Traditional Themes from the Nineteenth Century Babylonian Plans The Growth of a Scholarly Identity Babylonian Small- J. B. Harley Celestial Geography Cartographic Knowledge in and Palestine A. R. Millard

7 Egyptian Cartography 117 Topographical Drawing and Religious Cartography PART ONE Cartography in Prehistoric Europe and the Turin Map of the Gold Mines Mediterranean 43 Land Survey, Cadastral Maps, and Building Plans 2 Prehistoric Maps and the History of Cartography: A. F. Shore An Introduction 45 Catherine Delano Smith 8 The Foundations of Theoretical Cartography in Archaic and Classical 130 3 The Origins of Cartography 50 Circular Maps and the Flat : and G. Malcolm Lewis His Successors in the Sixth Century B.C. The Impact of New Theories on Cartography from the Sixth to the Fourth Century B.C.: , 4 Cartography in the Prehistoric Period in the Old , and Democritus World: Europe, the Middle East, and North Theory into Practice: New Celestial and Maps 54 in the Fourth Century B.C. Prehistoric Maps and Historians of Cartography Prepared by the editors from materials supplied by The Source Material and Its Interpretation Germaine Aujac Recognition of Topographical Maps by Antiquarians in European Rock Art 9 The Growth of an Empirical Cartography in The Classification of Prehistoric Maps from Europe, the Hellenistic Greece 148 Middle East, and in the Prehistoric and Discovery in the Reform of the World Period Map Topographical Maps The Measurement of the Earth and the by Celestial Maps Cosmological Maps The Dissemination of Cartographic Knowledge Conclusion Prepared by the editors from materials supplied by Catherine Delano Smith Germaine Aujac

v VI Contents

10 Greek Cartography in the Early Roman World 14 Itineraries and Geographical Maps in the Early 161 and Late Roman Empires 234 Continuity and Change in Theoretical Cartography: Itineraries and the Peutinger Map Polybius, Crates, and The Geographical Manuscripts and Maps and Globes in Education Their Maps The Map of the Inhabited World Recommended by Maps as Decorative and Symbolic Images The Use of Maps in the Roman Period Prepared by the editors from materials supplied by O. A. W. Dilke Germaine Aujac

11 The Culmination of Greek Cartography in 15 Cartography in the 258 177 Roman Influences: The Theodosian Map and the Updating the World Map: Ptolemy's Criticism of Ravenna Marinus of Tyre Religious Cartography: Cosmas Indicopleustes and the Ptolemy's Instructions for Mapmaking Map Mosaics The Celestial in the The Greek Revival and Ptolemy's Geography The Climata in the Almagest The Greek Manuscripts of Ptolemy's Geography The Geography O. A. W. Dilke with additional material supplied by Size and Dimensions of the Inhabited World in the the editors Geography Map Projections 16 Cartography in the Ancient World: A Ptolemy as a Mapmaker: The Tables of Coordinates Conclusion 276 Cartographic Insights from Ptolemy's : The O. A. W. Dilke Coordinates and the Regional Maps Ptolemy's Topography in the Coordinates and Maps: General Considerations Ptolemy's Coordinates: The Examples of the British PART THREE Cartography in Medieval Europe and the Isles and Mediterranean 281 Ptolemy's Maps: Some Regional Examples 17 Medieval Maps: An Introduction 283 O. A. W. Dilke with additional material supplied by P. D. A. Harvey the editors

18 Medieval Mappaemundi 286 12 Maps in the Service of the State: Roman The Context and Study of Mappaemundi Cartography to the End of the Augustan Map and Text Era 201 Terms Etruscan Beginnings Realism versus Symbolism Geographical and Cadastral Maps from the Republican Relationship of Mappaemundi to Other Medieval Period Maps Geographical Maps Problems in the Study of Mappaemundi Agrippa's World Map Classification Systems Cadastral Maps Main Periods of Mappaemundi O. A. W. Dilke Macrobius to Isidore: The Late Greco-Roman and Patristic Period Bede to Lambert of Saint-Orner 13 Roman Large-Scale Mapping in the Early Henry of Mainz to Richard of Haldingham Empire 212 to Fra Mauro: The Transitional Survey Methods of the Agrimensores Period to 1460 The Corpus Agrimensorum Themes in the Study of Mappaemundi The Cadasters of Arausio Form Large-Scale Town Maps: The Forma Urbis Romae Content and Meaning Engineering Plans for and Aqueducts Conclusions O. A. W. Dilke David Woodward Contents Vll

19 Portolan Charts from the Late Thirteenth Century The Isolarii: Buondelmonti's Liber Insularum Arcipelagi to 1500 371 Other Local Maps Introduction Purpose and Use The Origin and Compilation of the Portolan Charts and Mapping Drafting Itinerary Maps and the Development of Maps Drawn Stylistic Content to Scale Hydrographic Development P. D. A. Harvey Toponymic Development The Business of Chartmaking 21 Concluding Remarks 502 The Function of the Portolan Charts Gaps and Discontinuities Conclusions Cognitive Transformations Tony Campbell Social Contexts J. B. Harley and David Woodward 20 Local and Regional Cartography in Medieval Europe 464 List of Contributors 511 Scope and Characteristics Origins and Development Bibliographical Index 513 Maps of Palestine and Its Maps of Italian Cities General Index 559 Northern Italian District Maps Jeffrey Pinkham

Illustrations With Tables and Appendixes

COLOR PLATES 38 Itinerary map of Matthew (Following page 106) 39 by 1 The Star Fresco from Teleilat Ghassul, Jordan 40 The Gough map, ca. 1360 2 Map in the Book of the Two Ways 3 The Thera fresco 4 Fresco from the Boscoreale villa, near Pompeii 5 The Peutinger map: 6 The Notitia Dignitatum: Britain 7 The Madaba mosaic map 8 Jerusalem on the Madaba mosaic map FIGURES 9 Map of the inhabited world from a thirteenth­ 4.1 Principal areas and sites associated with century Byzantine manuscript of Ptolemy's prehistoric rock art in the 56 Geography 4.2 The prehistoric and historical time scale 57 10 Emperor Charles IV with orb 4.3 The Rajum Hani' stone 61 11 Orb in the Last Judgment 4.4 Elements in a modern topographical map 62 12 The three sons of Noah 4.5 Cup-and-ring marks from Northumberland 13 The Beatus map from the Silos Apocalypse 65 14 The Duchy of mappamundi 4.6 Kesslerloch bone plaques 65 15 Higden's mappamundi: Oval type, mid­ 4.7 Kesslerloch lignite ornament 65 fourteenth century 4.8 "Topographical figures" from Mont Bego 67 16 Vesconte's mappamundi, 1321 4.9 Picture with possible map elements from 17 Western Europe in the Catalan Penalsordo, Badajoz, 69 18 The Fra Mauro map 4.10 Rock paintings from La Pileta, Malaga, 19 Mappamundi of Pirrus de Noha Spain 69 20 Mappamundi of Giovanni Leardo, 1448 4.11 Picture with possible map elements from I-n­ 21 The world map of Andreas Walsperger Eten, Tassili , Algeria 70 22 The "Anglo-Saxon" map 4.12 Picture with possible map elements from the 23 An extended "normal-portolano" Tassili Mountains, Algeria 70 24 The 1439 Valseca chart 4.13 Picture with possible map elements: Side 4 of 25 A contemporary derivative of a the Borno stone from Valcamonica 71 26 A Catalan chart in the Italian style 4.14 Paleolithic engraving on mammoth bone 71 27 An Italian chart in the Catalan style 4.15 The Tepe Gawra (Iraq) Jar 72 28 Representation of the Madonna and Child 4.16 Picture map on the Tepe Gawra (Iraq) 29 flags Landscape Jar 72 30 The Carte Pisane 4.17 Picture map: The "Great Disk" from Talat 31 Portrait of a chartmaker N'Iisk, Morocco 73 32 The wheel diagram from the 4.18 Picture map on the silver vase from Maikop, 33 Rome from an undated manuscript of 73 Ptolemy's Geography 4.19 Picture map: The Neolithic wall painting from 34 Map of the district around Verona <::atal Hiiyiik, Turkey 74 35 Plan of the Isle of Thanet, Kent 4.20 Petroglyph map from Val Fontanalba, Mont 36 A portion of the boundary of the Duchy of Bego 74 Burgundy, 1460 4.21 Petroglyph map from Val Fontanalba, Mont 37 Map of Inclesmoor, Bego 74

IX x Illustrations

4.22 Noncartographic petroglyph from Val 7.1 The main dynasties and periods of Egyptian Fontanalba, Mont Bego 75 history 118 4.23 Simple topographical map from Seradina, 7.2 Rudimentary topographic designs on Egyptian Italy 75 decorated pottery 118 4.24 Photograph of Capo di Ponte, Valcamonica 7.3 Plan of an Egyptian garden 119 76 7.4 Sekhet-Hetepet, or the "Fields of Peace" 119 4.25 Simple topographical map from Ponte San 7.5 Cosmographical map: The land of with Rocco, Italy 77 the goddess Nut 120 4.26 The "Skin Hill Village" map from Val 7.6 Celestial map of the planets, , Fontanalba, Mont Bego 77 and zodiac 121 4.27 The "Monte Bego Village" 77 7.7 Map of gold mines from the Turin papyrus 4.28 Composite petroglyph map from Bedolina, 122 Valcamonica 79 7.8 The second section of the Turin papyrus 124 4.29 Petroglyph map from Giadighe, 7.9 Plan of Egyptian tomb from the Valley of the Valcamonica 79 Kings 126 4.30 The Clapier rock, Italy 80 7.10 Papyrus plan of Egyptian tomb 127 4.31 The limestone sculpture from Tarxien, 7.11 Architectural drawing from D"ir al-Ba1)r"i 127 Malta 81 7.12 Schematic plan of dikes and canals in the 4.32 Cup marks on stones at Venslev, Denmark Faiyum 128 82 7.13 Plan of canal and palisade 129 4.33 Cup marks on stones at Dalby, Denmark 83 8.1 Reconstruction of the shield of Achilles from 4.34 The "Star Stone" from Tal Qadi, Malta 84 's Iliad 131 4.35 Celestial ladders 86 8.2 Principal places associated with maps in the 4.36 Tree of Life representations 87 Greek world 133 4.37 Cosmographical sign on the Bagnolo stone 8.3 The Aegean (detail of fig. 8.2) 133 88 8.4 Minor from the third century B.C. (detail 4.38 Cosmological map on a predynastic bowl of fig. 8.2) 133 from Egypt 89 8.5 Reconstruction of the world according to 4.39 Labyrinthlike rock painting from North Hecataeus 135 Africa 90 8.6 Reconstruction of 's spindle of 4.40 Cosmological painting from the Magourata necessity 138 cave, 90 8.7 Mine diagram from Thorikos, Attica 139 4.41 The Triora stela 90 8.8 The celestial circles 141 4.42 Cosmological map: The gold disk from 8.9 Reconstruction of of observer 141 Moordorf 91 8.10 The Farnese Atlas 142 6.1 Principal places associated with maps in the 8.11 Detail of the Farnese Atlas 143 ancient Near East 108 8.12 Cosmas's schematic representation of the 6.2 The Gudea statue, ca. 2141-2122 B.C. 109 earth 144 6.3 The tablet on the Gudea statue 109 8.13 's concept of the position and shape 6.4 Fragment of a , probably of the inhabited world 145 110 8.14 Aristotle's system of the 145 6.5 Fragment of a city map of Uruk 111 8.15 The "ever-visible circle" at 66°N (a) and at 6.6 Fragment of a city plan, possibly Tfibu 111 24°N (b) 146 6.7 Plan of Nippur, ca. 1500 B.C. 112 9.1 Pytheas's observation of the latitude of 6.8 Plan of fields from Nippur, ca. 1500 B.C. Marseilles 151 113 9.2 Reconstructed world map of , 6.9 Map of Sippar and its surroundings, first third century B.C. 153 millennium B.C. 113 9.3 Timosthenes' system of the winds 153 6.10 The Babylonian world map, ca. 600 B.C. 9.4 Eratosthenes' measurement of the earth 155 114 9.5 The chlamys 156 6.11 Clay tablet map excavated at Yorgan Tepe 9.6 Reconstruction of Eratosthenes' Sphragides 114 157 6.12 The Louvre tablet map 115 9.7 Ionian coin map 158 Illustrations Xl

10.1 Polybius's estimate of the length of the 13.7 Miniature of the centuriation around western Mediterranean 162 Tarracina, Italy 218 10.2 Reconstruction of the globe of Crates of 13.8 Miniature of the centuriation around Mallos, ca. 150 B.C. 163 Minturnae, Italy 219 10.3 Coin of Lucius Aemilius Buca, 44 B.C. 164 13.9 Miniature of the centuriation around 10.4 The lion of Commagene 166 Hispellum, Italy 219 10.5 The of 167 13.10 Ager Arcifinius 220 10.6 Theodosius's figure of a 168 13.11 A ground plan from the Corpus 10.7 Distances between the parallel circles Agrimensorum 221 according to Geminus 170 13.12 Miniature from the Corpus Agrimensorum 10.8 The reconstructed world of Dionysius 221 Periegetes, A.D. 124 172 13.13 Adjacent centuriation schemes 221 10.9 The shape of the inhabited world 13.14 The mapping of smallholdings 221 reconstructed from Strabo 175 13.15 The probable layout of Orange Cadaster A 11.1 Marinus's projection reconstructed from 222 Ptolemy's description 180 13.16 Fragment 7 of Orange Cadaster A 223 11.2 Ptolemy's instructions for constructing a star 13.17 The probable layout of Orange Cadaster B globe 182 224 11.3 A reconstruction of the world of Claudius 13.18 Reassembled plaque III Jfrom Orange Ptolemy 184 Cadaster B 224 11.4 Ptolemy's first projection 187 13.19 Orange Cadaster C 225 11.5 Ptolemy's second projection 187 13.20 Fragment of a Roman plan 225 11.6 Ptolemy's third projection 188 13.21 Plan of Roman baths 226 11.7 Ptolemy's third projection as seen by the 13.22 The "Urbino plan" 227 observer 188 13.23 Vignettes from the Casae litterarum 228 11.8 Britain according to Ptolemy 193 13.24 The Isola Sacra fragment 229 11.9 The Mull of Galloway in different versions of 13.25 Forma Urbis Romae 229 Ptolemy 194 13.26 The Ludus Magnus on the Forma Urbis 11.10 Britain represented as an obtuse-angled Romae 230 triangle 194 13.27 Aqueduct arches on the Forma Urbis 11.11 The Ptolemaic map of Italy 195 Romae 230 11.12 Comparison of Ptolemaic and modern 13.28 The Cisiarii mosaic, Ostia 231 coordinates of towns on the Via Aemilia, 13.29 Heron's technique for tunneling through a northern Italy 196 hillside 232 11.13 Centuriation in the Po valley around Parma 14.1 Principal places associated with itineraries and and Reggio Emilia 196 geographical maps from the 12.1 Principal places associated with maps in 235 ancient Italy and 202 14.2 The Peutinger map: Minor and 12.2 The Bronze Liver of Piacenza 203 Egypt 240 12.3 The Bronze Liver of Piacenza, side view 204 14.3 The Peutinger map: The eastern 12.4 Caesar's edict on the Hereford world map Mediterranean 241 206 14.4 Town signs on the Peutinger map 240 12.5 The stone "map of " from the Roman 14.5 The Notitia Dignitatum: Lower Egypt 245 camp at Mauchamp, 207 14.6 A sesterce of Nero showing Ostia harbor 12.6 The inscription on the Tusculum aqueduct 246 211 14.7 The Ostia River mosaic 247 13.1 The method of numbering centuries 213 14.8 The Pesaro -rose map 249 13.2 Inscription on a Roman surveyor's 14.9 The map on the Dura Europos shield 250 tombstone 213 14.10 Principal place-names from the Dura Europos 13.3 Reconstruction of a groma 214 shield 250 13.4 A portable sundial, disassembled 215 14.11 Plan on a Roman lamp 251 13.5 A portable sundial, assembled 215 14.12 Labyrinth designs on Cretan coins 251 13.6 Roman areal units 216 15.1 The universe of Cosmas Indicopleustes 262 xu Illustrations

15.2 The world according to Cosmas 18.36 Prester John 333 Indicopleustes 263 18.37 T-O map with tau cross 334 15.3 The Nicopolis mosaic 264 18.38 The symbolism of the number four 335 15.4 The Beth-Alpha mosaic 267 18.39 Diagram of the elements from Isidore 337 15.5 according to Eustathius of Byzantium 18.40 Leardo world map, 1452 338 268 18.41 The mosaic of the goddess Fortuna 339 18.1 "Jerome" map of Asia 289 18.42 The twelfth-century world map of Henry of 18.2 Christ's head in the Ebstorf map 291 Mainz 341 18.3 Christ's left hand in the Ebstorf map 291 Figures 18.43-18.79 comprise a graphic index 18.4 The tripartite type of mappamundi 297 characterizing the various types of 18.5 The zonal type of mappamundi 297 mappaemundi discussed. 18.6 The quadripartite type of mappamundi 297 18.43 Isidore T-O map 343 18.7 The transitional type of mappamundi 297 18.44 Sallust T-O map, west orientation 344 18.8 Extant mappaemundi: Absolute numbers by 18.45 Sallust T-O map, south orientation 344 category from the eighth to the fifteenth 18.46 Sallust T-O map, Africa as the largest century 298 continent 344 18.9 Extant mappaemundi: Relative numbers by 18.47 Sallust T-O map with truncated rivers 344 category from the eighth to the fifteenth 18.48 Gautier de Metz T-O map 345 century 298 18.49 Miscellaneous T-O map, Y-O variant 346 18.10 The Macrobian model of mappamundi 300 18.50 Miscellaneous T-0 map, symmetrical rivers 18.11 Isidorian T-O map 302 346 18.12 Isidorian T-O map with the of Azov 302 18.51 Miscellaneous T-0 map, modified river 18.13 Isidorian T-O map with the fourth 346 continent 303 18.52 Miscellaneous T-O map, high crossbar 346 18.14 Mappamundi from Isidore 303 18.53 Reverse T-O map 347 18.15 General stemma for the large Beatus maps 18.54 Y-O map with 347 305 18.55 V-in-square map 347 18.16 The treatise of Sacrobosco 307 18.56 The Albi map 348 18.17 The Vercelli map 308 18.57 The "Anglo-Saxon" map 348 18.18 The Vercelli map: Detail of Philip 309 18.58 Mappamundi by Matthew Paris 349 18.19 The Ebstorf map 310 18.59 The Henry of Mainz world map 349 18.20 The Hereford map, ca. 1290 311 18.60 The Hereford map, ca. 1290 350 18.21 General stemma for the extant world maps of 18.61 Orosian-Isidorian mappamundi 350 Ranulf Higden 313 18.62 Mappamundi by Guido of Pisa, 1119 350 18.22 A Higden world map: Mandorla type, mid­ 18.63 The Psalter map, thirteenth century 350 fourteenth century 313 18.64 The fragment 351 18.23 A scale on a mappamundi 314 18.65 The Ebstorf map 351 18.24 Sketch from the Vienna-Klosterneuburg 18.66 Cosmas Indicopleustes' map from the corpus 317 351 18.25 Paradise on a Higden world map 319 18.67 Higden's oval mappamundi 352 18.26 Isidore's view of the earth's five zones 321 18.68 Higden's circular mappamundi 352 18.27 Demonstration of the earth's sphericity in the 18.69 Higden's mandorla-shaped mappamundi 353 thirteenth century 321 18.70 Macrobian zonal mappamundi 354 18.28 Reconstruction of 's map 18.71 Zonal mappamundi by Lambert of Saint­ projection 322 Orner 354 18.29 An eleventh-century graph 323 18.72 Zonal mappamundi by William of Conches 18.30 Map on vellum showing repair 325 354 18.31 The rivers of paradise 329 18.73 Zonal mappamundi by Petrus Alphonsus 18.32 The Nile as an extension of the four rivers of 355 paradise 330 18.74 Tripartite/zonal mappamundi 355 18.33 Descendants of Noah 331 18.75 Quadripartite mappamundi: Beatus type 355 18.34 Cynocephali on the Borgia map 332 18.76 Vesconte's mappamundi 355 18.35 The wall about the kingdom of Magog 333 18.77 The Catalan atlas, [1375] 356 Illustrations XlII

18.78 Mappamundi from the Vienna-Klosterneuburg 20.15 The district of Padua 480 school 357 20.16 Map of Italy, ca. 1320 481 18.79 Mappamundi showing Ptolemaic influence 20.17 Corfu by Cristoforo Buondelmonti 483 357 20.18 Cos by Cristoforo Buondelmonti 483 19.1 Physical characteristics of a portolan atlas 20.19 Principal places in associated with 376 medieval local maps 484 19.2 Major place-names on medieval portolan 20.20 Plan of Clenchwarton, Norfolk 485 charts 379 20.21 Principal places in the Low Countries 19.3 A chart in an intermediate style 394 associated with medieval local maps 486 19.4 Scale bar on an early portolan chart 395 20.22 Map of the Picardy-Netherlands border, 19.5 rose from the Catalan atlas 396 1357 487 19.6 from the 1492 chart of Jorge 20.23 Map of part of Overflakkee, South Holland de Aguiar 396 487 19.7 Rhumb line centers 397 20.24 The lower ScheIdt, 1468 488-89 19.8 Genoa and Venice in a fourteenth-century 20.25 Principal places in Central Europe and Italy calendar diagram 398 associated with medieval local and regional 19.9 Paleographic comparison (1) 402 maps 490 19.10 Paleographic comparison (2) 403 20.26 Map of the county of Gapen~ais 491 19.11 The Cortona chart 405 20.27 Talamone harbor, 1306 492 19.12 The changing configuration of the (1) 408 19.13 The changing configuration of the British Isles (2) 408 19.14 The changing configuration of the British Isles (3) 408 TABLES 19.15 The changing configuration of the British Isles (4) 409 10.1 Posidonius's terrestrial zones 169 19.16 by Bianco 409 11.1 Selected Greek manuscripts of Ptolemy's 19.17 The address to the reader on the 1403 Beccari Geography 192 chart 428 12.1 Ancient measurements for Sicily in Roman 19.18 A timely postscript on a portolan chart 436 miles 209 19.19 Istria in the Medici atlas 439 18.1 Comparison of the main features of 19.20 A toleta 442 classification of mappaemundi 295 19.21 The on the 1409 chart of Albertin 18.2 Proposed classification of mappaemundi 295 de Virga 445 18.3 Dates of translation of the main Greek and 19.22 A whaling scene 446 manuscripts of cartographic interest 19.23 A combined lunar calendar and Easter table into Latin 306 from a portolan atlas 447 18.4 Survey of representational styles of selected 20.1 Rosselli's map of , ca. 1485 465 medieval maps 327 20.2 Plan of the Holy Sepulcher 467 18.5 List of the main semimythical races found on 20.3 The plan of Saint Gall 468 mappaemundi 331 20.4 Plan of Cathedral and its priory 18.6 The number four and its symbolic association 469 with medieval mappaemundi 336 20.5 Plan of a water supply 470 19.1 Flags and chartmakers' response to political 20.6 Map of an area near Sluis, Zeeland 471 change 400 20.7 Plan from Winchester College 472 19.2 The cartographic record of the western coast 20.8 Plan of Vienna and Bratislava 474 of Africa 412 20.9 Jerusalem 475 19.3 Significant place-name additions from dated 20.10 Palestine 475 works applied to undated and charts 20.11 Palestine by Vesconte 476 416 20.12 Bird's-eye view of Rome 477 19.4 Adriatic names between Otranto and Vlore 20.13 Verona 479 (Valona) on the three relevant sheets of the 20.14 Map of Lombardy 480 Medici atlas 448 XIV Illustrations

ApPENDIXES 19.2 Biographical index to the atlases and charts produced up to 1500 449 4.1 List of prehistoric maps 93 19.3 Atlases and charts known by name 459 4.2 Short list of prehistoric landscape figures 97 19.4 Chronological index of the atlases and charts 8.1 Definitions of some basic terms relating to the produced up to 1500 460 celestial sphere 146 19.5 Methodology of the toponymic analysis 461 15.1 Greek manuscripts of Ptolemy'S Geography 20.1 Chronological list of local maps from 272 northern Italy before 1500 498 18.1 Reference guide to types of mappaemundi 20.2 Chronological list of local maps and plans 343 from England before 1500 498 18.2 Chronological list of major medieval 20.3 Chronological list of local maps and plans mappaemundi, A.D. 300-1460 359 from the Low Countries before 1500 499 19.1 Calendars as a guide to dating: The case of the Medici and Pinelli-Walckenaer atlases 446