The Yorùbá Blues

Lucille Junkere 2016 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 1 Introduction 2 UK Collections 3 Lagos 5 Abẹòḱ uta 9 Ìbàdàn 14 Dyeing 15 Osogbo 17 Recommendations 19 References 20 Picture Credits 23 Glossary 25 Acknowledgments

The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust and the Heritage Crafts Association for the wonderful opportunity to travel to Nigeria to study Yorùbá indigenous àdìrẹ making.

Nigeria

Chief (Mrs) Nike and her husband Reuban Okundaye for their generous support and encouragement and staff from Nike Art Gallery and Foundation in Lagos.

Professor Olusẹgun Okẹ, Doig Simmonds (UK) and Pat Oyelọla editors of Adire Cloth in Nigeria

Àdire makers and dyers including Gàníyù Kàrímù , Baba Salieu, Jumoke Maryam Akinyemi, and Baba alaro from Àdùnní Art, Olalekan Adegun Adesoye and apprentice from Ade Omo Ade Art Gallery and staff, teachers and students from the Nike Center for Art and Culture, Òṣogbo

Mayowa Kila for Yorùbá translation

Curator Ige Akintunde Olatunji and colleagues from the National Museum of Abeokuta

Professors Oladele O. Layiwola and Ohioma Ifounu Pogoson and Oluwatoyin A. Odeku from the Institute of African Studies

My wonderful Lagos hosts Baba Winfield, Chef Craig and Ms Carmen.

UK

Yorùbá language classes Ṣola Otiti

Staff and curators of the UK Museum African collections for supporting my research visits. The British Museum, The Horniman Museum, The Economic Botany Collection at Kew Gardens, The Pitt Rivers Museum, The Royal Albert Memorial Museum, The Victoria and Albert Museum

Duncan Clarke from Adire African Textiles

1 Introduction

Before the development of synthetic dyes in The literal translation of the word àdìrẹ is the mid-nineteenth century, dyes were to tie and to dye, a description of the extracted from natural sources such as original and oldest resist pattern making plants, animals and minerals (Areo and technique. Today the word is used in Kalilu, 2013). Indigo is one of the oldest Nigeria to describe all resist dyeing known plant dyes (Goodwin, 2003). It has techniques, including fabric dyed with been used as a dye for thousands of years synthetic dyes (Oyelọla, 2010). with each region of the world developing its own dyeing methods, beliefs, even religious This report focuses on indigo dyed resist ceremonies, as part of the process textiles. Resist dyeing involves using (Prideaux, 2007). techniques and materials to form patterns on fabric, which prevent the dye penetrating In Nigeria, there are over 250 ethnic groups the fabric. When the resist material is speaking as many indigenous languages. removed the pattern is revealed. The three most dominant are Hausa, in northern Nigeria, Yorùbá in the south-west Àdírẹ cloth incorporates intricate patterns and Igbo in south-eastern Nigeria (Findlay, and complex symbols which reflect 2018). All three have strong indigo dyeing indigenous Yorùbá society, providing a textile traditions but the activity is most valuable insight into Yoruba religion, dominant amongst the Yorùbá, who make culture, folklore and history. The patterns up approximately 21% of the population. are passed down through generations with The Yorùbás are “masters of the indigo- the cloth functioning as clothing and a dyeing process. They also have the most means of communication, especially for varied methods of applying resist to Yorùbá women, because originally àdìrẹ cloth” (Gillow 2001, p.70). textiles were made entirely by women. “The importance of àdìrẹ as a medium of Indigo dyeing amongst Yorùbá people falls communication and expression for women into two categories: the total-dyed cloth, aṣọ should not be understated” (Okundaye aláró, in which the whole fabric is immersed 2016, p.7). and dyed completely in indigo and àdìrẹ, which involves creating patterns on the Cloth is often neglected in art historical fabric through a variety of techniques studies, sometimes seen as a domestic craft before dyeing the cloth (Areo and Kalilu, rather than an art form (Renne and Agbaje- 2013). Àdírẹ was first produced on factory Williams, 2005). “The contributions of the milled cloth in the late nineteenth century African continent to the history of textile by people in Yorùbá towns, in particular, use and decoration have been Abẹ́òkuta, Ibadan and Òṣogbo in neglected” (Triplett and Triplett 2015, p.7) southwestern Nigeria (LaGamma, Giuntini, and when cloth history “is told it is rarely 2008). Prior to this, the patterns were made from an African perspective, let alone by an on locally made handwoven fabric called African voice" (Spring 2012, p.33). kijipa (Simmonds, Oyelọla and Ọkẹ, 2016, p. 11).

2 UK Collections

A Winston Churchill Travel Fellowship, to incorporating newer techniques is largely southwestern Nigeria from February 2017 missing from the research (Gillow, 2016; until April 2017 to study àdìrẹ provided an Sandberg, 1989). The Yorùbá voice, opportunity to hear the African voice. especially the àdìrẹ maker's voice is also missing from the discourse, how the practice It was the voice of Nigerian artists, scholars, has evolved with new techniques and curators, the teachers and apprentices who patterns and how local circumstances and keep the tradition alive, the patrons who international challenges have impacted make a conscious decision to wear àdìrẹ and designs and production. the highly skilled Yorùbá àdìrẹ artisans who make the cloth. During one of my research visits, a group of textile enthusiasts enquired about the My travel Fellowship reflects my personal textiles. The collections staff member interest in indigenous indigo dyeing responded that I was researching cloths traditions and my own creative practice in from Africa. She looked to me to offer a natural indigo dyeing. further explanation and I added that they were textiles made in Nigeria within the The travel Fellowship research began in the continent of Africa. I briefly explained the UK with a visit to museums housing large stages in the complex process of resist àdìrẹ collections. These include the British dyeing and that the Yorùbá artisans use bird Museum, the Economic Botany collection at feathers as a quill to draw these detailed Kew Gardens, the Horniman Museum, the patterns on the cloth. I explained the Pitt Rivers Museum, the Royal Albert patterns reflect Yorùbá culture and Memorial Museum and the Victorian and proverbs. My efforts were in vain because Albert Museum. The collections comprise the group thanked me for my time in mainly unworn àdìrẹ pieces. One of the presenting the “primitive cloths”. That main collectors was Jane Barbour, an comment continues to bother me as does English woman whose husband’s teaching at the lack of diversity in museum collections the University of Ibadan took her to Nigeria staff. (the Guardian, 2017). Barbour began researching and collecting àdìrẹ cloth whilst The need for more diversity within museum living in Nigeria from 1962 until 1972. workforce is a long discussed topic but (Puccinelli. L 1997) without significant change. Men still dominate senior positions and the UK publications on African textiles that percentage of black and minority ethnic include àdìrẹ cloth are based on the UK staff and people with disabilities are lower museum collections but as the collections than in society. Curators, exhibition staff comprise mainly older textiles there is a and collections care specialists in museums limited analysis of contemporary àdìrẹ are much less diverse than those in other textiles. Barbour wrongly reported the roles (The Museum Consultancy, 2015). decline of àdìrẹ making (Simmonds, Oyelọla and Ọkẹ, 2016) but this position seems to be the one adopted by UK textile history publications as àdìrẹ cloth

3

During the research trip at Pitts River (University College London, 2018). The Museum, I noticed one of the Benin Yorùbá word for indigo dye is aro but it can Bronzes in a display cabinet. The Benin also mean furnace, sadness and a bean Bronzes were made by Edo artisans, the storehouse depending on where the tonal indigenous people of pre-colonial Benin marks are placed (Fakinlede, 2006). Empire, now located within Nigeria between the 15th and 16th centuries. They Yorùbá words in this report have been comprise several thousand commemorative written with tonal marks using the Yorùbá brass plaques and sculptures which were alphabet with the Yorùbá Modern Practical looted from the King’s palace by British Dictionary (Fakinlede, 2015) and forces during the Benin Expedition of 1897. Encyclopaedia of the Yoruba (Falola and They were subsequently given to the Foreign Akinyemi, 2016) as a guide with support and Commonwealth Office and many were from my Fellowship interpreter Mayowa sold to museums around the world. Today, Kila. There is still much work needed to there are calls for the bronzes to be returned ensure the words are written correctly and I to Nigeria (Ancient Origins. 2018). apologise for any unintentional errors.

The display in Pitts River is problematic, so little said about the context of the pieces within Edo history and culture. Rather the interpretation seeks to justify the removal of the objects from the Benin Kingdom. It makes for an unpleasant visit.

The largest collections of Benin Bronzes is held by the British Museum and the Ethnological Museum in Berlin. The British Museum intends to host a summit along with other museums to discuss the return of pieces for a permanent display in Benin City, Nigeria.(Mtshali, 2018).

Museums àdìrẹ collections provide some cloth names using Yorùbá words but the English meanings and Yorùbá tonal marks are sometimes missing and this makes pronunciation and interpretation difficult. Tone is important in Yorùbá language. Consonants and vowels have very different meanings determined by the midrange, low or high tone (Everyculture.com, 2018). Pitch is indicated by the tone marks. Some words have similar spellings but with tonal marks, they can have very different meanings.

4 Lagos

In Nigeria Lagos was my first stop, a meeting with Chief (Mrs) Nike Davies- Okundaye, one of the most prominent àdìrẹ practitioners. Chief Nike was brought up amidst the traditional weaving and dying practice in her native village of Ogidi- Ijumu, Kogi State, in Western Nigeria. She began weaving at the age of six and was Fig 1 introduced to àdìrẹ textiles, indigo dyeing, weaving, painting and embroidery by her aunt and great-grandmother, one of the leading cloth weavers in her community. (Nikeart.com, 2017).

Chief Nike is a remarkable lady. She has taught àdìrẹ workshops, exhibited internationally and created four art centres in Nigeria which offer free training to artists in àdìrẹ making and other art forms including sculpture and performing arts. She is the owner of the largest art gallery in West Africa, The Nike Art Center Lekki, Lagos, Fig.1 which houses over 7,000 artworks (Nikeart.com, 2017). She now Fig 2 plans to open the first textile museum in Nigeria.

Chief Nike introduced me to her personal collection of àdìrẹ cloths and we spent some time discussing the pattern meanings. After my rather formal UK research visits. It was exciting to touch the cloths and explore the patterns in a more fluid spontaneous way. I had seen some of the cloths within museum archives but my discussions with Chief Nike brought the pieces to life. She explained the meaning of a cloth called Ọ̀ rẹ ́ Mẹŕ in (Fig. 2) as four friends. The pattern represents the close friendship amongst women comprising Fig 3 four different patterns, that are “so close they speak with the same voice” (Okundaye 2006, p.25).

5 Fig 4

The pattern also illustrates collaboration amongst women from different generations and the formation of cooperative unions to promote their trade. Fig. 3 shows the detail of one of the four Ọ̀ rẹ ́ Mẹŕ in patterns called wire, representing metal fences symbolising protection of the inner spirit (Davies, 2014).

Àdìrẹ ẹlẹḱ o designs were originally created on two pieces of plain white cotton approximately 2.3 metres long and each length was painted or stencilled with cassava paste on one side only. After the fabric was dyed with indigo and the paste resist scraped was off, the two pieces were joined together lengthwise to make a wrapper, a traditional item of Yorùbá dress.

We also spoke about Sún Bèbè Fig. 4 (Museum of Fine Arts Boston, 2018). Chief Nike says the design, which means put your beads on calls on Yorùbá women to wear waist beads, bèbè as a celebration of female beauty. Traditionally Yorùbá women wore strands of beads around their waist beneath their wrapper to emphasise their curves and many still wear them. It is believed the beads have the power to arouse sexual desire (Falola, Akinyemi, 2016, p. 46).

6 Fig 5

Fig. 5 (Museum of Fine Art Boston, 2018) shows Olókun, a hand-painted àdìrẹ resist patterned cloth found within most UK museums. Olókun is a Yorùbá salt water, (seas and oceans) deity (TheYoruba, 2017). The pattern is still made in Nigeria and illustrates the intrinsic connection between àdìrẹ and indigenous Yorùbá spirituality. The full design consists of abstract patterns and creatures such as birds, lizards, crocodiles (Oyelọla 2010). These patterns are mostly generated from proverbs and popular sayings, important events and sometimes coined from songs and prayers.

The floral motifs on Olókun include the leaves of the cassava plant, Fig. 6, which are regularly picked and added to stews. The tubulars are an important staple in the Nigerian diet and the main ingredient in the paste used to make starch resist patterns. Cassava a drought- tolerant crops, capable of growing on marginal soils the plant thrives in tropical climates, surviving when many other crops fail. Cassava is one of the most important staple food in many sub-Saharan African countries.

7 The stylised pattern of cassava leaves Fig 7. (Museum of Fine Art Boston, 2018) called ewé ẹgẹ ́ reflects the plant’s character, representing resilience and the ability to withstand adversity. (Renne and Agbaje- Williams, 2005, p.235). There is a proverb attached to the design, “slanting does not kill a cassava plant” (Carr 2001, p.33). This speaks to the way the plant grows and because in areas of heavy rainfall it is best planted in a slanted position. Fig 6

Another design in the Olókun cloth Fig. 8 (Museum of Fine Art Boston, 2018) shows the pattern olókòto, which translates to spinning top, originally made from snail shells. The pattern is interpreted as the cycle of life and speaks to the Yorùbá belief that life is one continuous circle of birth, death and reincarnation and rebirth (Areo and Kalilu, 2013). This belief is reflected in festivals such as Egúngún, a masquerade representing deceased ancestors (Falola and Akinyemi, 2016).

In her book, Okundaye (2016) explains the Yorùbá meanings of the titles of over thirty àdìrẹ cloths and patterns. She also writes Fig 7 pattern names with Yorùbá tonal marks which is helpful both for pronunciation and interpretation.

These hand drawn resists textiles are called àdìrẹ ẹlẹḱ o. Traditionally corn starch was used to create the patterns applied freehand with small feathers before being dyed with indigo. The artisans now use cassava starch known as láfún (Oyelọla 2010).

The cloth shown on the cover of this report is called ori mi pé often explained in English as my head is correct. Chief Nike explained the meaning as I am wise and says the cloth is often used by a woman to assert her Fig 8 intelligence, especially when she feels she has been taken advantage of.

8 A b ẹ́ ò k u t a

My next stop Abẹòḱ uta is just over 100 kilometres from Lagos and is home to Ikotu market one of the largest àdìrẹ making centres in Nigeria. The Yorùbá are the major ethnic nationality in Abẹòḱ uta.

I took the train to avoid the busy roads. The train was old, most definitely in need of investment, but clean and comfortable. The slow journey Fig 9 through rural villages and towns filled with palm, cocoa and banana trees, sugar cane, bamboo, yam and cassava fields provided an important context for the inspiration behind the àdìrẹ cloths.

I arrived in Abẹòḱ uta just before sunset and crossed the railway track with my suitcase as instructed by the helpful train staff who even negotiated a reasonable price for my taxi to the hotel.

It took several visits to build relationships with the àdìrẹ makers in Abẹòḱ uta. They were initially uneasy about talking to me complaining that, “Western” researchers exploit their knowledge and skills without acknowledgement or payment. Fig 10 Others spoke about designers photographing their patterns, reproducing them digitally claiming them as their own designs. I had to measure, every fold and stitch placement is prove my knowledge of indigo dyeing and pattern remarkably accurate. showing examples of my work. Kàrímù referred to the pattern in (Fig 10) as Singer treadle sewing machines were introduced Daniel. Fig. 11 shows Etí, which means ear. The into Nigeria at the beginning of the twentieth cloth serves as a warning about the harmful century inspiring a new machine stitched resist consequence of malicious gossip and warns the cloth (Gillow, 2016). This sped up production community not to act upon what they hear time so makers could meet the increased demand (Okundaye 2017). Fig. 12 shows the pattern sugar for àdìrẹ. It also marked the arrival of men into a cubes which is still being produced in Abẹòḱ uta. previously female-dominated textile practice Fig.13 is called ẹlẹsun, something pushed up (Areo and Kalilu, 2013). (Simmonds, Oyelọla and Ọkẹ, 2016). Fig.14 is called Gbetan, meaning rooted. Figs.15 -16 show Machine stitched àdìrẹ still appears to be carried other machine stitched patterns. out entirely by men. Gàníyù Kàrímù (Fig. 9) entered the profession as an apprentice, learning An extraordinary range of patterns is produced his skills and all the patterns and meanings from using this seemingly simple method. All are given his predecessor, who he says has now passed on. names reflecting Yorùbá culture but more He still uses a treadle sewing machine and research is needed to find more pattern names although he does not use a light, nor a tape and meanings.

9 Fig 11 Fig 12

Fig 13 Fig 14

Fig 15 Fig 16

10 Fig 17

One of the patterns referenced in African Textiles (Gillow 2012, p 75) is described only by the technique of production. The same cloth, (Fig. 17)which is still made in Abẹòḱ uta is known by local àdìrẹ makers as Ẹgbà lé wà which translates to we remain or we exist in Ẹgbàland (Kàrímù, 2017). The cloth references the history of the Ẹgbà, a Yorùbá subgroup in Abẹòḱ uta, which means under the rock. The city located below Olumo Rock was founded around 1830 by Ẹgbà refugees who hid within the rock’s caves during civil wars that followed the collapse of the Oyo empire. They hid to protect themselves from being sold into the transatlantic slave trade (Davies, 2014).

The cloth provides a visual link to Ẹgbà descendants in a town called Abẹòḱ uta in the parish of Westmorland Jamaica. Yorùbá, most likely Ẹgbà indentured servants arriving in Jamaica in 1841 named the town it after their homeland in Nigeria. Their descendants, known as Etu and Nago people have preserved their Yorùbá heritage in rituals and thanksgiving Etu & Nago: The Yoruba Connection, 2003). The connection is an important one, worth exploring further given researching ancestry for Jamaicans of African descent is almost impossible. As Guy (2011) points out “the dispossession caused by the slave trade means that ancestral links have been lost or buried”.

11 The stencilled àdìrẹ cloth patterns are said to have originated in Abẹòḱ uta and freehand àdìrẹ ẹlẹḱ o from Ibadan. Both were produced from original freehand drawings. In Yorùbá land the àdìrẹ ẹlẹḱ o cloths are traditionally made by women and stencilled cloth by men (Gillow 2001).

Stencils (Fig. 18) were originally made from tea chests linings but are now made from rectangular pieces of zinc. The process of stencil making with a Fig 18 small chisel is labour intensive but once the stencil is made it allows for much quicker cloth making.

Fig. 19 (The British Museum 2018) shows the detail of a stencilled cloth of a king wearing a crown. The full cloth is shown in Fig. 21. The traditional rulers of Yorùbá towns are called ọbas, a tradition traced back to Ilé-Ifẹ,̀ an ancient Yorùbá city in south-western Nigeria, which is seen as the origin of Yorùbá people. Oduduwa was the first ọba, and successive ọbas are organised through lineage and those with a direct link to Fig 19 Oduduwa are entitled to wear beaded crowns, especially the conical beaded crowns with veils (Falola, Akinyemi, 2016, p. 47).

Birds appear on many crowns referencing the king’s ability to mediate between the secular world and the spiritual one. Birds are also said to represent female power, reinforcing that the ọba cannot rule without the cooperation and support of the women in his community.

Repeat patterns in the cloth design Fig. 21 suggest the interconnectedness Fig 20 of all life and the balance needed to sustain it (Hamillgallery.com, 2017).

12 Fig 21

The cloth is also an important historical record. It includes the words ogun pari or war is finished with the date 1970. This references the end of the three-year Nigerian Civil War between independent Nigeria’s new government and the Igbo people in the southeast. The war began with the secession of the Igbo occupied the southeastern region on May 30, 1967, when it declared itself the independent Republic of Biafra. The conflict is seen as a consequence of European Imperialism cutting up West Africa to create arbitrary administrative boundaries disregarding pre-colonial divisions of hundreds of different ethnic groups divided along the lines of cultural, religious and linguistic differences (Hurst, 2018).

13 Ìbàdàn

I continued my journey to Ìbàdàn by train, a very busy route which starts in Lagos and travels overnight to Kano in Northern Nigeria. Some of the older passengers had facial tribal marks. Historically Yorùbá people and other ethnic groups had tribal marks for a number of reasons including spirituality, to enhance natural beauty and to identify a Fig 22 child in their family lineage and or ethnic group. The marks were especially important during civil wars and the transatlantic slave trade as they helped to reunite members of the same family (Odunbaku, 2012). There is an older hand stitched àdìrẹ cloth called ilà meaning tribal marks (Fig. 22) which speaks to this aspect of Yorùbá culture. There is also a local Ìbàdàn proverb which reflects this. “If we get lost, that we may find ourselves is the reason Ìbàdàn wear marks” (Falola, Akinyemi, 2016, p. 67).

Ìbàdàn dùn (Fig.23) is one of the most well known àdìrẹ hand painted designs. The pattern is named after the city where it was Fig 23 produced and translates as Ìbàdàn is sweet or Ìbàdàn is a happy place. The cloth takes its name from one square, which features four spoons representing the pillars of Mapo Hall, built in 1929 by Welshman Robert Taffy Jones as the main administrative centre under British colonial rule. The Hall was historically used to imprison tax evaders.

There are still many artisans making hand- painted àdìrẹ ẹlẹḱ o cloth. Maryam Akinyemi of Aduni Art (Fig 24) is one, she remembers her father and grandfather singing a song about Mapo Hall. “Payment of taxation has come, our fathers were the first to pay, the Fig 24 idiots and lazy ones who have not paid are in detention in Mapo” (Observe Nigeria, 2017). There is, of course, another side to the story (Byfield, 2002) documents this important of these onerous taxes including the impact perspective. on the àdìrẹ economy. The Bluest Hands

14 Dyeing

and Philenoptera cyanescens, formally known as Lonchocarpus cyanescens are both used by the Yorùbá. The dye called elu is prepared from young plant leaves which are moistened with water and pounded in a wooden mortar. The crunched materials are then covered for several days to ferment. After about one week, the fermented leaves are moulded into small balls that are sun-dried or that are sold to local dyers Fig. 25.

Fig 25 The dye solution is prepared by extraction with an alkaline solution made from filtered wood ashes which is mixed with the indigo dye balls. The mixture is stirred carefully and left for several days to ferment. When the liquid turns a yellow-green the mixture is ready for dyeing Fig. 26. One of the interesting aspects of Yorùbá indigo dye practice is that very little water is used in the process, which is very different to more Western approaches where the cloth is cleaned and rinsed before, during and after the process.

In 1897 chemists from Germany created synthetic indigo from coal. Caustic soda was later introduced as a strong alkali solution to Fig 26 convert the indigo for dyeing. This sped up the dye process but threatened the viability of the natural dye process and there were complaints from traders and customers that the caustic soda caused the cloth to rot (Adedotun Indigo is not water soluble and must undergo a Amubode, 2009). series of processes before it can be used as a natural dye. It is a complex process requiring I spent some time with Professor O̩ lusẹgun specialist knowledge. O̩ kẹ, one of the editors of the 2nd edition of Adire Cloth in Nigeria (2016) discussing the Natural dyes are classified as either adjective or alchemy of indigo dyeing. His background in substantive. Most dyes are adjective which lecturing and research with specialist interests means they need a mordant, a substance that in chemistry and indigenous technologies for helps to bind the dye to the fibre. Substantive transforming materials into useful products led natural dyes are those that do not require a him to take an interest in indigo dyeing. mordant. Indigo is a substantive dye which is released from the plant leaves through a process of fermentation (Blue Castle Fiber Arts, 2017).

Indigo refers to many different plants of more than one botanical family. Indigofera species 15 As a natural indigo dyer, I share his position that Textile and dyeing activities are regulated in

“chemically produced dye can neither match the Nigeria. The Àdírẹ Dyers’ Association, set up natural product for the richer quality of its blue 1926 (Afolabi, 1981) still exists but it is now nor its superior lightfastness. (Simmonds, called the Àdìrẹ Kampala Association and Oyelọla and Ọkẹ, 2016, p. 36) covers all textile making activities. The association is well recognised and has branches The current indigo dyeing practice in Nigeria is throughout Nigerian southwestern states. It sets mixed and mostly small scale low tech. There out the rules of textile production, how the are dyers known as alaros who still use natural production space must be maintained and indigo. Some use synthetic indigo but combine it cleaned and when traditional rituals should take with natural indigo in an effort to achieve the place (Abeokuta rich blue of natural indigo. There are those who use synthetic dye with sodium hydroxide, (caustic Museum Team, 2017). I was asked to consult soda) because it is a much quicker process. Association members before I spoke to However, they complain the caustic soda burns their skin. They are increasingly concerned about other health risks from inhaling the dye Fig 27 and caustic soda. The local communities around dyeing areas feel textile dye waste is polluting local water systems. Nigeria also as other pollution issues to deal with related to the oil industry.

The pollution caused by the global textile industry is a growing international concern. The industry uses millions of gallons of water every day and waste is not treated to remove pollutants before being released into the water system. The wastewater usually contains toxic chemicals such àdìrẹ makers to reassure them that I was only as formaldehyde, chlorine, lead and other heavy documenting and sharing knowledge on indigo metals that can lead to serious health problems. and pattern making and that I had no intention (Fibre2fashion.com, 2018). of copying indigenous àdìrẹ patterns.

The Citarum River in Indonesia is considered This issue of cultural appropriation was raised one of the most polluted rivers in the world. recently by the Yorùbá, a society, cultural blog Over 200 textile factories line its river banks. and language school with nearly 16,000 The dyes and chemicals used in the industrial followers. They provide examples of process including lead, arsenic and mercury àdìrẹ designs being “borrowed” and amongst them are released into the water, commodified into luxury goods without changing its colour and giving the area an consequence (The Yoruba, 2018). Examples unpleasant odour and impacting the health of include Dutch owned Vlisco fabric group the 5 million people living in the river basin replicating àdìrẹ patterns on printed fabric (Yallop, 2018). outside Nigeria, reintroducing them back into the West African market(Ade-Salu, 2018). Russell (2011) encourages fashion and textile JanSport is an American brand owned by VF designers to consider the complete design Corporation, one of the world's largest clothing process from concept to production and explore companies. Their backpack Fig. 27 called ways to lessen the negative environment impact Hensley blue indigo àdìrẹ has no of production. This approach needs to be Fig 3 explanation of the meaning of the 16 embedded within the fashion and design àdìrẹ patterns included in the design. curriculum. Ò ṣ ogbo

The indigo dyeing activity itself reflects the deeply religious expression of Yorùbá people. In Yorùbá mythology, Iya Moopo is considered the patron of all female crafts trades and childbirth. She is the deity linked to indigo dyeing as she is the owner of indigo dye (Oyenyi, 2015). All dyers cease their dyeing activities every sixteenth day in order to respect and offer sacrifices to her (Kalilu and Areo, 2017). Fig 28 In Òṣogbo, my last stop I visited a wonderful sculpture dedicated to Iya Mopoo, created by Susanne Wenger and Adebisi Akanji. Over 10 meters high and 25 meters long it is located within the Ọ̀ ṣun- Òṣogbo Sacred Grove, a sacred forest situated along the banks of the Ọ̀ ṣun river just outside the city of Òṣogbo. The grove, designated a UNESCO world heritage site in 2005 is seen as a symbol of identity for all Yorùbá people. In traditional Yorùbá-land each village used to have its sacred grove, an area reserved for the celebration and worship of traditional deities. The 75 hectare Sacred Grove is the probably last Fig 29 example of its kind (UNESCO, 2017). The Adunni Olorisha Trust was established in 1998 to preserve and promote the grove.

Abẹĺ à is the Yorùbá word for candle wax, which arrived in West Africa within the last fifty years. Àdírẹ alabẹĺ à describes a newer àdìrẹ technique of resist dyeing where wax, is used to create patterns (Renne and Agbaje-Williams, 2005). Although the technique is new àdìrẹ makers still incorporate the older patterns with new designs.

The Nike Center for Art and Culture, Òṣogbo offers àdìrẹ training and other art Fig 30 forms free of charge to Nigerians.

17 The centre, established in 1983 has trained over 3000 Nigerians who now earn a viable income from their skills (Nikeart.com, 2018).

I met some of the students who are taught the traditional Yorùbá àdìrẹ motifs and meanings reflecting contemporary societal issues. They are also encouraged to create new designs to respond to new materials, techniques and technology.

I had a wonderful time in Nigeria, the people were so hospitable and welcoming it was sad to leave because I felt as if I was leaving old friends. My only regret is that I simply ran out of time. I wanted to meet more of the older àdìrẹ makers and deliver the workshops requested by Chief Nike and collaborate with some of the artisans but I hope to return.

Since leaving Nigeria and sharing information about my trip through talks I have pondered the àdìrẹ makers concerns around cultural appropriation.

In 2015 French fashion designer Isabel Marant and another French company, Antik Batik were accused of plagiarism for their embroidered blouses. They were almost identical to the traditional huipil blouses worn in Santa María Tlahuitoltepec, a town in Oaxaca inhabited by Fig 31 the Mixe indigenous group, Fig 31. Oaxaca’s congress responded by declaring the Mixe community's traditional designs and language heritage of different communities helps with as Intangible Cultural Heritage in line with intercultural dialogue, and encourages mutual UNESCO guidelines (Varagur, 2018). The respect for other ways of life (UNESCO, 2018). protected status is not legally binding but recognises that the designs are unique to, and Perhaps it is time for indigenous Yorùbá àdìrẹ originate in, Mixe culture. patterns and process to be classified as intangible heritage. UNESCO originally used the term cultural heritage for physical buildings, monuments and objects but it now includes traditional crafts, festivals and living expressions passed down through generations such as oral traditions, performing arts, r i t u a l s, festivals, indigenous designs and knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts.

Whilst intangible cultural heritage is an important factor in maintaining cultural diversity in the face of growing globalisation. an understanding of the intangible cultural

18 Recommendations

• Diversity within Museums approach for potential researchers whose collections interests may differ from those The lack of diversity within museum of museum staff. workforce is a long discussed topic without significant change. The Arts Council’s • Teaching about textile pollution Culture Change toolkit (2017) sets out clear guidelines for developing diverse UK universities with textile and fashion talent, workforce and leadership. It would courses should teach students how to carry be helpful if museums provided regular out environmental risk assessments of updates on their progress in addressing the potentially polluting aspects of their diversity themes outlined in the toolkit practice or supply chain especially those recommendations. considering overseas manufacturing This will raise awareness of the impact of • UK àdìrẹ collections textile waste and help them to consider their responsibilities as new designers. Most of the àdìrẹ collections held within UK Museums are not on display, therefore • Intangible cultural heritage not accessible to the general public. Museums should consider alternative Intangible cultural heritage is an opportunities to showcase the collections important factor in maintaining cultural perhaps through talks, workshops, diversity, especially with globalisation. publicised tours and online articles with Universities teaching fashion and textile images. The three editors of the newly design should promote an understanding updated book Adire Cloth in Nigeria and respect of the intangible cultural (2016) could be invited to give a talk. heritage of different communities. Their knowledge and experience of àdìrẹ span several decades during colonial and • Cultural appropriation independent Nigeria. With their UK connections, I expect there are times when The debate over cultural appropriation they are all in the UK at the same time. and intellectual property is an ongoing issue in the fashion and textile industry. • New collections research Universities and colleges teaching fashion and textiles should include classes on Museums should review their approach to cultural appropriation, perhaps adopting new collections research. Research policies and standards with clear proposals are usually made by a member definitions on the difference between of Museum staff and a member of appreciation and appropriation. academic staff at a UK University. The Marketing specialist Papallo and Youth process generally does not allow for Programs Director DeWald from the applications directly from potential National Conference for Community students. The lack of diversity in museums Justice a nonprofit human relations is also a characteristic of higher education organisation provide some excellent as black and minority ethnic staff continue practical resources on this subject (Papallo to be underrepresented at senior levels and M'Liss DeWald, 2018). (Adams, 2018). I wonder about the fairness and transparency of the research

19 References

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20 Fakinlede, K. (2006). English-Yoruba, Yoruba-English modern practical dictionary. New York: Hippocrene Books.

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Varagur, K. (2018). Mexico Prevents Indigenous Designs From Being Culturally Appropriated - Again. [online] HuffPost UK. Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/mexico- prevents-indigenous-designs-from-being-culturally-appropriated- again_us_56e87879e4b0b25c9183afc4 [Accessed 13 Jan. 2018].

Yallop, O. (2018). Citarum, the most polluted river in the world?. [online] Telegraph.co.uk. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/environment/10761077/Citarum- the-most-polluted-river-in-the-world.html [Accessed 12 Jan. 2018].

22 Picture Credits

Cover Museum of Fine Arts Boston (2018). Ori Mi Pe. [image] Available at: http://www.mfa.org/collections/ object/ womans-wrapper-ori-mi-pe-good-fortune-510825 [Accessed 3 Jan. 2018]. Fig. 1 Junkere, J. 2017 Nike Center for Art and Culture. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection). Fig. 2-3 Unknown. Ọ̀ rẹ ́ Mẹŕ in four friends àdìrẹ cloth. [image] (Lucille Junkere’s own private collection). Fig. 4 Museum of Fines Arts Boston (2018). Sun bébé. [image] Available at: http://www.mfa.org/collections/ object/ womans-wrapper-sun-b%C3%A9b%C3%A9-lifting-up-the-beads-510834 [Accessed 3 Jan. 2018]. Fig. 5-7 Museum of Fine Arts Boston (2018). Olókun. [image] Available at: http://www.mfa.org/collections/ object/womans-wrapper-adire-eleko-510830 [Accessed 3 Jan. 2018]. Fig. 8 Huuwaida (2018). Cassava Leaves. [image] Available at: http://ummukulthum.com/benefits-of-cassava- leaves/ [Accessed 9 Jan. 2018]. Fig. 9 Junkere, J. (2017) Gàníyù Kàrímù. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection). Fig. 10 Unknown. Machine stitched àdìrẹ cloth Daniel. [image] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection). Fig. 11 Unknown. Machine stitched àdìrẹ cloth Etí. [image] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection). Fig. 12 The British Museum (2017). àdìrẹ machine resist cloth. [image] Available at: http://www.britishmuseum.org/ research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx? objectId=612347&partId=1&searchText=adire&page=1 [Accessed 10 Nov. 2017]. Fig. 13 The British Museum (2018). Machine stitched adire àdìrẹ cloth. [image] Available at: http:// www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx? objectId=615577&partId=1&searchText=adire&page=1 [Accessed 11 Jan. 2018]. Fig. 14 The British Museum (2018). Machine stitched àdìrẹ cloth1953. [image] Available at: http:// www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx? objectId=615568&partId=1&searchText=adire&page=1 [Accessed 11 Jan. 2018]. Fig. 15 The British Museum (2018). Machine stitched àdìrẹ cloth. [image] Available at: http:// www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx? objectId=608947&partId=1&searchText=adire&page=1 [Accessed 11 Jan. 2018]. Fig. 16 The British Museum (2018). Machine stitched àdìrẹ cloth. [image] Available at: http:// www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx? objectId=615570&partId=1&searchText=adire&page=1 [Accessed 11 Jan. 2018]. Fig. 17 Junkere,L. Machine stitched àdìrẹ cloth Daniel. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection). Fig. 18 Junkere, L. (2017) Abẹò́ kuta stencil. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection). Fig. 19, 21 Fig. 20 Hamillgallery.com. (2017). Yoruba Beaded Crowns, Nigeria. [online] Available at: http://hamillgallery.com/ YORUBA/YorubaCrowns/YorubaCrowns.html [Accessed 13 Dec. 2017]. Fig. 22 Junkere,L. Hand stitched àdìrẹ cloth Tribal marks. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection). Fig. 23 Museum of Fine Arts Boston (2018). Ibàdán dùn (Ibadan is Sweet). [image] Available at: http:// www.mfa.org/collections/object/womans-wrapper-ib%C3%A0d%C3%A1n-d%C3%B9n-ibadan-is- sweet-510826 [Accessed 3 Jan. 2018]. Fig 24 Junkere,L. Mayam Akinyemi. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection).

23 Fig. 25 Junkere,L. Yorùbá indigo balls. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection).

Fig. 26 Junkere,L. Yorùbá indigo dyeing. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection).

Fig. 27 Surf Stitch (2018). Blue indigo adire backpack. [image] Available at: https:// www.surfstitch.com/jansport-right-pack-world-backpack-blue-indigo-adire/053329901572.html [Accessed 12 Jan. 2018].

Fig. 28 The Susanne Wenger Adunni Olorisha Trust (2018). Iya Moopo. [image] Available at: http://www.susannewenger-aot.org/projects/iya-moopo/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2018].

Fig. 29 Junkere,L. Heated wax. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection).

Fig. 30 Junkere,L. Àdírẹ alabẹĺ à cloth. [photograph] (Lucille Junkere's own private collection).

Fig 31 Philharmonic Band of Tlahui with their Huipil and photo of the "designer blouse". (2018). [image] Available at: https://twitter.com/SusanaHarp/status/551570678403440640? ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw&ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Fentry%2Fmexico -prevents-indigenous-designs-from-being-culturally-appropriated- again_us_56e87879e4b0b25c9183afc4 [Accessed 13 Jan. 2018].

24 Glossary

abẹĺ à candle wax adé beaded crown àdìrẹ Indigenous Yorùbá indigo dyed resist textiles àdìrẹ ẹlẹḱ o resist dyed cloth with patterned made using starch àdìrẹ alabẹĺ à resist dyed cloth made with patterns made using wax alaros dyers aro indigo dye aṣọ aláró total dyed cloth Ẹgbà lé wà we remain or we exist in Ẹgbàland Egúngún Masquerade representing deceased ancestors. ẹlẹsun something pushed up etí ear ewé ẹgẹ ́ cassava leaves ẹyẹ awó guinea fowl eggs gbetan rooted láfún corn starch ọba king ogun pari war is over olókòto cycle of life Olókun Yorùbá salt water, (seas and oceans) deity Ọ̀ rẹ ́ Mẹŕ in four friends ori mi pé my head is correct, I am wise Sún Bèbè put your beads on

25