Afterword: Japanese Modernism Today

Almost a century and a half after the Meiji Revolution (which was disguised as an imperial ‘restoration’) the concepts of ‘modernity’ and ‘modernism’ have worn rather thin. One might even say that they now seem a little old hat. The world continues to change – even more profoundly or frenetically than before – but we have become so used to constant change as a basic condition of ‘modern life’, in everything from fashion and technology to current jargon and social mores, that it hardly seems worth remarking upon. In other words, we are now so far removed from ‘tradition’ that we feel little need for contrary terms such as ‘moder- nity’ and ‘modernism’. The terms ‘postmodernity’ and ‘postmodernism’, although useful to some extent, per- haps represent, in the final analysis, only a feeble attempt to revive the moribund freshness or sense of novelty and excitement once possessed by the word ‘modern’ and its various derivatives. Without ‘tradition, ‘moder- nity’ has little meaning or function. In the Japanese case in particular, another major dif- ference between ‘now’ and ‘then’ is that, today, Japan is no longer a net ‘importer of modernity’ but is itself

276 Afterword: Japanese Modernism Today 277 a major agent of global change. In the past few decades there has been a momentous shift in the cultural ‘bal- ance of power’ between East and West, with Japan, and increasingly its larger East Asian cousin China, a major contributor to the new global economy and culture of the 21st century. Although it still continues to absorb foreign cultural influences, like every other country, Japan itself now represents ‘cutting-edge modernity’ to the rest of the world, and especially to its Asian neighbours. It no longer looks so much to the West for models to emulate, but has itself become, in many fields, the object of imitation. Thus it is perhaps hardly surprisingly that contem- porary Japanese writers and artists, such as the ‘two Murakamis’, evince none of the transnational ‘anxiety of influence’ that so much troubled their predecessors. No longer perceiving any great cultural divide between East and West, or between tradition and modernity, they naturally feel completely at home in the hybrid global culture of the 21st century and hardly seem to spare a thought for ‘national origins’. Japan today, of course, plays an important role in all our lives, as an economic superpower and as a major contributor to 21st-century global culture. But its his- torical experience of modernity is of wider interest for a number of other reasons too. As a once-remote non- Western society that existed in relative isolation and evolved its own distinctive culture for centuries before its sudden ‘opening’ to Western modernity in the mid- 19th century, Japan provides almost a ‘textbook case’ under almost uncontaminated ‘laboratory conditions’ of the ways in which modernity radically transforms societies and cultures and the political, social, cultural, 278 Modernism and Japanese Culture and psychological responses such transformations can elicit. Furthermore, Japan is in a unique position, his- torically speaking, as a country that has been both pas- sive recipient and active agent of modernity. From the very earliest phase of their modern encounter with the West, the Japanese have helped to define what moder- nity is, for Westerners as well as for themselves. Thus a deeper understanding of ‘Japanese modernity’ will help us, in more ways than one, understand our own experi- ence of this crucial phenomenon in the West. Notes

Introduction: Modernity and Modernism in a Japanese Context

1 The photograph may be viewed on Wikipedia under ‘To– kaido– ’. 2 Wilde, The Artist as Critic, p. 315. 3 The exact state of the ‘modernity’ of Tokugawa Japan (1600–1868) is a matter of dispute among historians, with the recent con- sensus being that it was ‘early modern’ rather than ‘premodern’, and that consequently the mid-19th-century ‘opening to the West’ only accelerated a historical process that was already in progress. Although politically Tokugawa Japan was clearly feudal- istic, socioculturally and even economically, as I shall argue later, it had already begun to ‘modernize’. But, of course, a Western visitor of the 1850s would not have noticed this: to him or her Japan would have seemed to be caught in a ‘medieval’ time-warp. 4 The reasons for this are historically and culturally complex and beyond the scope of the present book, but to list just a few of the more obvious ones: the quick achievement of a high degree of national unity and national consensus in the early Meiji period, a high level of literacy and national education, and intelligent, effective leadership at the top, including from the elite govern- ment bureaucracy, combined with a high level of social discipline and work ethic among the people at large. 5 Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity, p. 94. 6 This view is, in fact, somewhat over-simplified and needs signi- ficant qualification. The onset of modernity was not so sudden an event as once thought: as we shall see in Part II, we also need to be cognizant of the irony that ‘Western modernism’ itself, in the realm of the arts, was substantially shaped by Japanese aesthetic traditions. A good argument could even be made that aesthetic modernism, which ultimately became a global phenom- enon, actually had its beginnings in late 17th-century Japan. 7 Griffin, Series Preface, in Turda, Modernism and Eugenics, p. ix.

279 280 Notes

Part I Constructing ‘Modernity’ and ‘Tradition’: Modernism and Anti-Modernism in Meiji Japan, 1868–1912

Chapter 1 Constructing Meiji Modernity 1 See Marius Jansen in The Cambridge History of Japan, p. 337. 2 W.G. Beasley, The Japanese Experience, p. 225. 3 The Confucian scholar Aizawa Seishisai wrote the polemical tract that had the deepest and most widespread influence on the young revolutionary leaders of the Meiji Restoration (and also on later Japanese nationalists), New Theses (Shinron, 1825), the main source for the ideology of sonno– jo–i (‘expel the barbarian, revere the emperor’) and kokutai (‘national essence’). ‘It was a virtual bible to activists….’ See Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, Anti- Foreignism and Western Learning in Early-Modern Japan: The New Theses of 1825, p. iv. 4 Sources of Japanese Tradition, p. 13. 5 Ibid., p. 8. 6 Ibid. 7 Henshall, A History of Japan, pp. 71–2. 8 Ibid., p. 13. 9 Ibid., p. 15. 10 Fred G. Notehelfer, Sources of Japanese Tradition, pp. 17–18. 11 Hirakawa, in The Cambridge History of Japan, p. 462. 12 Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, p. 321. 13 Ibid., p. 322. 14 Apart from Fukuzawa, another famous Japanese expression of this link between ‘individualism’ and ‘modernity’ was by the leading Meiji writer, Natsume So– seki, in his 1914 talk, ‘My Individualism’ (Watakushi no kojin-shugi). (See Natsume 2005). On the other side of the coin, of course, modernity was also blamed for the emergence of ‘mass man’ in the early 20th century. 15 See Masako Gavin, in Starrs, Japanese Cultural Nationalism, p. 203. 16 Y. Takahashi ‘Nihon jinshu kairyo– ron’, Meiji bunka shiyo– so–sho 6 (Tokyo: Kazama Shobo, 1961), p. 49. 17 Ibid., p. 46. 18 Ibid., p. 17. Rumi Sakamoto, ‘Race-ing Japan’, in Starrs, Japanese Cultural Nationalism, pp. 185–6. 19 Turda, Modernism and Eugenics, pp. 4–6. Notes 281

20 Griffin, Series Preface, in Turda, Modernism and Eugenics, p. xiv. 21 See Sakamoto, ‘Race-ing Japan’, in Starrs, Japanese Cultural Nationalism, pp. 180–5. 22 Ibid., p. 185. 23 Yo– Hirayama, Fukuzawa Yukichi no Shinjitsu (The Truth about Fukuzawa Yukichi, 2004), argues that an editor of Fukuzawa’s Complete Works in the 1920s and ’30s erroneously included unsigned editorials written by Fukuzawa’s colleagues, including the datsu-A ron article. 24 Sakamoto, ‘Race-ing Japan’, in Starrs, Japanese Cultural Nationalism, p. 182. 25 Ibid. 26 Beasley, The Japanese Experience, p. 225. 27 Kanagaki, ‘The Beefeater’, in Keene, ed., Modern Japanese Literature, pp. 31–2. 28 Hattori, ‘The Western Peep Show’, in Keene, ed., Modern Japanese Literature, p. 34. 29 Ibid., p. 35. 30 Stanley-Baker, Japanese Art, p. 192.

Chapter 2 The Anti-Modernist Backlash: Constructing Meiji Tradition 1 For a fictional depiction of these groups, see Mishima Yukio’s novel, Runaway Horses. 2 Walter Skya has pointed to the numerous other affinities between Japanese (Shinto– ) and Islamic ‘religious terrorism’. See Skya, Japan’s Holy War, pp. 3–5. 3 Alexandre Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel (quoted in Wolfe, Suicidal Narrative, p. 19). 4 Mitford himself was a significant figure; he went on to write Tales of Old Japan, which includes the story of the 47 ro–nin, and shows his own keen awareness that he was witnessing the van- ishing of ‘old Japan’. He was also the grandfather of the cele- brated Mitford sisters. 5 Mitford, Mitford’s Japan, p. 87. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid., pp. 87–8. 8 Ibid., p. 86. 9 Ibid., p. 250. 10 Satow, A Diplomat in Japan, p. 343. 11 Ibid., p. 344. 12 Mitford, Mitford’s Japan, p. 250. 282 Notes

13 Ibid. 14 The most striking ‘modern myth’ associated with the ‘death of samurai tradition’ as one of the immediate and most obvious consequences of Japan’s ‘modernization’ is that of Saigo– Taka- mori (1827–1877), sometimes called the ‘last samurai’. He was not the first nor the last Japanese nationalist/patriot to have an ambivalent attitude towards ‘modernization’: at first one of the central pillars of the new Meiji government, he then turned against his fellow modernizers when they took a step too far, issuing a decree that disestablished and outlawed the very samurai class itself in 1876. See Mark Ravina, The Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo– Takamori. – 15 Mori Ogai, The Incident at Sakai, p. 105. 16 Ibid., p. 109. 17 Ibid., p. 116. 18 Mishima, On Hagakure, p. 99. 19 Stokes, The Life and Death of Yukio Mishima, p. 47. P.M. Sato– called Mishima kichigai, ‘crazy’. 20 Mishima, Runaway Horses, p. 391. 21 Wolfe, Suicidal Narrative, p. 33. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid., pp. 34–5. 24 Ibid., p. 35. 25 Ravina, The Last Samurai, p. 190. 26 Ibid. 27 Carol Gluck, Japan’s Modern Myths. 28 Ravina, ‘The Apocryphal Suicide of Saigo– Takamori’, p. 691. 29 Ibid., p. 696. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid., pp. 701–2. 32 Ibid., p. 702. 33 Mishima, My Friend Hitler, p. 2. 34 Loti, ‘A Ball in Edo’, p. 4. 35 Ibid., p. 10. 36 Akutagawa, ‘The Ball’, p. 151. 37 For instance, David Rosenfield, ‘Counter-Orientalism and Textual Play in Akutagawa’s ‘The Ball’ (‘Buto– kai’)’, in Japan Forum, 12(1) (2000), p. 53. 38 Mishima, My Friend Hitler, pp. 20–1. 39 Quoted in Ko– saka, Japanese Thought in the Meiji Era, vol. IX, p. 379. 40 Sources of Japanese Tradition, vol. 2, p. 746. 41 Ibid. Notes 283

42 Quoted in ibid., p.360. For a reprint of the Japanese original, see Ko– saka 1999. 43 Gluck, Japan’s Modern Myths, p. 136. Gluck is quoting from Chogyu– zenshu– , vol. 4, pp. 434–5. 44 For nuanced and balanced analyses of Japanese pan-Asianism that take into account both the idealistic and cynical uses made of it, see Duara, ‘The Discourse of Civilization and Pan-Asianism’, and also Han, ‘Envisioning a Liberal Empire’. 45 See Ko– saka, Japanese Thought in the Meiji Era, p. 347. 46 Berlin, The Roots of Romanticism, p. 64. 47 Ibid., p. 65. 48 Hearn, Kokoro: Hints and Echoes of Japanese Inner Life, p. 6. 49 Ota, Basil Hall Chamberlain, pp. 186–9. 50 Quoted in Ko– saka, Japanese Thought in the Meiji Era, p. 379. 51 Quoted in Bourdaghs, The Dawn That Never Comes, p. 4. 52 Hearn, Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation, p. 333. 53 Spencer’s advice was sought by the Meiji government in 1892 and he wrote a letter in response basically recommending that Japan, for the sake of its own survival, should keep its distance from the West and from Westerners in every way possible. The letter was published as an appendix to Hearn’s Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation after Spencer’s death. See Henshall, A History of Japan, p. 78. 54 See, for instance, the articles reprinted in Mutsu, The British Press and the Japan-British Exhibition of 1910. 55 Nish, ‘Nationalism in Japan,’ in Michael Leifer, ed., Asian National- ism, pp. 83–4. 56 O’Connor, ed., Japanese Propaganda: Selected Readings. 57 Makino, ‘Lafcadio Hearn and Yanagita Kunio’. 58 In a conversation of 1988, Nakasone told Tony O’Reilly that Hearn ‘made my childhood, and that of almost every other child in the Japan I grew up in’. See O’Reilly, ‘Foreword’, in Sean G. Ronan, ed., Irish Writing on Lafcadio Hearn and Japan, p. xi. No less a personage than Emperor Hirohito was equally laudatory of Hearn’s work in a speech welcoming the Irish President in 1983 (The Irish Times, Dublin, June 4, 2002). 59 Shirane, ed., Inventing the Classics, p. 14. 60 Ibid., p. 51. 61 Ibid., p. 32. 62 Ibid., p. 36. 63 Ibid., p. 35. 64 Ibid. 65 Ibid., p. 37. 284 Notes

Chapter 3 The Novel as Modernist Medium: Modernity and Anti-Modernity in Meiji Fiction 1 Tsubouchi, The Essence of the Novel, in Keene, ed., Modern Japanese Literature, p. 57. 2 Weller, Modernism and Nihilism, p. 24. 3 Quoted in Ryan, Japan’s First Modern Novel, p. 20. 4 Japanese naturalism was a literary movement inspired by turn- of-the-century French and German naturalism, and like writers such as Zola, for instance, it was famous – or notorious – for its frank and explicit treatment of sex. 5 Mori, Youth and Other Stories, p. 222. 6 See Nagashima, ed., Return to Japan from ‘Pilgrimage’ to the West. 7 Junshi was the occasional samurai practice, outlawed by the Tokugawa government, of a vassal committing ritual suicide on the death of his feudal lord, with the idea of serving him even in death (the original meaning of ‘samurai’ being ‘one who serves’). 8 Mori, The Incident at Sakai, p. 66. 9 Marcus, Paragons of the Ordinary: The Biographical Literature of – Mori Ogai. 10 Natsume, Kokoro, p. 246. 11 Ibid., p. 246. 12 Ibid., p. 245. 13 Natsume, And Then, pp. 60–1. 14 Ibid., p. 72. 15 Shimazaki, Before the Dawn, p. xi. 16 Ibid., p. 84. 17 For an explanation of the useful concept of a ‘sheltering sky’, see Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, pp. 76–8.

Part II High Modernism and the Fascist Backlash, 1912–1945

1 Arthur Rimbaud, Une saison en enfer, in Oeuvres complètes, Paris, Gallimard, Bibliothèque de la Pléiade, 1979, p. 116. 2 Wiesenfeld, Mavo, p. 2. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid., p. 1. 5 Ibid., p. 3. 6 Ibid., p. 2. 7 Ibid., p. 5. Notes 285

8 Ibid., p. 3. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 Szostak, ‘“Fair is Foul, and Foul is Fair”: Kyoto Nihonga, Anti- Bijin Portraiture and the Psychology of the Grotesque’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 12 Ibid. 13 Wu, ‘Transcending the Boundaries of the “isms”: Pursuing Modernity through the Machine in 1920s and 1930s Japan- ese Avant-Garde Art’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 14 Ibid. 15 Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, pp. 2–8. 16 Skya, Japan’s Holy War, p. 201. 17 Der Spiegel, July, 2007. 18 Williams, ‘(Re)constituting the Historical Trauma of the War in East Asia: A Literary Response to the “Overcoming Modernity” Symposium’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 19 See Tyler, Modanizumu, pp. 7–8. 20 Kawakita, Modern Currents in Japanese Art, p. 121. 21 Ibid., p. 110. 22 Ibid., p. 124. 23 Ibid., p. 123. 24 Keene, Dawn to the West, p. 631. 25 For an extended analysis of Kawabata’s lifelong modernism, see my Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari, especially Chapter Four, ‘Between Tradition and Modernity’. 26 Keene, Yokomitsu Ri’ichi, Modernist, p. 62. 27 Baker, Japanese Art, p. 198. 28 Ibid., p. 199. 29 Ibid., pp. 199–200. 30 Ibid., p. 201. 31 Gardner, Advertising Tower: Japanese Modernism and Modernity in the 1920s, p. 17. 32 Tyler, Modanizumu, p. 16. 33 Berger, Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse, p. 1. 34 Ibid., p. 2. 35 The significant influence of traditional Japanese architecture and interior design on Western modernist architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Bruno Taut and Le Corbusier has been well docu- mented by other scholars. 286 Notes

36 Miner, The Japanese Tradition in British and American Literature, p. 270. 37 Ibid., p. 275. 38 Ibid., p. 268. 39 Ibid., p. 279. 40 Quoted in Suzuki, ‘Rewriting the Literary History of Japanese Modernism’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 41 Kawakita, Modern Currents in Japanese Art, p. 118. 42 Harrison, Modernism, p. 9. 43 See Suzuki, ‘Rewriting the Literary History of Japanese Modernism’. 44 Quoted in Bradbury and McFarlane, Modernism, p. 20. 45 Quoted in ibid., p. 20. 46 Ibid., p. 24. 47 Skya, Japan’s Holy War, p. 152. 48 Ibid., p. 201. 49 Tansman, The Aesthetics of Japanese Fascism, p. 15. 50 Ibid., pp. 17–18. 51 Ibid., p. 3. 52 Ibid., p. 9. 53 Ibid., p. 3. 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid., pp. 16–17. 57 Ibid., p. 49. 58 Ibid., p. 40. 59 Ibid., p. 39. 60 Ibid., p. 40. 61 Ibid., p. 32. 62 Ibid., p. 238. 63 Ibid., p. 2. 64 Ibid., p. 18. 65 Ibid. For a fascinating account of how a ‘philosophy of musubi’ provided a justification for Japanese imperialism see also Henshall, A History of Japan, pp. 113–14. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid., p. 53. 68 Ibid., p. 19. 69 Ibid. 70 Tanahashi, ed., Moon in a Dewdrop: Writings of Zen Master Do–gen, p. 32. 71 Heraclitus: fragment 49a. 72 Weller, Modernism and Nihilism, p. 33. The quotes are from Nietzsche. Notes 287

73 Kawakita, Modern Currents in Japanese Art, p. 11. 74 Nygren, Time Frames: Japanese Cinema and the Unfolding of History, p. 34. 75 Ibid., p. 34. 76 Ibid., p. 34. 77 Quoted in Lippit, ‘A Modernist Nostalgia: The Colonial Land- scape of Enlightenment Tokyo in Akutagawa Ryo– nosuke and Edogawa Rampo’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 78 Hayter, ‘Genealogies of Perception’ (unpublished conference paper). 79 Dodd, ‘Modernism and its Endings: Kajii Motojiro– as Transi- tional Writer’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 80 On Kawabata’s modernist ‘haiku novels’ see my Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari. 81 On zen-ei shodo– see Starrs, ‘Ink Traces of the Dancing Calli- graphers: Zen-ei Sho in Japan Today’. 82 Morton, ‘Modernism in Prewar Japanese Poetry’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 83 Johnson, ‘A Modernist Traditionalist: Miyagi Michio, Trans- culturalism, and the Making of a Music Tradition’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 84 Szostak, ‘Fair is Foul, and Foul is Fair’: Kyoto Nihonga, Anti- Bijin Portraiture and the Psychology of the Grotesque’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 85 Ibid. 86 See Starrs, ‘Ink Traces of the Dancing Calligraphers: Zen-ei Sho in Japan Today’. 87 Claremont, ‘Evolutionary Aspects of Modernism in Japanese Drama’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forth- coming 2011). 88 Peter Eckersall, ‘Towards Staging Liquid Modernity: Hirata Oriza’s “Tokyo Notes”, the Everyday and the New Modern’, paper delivered at the Otago Conference on Japanese Modernism, August 2009; and Vera Mackie, ‘Instructing, Constructing, Deconstructing: The Embodied and Disembodied Performances of Yoko Ono’, in Roy Starrs (ed.), Rethinking Japanese Modernism, Leiden: Brill, 2011. 89 Nygren, Time Frames, p. 34. 90 Brown, ‘Changing the Subject: Modernism and the Travel Poetry of Mori Michiyo’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 91 Ibid. 92 Lippit, ‘A Modernist Nostalgia: The Colonial Landscape of Enlightenment Tokyo in Akutagawa Ryo– nosuke and Edogawa 288 Notes

Rampo’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forth- coming 2011). 93 Suter, ‘Cosmopolitanism and Anxiety of Influence in Akuta- gawa Ryu– nosuke’s Kirishitan mono’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 94 Ibid. 95 Lippit, ‘A Modernist Nostalgia: The Colonial Landscape of Enlightenment Tokyo in Akutagawa Ryu– nosuke and Edogawa Rampo’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forth- coming 2011). 96 Dil, ‘The Influence of America’s Melancholic Modernism and Emerging Postmodernism on Murakami Haruki’s Early Fiction and Beyond’, in Roy Starrs, ed., Rethinking Japanese Modernism (forthcoming 2011). 97 See Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. 98 See Sato– , Currents in Japanese Cinema, pp. 8 and 57. 99 For a fuller account, see my Soundings in Time: The Fictive Art of Kawabata Yasunari. 100 Keene, Dawn to the West, p. 631. 101 Petersen, The Moon in the Water, p. 126. 102 Keene, Dawn to the West, p. 802. 103 Kawabata Yasunari zenshu– , vol. 30, pp. 172–83. 104 Ibid., pp. 198–203. 105 Kawabata Yasunari, Zenshu– 3 (Tokyo: Shincho– sha, 1980), p. 372. 106 Ibid., p. 345. 107 Ibid., pp. 345–6. 108 Ibid., p. 346. 109 Ibid. 110 Ibid. 111 Ibid., p. 348. 112 Ibid., pp. 348–9. 113 Ibid., p. 349. 114 Ibid. 115 Ibid. 116 Ibid. 117 Ibid., pp. 349–50. 118 Ibid., p. 362. 119 One need not belabor the autobiographical import of this Kawa- bata heroine’s obsession with her childlessness and need to jus- tify it, but the fact is that Kawabata’s own childlessness is yet another thing he had in common with her – as well as, one assumes, a concomitant need for art and religion. 120 Kawabata Yasunari, Zenshu– 3, p. 367. 121 Ibid., pp. 367–8. Notes 289

122 Ibid., p. 370. 123 Ibid. 124 Ibid., p. 371. 125 Ibid., p. 376. 126 Ibid., p. 377. 127 Ibid., p. 376. 128 Yasunari Kawabata, Snow Country, translated by Edward G. Seiden- sticker (New York: Berkley, 1960), p. 115. 129 Ibid., p. 16. 130 Ibid., p. 74. 131 Ibid., p. 73. 132 Ibid., p. 74. 133 Ibid., p. 75. 134 Ibid., pp. 125–7. 135 Ibid., p. 127. 136 Ibid., p. 126. 137 Ibid., p. 34. 138 Ibid., p. 29. 139 Snow Country, p. 121. 140 Ibid., p. 122. 141 Ibid., pp. 126–7. 142 Ibid., p. 142. 143 Tansman, The Aesthetics of Japanese Fascism, p. 3. 144 Ibid., p. 15. 145 Ibid., pp. 32–3. 146 Ibid., pp. 128–9. 147 Ibid., p. 130. 148 Ibid., p. 125. 149 Ibid., p. 1. 150 Ibid., p. 17. 151 Ibid., p. 30. 152 Ibid., p. 255.

Part III The Rival Modernisms of Postwar Japan, 1945–1970

1 John Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II, p. 38. 2 Ibid., p. 41. 3 Harry Wray, ‘Nationalism, Cultural Imperialism, and Language Reform in Occupied Japan’, in R. Starrs, ed., Asian Nationalism in an Age of Globalization, pp. 253–4. 4 Ibid., p. 254. 290 Notes

5 Mishima, ‘Yang-Ming Thought as Revolutionary Philosophy’, trans. Harris Martin. The Japan Interpreter, vol. vii, no. 1 (Winter, 1971), p. 84. 6 Quoted in Donald Keene, Dawn to the West, p. 968. 7 Kuwabara Takeo, ‘The Secondary Art of Modern Haiku’, in Japan and Western Civilization, pp. 187–202. 8 Ibid., p. 187. 9 Quoted in Keene, Dawn to the West, p. 1008. 10 Quoted in Isogai Hideo, Nihon kindai bungaku shi, pp. 194–5. 11 My comments here should not be interpreted, of course, as a claim that Western writers, in general, have been any more suc- cessful in presenting complexly human portraits of the Japanese or of other non-Westerners – although, as a matter of fact, one could point to at least two American novels which came out of the Occupation and which are quite successful in this res- pect: John Hersey’s remarkable Hiroshima (1946) and James Michener’s less remarkable but nonetheless creditable Sayonara (1954). 12 Kawabata, The Sound of the Mountain, p. 243. 13 Mishima, Temple of the Golden Pavilion, p. 105. 14 Kawabata, The Master of Go,p. 116. 15 Ibid., p. 117. 16 Gessel, The Sting of Life, pp. 210–11. 17 Hibbett, Contemporary Japanese Literature, p. 136. 18 Ibid., p. 132. – 19 For instance, in Oe’s story, ‘Human Sheep’ (Ningen no hitsuji, 1958), a university student encounters some drunken GIs with a Japanese prostitute on a bus. At the prostitute’s suggestion, one of the American soldiers humiliates some Japanese males on the bus, including the student, by forcing them to bend over and expose their buttocks ‘like sheep’. 20 Ibid., p. 467. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid., p. 467. 23 Ibid. 24 Tanizaki, The Makioka Sisters, p. 64. 25 It would be wrong to say that there was no American influence whatsoever on postwar Japanese high culture. In matters of – style, for instance, even Oe was influenced by the extreme colloquialism – including the daring new use of ‘vulgar lan- guage’ – of 1950s American writers such as Jack Kerouac and J.D. Salinger. But this was a stylistic more than an ideological influence. For me the most interesting case is in the visual arts: Notes 291

the mutual influence in the 1950s between American abstract expressionism and Japanese modernist calligraphy – the so- called zen-ei shodo– or ‘avant-garde calligraphy’. For further on this see Roy Starrs, ‘Ink Traces of the Dancing Calligraphers: Zen-ei Sho in Japan Today’. – 26 Kuroko Kazuo. ‘Oe Kenzaburo– ’s Early Fiction and the “Postwar”’, p. 176. 27 Kato– Shu– ichi, in ‘Thinking Beyond Parallel Traditions: Literature and Thought in Postwar Japan and France’, p. 54. – 28 Oe Kenzaburo– , Japan, the Ambiguous, and Myself,p. 118. 29 Keene, Dawn to the West, p. 981. 30 Quoted in Keene, Dawn to the West, p. 982. 31 Slaymaker, ‘Sartre’s Fiction in Postwar Japan’, in Confluences, p. 86. 32 Douglas Slaymaker, Postwar Bodies: Images of the Body in Postwar Japanese Fiction. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004. 33 Kato– Shu– ichi, in ‘Thinking Beyond Parallel Traditions: Literature and Thought in Postwar Japan and France’, p. 61. 34 Matt Matsuda, ‘East of No West: The Posthistoire of Postwar France and Japan’, in Slaymaker, ed., Confluences, pp. 17–18. – 35 Wilson, The Marginal World of Oe Kenzaburo–, p. 129. – 36 Oe, ‘Speaking on Japanese Culture before a Scandinavian Audience’, in Japan, the Ambiguous, and Myself, p. 35. 37 Ibid., p. 128. – 38 Oe, Japan, the Ambiguous, and Myself,p. 114. 39 Ibid., p. 116. 40 Ibid., p. 114. 41 The story has been translated by John Bester as ‘The Catch’ in The Catch and Other War Stories. – 42 Oe, The Catch and Other Stories, p. 41. 43 Ibid., p. 47. 44 Ibid., p. 48. 45 Ibid., p. 50. – 46 Oe, Japan, the Ambiguous, p. 125. – 47 Wilson, The Marginal World of Oe Kenzaburo–, pp. 113–14. 48 Napier, Escape from the Wasteland, p. 221. 49 Ibid., p. 220. 50 Ibid., p. 217. 51 Ninomiya, La Pensée de Kobayashi Hideo, p. 202. 52 Mishima, ‘The National Characteristics of Japanese Culture’, in Sources of Japanese Tradition, p. 1179. 53 Quoted in Donald Keene, Dawn to the West (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1984), p. 825. 292 Notes

54 Mishima, ‘Yang-Ming Thought as Revolutionary Philosophy’, trans. Harris Martin. The Japan Interpreter, vol. vii, no. 1 (Winter, 1971), p. 84. 55 Ibid., p. 78. 56 Ibid., p. 86. 57 Mishima Yukio Zenshu– 19, p. 29. (The Temple of Dawn, p. 18). 58 Jeffrey Herf, ‘Reactionary Modernism Reconsidered: Modernity, the West and the Nazis’, in Sternhell, The Intellectual Revolt against Liberal Democracy, 1870–1945, p. 131. 59 See McCormack, ‘New Tunes for an Old Song: Nationalism and Identity in Post-Cold War Japan’, for a useful summary of this step-by-step process. 60 The Japan Times Online, 17 May 2000. 61 Ibid. 62 Mishima, ‘Yang-Ming Thought as Revolutionary Philosophy’, p. 82. 63 Nietzsche, Will to Power, p. 21. 64 Mishima Yukio Zenshu– 33, p. 397. 65 Mishima, On Hagakure, p. 99. 66 Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, pp. 179–82. 67 Ibid., p. 317. 68 Ibid., p. 319. 69 Mishima Yukio Zenshu– 18, p. 589. (Runaway Horses, p. 197). 70 The Japan Interpreter, vol. vii, no. 1 (Winter, 1971), p. 74. 71 Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, pp. 177–9. 72 Tansman, 2009, p. 15. 73 Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, p. 179. 74 Ibid. 75 Ibid., p. 178. 76 Ibid., p. 244. 77 The Japan Interpreter, vol. VII, no. 1 (Winter, 1971), p. 74. 78 Ibid. 79 Ibid. 80 Ibid., p. 85.

Part IV Empty and Marvellous: Japan in the ‘Postmodern Age’, 1970–2010

1 Quoted in Alan Watts, The Way of Zen, p. 131 New York: Random House, 1989. 2 Asada, ‘Infantile Capitalism’, pp. 275–6. 3 Rimer, ‘High Culture in the Showa Period’, pp. 267–8. Notes 293

4 Miyoshi, ‘Against the Native Grain: The Japanese Novel and the “Postmodern” West’, p. 148. 5 Barthes, Empire of Signs. 6 As Julian Chapple has pointed out, there is some disagreement among social scientists about the actual reasons why Japanese women are having less children, especially whether this is a matter of ‘lifestyle choice’ or more because of economic con- straints. See Chapple, ‘The Dilemma Posed by Japan’s Population Decline’, p. 1. 7 Bellringer, From Modernity to Postmodernity. 8 Ibid. 9 See Reader, Religious Violence in Contemporary Japan, pp. 84–8 on this and for a description of Aum’s elaborate hierarchical system of ‘spiritual ranks’. On the influence of science-fiction cartoons and comic books on Aum see Reader, pp. 109 and 185–7. 10 Cornyetz ‘Fetishized Blackness: Hip Hop and Racial Desire in Contemporary Japan’. 11 Eco, A Theory of Semiotics, p. 150. 12 Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity: History, Culture, and Community in Interwar Japan. 13 Silverberg, ‘Constructing the Japanese Ethnography of Modernity’, p. 38. 14 Nathan, Japan Unbound, p. 139. 15 Ibid., pp. 139–47. 16 Ibid., pp. 144–5. 17 Ibid., p. 149. 18 Zerzan, ‘The Catastrophe of Postmodernism’. 19 Nathan, Japan Unbound, p. 133. 20 Ibid., p. 131. 21 Ibid., p. 123. 22 Sakamoto, ‘“Will You Go to War? Or Will You Stop Being Japan- ese?” Nationalism and History in Kobayashi Yoshinori’s Sensoron’. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 Nathan, Japan Unbound, p. 134. – 26 Oe, ‘Japan, The Ambiguous, and Myself’, p. 118. – 27 Oe, ‘On Modern and Contemporary Japanese Literature’, p. 50. 28 Miyoshi, ‘Against the Native Grain: The Japanese Novel and the “Postmodern” West’, p. 157. 29 Gurewitch, The Ironic Temper and the Comic Imagination, p. 160. 30 Asada, ‘Infantile Capitalism’, pp. 275–6. 31 Kelts, ‘The Japanese Soul’. 32 Nathan, Japan Unbound, pp. 250–1. 294 Notes

33 The DPJ or Democratic Party of Japan, which replaced the LDP as ruling party in 2009, claims to be ‘reformist’ but has so far shown little evidence of this – perhaps not surprisingly, considering that its so-called ‘shadow sho– gun’, the leader of its main faction, is the scandal-plagued Ozawa Ichiro– , a former LDP leader. See my article in the July 4, 2011 issue of the New Statesman, ‘Zen, Japan and the art of democracy’, available online at: http://www.new- statesman.com/asia/2011/07/japan-essay-nature-earthquake 34 Ibid., p. 251. 35 Eckermann, Conversations of Goethe with Johann Peter Eckermann, pp. 165–6. Translation slightly modified. 36 Damrosch, What is World Literature?, p. 7. 37 Goethe, Essays on Art and Literature, p. 227. 38 Strich, Goethe and World Literature, p. 351. 39 Beck, The Cosmopolitan Vision, p. 7. 40 Ibid., p. 2. 41 Ibid., p. 6. 42 Ibid., p. 7. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. References

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A Drifting Cloud (Ukigumo, alienation, 18, 102, 107, 108, 1886–1889), 89–90 135, 162, 163, 169, 218, A Travel Guide to the West (Seiyo– 260 Tabiannai, 1867), 41 Amaterasu (Sun Goddess), 223 A-bombs, 215, 234 America, United States of, 19, Abe ichizoku (The Abe Clan, 27, 34, 35, 36, 40, 70, 74, 1913), 94 75, 77, 78, 86, 101, 125, absurdism, 208 128, 151, 183, 187, 189, activism, 211, 237 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, activists, 280 196, 197, 200, 202, 203, advanced capitalism, 251, 267, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209, 271 212, 213, 214, 219, 228, advanced modernity, 4, 106, 231, 232, 247, 249, 250, 248, 251 259, 263, 265, 269, 286, aesthetes, 89, 105, 159, 172, 288, 290, 291, 296, 298, 173 299, 300 aesthetic modernism, xiv, 9, 18, ‘American Hijiki’ (1967), 203–4, 108, 197, 279 300 aestheticism, 178 American style, 193, 194, 230 aesthetics, i, xvii, 80, 104, 105, Americanization, 213, 232 108–9, 113, 120, 126, 134, Americans, viii, 183, 185, 187, 135, 136, 138, 141, 142, 200, 205, 208, 230 147, 148, 154, 178–9, An Encouragement of Learning 211, 240, 286, 289, (Gakumon no Susume, 303 1872–1876), 21 African-Americans, 253 An Illustrated Book of Physical Afro-Caribbeans, 75 Sciences (Kinmo– Kyu–ri Zukai, agrarianism, 101, 119 1868), 21 Aizawa Seishisai (1781–1863), anachronisms, 49, 50, 62, 76, 280 93, 95, 96 Ajia-shugi-sha (pan-Asianists), anarchism, 104, 105–6 233 ancestor-religion, 65, 72 Akutagawa Ryu–nosuke ancestors, 7, 191, 194, 255 (1892–1927), 60–3, 136–7, anime, 193, 225, 263, 267 143, 150–1, 219, 282, anomie, xiii, xvii, 18, 50, 88, 287–8, 295, 298 107, 135, 247, 260, 261

304 Index 305 anti-aestheticism, 172 199, 203, 208, 252, 262, anti-Americanism, 232 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, anti-bijin painting, 146, 147, 273, 281, 285, 286, 287, 302 288, 290, 294, 295, 296, anti-essentialism, 253 298, 302, 303 anti-foreignism, 303 art history, 122, 125, 141 anti-heroes, 89–90, 177 artists, 3, 9, 50, 60, 104, 105, anti-intellectualism, 267 106, 107, 109, 112, 115, anti-modernism, vii, 6, 7, 11, 116, 117, 118, 120, 121, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25, 124, 125, 127, 128, 130, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 131, 136, 138, 141, 145, 41, 43–7, 49, 51–3, 55, 57, 147, 148, 149, 158, 196, 58, 59, 61, 63–5, 67, 69, 71, 197, 198, 208, 225, 250, 73, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83–5, 87, 262, 263, 264, 265, 268, 89, 90, 91, 93, 95, 97, 99, 277, 279, 303 101, 111–12, 119, 135, 152, Asada Akira, 247, 265, 292, 293, 178, 280–1, 284 295 anti-monism, 163 Asahara Sho–ko–, 252 anti-narrative, 170 Asia, 15, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 38, anti-rationalism, 144 45, 68, 70, 77, 149, 184, anti-realism, 158 185, 214, 218, 234, 256, anti-scientism, 163 258, 271, 277, 283, 285, anti-traditionalism, 127, 130 289, 296, 297, 299, 300, anti-US-Japan Treaty riots, 236 301, 302, 303 anti-Westernism, 37 Asians, 26, 29, 30, 77, 215 apoliticality, 105, 108, 159, 178, assassinations, 63, 90, 233 217 ‘At a Railway Station’ (Hearn Aquinas, Thomas, 138 story, 1906), 71–2 architecture, 84, 104, 122, 285 atavism, 93, 235 aristocracy, 43, 64, 81, 82, 186, Aum Shinrikyo–, 249, 252, 260, 268 293, 301 Aristotle, 163 autobiography, 19, 99, 288 Armageddon, 187 automatism, 158 arrogantism, 259, 261 avant-gardism, xii, 103, 104, art, 8, 36, 42, 91, 103, 104, 107, 111, 115, 124, 129, 146, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 148, 154, 157, 158, 159, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 197, 228, 285, 291, 303 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, Bakhtin, Mikhail, 222 130, 131, 137, 138, 139, bakumatsu period, 20, 124 140, 141, 145, 147, 148, ballet, 175 157, 158, 159, 163, 166, Barthes, Roland, 248, 258, 269, 169, 170, 174, 175, 196, 293, 295 306 Index

Basho–, 126, 229 Buddhism, 123, 138, 140, 148, Beasley, W.G., 15, 33, 280, 281, 232, 252 295 Buddhists, 14, 33, 36, 37, 39, Beato, Felice, 1 138, 228 beauties, 85, 147, 157 bundan (literary establishment), beauty, 42, 62, 112, 125, 136, 103, 199 137, 138, 148, 180, 221, bunjinga (literati painting), 146, 229, 230 148 Beck, Ulrich, 273–4 bunmei kaika (civilization and beef, 14, 33, 34 enlightenment), 13, 28 beef-eating, 33, 281 bunraku (puppet theatre), Before the Dawn see Yoake mae 126 Bellringer, J.D., 251, 293, 295 bushido–, 42, 43, 46, 47, 49, 56, Berger, Klaus, 120–2, 285, 295 57, 68, 93, 211, 229, 237, Berlin, 118, 274; (Weimar 241, 242 Berlin), 104, 117 Bushido–: The Soul of Japan Berlin, Isaiah, 70, 71, 283, 295 (1904), 68 Bible, 93, 233, 258, 280 Buto–kai (The Ball, 1919), 60–2 bijin, 147, 285, 287 bijo, 157 calligraphers, 287, 291, 302 biographers, 226, 259 calligraphy, 146, 148, 291 biographies, 92, 94, 95, 284, Camus, Albert, 213 299 capitalism, 5, 25, 225, 247, biology, 27 248, 262, 265, 292, 293, Bismarck, Otto von, 25, 76 295 Bizen Incident, 40, 42, 46, 48 capitalists, 55, 89, 106, 108, blowback effect, 127, 145, 149 123, 189, 194, 196, 197, Boardman, Gwenn Petersen, 215, 216, 230, 251, 270, 155, 301 271 Borges, Jorge Luis, 52 carnality, 212 Bourdaghs, Michael, 283, 295 carnivalesque, the, 222 bourgeoisie, 108, 173, 211 cartoons, 193, 252, 258, 264, boycott of Western goods, 37 267, 293 Bradbury, Malcolm, 130, 286, causation, xii, 180 295 Cervantes, Miguel de, 52 Brazil, 184 Cézanne, Paul, 113 Breton, André, 116, 157, 158 Chamberlain, Basil Hall, 57, Britain, 15, 25, 32, 38, 39, 43, 283, 301 58, 62, 76, 77, 78, 232, 249, Chapple, Julian, 293, 295 283, 286, 299, 300 Charter Oath, 15 Buddha, 34, 193 Chartists, 3 Buddha-nature, 139 chauvinism, 203 Buddhahood, 167 Chijimi weaving, 174 Index 307

China, 15, 16, 23, 29, 30, 31, 197, 209, 216, 226, 227, 32, 38, 58, 68, 76, 77, 191, 234, 236, 241, 253, 270 194, 200, 256, 257, 259, conservatives, 38, 74, 193, 277, 297 236 Chinmoku no to– (The Tower of Constitution (Japanese), 58, 59, Silence, 1910), 90–1 64, 65, 66, 189, 196, 227, Chirac, Jacques, 213 231, 235, 237, 241, 242 chivalry, 41, 43 constructivism, 104 Christianity, 43, 44, 66, 68, 74, consumers, 33, 105, 193, 251, 79, 150, 207, 252 255, 256, 267, 270 Churchill, Winston, 189 consumerism, 33, 35, 197, 248, cinema, 79, 117, 118, 142, 154, 250, 262, 271 170, 287, 288, 300, 301 Corbusier, Le, 285 see also film Corneille, Pierre, 125 cities, 2, 3, 34, 39, 46, 84, 85, Cornyetz, Nina, 253, 293, 296 117, 118, 119, 123, 190, Cortazzi, Hugh, 299 213, 217, 256 cosmology, 214 citizens, 22, 48, 82, 105, 180, cosmopolitanism, 119, 131, 215, 224 135, 149, 150, 151, 266, cityscapes, 117 268, 272, 273, 274, 288, civilization, 6, 13, 16, 21, 22, 294, 295, 302 23, 24, 28, 29, 44, 55, 59, cosplay, 252, 253 69, 75, 79, 102, 139, 142, counter-Orientalism, 62, 282 145, 150, 172, 221, 238, counterculture, 106 269, 283, 290, 296, 298 coup d’état, 234, 236 Claremont, Yasuko, 148, 287, Creoles, 70, 75 295 cross-culturalism, 118, 149 Coca-Cola, 194, 213, 232 cross-dressing, 105 colonialism, 55, 87, 151, 287, Crystal Fantasies, see Suisho– 288, 298 genso– colonialists, 184 cubism, 116, 118, 128, 129, colonization, 15, 32, 62, 213 130, 146 commoners (heimin), 2, 47, 82, cult of modernity, 15, 18, 33–5, 186 37, 58, 143, 194 communism, 185, 210, 211 cult of tradition, 37 communists, 197, 237 cultural apartheid, 75–6 comparativism, 116 cultural history, 131 Confucianism, 14, 19, 25, 54, cultural hybridity, 75, 115, 55, 69, 189, 280 275 Confucian/samurai values, 95 cultural nationalism, 69, 75, 76, conservatism, 31, 32, 54, 55, 115, 119, 120, 126, 131, 56, 59, 65, 66, 67, 77, 91, 149 92, 108, 113, 184, 187, 192, culturalism, 150, 287, 297 308 Index

Dadaism, 104, 113, 127, 129, early modernity, 280, 303 130, 146, 158 earthquakes, 85, 113, 129, 132, Dale, Peter, 51, 296 196 Damrosch, D., 294, 296 Eckermann, Johann Peter, 294, Darwinism, 29, 77, 78 296 datsu-A (de-Asianization), 30, Eco, Umberto, 253, 293, 296 31, 218, 281 Edo, 1, 2, 3, 14, 62, 84, 123, de-deification of the emperor, 132, 141, 282, 298 237 Eisen, 143 decadence, 7, 9, 16, 29, 38, 106, Eisenstein, Sergei, 118 108, 113, 119, 129, 231, embryology, 160, 161, 163, 164, 232, 233, 238, 241 166, 174 degeneracy, 7, 241 emperor system, 14, 15, 40, 45, dehumanization, 106, 108, 160, 48, 49, 50, 55, 57, 65, 66, 166, 167, 169, 201, 221 67, 69, 70, 73, 81, 82, 90, demilitarization, 185, 225, 91, 92, 96, 105, 132, 133, 227 137, 179, 184, 185, 188, democracy, 21, 66, 81, 90, 181, 191, 192, 218, 230, 231, 186, 188, 189, 190, 194, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240, 197, 200, 225, 227, 232, 249, 268, 271, 280, 233, 234, 236, 237, 242, 283 292, 294, 297 emperor-worship, 49, 109, 189, democratization, 5, 123, 185, 227, 234 186, 191, 268 empire, 19, 28, 29, 32, 66, 68, democrats, 236, 237 76, 77, 78, 150, 223, 226, determinism, 96 248, 283, 293, 295, 297 diplomacy, 19, 39, 150 empire-building, 186 diplomats, 40, 43, 55, 77, 281, emptiness, 138, 198, 210, 260, 301 261 disembowelment, 39, 42, 242; Endo– Shu–saku, 207, 219, 296 see also seppuku England, 37, 74, 101 Disraeli, Benjamin, 24 English, 3, 20, 43, 57, 61, 69, Dodd, Stephen, 145, 287, 77, 78, 79, 99, 191, 204, 296 205 Doomsday, 249, 252, 260 enlightenment, vii, 9, 13, 16, Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 88, 112 19, 21, 22, 23, 28, 29, 33, Dower, John, 185, 187, 192, 58, 59, 64, 70, 79, 123, 138, 220, 289, 296 139, 144, 167, 189, 234, Do–gen Zenji, 286, 302 238, 257, 258, 267, 269, Duara, Prasenjit, 283, 296 287, 288, 298 Durkheim, Emile, 50 enshrinement, 227, 230 Dutch language, 20 Entzauberung (disenchantment), dystopianism, 27, 169 xiii Index 309 environmentalism, iv, 106, 225 212, 218, 230, 233, 236, eroticism, 164, 211, 212, 220, 238–41, 254, 258, 261, 268, 253, 262, 264 284, 285–6, 289, 292, 296, Essence of the Novel (Sho–setsu 303 shinzui, 1885), 86–7, 284 fascist style, 109 esprit moderne, 111 fascistization, 240 essentialism, 4, 119, 180, 256, fascists, 18, 54, 76, 85, 108, 268 135, 240, 241 essentialist nationalism, 264 fashions, 33, 63, 100, 117, ethnicity, 75, 76, 253, 256, 269, 253 274 fast food, 194 ethnography, 293, 302 fatalism, 126 eugenics, xii, 26, 27, 28, 279, fauvism 121, 128, 129, 130 280, 281, 303 feminists, 106 Eurocentrism, 31, 120, 122 feminization, 238 Europe, iv, 4, 14, 16, 20, 27, 28, Fenollosa, Ernest, 36, 68, 79 86, 123, 127, 128, 132, 134, fetishization, 253, 293, 296 135, 149, 178, 208, 233 feudalism, 2, 4, 6, 9, 13, 14, 19, Europeans, 60, 194 22, 23, 25, 32, 33, 40, 43, evolutionism, 28, 287, 295 44, 45, 48, 50, 53, 55, 99, ex-samurai, 9, 186 102, 123, 124, 190, 200, existentialism, xiii, 67, 208, 238, 270, 279, 284 209, 211, 262 fiction, viii, 80, 84, 85, 86, 87, expressionism, 104, 117, 118, 88, 93, 97, 151, 153, 170, 124, 127, 148, 157, 158, 199, 200, 202, 207, 209, 291 210, 211, 214, 216, 230, 261, 284, 288, 291, 296, factories, 17, 117, 211, 298 297, 298, 300, 302, 303 faddism, 33, 112, 113, 129 fictionality, 50, 80, 90, 262, familial-state nationalist 281, 285, 287, 288, thought, 65 302 family, 19, 65, 66, 72, 73, 99, film, 63, 118, 134, 142, 146, 100, 106, 184, 206, 223, 154, 179, 194, 225, 228, 227, 255, 269 240, 253, 297, 298, 300 farming, 2, 3, 190, 219 see also cinema fascism, xii, xvi, 5, 28, 46, 49, filmmakers, 117 76, 85, 93, 103, 105, 107, Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 151 109–11, 113, 115, 117, 119, flappers, 117 121, 123, 125, 127, 129–45, flapper style, 253 134, 147, 149, 151–3, 155, Flaubert, Gustave, 118 157, 159, 161, 163, 165, folklore, 36, 79, 223–4, 299 167, 169, 171, 173, 175, folktales, 36, 73, 74, 79, 221 177–81, 184, 190, 195–7, food, 2, 35 310 Index foreigners, 1, 36, 44, 48, 58, 59, gender, 105, 238, 253, 256, 269 63, 64, 72, 76, 143, 201, genealogy, 93, 95, 287, 297 202, 203, 204, 220, 259 Genji monogatari (Tale of Genji, foreignism, 280 circa 1000), 80, 153, 228 foreignness, 6, 195, 203 genres, 99, 146, 147, 263 formalists, 108 Genroku period, 125 forty-seven ro–nin, 42 Gentile, Emilio, xii, 109, 134 Foucault, Michel, 248 German Romantic nationalists, France, xii, 76, 101, 107, 126, 73–4, 76, 268 207, 208, 209, 213, 214, Germany, 35, 61, 70, 73, 76, 87, 291, 298, 299, 302 88, 110, 135, 157, 158, 179, Francocentrism, 213 184, 206, 208, 233, 234, Francophiles, 233 272, 274, 284 Francophilism, 213 Gessel, Van, 204, 290, 296 Frankenstein, 225 Ginza, 254, 255 French, viii, 46, 47, 59, 60, 61, giri, 177 70, 103, 121, 126, 127, 149, globalism, 274 155, 162, 194, 207, 208, globalization, 152, 250, 257, 209, 212, 213, 214, 253, 273, 289, 296, 299, 303 284 globetrotting, 60, 149 Frenchmen, 47, 62, 207, 208 Gluck, Carol, 55, 67, 282, 283, Freudianism, 154, 161, 162 296, 299, 300 Fuji, Mount, 3, 153, 263, 264 gods, xvi, xvii, 34, 44, 133, fukoku kyo–hei (rich country, 136–8, 188, 222, 224, 233, strong army), 26, 45 259, 263 Fukunaga Takehiko, 199 goddess, 223 Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835–1901), godlessness, xvi, xvii 9, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, Goethe, J.W. von, ix, 83, 271–5, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 294, 296, 302 34, 37, 38, 52, 53, 54, 55, Gogh, Vincent van, xiv, xv, 143 56, 68, 69, 79, 89, 106, 218, government, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 280, 281, 297 23, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 36, fundamentalists, 258, 268 40, 42, 44, 46, 53, 54, 56, Futabatei Shimei (1864–1909), 57, 58, 59, 63, 64, 66, 73, 18, 89, 90, 97, 173, 301 81, 87, 88, 90, 101, 106, futurism, 7, 103, 104, 113, 118, 184, 189, 195, 197, 198, 127, 129, 236, 240 217, 222, 227, 236, 238, 242, 257, 259, 279, 282, gadan (art establishment), 103 283, 284 gadgets, 33, 35 Great Exhibition in London, Gardner, William, 116, 285, 296 1851, 3 geisha, 153, 170, 171, 173, 174, Great Kanto Earthquake of 175, 221 1923, 113, 129–30, 132 Index 311

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Heisig, James, 138, 297 Sphere, 28 Henshall, Kenneth, 15, 280, Greece, 121, 125, 138, 191 283, 286, 297 Greenberg, Clement, 128 Heraclitus, 139, 286 Griffin, Roger, 7, 8, 27, 109, Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 134, 238, 239, 240, 241, 69–71, 74–6 279, 281, 284, 285, 292, heroes, xiii, 15, 49, 50, 54, 56, 296 89, 164, 204, 217, 218, 221, Grimm Brothers, 73 233, 236, 243, 259, 288 Guizot, François, 28 Hersey, John, 290, 297 gunboat diplomacy, 19, 150, 183 hibakusha (A-bomb survivors), Gurewitch, Morton, 264, 293, 215 296 high art, 84, 87 high culture, 152, 264, 272, 274 Hagakure (18th century samurai Hinduism, xvii, 252 moral tract by Yamamoto hip-hop, 253 Tsunetomo), 48, 282, 292, hippies, 119 299 Hirakawa Sukehiro, 20, 280, Hagiwara Sakutaro– (1886–1942), 297 126 Hirata Atsutane, 100 haiku, 125, 126, 146, 153, 154, Hirata Oriza, 148, 287 170–3, 199, 221, 227, 229, Hirohito, Emperor, 191, 249, 287, 290, 298 283, 301 hairdos, 1, 14, 253 Hiroshige, 3, 143 hara-kiri, 39, 48; see also Hiroshima, 290, 297 seppuku Histoire de la civilisation en Harajuku, 252–3 Europe (1828), 28 Harootunian, Harry, 5, 112, historians, xii, xiv, 22, 36, 107, 279, 293, 295, 297, 299 113, 115, 120, 121, 122, Harrison, Charles, 128, 286, 297 141, 191, 220, 256, 279 Harunobu, 124 historicism, 95, 131 Hattori Busho–, 34–5, 281 historiography, xii, xviii Hayter, Irena, 144, 287, 297 history, xi, xii, xv, 6, 23, 30, 31, Hearn, Lafcadio, viii, 36, 43, 36, 44, 45, 46, 50, 52, 54, 68–80, 110, 283, 297, 299, 60, 76, 85, 97, 99, 100, 101, 301 110, 114, 122, 126, 127, hedonism, 258 134, 144, 160, 183, 185, hegemony, 70, 186, 213, 215, 191, 192, 197, 198, 200, 216, 219 210, 212, 217, 222, 223, Heian era, 82, 153, 176 225, 232, 242, 256, 257, Heidegger, Martin, xiii, 88 258, 261, 269, 280, 283, Heisei era, 249 286, 287, 293, 295, 297, Heisenberg effect, 158 300, 301, 302 312 Index

Hitler, xvi, 133, 179, 233, 238, industrialization, 3, 4, 5, 17, 26, 282, 296, 299 36, 37, 55, 101, 108, 117, Hokusai, 3 123, 173, 221, 234, 271, Hollywood, 93, 142, 194 272, 273 homoeroticism, 165 industrialists, 106 homogeneity, 216, 270, 274 industry, 26, 66, 174, 193 Hozumi Yatsuka, 65, 72, 132 Inoue Tetsujiro–, 65, 67 Hölderlin, Friedrich, xiii institutions, 14, 23, 24, 65, 185, Hui-k’o, 129 186, 227, 239, 250, 251 humanism, 194, 231, 232 intellectual history, 151 humanitarianism, 215 intellectuals, 5, 18, 33, 50, 69, hybridity, 69, 75, 115, 118, 146, 79, 82, 143, 150–1, 177, 250, 264, 266, 275, 277 193, 194, 195, 197, 208, 213, 225, 229, 237, 241, I-novels, 99 248, 250 Ibuse Masuji, 198, 297 intermarriage, 26, 27 ideologies, 6, 9, 39, 66, 74, 81, internationalism, 207, 217, 132 233 ideologues, 67, 106, 132, 221 internationalists, 149, 206, 207, ideology, 28, 46, 54, 57, 67, 68, 215, 217, 218 69, 70, 73, 76, 100, 101, interwar period, 293, 297 105, 111, 132, 133, 144, Intimité (Sartre story), 211 190, 218, 240, 280, 296, Iraq, 192 302 Ireland, 74, 217, 218, 283, 301 ie (family) social structure, 65–6 Ishikawa Takuboku, 67 Ihara Saikaku, 80 Islam, iii, 39, 281 illusionistic art, 121, 127, 141 Isogai Hideo, 290, 297 imagery, 125, 155, 169, 171, Israel, 297 214, 224 Italy, 7, 35, 103, 179, 184, 233 imagism, 125, 126, 153 Ito– Hirobumi, 21 imperialism, 6, 29, 30, 32, 38, Iwakura Mission (1871–73), 55, 60, 68, 71, 75, 87, 106, 16–17, 300 181, 184, 186, 191, 195, 210, 216, 217, 230, 286, Jackson, Michael, 253 289, 303 Jansen, Marius, 22, 225, 280, imperialists, 16, 271 297 impermanence, 131, 138, 139, Japan-bashing, 198 140 Japan-British Exhibition of inauthenticity, 60, 112, 116, 1910, 283, 300 119, 130, 140, 143 Japan: An Attempt at India, 38, 90 Interpretation (1905), 73, individualism, 25, 74, 145, 280, 283, 297 300 Japan interpreters, 69 Index 313

Japaneseness, 113, 228 kazoku kokka (family nation), 66 Japanist Association Keene, Dennis, 114, 119, 131 (Nippon-shugi kyo–kai), 67 Keene, Donald, 114, 119, Japanization, 113, 122 155–6, 281, 284, 285, 288, Japanologists, 57, 247, 301 290, 291, 298 Japanophilism, 68, 69, 77 Kelts, Roland, 265, 293, 298 japonisme, viii, 120, 121, 122, kendo–, 228 124, 125, 127, 140, 143, Kenko–, 156 145, 285, 295 Kerouac, Jack, 290 jazz, xi, 117, 194 kimono, 1, 3, 14, 174, 254 Jerusalem, 297 kindai no cho–koku, see Jesuits, 150, 207 ‘overcoming modernity’ Jews, 88 Kinugasa Teinosuke, 118, 154 Jiji Shinpo– (Current Events), 21 Kipling, Rudyard, 143 Johnson, Henry, 147, 287, 297, kitsch, 263 302 Kobayashi Hideo, 112, 136, journalists, 19, 43, 106 226, 291, 300 Joyce, James, 116, 118, 156, Kobayashi Masaki, 79 158, 159, 160 Kobayashi Takiji, 197, 211, 298 Joycean techniques, 154, 156 Kobayashi Yoshinori, 258–60, junshi (ritual suicide on one’s 293, 301 lord’s death), 48, 50, 91, 92, Kobe, 39, 40 93, 94, 95, 96, 284 Kojève, Alexandre, 39, 281 Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters, kabuki, 126, 176, 177, 228 712), 81, 233 Kajii Motojiro–, 145, 287, 296 Kojima Nobuo, 203–5, 207, Kakehi Katsuhiko, 133 219, 298 Kamakura, 152 Kokoro (The Heart, 1914), 50, kamikaze, 39, 228, 259 95–7, 300 Kanagaki Robun, 33, 281 kokugaku, 100, 101 Kani ko–sen (The Factory Ship, kokutai, 7, 38, 66, 69, 73, 184, 1927), 211 194, 210, 212, 230, 231, Katayama Tetsu, 196 234, 235, 236, 280 Kato– Shu– ichi, 209, 213, 291, 298 Kokutai no hongi (Principles of Kawabata Yasunari the National Polity, 1937), (1899–1972), xii, 105, 114, 73 116, 118, 146, 152–80, 192, Koons, Jeff, 263 201–3, 217, 221, 222, 226, Korea, 30, 31, 55, 68, 77, 193, 227, 229, 245, 285–90, 298, 257, 274 302 kosupure, 252 kawaii (cuteness craze), 264–5 koto music, 146 Kawakita Michiaki, 113, 127–9, Ko–nishi Takamitsu, 81 131, 285–7, 298 Ko–toku Shu– sui, 70, 90 314 Index

Kubota Mantaro–, 84 makura-kotoba (epithets), 82 Kume Kunitake, 16–17 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 126, 208 Kuroko Kazuo, 209, 291, 298 manga, 193, 260, 263, 264 Kuwabara Takeo, 199, 290, 298 Man’yo–shu– (circa 750), 81, 82, Kyoto, 1, 107, 285, 287, 302 83, 228 marginalization, 53, 215, 217 Lacan, Jacques, 50 Marinetti, Filippo, 103, 236 late capitalism, 197, 246, 250, Marxism, 104, 108, 154, 159, 256, 267 196, 197, 199, 209, 210, late Meiji, 55, 64, 68, 70, 76, 77 211, 213 law, 40, 65, 66, 70, 101, 176, masochism, 256, 258, 259 177 materialism, 3, 25, 54, 89, 193, lawmakers, 235 221, 260 LDP (Liberal Democratic Party), Matisse, Henri, 120, 122, 127, 197, 235, 236, 270, 294 285, 295 left/right political divide, 108 Mavo, 104–6, 146, 284, 303 leftwing politics, 105, 197, 206, McFarlane, James, 130, 286, 208, 215, 226, 236, 250, 295 255, 267 meat-eating, 14, 26–7, 34 legends, 23, 74, 188, 243, 301 media, 5, 75, 104, 146, 257, Lewis, C.S., 130 263 liberal democracy, 189, 195, Meiji period (1868–1912), 196, 197, 231 11–102, 103, 142, 143, 147, liberalism, 3, 24, 135 186, 190, 194, 215, 222, liberalization, 5 238, 270, 279, 296 liberals, 50, 192 mercantilism, 26 life-stylization, 251, 252 Michener, James, 290 Lippit, Seiji, 150, 151, 287, 288, middle class, 24, 26, 43, 105, 298 167 literacy, 21, 82, 86, 123, 279 militarism, 46, 47, 56, 57, 76, literati, 148 77, 132, 181, 190, 196, 198, Loti, Pierre (1850–1923), 59, 60, 227, 229, 236 61, 62, 143, 282, 298 militarists, 73, 93, 212 low culture, 221 militarization, 189 Luddites, 37 Mill, John Stuart, 24 mimesis, 147 MacArthur, General Douglas, Miner, Earl, 125, 286, 299 183, 187, 188 minimalism, 140, 142, 148 machine (in Japanese Mishima Yukio, 48–50, 59, 63, modernist art), 107–8 146, 148, 192, 194, 202, Mackie, Vera, 287 224, 226, 228, 230–9, Maekawa Samio, 146 241–3, 245, 259, 268, 281, Makino Yoko, 79, 283, 299 282, 290–2, 299, 300, 302 Index 315

Mitford, Algernon Bertram, Nagai Kafu– , 18, 84 39–44, 52, 281, 299 Nakasone Yasuhiro, Prime Miyagi Michiyo, 146, 287, 297 Minister, 79, 249, 283 Miyamoto Yuriko, 198, 199 nanga, 113, 128, 129 Miyazaki Hayao, 225, 267 Nanjing, 256 Miyoshi, Masao, 248, 262, 293, Napier, Susan, 223, 224, 291, 295, 299 300 mobo, 253 Napoleon, 86 Modernism and Fascism (by narcissism, 160–3, 165, 167, Roger Griffin), xvi, xvii, 169, 174–6 109, 284, 285, 292, 296 Nathan, John, 258, 259, 260, moga, 252, 253, 255 293, 300 monism, 169, 178, 179 nation-building, 5, 6, 24, 25, montage, 117, 170 55, 69, 81, 85, 87, 99, 240, – Mori Ogai (1862–1922), 18, 46, 257 87–8, 90, 103, 282, 284, nation-state, 4, 13, 43, 65, 69, 299, 300 70, 75, 76, 81, 85, 86, 92, Moronobu, 124–5 118, 198, 214, 216, 218, Morton, Leith, 146, 287, 300 225, 227, 257, 266, 269, multiculturalism, 75, 76 270 Murakami Haruki, 151, 250, national culture, 120, 145 261, 267, 269, 277, 288, national polity, see kokutai 296 national rebirth, 7, 238, 240 Murakami Takashi, 262–3, national Shinto, 69, 227, 234, 265–6, 269, 277 249 Murasaki Shikibu, 153 nationalism, xiii, xv, 50, 51, 64, Murayama Masao, 225 66, 67, 69, 70, 72, 74, 76, Murayama Tomoyoshi, 104 77, 78, 79, 86, 87, 88, 89, music, 14, 117, 136, 146, 147, 101, 115, 133, 144, 150, 194, 208, 253, 287, 297 151, 180, 198, 216, 218, Mussolini, Benito, xvi, 133, 226, 245, 249, 256, 258, 233, 296 260, 268, 269, 273, 280, musubi, 137, 179, 286 281, 282, 283, 289, 292, mysticism, 49, 126, 133, 178, 293, 295, 296, 297, 299, 249 300, 301, 302, 303 myth, xii, 4, 7, 39, 47, 51, 55, nationalists, 20, 52, 55, 73, 74, 56, 73, 93, 109, 111, 135, 85, 93, 105, 118, 184, 192, 137, 163, 184, 188, 210, 193, 194, 229, 249, 250, 216, 217, 223, 233, 236, 254, 256, 260, 272, 275, 251, 257, 282, 283, 296 280 mythologization, 223 nationality, 116, 217, 218, 272 mythology, 81, 214, 216, 223, nationhood, 81 233, 241 nativism, 100, 144, 149 316 Index

Natsume So–seki (1867–1916), Notehelfer, Fred, 17, 280, 300 18, 50, 90, 95, 96, 97, 113, novelists, 50, 63, 85, 86, 177, 156, 280, 300 250, 206, 261, 296 naturalism, 90, 91, 129, 141, novels, 86, 87, 97, 118, 146, 208, 284 153, 154, 158, 167, 170, Nazis, 30, 76, 109, 119, 209, 201, 203, 206, 207, 214, 234, 238, 292, 297 222, 229, 267, 287, 290 neo-Confucianism, 232 Nygren, Scott, 142, 149, 287, neo-sensory school, see 300 shinkankaku-ha newspapers, 21, 29, 31, 34, 72, Obama, President Barack, 263 103, 188, 191 Occupation period Nietzsche, Friedrich, xiii, xvi, (1945–1952), 62, 183–213, 74, 139, 177, 222, 232, 236, 227, 230, 231, 265, 290 – 237, 243, 258, 286, 292, Oe Kenzaburo–, 30, 205, 209, 300 214, 224, 250, 261, 271, nihilism, xv, 88, 139, 208, 231, 291, 298, 300, 301, 232, 236, 237, 284, 286, 303 298, 303 Okakura Tenshin, 36, 78, nihilists, 177, 236, 242, 243 129 Nihon shoki (Chronicles of Japan, Okitsu Yagoemon no isho 720), 81 (‘The Last Testament of nihonga, 36, 107, 146, 147, 264, Okitsu Yagoemon’, 1912), 285, 287, 302 92–3, 95 nihonjinron, 51, 79, 203, 260 oligarchs, 89, 184, 189, 194 nikutai-ha, 211–12 oligarchy, 32, 66, 185, 189, Ninomiya Masayuki, 226, 291, 236 300 Olympics, 227, 273 Nish, Ian, 77, 283, 300 omiai, 255 Nitobe Inazo–, 68, 78 On the Improvement of the Nogi Maresuke, General Japanese Race, 27 (1849–1912), 48, 50, 91–3, Ono, Yoko, 148, 287 95, 96 Onoda, Lieutenant, 183–4 Noh theatre, 146, 148, 153, 221 Orientalism, 31, 32, 48, 51, Noma Hiroshi, 198, 209, 210, 60 211 Osaka, 46, 117, 226 non-essentialism, 138 Osborne, Peter, xii, 239, 241 Nosaka Akiyuki, 203–5, 207, Ota, Yuzo, 72, 78, 283, 301 219, 300 Outline of a Theory of Civilization nostalgia, 43, 56, 63, 75, 84, 85, (Bunmeiron no Gairyaku, 92, 98, 153, 166, 216, 221, 1875), 21, 28 229, 240, 241, 287, 288, overcoming modernity, 49–50, 298 221, 254 Index 317

Overcoming Modernity philosophers, xvi, 50, 70, 232, Symposium (1942), 5, 110, 247 149, 285, 303 philosophy, 27, 70, 74, 77, 92, Ozu Yasujiro–, 142, 146 138, 139, 178, 201, 208, 211, 213, 238, 240, 248, Pacific War, 62, 229, 238, 258, 286, 290, 292, 299, 300 259 photography, 1–2, 188, 263, pacifism, 189, 215, 239 279 painters, 61, 107, 113, 147, Picasso, Pablo, xiii, 116, 130 148, 269 pilgrimage, 56, 284, 300 painting, 14, 36, 59, 113, 116, plays, 146, 148, 171, 191, 265, 120, 127, 141, 143, 146, 277, 299 147, 148, 264, 285, playwrights, 63, 148 295 poetry, 58, 59, 80, 81, 82, 83, palingenetic (modernism as), 7, 125–7, 130, 149, 154, 156, 109, 240, 241 157, 170, 228, 287, 295, pan-Asianism, 68, 184, 233, 300 249, 271, 283, 296 poets, xiii, 82, 83, 125–7, 146, Paris, 35, 60, 61, 121, 213, 273, 150, 156, 217, 218 284, 301 Pokémon, 265 parody, 8, 33, 115, 222, 223 politicians, 25, 54, 184 Parsis, 90–1 politicization, 133 patriarchalism, 65, 73, 133, 189, politics, xii, 22, 63, 105, 108, 212, 227 109, 135, 136, 137, 154, patriotism, 67, 77, 195, 236, 178, 179, 180, 184, 195, 250, 256, 257, 259, 260 235, 301 Pax Japonica, 68 politics of modernism, 108–12 peace, 62, 68, 86, 95, 123, 181, polity (national), 7, 66, 69, 73, 187, 190, 227, 231, 237, 184, 194, 234, 295 239, 241, 242 Pollock, Jackson, 120, 127 peasants, 4, 22, 66, 82, 186, pollution, 37, 44, 85, 106, 190, 191 117 pedestrians, 254 pop art and culture, 193–4, peepholes, 34–5 253, 260–8 peripherality, xiii, 67, 70, 122, popularists, 81 214, 215, 216, 222 populism, 133, 259, 272 permanence, 138, 139 pornography, 211 Perry, Commodore Matthew, portraiture, 285, 287, 302 44, 150, 183 Portugal, 207 Peter the Great, 14–15 positivism, 13, 209 Petersburg, St., 14, 118 post-adolescence, 262 Petersen, Gwenn Boardman, post-Cold War, 292, 299 155, 288, 301 post-cubism, 129 318 Index post-impressionism, 121, 128 psychology, xvi, 18, 66, 80, 83, post-moga, 252, 253, 255 84, 101, 102, 106, 154, 165, post-Muromachi, 126 169, 172, 175, 248, 267, post-Occupation, 192 278, 285, 287, 302 post-Renaissance, 126, 127 postcolonialism, 62 Quixote, Don, 52 postmodernism, 8, 139, 148, 152, 213, 245–78 Rabelais, François, 219, 222, postmodernity, 75, 247, 248, 223 249, 254, 257, 266, 276, race and racism, 5, 26–32, 137, 293, 295 143, 188, 204, 219, 233, postwar period, 63, 113, 122, 250, 254 142, 148, 152, 153, 181, railways, 14, 35, 44, 71 183–244, 245, 246, 249, Rampu bokokuron (Lamps and 250, 259, 261, 265, 268, the Ruination of the State, 289, 290, 291, 298, 299, c. 1880), 37 302 rationalism, xiii, 23, 91, 92, 258 pottery-making, 3 Ravina, Mark, 55, 56, 57, 282, Pound, Ezra, 125 301 poverty, 23, 190, 212 re-arming Japan, 185 pre-Raphaelitism, 61 reactionaries, 74, 91 premodernity, 2, 4, 7, 221, 279 reactionary modernism, ix, 7, Presley, Elvis, 194 149, 178, 180, 230–43, 292, prewar period, 152, 167, 183, 297 184, 190, 194, 198, 199, reactionary politics, 7, 38, 52, 211, 221, 227, 230, 231, 64, 109, 135, 149, 178, 180, 234, 235, 245, 246, 249, 230, 233, 234, 235, 239, 256, 265, 287, 300 240, 292, 297 pro-modernism, 53, 58, 91 reactionary/revolutionary pro-reformism, 91 modernism, 109 pro-Westernism, 60 Reagan, President Ronald, 249 proletarian class, 197 realism, 109, 128, 158, 219, proletarian literature 222, 223, 300 (puroretaria bungaku), Realpolitik, 25 108–9, 154, 197, 211 rebellion, xvii, 53, 54, 56, 92, propaganda, 78, 180, 256, 283, 104, 106, 191, 241, 242 301 rebels, 14, 54, 104 prostitution, 190, 201, 256, 290 Redesdale, Lord, see Mitford, protectionism, 26 Algernon Bertram Proust, Marcel, 158 reform, 14, 17, 31, 81, 124, 146, provincialism, 273 186, 190, 191, 192, 195, Prussia, 76 237, 256, 289, 303 psychologists, 51 reformers, 30, 294 Index 319 refrigerators, 193 ritual, 39, 40, 42, 43, 91, 148, regionalists, 225 284 regionalization, 271 robots, 168 Reich (Second and Third), 76 Rokumeikan (Deer Cry relativism, 267 Pavilion), 58–63, 143 religio-politics, 67, 132, 133, Rokumeikan (Mishima play, 137, 179 1956), 63–4 religion, xiv, 49, 66, 67, 70, 73, Romanticism, 54, 60, 61, 62, 74, 79, 123, 132, 157, 159, 63, 70, 73–6, 119, 136, 233, 166, 189, 235, 249, 252, 259, 268 258, 268, 288 Rome, 138 remasculinization, 239 ro–nin (ronin), 42 renga, 153, 156, 161 rootedness, 55, 60, 65, 75, 114, Restoration, Meiji, 14, 15, 16, 115, 119, 120, 130, 131, 17, 43, 99, 100, 185, 230, 138, 153, 214, 222 231, 235, 276, 280 rootlessness, 130, 131, 266 Restoration, Sho–wa, 7, 234 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 176 return to Japan (Nihon e no ruralism, 178, 216, 217, 225 kaiki), 38, 91, 284, 300 Russia, 14, 15, 32, 35, 47, 76, revisionism, 249, 256, 260 77, 86, 88, 89, 110, 111, revitalization, 73, 100, 155, 238 177, 206 revival, xvii, 109, 111, 134, 144, Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), 149, 249, 268 98, 132, 133, 150 revolution, xiv, xvii, 8, 14, 28, 45, 123, 124, 128, 144, 193, sacralization, xiii, xvii, 184 237, 270, 271, 272, 273, sacredness, xvi, 42, 44, 66, 67, 276 100, 109, 233, 252 revolutionaries, 15, 76, 105, Sada Kaiseki, 37 234 Saigo– Takamori, 25, 46, 50, 53, rickshaws, 85 54, 56, 57, 282, 301 Riefenstahl, Leni, 179 Sakaguchi Ango, 211 rifles, 17, 40 Sakai Incident, 46–8, 50, 282, rightwing politics, 5, 7, 48, 63, 284, 299 133, 185, 194, 215, 217, Sakamoto Rumi, 27, 29, 31, 218, 230, 237, 243, 249, 259, 260, 280, 281, 293, 254, 260 301 Rimbaud, Arthur, 103, 284, 301 samisen, 170, 171 Rimer, J. Thomas, 247, 266, samurai, 2, 14, 18–20, 22, 25, 267, 292, 299, 300, 301 26, 37, 38, 39, 40–57, 69, riots, 3, 66, 132, 133, 236 80, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 152, risshin shusse (rising in the 184, 186, 211, 227, 237, world), 22, 24 238, 241, 242, 268, 282, rites, xii, 49, 221 284, 301 320 Index samurai-Confucian values, 25 shiden (historical biographies), sankin ko–tai, 123 94 sarin gas attack, 252 Shiga Naoya (1883–1971), Sartre, Jean-Paul, 50, 209, 211, 136–7, 296 213, 214, 291, 302 Shikoku, 215, 219, 222 satire, 18, 33, 59, 84, 90, 205, Shimazaki To–son (1872–1943), 206, 219, 222, 223, 232, 18, 74, 87, 98–102, 284, 259, 263, 264 295, 301 Satow, Ernest, 39, 40, 43, 77, Shinada Yoshikazu, 81–3 281, 301 shinkankaku-ha (‘neo-sensory Sato– Eisaku, Prime Minister, group’), 105, 108, 153, 157, 234, 282 297 Satsuma, 25, 40, 45, 53, 54, Shinmin no michi (The Way of 56 the Subject), 73 Scandinavia, 155, 214, 291 Shinron (New Theses), 280 science, xv, xvii, 14, 21, 22, 55, Shinto– (Shinto), 7, 49, 67, 79, 111, 140, 160, 163, 164, 109, 132, 133, 134, 189, 166, 168, 169, 173 190, 193, 222, 232, 233, scientists, 162, 240, 271, 293 235, 240, 268, 281, 302 sculptors, 115 Shirane Haruo, 81, 283, sculpture, 228 302 Sea of Fertility tetralogy (Ho–jo– shogunate, 40, 123, 188 no umi, 1965–70), 49, Sho–wa period (1926–1989), 234, 232–3 243, 245, 292, 301 Seifukuji, 40 Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), Self-Help (1859), 24 29, 64, 67 Sembazuru (A Thousand Cranes, Skya, Walter, 109, 132, 133, 1952), 154 240, 281, 285, 286, 302 senryu– poems, 59 Slaymaker, Douglas, 212, 291, Senso–ron (On War, 1998), 259, 298, 299, 302 260, 293, 301 Smiles, Samuel, 24, 64, 89 seppuku, 39, 41, 45, 47–50, 52, Snow Country, see Yukiguni 56, 57, 228, 301 soccer, 273 Sesshu– To–yo– (1420–1507), 129 social Darwinism, 26 sexuality, 62, 90, 162, 163, 165, socialism, 74, 91 166, 167, 168, 175, 201, socialists, 70, 90, 196, 197, 237, 202, 204, 205, 212, 220, 250 256, 264, 284 Socrates, 93 Shakespeare, William, 83, 94, solipsism, 163, 167, 169 125 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 110, Shanghai, 118 111, 131, 132, 138 shi-sho–setsu (I-novel), 199–200 Sore kara (And Then, 1909), Shibue Chu–sai (1916), 95 97–8 Index 321

Sorelian myth of healthy Tanizaki Jun’ichiro–, 85, 114, violence, 236 152, 155, 192, 206, 207, Spencer, Herbert, 26, 75, 283 219, 229, 245, 290, 303 Stanley-Baker, Joan, 36, 115, tanka, 146 131, 281, 285, 295, 302 Tanpopo, 154, 157 stream-of-consciousness Tansman, Alan, 134, 136, 137, narrative, 112, 154, 155, 149, 178, 179, 180, 240, 159, 165 241, 286, 289, 292, 303 suicide, 39, 48, 50, 52, 53, 91, Tayama Katai, 18 92, 95, 96, 168, 177, 231, Te-shan (Zen master), 245 239, 242, 243, 281, 282, terrorism, xii, 281 284, 301, 303 terrorists, 7, 63, 64, 233, 236, Suisho– genso– (Crystal Fantasies, 242 1931), 116, 154, 156, textbooks, 73, 81, 256, 258, 159–69, 173, 174 277 surrealism, 112, 113, 116, 127, Thatcher, Margaret, 249 129, 154–7, 178, 208 The Decay of Lying, 3 surrealists, 109, 130, 146 The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness Suter, Rebecca, 150, 288, 302 (1986), 51, 296 Suzuki Sadami, 286, 302 theatre, 59, 63, 126, 148, 221 Sweden, 218 Thompson, Kirsten, 142 symbolism, 107, 126, 127, 208 To–kaido– Road, 1–3 synecdoche, 52, 88 Tokugawa period, 13, 14, 20, Szostak, John, 107, 147, 285, 33, 40, 44, 95, 99, 100, 101, 287, 302 121, 122, 123, 124, 141, 176, 270, 279, 284 – Taisho period, 50, 60, 132, 134, Tokutomi Soho–, 67 135, 145, 147, 150, 151, Tolstoy, Leo, xiv, xv, 86, 87, 153, 197, 207 89 Takahashi Yoshio, 27, 280, traditionalism, 25, 53, 64, 66, 302 68, 85, 94, 99, 100, 142, Takami Jun, 195 145, 146, 148, 149, 153, – Takayama Chogyu, 67, 283 155, 156, 170, 181, 189, Taketori monogatari (circa 240, 267, 287, 297 900 A.D.), 80 traditionalists, 254, 256 – Taki Zenzaburo, 40–5, 53 transiency, 120, 139, 140, 148, Tale of Genji (circa 1,000 A.D.), 153 see Genji monogatari Truman, President, 188 Tales of Old Japan (1871), 42, Tsubouchi Sho–yo–, 86, 284 281 Turda, Marius, 27, 279, 280, Tamagotchi, 265 281, 303 Tamura Taijiro, 211 Turgenev, Ivan, 88, 89, 173 Tanaka Yasuo, 262 Tyler, William, 117, 285, 303 322 Index

Uchimura Kanzo–, 68, 78 wakon yo–sai (‘Japanese spirit, Uesugi Shinkichi, 133 Western technology’), 54, Ukigumo (Floating Cloud, 55, 234 1886–1889), 89, 301 War and Peace (1865–1869), 86 ukiyo-e, 124, 126, 139, 143 Weimar Germany, 104, 135 ultranationalism, 109, 132, 133, Weller, Shane, 88, 139, 284, 134, 144, 196, 260, 268 286, 303 ultranationalists, 49, 100, 119, Weltliteratur, 272 133, 190, 232, 249, 258, Western art, 113 259 Western rash (seiyo– kabure), Ulysses, 118, 160 112 Umehara Ryu– zaburo–, 113, 129 Western style, 6, 9, 21, 26, 36, Un Bal à Yeddo (1887), 59–60 44, 55, 58, 65, 127, 141, ‘Under Reconstruction’ 146, 148 (Fushinchu–, 1910), 87–8 Westerners, 20, 26, 27, 31, 34, unequal treaties, 31, 32, 58 39, 40, 44, 47, 50, 68, 77, uniqueness, 48, 51, 75, 260, 78, 110, 143, 151, 200, 201, 296 202, 203, 204, 206, 207, unity of pen and sword (bunbu 219, 243, 278, 283 ryo–do–), 80 Westernization, 9, 13, 27, 28, unworldliness, 25 54, 65, 68, 69, 97, 107, 110, uprootedness, 88, 130, 131, 150, 214, 234 274 Westernization/modernization, USA, see America 16 Utopia, xvii, 197, 223 Westerns (Hollywood), 93 utopianism, xv, 9, 27, 28, 189, Whistler, James McNeill, 120, 212, 214, 215, 216, 223, 127, 143, 285, 295 225, 240 Wickhoff, Franz, 121, 124 Wiesenfeld, Gennifer, 104, 106, Vedanta, 252 284, 303 Versailles, Treaty of (1919), 62 Wilde, Oscar, 3, 279, 303 Viaud, Julien (Pierre Loti, Williams, Mark, 112, 285, 1850–1923), 59–60 303 Victoria, Brian, 138, 303 Wilson, Michiko, 222, 291, Victorians, 24, 26, 39, 42, 58, 303 77, 79, 80, 110, 143 Wolfe, Alan, 49, 50, 281, 282, video games, 263, 264 303 Vita Sexualis (1909), 90 woodblock prints, 122 Vogel, Ezra, 249 Woolf, Virginia, xiii Vuitton, Louis, 263, 264 working class, 3 worldviews, 45, 63, 81, 109, Wagner, Richard, xiii, 30 139, 216, 225, 252, 260, Wagnerianism, 179 269 Index 323 worship, 37, 69, 73, 79, 240, yo–ga (Japanese oil painting in 249, 268 Western style), 36, 113, Wray, Harry, 191, 192, 289, 303 127, 141, 146 Wu, Chinghsin, 107, 285, 303 Yo–hai taicho– (‘Lieutenant Lookeast’, 1950), 198 xenophobia, 15, 19, 20, 37, 100 Yokomitsu Riichi, 105, 114, 285, 298 Yamato damashii (Japanese Yoshida Shigeru, 189 soul), 38, 43 Yoshimoto Banana, 250, 261 yamato-e, 113 Yukiguni (Snow Country, Yanagita Kunio, 36, 79, 283, 1935–47), 154, 170–80 299 Yang-Ming neo-Confucianism, zaibatsu (industrial combines), 232, 290, 292, 299 185, 189 – Yasuda Yoju–ro, 136, 137 Zen Buddhism, 67, 129, 138, – – Yasui Sotaro, 113, 129 140, 142, 148, 202, 226, Yeats, W.B., 125, 217, 245 227, 228, 245, 252, 286, Yeddo, 59 292, 302, 303 ‘yellow race’ discourse, 31–2 zen-ei shodo–, (avant-garde Yoake mae (Before the Dawn, calligraphy), 146, 148, 287, 1929–1935), 87, 98–102, 291, 302 301 Zerzan, John, 258, 293, 303 Yoga, 252 Zola, Émile, 107, 208, 284