4.12 WERNER- WESLEY the development of the school, whi ch rose to be one of the cen­ Czech., on April 15, 1880. H e studied phi losophy and psychology tres of scientific learning in Europe. He died at Freiberg on at Prague and Berlin and received his Ph.D. smnma cum, la 1tde June 30, 1817. from Wifrzburg in 1904. He taught at Frankfurt and then at Ber­ One of the di stinguishing features of Werner's teaching was lin , returning to Frank furt in 1929 to accept the chair in psychol­ the care with ·which he taught lithology and the succession of ogy. In 1933 he moved to the Uni ted States, joining the New geological formations ; a subject to which he applied the name Scho ol fo r Social Research in New York City, where he held a geognosy. His views on a definite geological succession were in­ professorship until hi s death on Oct. 12, 1943 . spired by the wo rks of J. G. Lehmann and G. C. Fuchsel ( 17 22- Wertheimer's profound influence on psychology came mainly 73) . He showed that the rocks of the earth foll ow each other in through hi s many devoted students. His writings ranged widely, a certain definite order. He had never traveled, and the sequence including such field s as the psychology of perception and of think­ of rock-masses which he had recognized in Saxony was believed ing, crime detection , musicology, and philosophical problems of by him to be of universal appli cation. He taught that the rocks logic, ethics, and truth. His 1912 paper on apparent movement were precipitates of a primeval ocean, and fol lowed each other in launched the Gestalt school, whi ch he, with Wolfgang Kohler , Kurt successive deposits of worldwide extent. Volcanoes were regarded Koffka (qq.v. ) , and others, made one of the major approaches of by him as abnormal phenomena, probably clue to the combustion modern psychology (see further GESTALT PSYCHO LOGY) . of subterranean beds of coal. Basalt and similar rocks, already See Edwin B. Newman, "Max Wertheim er ( 1880- 1943 ) ," Ain. J. recognized by other observers as of igneous origin , he believed Psycho!., 57:42 8-435 (1944); R. J. Hcrrnstein and E.G. Boring (eds.), to be water-formed accumulations of the same ancient ocean. Source Booh in the History of Psychology ( 1965). (M. M . WR.) Hence arose one of the great historical controversies of geology, WESEL, a town of West Germany, in the Dusseldorf admin­ Werner's fo llowers, known as neptunists, preaching the now ob­ istrative di strict of the Land (state) of N orth Rhine-Westphalia solete doctrine that all rocks were formed by precipitation from (Nordrhein-Westfalen) , Federal R epubli c of Germany. P op. water; their opponents, plutonists, stressing the important part ( 1961) 32,002. Lying on the Rhine, the Lippe, and the Lippe taken in the construction of the earth's crust by subterranean branch canal, Wesel has for centuries been an important trade and heat (see GEOLOGY: D evelopment of the Science). shi pping centre (it was a member of the Hanseatic League from Though much of Werner's theoretical work was erroneous, sci­ 1407), and it has large harbour install ations as well as ma ny in­ ence is indebted to him for so clearly demonstrating the chrono­ dustri al plants and other business enterprises. The town was logical succession of rocks. granted municipal status in 1241. P eter Minuit, the first gov­ WERNER, ALFRED (1 866- 1919), French-Swiss chemist, ernor of New York (New Netherland), wa s born there about 15 00. won the 191 3 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work based on hi s co­ From 1680 to 191 8 Wesel was a Brandenburg-Prussian garrison ordination theory of valency. He was born at Mulhouse, in Al­ town. Wesel was almost completely destroyed by air raids during sace, on Dec. 12 , 1866 . In 1886 he went to Zi.irich to study and World War II. It has since been rebuilt as a modern city, its new later worked there with Georg Lunge and in Paris with Marcelin architectural di stinction being crowned by the Municipal Play- Berthelot. In 1893 he returned to Zurich where he taught chem­ house completed in 195 8. (H . KK. ) istry until his death on Nov. 15, 1919. WESER, one of the chief rivers of Germany, 296 mi. (47i Werner's earliest wo rk was with Arthur Hantzsch (q.v.) on km .) long, rising in central Germany to flow generally northward the stereochemistry of the oximes (q.v.) . His greatest contri bu­ and discharge into the North Sea at Bremerhaven. Bremen (q.v. ) , tion, the coordination theory (see CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS; the country's second largest port (after H amburg) , is on the VALENCE: W erner's Co-ordina.tion Theory), was put forward in Weser, 65 mi. ( 105 km .) from its mouth. 1893 . Werner stated that he awoke one day at 2 A.M. as the The Weser proper originates at Mi.inden (about ten miles below theory flashed into hi s co nsciousness and by 5 P.M . had worked Kassel, in the Land of Hesse) by the union of its heads treams, out its essential features. The theory not only provided a sim­ the Werra and the Fulda. The W erra ri ses in the southwestern ple method of classifying complex inorganic compounds but also slopes of the Thuringer Wald and first flow s northwest , then cuts brought to light unsuspected cases of isomerism, including com­ across the highlands of the Thuringer Wald before resuming its pounds whose optical activity is due to elements other than car­ northwesterly course. The Fulda, ri sing on the northern slopes bon. He and his students prepared numerous new series of com­ of the Hohe Rhiin, flo ws northward through a zone of wooded pounds and fitted them into the new system, and he wrote two limestone and sandstone uplands, passing by the small town of textbooks and more than 150 technical papers. Although Werner's Fulda and the large city of Kassel. Below Munden the Weser pur­ views had to be modified sli ghtly, they may be said to underlie sues a winding course through cultivated lowlands a nd wooded the modern development of inorganic chemistry, since they de­ hills till it cuts through the ridge of the Wiehen-Wesergebirge by parted from inadequate theories of structure based on the study the Gap of Minden on the Porta Westfalica (W estphalian Gate) . of carbon compounds and prepared the way for the much broader There, at Minden, it enters the N orthern Lowland. It crosses the electronic theory of valency. Werner deserves to be ranked with heath and boglands in a wide floodplain to Bremen and then en­ Friedrich Kekule as an originator of structure theory. ters its long, narrow estuary before reaching l3remerhaven (q.v.) . BrnLIOGRAPIIY.- Obituary notice by G. T. Morgan in J. Chem. Soc. Its chi ef tributary in the northern lowlands is the Aller (with the ( 1920) ; K. A. Hofmann, B erichte der deutschen chemischen Gesell­ Leine), which drains the country around Brunswick and H anover. schaft (1920) ; P. Karrer, H elvetica chimica acta (1920); P. Pfeiffer The Geeste enters the Weser at Bremerhaven. in J. Chem. Educ. (1928). (R. E. O.; X.) The Weser has a winter maximum and summer minimum fl ow, WERNIGERODE, a town of East Germany, a regional cap­ and its course is meandering and varying in depth. It is navigable ital in the Bezirll (di stri ct) of Magdeburg, German Democratic for 1,000-ton barges to Munden, and improvements are p lanned Republic, li es at the northern foot of the Harz Mountains about that will make it possible for barges of this size to reach Kassel. 50 mi. (80 km.) SW of Magdeburg. Pop. (1 964) 32 ,676. It is a The Mittelland Canal (q. v.), carrying barges up to 1,000 tons, health resort and vacation centre and is dominated by the castle, provides connections with the Ems, Rhine, and E lbe waterways. which contains a fe udal museum. Many old timber-framed build­ At Bremerhaven the river is just over a mi le wide. It is ob­ ings, including the 15th- century town hall, have been preserved. structed by extensive sandbanks, through which there is a dredged The town is a road junction and on the Halberstadt-Goslar rail­ channel. The estuary is marked by buoys upriver to Bremen. way. Manufactures include electri c motors, machine tools, foo d­ Annual traffic on the lower Weser amounts to 4,700,000 tons lt stuffs, pharmaceutical goods, glass, and paper; there are brick and l3remen and to another 3,400,000 tons at small ports. The middle timber works. Nearby are quarries and iron, ore, pyrites, and Weser, upstream to Minden, ca rries 2,2 00,000 tons ; the upper limestone mines. Wernigerode was first mentioned in do cuments Weser (including the Werra and the Fulda ) , 1,500,000 tons. in 11 21 and received its muni cipal charter in 1229. (R. E. Dr.) WERTHEIMER, MAX ( 1880-1943), German psychologist WESLEY, CHARLES ( 1707- 1788) , Engli sh cl ergyman. and philosopher, founder of the Gestalt theory, was born in Prague, poet, and hymn writer, who with his elder brother John started WESLEY the Methodist movement in the Church of England, was born succumbing too easil y to pressure from the Methodist lay preach­ Dec. 18, 1707, at Epworth , Lincolnshire. (For hi s parentage and ers that he shoul d enhance their status. especiall y by allowing upbringing see W ES LEY, JO HN .) In 17 16 he entered ,;\,lestminster them to administer the sacraments. Charles was even more firmly School, London, where under the tui tion of his eldest brother, attached to the Church of England than was John , and he saw Samuel, he became a poli shed classical scholar. In 1726 he was more clearly that Methodism was being led into the separation he elected to Christ Church , Oxford, where he spent much of his dreaded. Rather than foment open conOict, however, he withdrew time translating the classics into E ngli sh verse. from active leadership of the Methodi st soci eties as a whole and During the winter of 17 28-29 Chnrles Wesley underwent a simpl y endeavoured to act as a brake upon what he regarded as spiritual awakening, partly through the inJluence of hi s brother the schismatic:il tendencies of his brother. He was desperately John a nd partly (he beli eved) through his mother's prayers. H e gri eved in 1 784 when J ohn began to ordain preachers. began to keep a di ary, and he persuaded two other undergraduntes By thi s ti me Charles Wesley's greatest wo rk for Methodi sm and to join him in study and reli gious· exercises. This was the begin ­ the church universal had long been accompli shed, though he con­ ning of the Holy Club, whose leadershi p he handed over to J ohn tinued to produce verse and to revise hi s manuscripts unti l his in ~ ov ember 172 9. Charles graduated in 1730, served as a tutor, death in London on March 29, l 788 . and took his M.A. in 1733 . He agreed to accompany J ohn to Wor ks.-Although the two brothers agreed not to divulge the Georgi a in N orth Ameri ca as Col. .T ames Oglethorpe's secretary, authorship of the hymns they publi shed jointly, it is clea r that an d accepted h oly orders (September 1735) so as to be of greater about 99% of the 4,600 items in their 60 verse publi cations were service . from the pen of Charles. A fu rther 3,000 were publi shed post­ Throughout his life Charl es was subject to much greater ex­ humously from hi s manusc ri pts, and some 1,300 remain unpub­ tremes of emotion than hi s brother, and in Georgia, wh ere they li shed. Inevitably in this huge output of 180,000 lines of verse arrived in February 17 36, hi s spiritual despair ,vas far greater the quali ty is uneven. Charles Wesley's s;itiri ca l verse, when .it is than John's and hi s privations far m ore exhausting. Broken in full y known, may we ll earn him an assured place among the minor body, troubled in spiri t, after only a few months he was glad to secul ar poets of the period. As a wri ter of devotional lyrics, return vi a Boston to England with di spatches from Oglethorpe. whether for public worship or fo r private medi tation, he has no He constantly planned to return, with George W hi tefi eld as hi s eq ual. In an age supposedl y steril e of lyri cal verse he used no assistant, but once m ore illness struck , threatening to be fatal, and fewe r than 100 different verse fo rms, nea rly always with a vigo ur Whitefield sailed alone. and virility rarely fo und in hymn wri ters. He was a bold experi­ Like his brother John, Charles Wesley found spiri tual peace menter in anapestic metres, whi ch admirably matched the rap­ through the help of the Moravians, especially of Peter Bohler, who turous spiritual experiences of the ea rl y Methodist revival. He explained to him the nature of justi fying fa ith. H e fin ally fo und mastered the syncopated beat of mi xed iambic and trochaic metres. himself "at peace with Goel " 0n W hitsunday, May 21, 1738 . T wo His bmbic verse was prevented from becoming jog tro t by subtle days later he wrote on his sickbed in J ohn Bray's house in Little modulati ons, including frequent use of an opening chori amb ( see Britain, London, hi s "conversion hymn," which his brother joined P ROSODY, CLASSICAL) . His iambic verse in particular is marked him in singing on May 24: by the taut di ction and the unobtrusive rhetorical techniques of an enthusia sti c and skilful classica l scholar. Where shall my wond'ring So ul begin? How shall I All to Heaven aspire? In Charles , vcsley's verse perfected li terary techniques are so A Slave redeem\ ! from Death anti Sin, matched by heightened emoti on that the result is genuine poetry. A Brand pluck'cl from Etern al Fire , He was a man with a message. Many of hi s poems were the How shall I equal Triumphs raise, weapons of theological warfare, and his sa tire bi t deep. :More of Or sing my great Deliverer's Praise ? them proclaimed the wonders of God's saving love. Almost all A year later, on the anniversary of hi s conversion, he wrote lines we re saturated with scri ptural allusions, though there are also which have opened the M ethodist Hymn Booli since 1780: remini scences of the classics of Greece. Rome. and England. His verses are alive with the joyous lil t of a personal faith or with 0 for a Thousand Tongues to sing l\ll y dear Redee mer's Praise I the pas tor's vica ri ous identifica ti on of hi mself with the joys and The Glories of m y Goo and King, sorrows and strivings of others. Among hi s bes t-know n hymns The Triumphs of hi s Grace . are "Love Divine, all Loves excelling" (modeled on Dryden's H enceforward Charles Wesley wa s as much on fir e to proclaim "Fairest I sle, all I sles excelling"), "Hark, the Herald Angels sing" the gospel as hi s brother John, equally bold and tireless in doing ( the first line thus altered by George 'W hitefi eld), "Chri st the so. In some ways he was the more colourful and eloquent Lo1rn is ri s'n today," "Sol diers of CHR IST, ari se," " Rejoice, the preacher, and one of hi s sermons on the text "Awake, thou that Lo1m is King !" (set to music by Handel), and "JEsU, Lover of sleepest" (Eph. 5 :14), preached before the Uni versity of Oxford my Soul "-whi ch J ohn Wesley thought too sentimental. Isaac on Ap ril 4, 1 74 2, became the Methodi st best sell er. Charl es had Watts maintained that that single poem beginning "O T hou a good singing voice and sometimes ended his sermons by "singing T ravell er Unknown ," entitled "Wrestling Jacob," was worth all an invitation to sinners." Above all , he translated the gospel into the verses he himself had written. song, a nd hi s hymns furnished both a powerful means of evan­ Like hi s brother J ohn, Charles Wesley was neither a formal nor a gelism and a rich reservoir of devotion. speculative theologian. Accepting the framework of orthodox be­ On April 8, 1749, Charles W esley married Sarah Gwynne ( 172 6- li ef, he emphasized and interpreted in song the varied aspects ~f 182 2). This supremely happy marriage did not hinder hi s itin­ God's saving relationships with man. To be nurtured upon hi s erancy. Largely because of hi s poor health , hi s main task was hymns is to have a solid education in evangeli cal theology, almost that of superintending the work in the two chi ef areas, Bristol free from sentimentali sm. His nativ ity hymns stress the incarna­ an d London; there was thus no diffi culty ;ibout spending some tion rather than the Babe in the rnanger-"Our Goo con tracted months each yea r with hi s fa mi ly in Bristol. There we re born his to a Span, Incomprehensibly made lV[an. " His recurrent theme two musical sons, Charles (1757- 1834) and Samuel (1766-1837), is the supreme theological di scovery of "\Vrestling J acob"-"Thy and a bluestocking daughter, Sarah ( 17 59-1828) . In 177 1 the Nature, and Thy Name is LovE." This love commands awe and family moved to Marylebone, then a country suburb of London, reverence because it is seen extended upon a cross, and its su­ chiefly in order to further the musical education of hi s promising preme mystery is the atonement, whereby man himself experi­ ~ons. He himself continued to i tineratc along the Bristol-London ences it through faith: "Amazin g Love ! how can it be that thou, axis . my Gou, shouldst die for me ?" The ques ti on "H ow can a si nner Some estrangement crept into Charl es Wesley's relationship !wow hi s sins on earth forgiven i'" always found its answer in the With his brother J ohn in 1749, when from the bes t of motives proof of experi ence : Charles effecti vely prevented John 's marriage with Grace M urray What we ourselves have felt, and seen, (see WESLEY , JOHN) . Charles also feared that hi s brother was With Confide nce we tell, WESLEY

And publish to the Sons of Men Holy Dying made him more regular and searching in his self­ The Signs infalli ble. examination, and he began to summarize the events of every hour The self-giving love of Goel is continually medi ated to believers of every day in a di ary, written partly in longhand and partly in through the Lord's Supper, which conveys the Real Presence of cipher, replaced some years later by J ohn Byrom's sh orthand. Christ and is in some sense a sac ri fic e : From these beginnings his J ournai developed. Wesley was made deacon by the bishop of Oxford on Sept. 19, This Eucharistic Feast Our eve ry Want supplies, 172 5, and he was ele cted a fellow of Lincoln Coll ege on M arch 1 7, And still we by his Dea th are blcst 1726. I n spite of his strong academic leanings he spent the sum­ And share his Sacri fice . mer of 1726 assisting hi s father as curate at Epworth a nd \Vroot, Yet the Christian, thus saved , thus assured, and thus sustained, and from J uly 1727 un til November 1729 his sojourns at Oxford is sti ll a pilgrim, pressing on to the goal of perfect love: were little more than intervals in hi s Lincolnshire minis try. On Sept. 22, 172 8, he was ordained pri est. 0 for an Hea rt to praise my Goo, An Heart from Sin se t free ! The Hol y Club.- In October 1729 Wesley was recalled to Ox­ ford by the rector of Lincol n Coll ege lo fu lfi ll the residential con­ Write Thy New Name upon my Heart, ditions of hi s fell owship. H e returned to find tha t his brother Thy New, Best Name of Love ! Charles, an undergraduate al Chri st Church, had persua ded Sally H e is a pil grim in fell owship with others, however , and the strongly Kirkham's brother Robert and Wil liam Morgan to join him in regu­ personal note in Charles Wesley's hymns naturally extends from lar studi es and devotions. Charl es happily resigned the leadership the individual to the communi ty: of this re ligious study circle, derisively cal led "Methodists," to his All Praise to our Redeeming Lord, elder brother. The group grew in numbers and in0uence, earning Who joins us by his Gra ce . more nicknames, of which the favourite was "the Holy Club." Both the faith of the indi vidual and Chri stian fe ll owshi p look for F requent communion marked thern from the outset , to which were their consummation beyond this li fe, and it is remarkable how soon added fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays. From 1 730, when many of Charles Wesley's hymns end in heaven: William Morgan directed their attention to the shocking conditions in the Oxford prisons, social service became an important feature And if ou r Fell owship below of their activities. They taught the prisoners to read, wrote their In J i-:sus be so sweet, What Height of Rapture shall we know letters, paid their debts, and tried lo f111d them work. The young When round his Throne we meet ! men extended their philanthropy to the workhouses and t o poor BrnLIO GR,\PIIY.- Senn.ons (1816 ) ; Journal, 2 vol. (1849); Po etical people generally, di stributing food , clothes, medicine, and books, Wor/1s of J . and C. W esley, 13 vol. (1868-72); F. Baker (ed.), Repre­ and even running a school. sentative Verse of Charles W esley (1962) with introduction and notes. The death of William Morgan in 1 7:52, whether from his aus­ Standard life by Thomas J ackson, 2 vo l. (1 84 1) ; short lives by John terities or from some prison infection, produced criticism, but also Tclfor

himself and for others along the wrong lines. The methods of ri tu­ In December 1739 a group of people asked Wesley to take them alistic observance, self-denial, and good works brought little lasting under hi s own wing, and for them he secured the lease of the ruined result. He continued, however, to learn from the Moravians in Ki ng's Foun clery near Upper Moorfields, London. This soon be­ Georgia. In December 1737 he fl ed from the misunderstandings came the rallying point for those who were ready to accept his and persecutions brought to a head by the Sophy Hopkey affa ir. leadershi p unquestioningly. These included the members of the Conversion.-In London Wesley met tbe Moravian Peter Fetter Lane Society who broke with him in July 1740 because he Bohler, who convinced bim that what he needed was simply fa ith. insisted on the spiritual value of the means of grace while the Wesley discovered Lutber's commentary on Galatians and "found Moravian leader P. H. Molther emphasized "stillness" and ac­ him full of faith." He reali zed that this " new" truth of justifica­ cepted only faith in Christ as a means of grace. (T wo years later tion (q.v.) by faith alone was in fac t orthodox but almost forgotten the Fetter Lane Society was formally settled as a Moravian con­ Anglican teaching. Above a.U it was scriptural. At Wesley's re­ gregation.) In Bristol Wesley's New Room in the Horsefair, built quest Bohler produced witnesses who testified that they personally in 1739, provided a similar centre. Societies owing all egiance ,un­ had been saved by faith alone. Wesley's mi nd was convinced, and der God to John Wesley alone proli ferated in London, Bristol, and his heart quickly followed. On May 24, 17 38, in a society com­ elsewhere. This spiritual autocracy constituted a danger, but posed largely of Moravians but meeting under the auspices of the throughout hi s life Wesley unfailingly used his di ctatori al powers Church of England in Alclersgate Street, London, this intellectual lo the glory of Goel and never to the glory or the enrichment of conviction was transformed into a personal experience, whil e John Wesley. Lut her's Preface to tlte Epistle to the Romans was being read A means of pastoral oversight for the thousands of Methodists aloud. He thus described this event in hi s J ournal: presented itself in 1 742 when Captain Foy of Bristol suggested that the debt on the New Room there might be liquidated by divid­ About a quarter before nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart in g the membership into g.r oups of about 12 and assigning to one strangely warmed. I fe lt I did trust in Ch rist, Christ alone, for salva­ member of each group the responsibility for collecting a penny a tion; and an assurance was given me that he had taken away my sins, week from the others. Wesley made the leader of each group or even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death. "class " a spiritual overseer, exercising pastoral care over each mem­ John Wesley was nearly 35, a clergyman of ten years' standing. ber of hi s class and conducting a weekly fellowship meeting for After years of frustration he reali zed why the brand had been them. pl ucked out of the burning. He now saw his li fe 's work as the To avoid the sca ndal of unwo rthy members Wesley publi shed in proclamation of the good news of salvation by fa ith, preferably 1743 Rules fo r the Methodist societies, which listed evil practices through recalling the Church of England to its spiritual mission, to be avoided and inculcated positive forms of social service and but if that failed then by whatever other means were available. He the regular use of the various means of grace. Observance of the had no plans, no blueprint of a new ecclesiastical organization, in­ Rules was not a condition of acceptance as a member-the one deed no desire to form a new organization. He had simply an over­ condition was "a desire to flee from the wrath to come, to be saved riding conviction that he must share these new-found spiritual fro m their sins"-but habitual breaking of the rules was taken as riches. First, however, he went to visit Gra f Nikolaus von Zinzen­ a proof of the insincerity of the professed desire, and the defective dorf ( q.v.) at Marienborn and the Moravian headquarters at Herrn­ member was expell ed. Tickets of membership we re distributed but in Germany, where hi s fa ith was confirm ed and he learned the fo ur times a year, and those who we re also members of the more details of Moravian organization (see MORAVIAN CHURCH). intimate "bands" had their own distinctive tickets. Religious Societies.- On hi s return to England Wesley pro­ Itinerant Preaching.- In order to promote new societies and daimed salvation by faith wherever a pul pit was offered him, to preserve hi gh spiritual and moral standards in those already rJut church after church was closed against his enthusiasm. He established, Wesley maintained a remarkable itinerancy for 50 had a li ttle more success with the reli gious societies, fo unded years. Normally he spent the worst four winter months in Bristol originally to provide ordered devotions under the direc tion of an and London, making short expeditions into the neighbouring re­ Anglica n cl ergyman, but by then mostly administered by lay gions, and during the remainder of the year he was constantly _on stewards for the purpose of religious discussion. Wesley went the move, always going where he seemed to be needed most, tendrng ·.he rounds of sympathetic societies trying to inject new spiritual to avoid cathedral cities in order to concentrate on the unchurchecl vigour into them, particularly by introducing "bands" like those industrial areas. Altogether he traveled some 250,000 miles of the Moravians- small groups within each society confined to throughout the British I sles, and in so doing preached between members of the same sex and marital status who were prepared 40,000 an d 50,000 sermons. Many of his journeys we re on horse­ i