Volume 7 Issue 1 Winter 2014

A Journal of Georgetown University’s Tocqueville Forum on the Roots of American Democracy Editor-in-Chief Hannah Schneider

Executive Editor Jordan Rudinsky

Managing Editor Christina Eickenroht

Section Editors Amanda Wynter (The Forum) ZongXian Eugene Ang (The Chamber) Andrew Schilling (The Archive) Michael Lessman (The Sanctuary) Christina Eickenroht (The Parlor) George Prugh (The Clock Tower)

Utraque Unum

Georgetown University’s seal is based directly on the Great Seal of the United States of America. Instead of an olive branch and arrows in the Amer- ican eagle’s right and left talons, Georgetown’s eagle is clutching a globe and calipers in its right talon and a cross in its left talon. The American seal’s eagle holds a banner in its beak that states, E Pluribus Unum, or “Out of Many, One”, in reference to the many different people and states creating a union. The Georgetown seal’s eagle holds a banner in its beak that states, Utraque Unum.

As the official motto of Georgetown University, Utraque Unum is often translated as “Both One” or “Both and One” and is taken from Paul’s epistle to the Ephesians. This motto is found in a Latin translation of Ephesians 2:14: ipse est enim pax nostra qui fecit utraque unum. The King James Version of the Bible says, “For He [Christ] is our peace, who hath made both one”. Utraque Unum is the Latin phrase to describe Paul’s concept of unity between Jews and Gentiles; that through Jesus Christ both are one.

In view of the Georgetown seal, the motto represents pursuing knowledge of the earthly (the world and calipers) and the spiritual (the cross). Faith and reason should not be exclusive. In unity faith and reason enhance the pursuit of knowledge. Acknowledgements

The publication of Utraque Unum was made possible by the generous support of Bill Mumma, Georgetown University Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service Class of 1981, as well as the Collegiate Network. The Tocqueville Forum on the Roots of American Democracy additionally wishes to acknowledge the generous support of The Veritas Fund as administered by the Manhattan Insti- tute, the Thomas W. Smith Foundation, and the Intercollegiate Studies Institute.

The Tocqueville Forum promotes events and activities devoted to furthering and deepening student understanding of the American constitutional order and its roots in the Western philosophical and religious traditions. The Tocqueville Fo- rum sponsors these activities solely through the contributions of generous sup- porters of its mission. If you would like further information about supporting the Tocqueville Forum, please e-mail [email protected] or visit http://government.georgetown.edu/tocquevilleforum.

As always, we welcome your thoughts and comments regarding this journal. If you are or once were a Georgetown University student, professor or staff mem- ber we would welcome the opportunity to review your work for publication in Utraque Unum. In addition to writers, we are looking for section editors, art- ists, graphic designers and web designers. Please e-mail the editors at utraque. [email protected] for these inquiries. Cultivating Knowledge of America and the West

TOCQUEVILLE FORUM AT GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY

www.TocquevilleForum.org | Ph 202.687.8501 T        | Utraque Unum Winter 2014 Volume 7, Issue 1

Table of Contents

From the Editor-in-Chief ...... 1

About The Tocqueville Forum The University, by Professor Joshua Mitchell ...... 2

The Forum (Feature Articles) Lactantius & Religious Freedom, by Louis Cona ...... 4 Morality and the Mortal God, by ZongXian Eugene Ang ...... 10 American Individualism and Its Discontents, by Amanda Wynter ...... 15

The Chamber (Articles on Law and Politics) The Nexus between Religious Homogeneity and Political Stability, by Su Lyn Lai ...... 21 Marriage and the Constitution, by Andrew Schilling ...... 27

The Sanctuary (Articles on Religion and Theology) A System of Love: Understanding “Faith” through Newman and Balthasar, by Christopher Cannataro ...... 30 Interfaith Dialogue and Ethics of Authenticity, by Aamir Hussain ...... 33 A Tale of Two Cities: The Dialectic of Law and Grace and the Political Realism of Martin Luther’s Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms, by Caleb Morell ...... 37

The Archive (Articles on History) The Rise and Fall of Doubt: The Development of the Office of the Promoter of Faith in the Canonization Proceedings of the Roman Catholic Church, by Peter Prindiville ...... 44 The “Genocide” Controversy: A Historical Re-Reinterpretation of the Ukrainian Famine (1930-33), by Joshua Schoen ...... 48 Monumental Warning, Guilt, and Invisibility, by Sofia Layanto...... 51

The Parlor (Articles on Literature, Film, Music, Theater, and Art) From the Unity of Two, The Diversity of One: Eve, The Tragic Hero in Paradise Lost, by Beatriz Albornoz ...... 54 Illustrations of Don Quixote: Art and Music Since 1605, by Maria Teresa Roca de Togores ...... 60 Reflections on Storytelling: Metaliterature in the Decameron, by Irene Kuo ...... 66 The Clock Tower (Articles on Georgetown) “An Intense Interrogation of Self”—An Interview with John Glavin, by Michael Fischer ...... 70 Opening the Vault: Unleashing Georgetown’s Hidden History, by Kevin D . Sullivan ...... 73 On the Disposition of All Things: Reflections for Hoyas from Georgetown Legend Father James V. Schall, S.J...... 76 Endnotes...... 80  |

The Editor’s Desk

ear Reader, In an age of waning attention spans, when it seems only Buzzfeed and blockbusters Dsucceed in holding captive audiences, those of us who labor over far less flashy creations— scholarly journals—must ask ourselves the obvious question: why do we even bother? Political philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville predicted that as America marches toward the demo- cratic age, Americans would become more and more fond of “general ideas.” As a result, he argued, it will be increasingly difficult to find a person with an original idea, and once he is found, he will be ostracized. All of us in the democratic age will grow afraid of differing opinions. It seems that even in the university original ideas are almost as unwelcome as they are in political discourse, or among the public in general. What seem to be original ideas are often simply bedizened versions of the same politically correct, sanctioned concepts—Hollywood’s new versions of “believe in yourself” or postmodernism’s battle cry of relativism. A student must only ask a faculty member behind closed doors about the struggle of choosing research topics while seeking tenure to realize that the university is not the threshold for open discourse that it once was. Researchers who seem to be demonstrating unpopular conclusions can easily be excluded from scholarly forums. This is why we bother with journals. We do not expect this collection of unusual ideas to hold the attention or win the approval of every member of the American public because that is precisely not the point. We must, however, begin our revanche into territory that at least permits us to disagree. This journal is for those who still want to engage in the grappling of minds that has produced great thinkers from Plato to Tocqueville himself. This journal is for those who believe that truth is an im- portant enough concept to be argued about. I must commend all of the editors for their conscientious attention to each essay and for never forgetting that it is by tending to the seemingly insignificant details that delicate habits of thinking are formed. I must especially thank my executive editor, Jordan Rudinsky, for the countless ways in which he selflessly served the journal. I am delighted to pass the honor of serving as editor-in- chief into his able hands for the coming semester. Finally, I would be remiss not to thank professor Joshua Mitchell for his practical and ideological support of the journal. I am personally grateful for his mentorship and his encouragement to think rigorously and creatively, both inside and outside of the classroom.

Hannah G. Schneider Editor-in-Chief

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 1 ABOUT THE FORUM

The University

Joshua Mitchell

he Winter 2014 issue of Utraque Unum here to stay, and that we ought not to fight it now before you, in which thought- tooth-and-nail. He also thought, however, that T ful undergraduates from Georgetown democratic man tended to go too far; and that University have written about a broad array of for the democratic age not to end badly, some ideas, ancient and modern, which ought to con- effort to avoid the perfectionist impulse would cern thoughtful citizens everywhere, prompts be necessary. the question: what is the particular excellence of Let us focus, then, on the university. What a University? is its peculiar excellence? By itself, independent Here at Georgetown, and elsewhere around of the modifications we might wish to bring to the United States, we often hear reference to bear, what is it constituted to do? Today, we “our community,” or occasionally, to “our Uni- increasingly hear that a university should pro- versity community.” Seldom do we hear, sim- vide students with “skills,” and that what they ply, “our University.” Why might this be so? learn ought to be measurable. I do not doubt What is to be gained by referring to a univer- that in some domains of knowledge this aspira- sity as a “community”? To whom, moreover, tion is well-founded. I do not think, however, would this act of renaming appeal, and why? that a university can long remain a “university” I suspect Tocqueville might answer that in the without a more capacious and less measurable democratic age, with its never-ending rush aspiration as well, namely, that its members un- to perfect the world, we are apt to look at all derstand themselves to be actively involved in ancient institutions, with their long-standing the only institution in the known universe com- traditions, protocols, and formalities, as ob- mitted to the civil discussion of ideas of the sort structions that stand in the way of this grand that bear on the question: how are we to live perfectionist project. By renaming the Univer- well? Teaching “skills” that are measurable, I sity a “community,” are we not liberated from fear, sets our sights much too low, and makes old constraints? Into “community,” after all, we of a university less than it is constituted to be. are able to interject our deepest longings, and In teaching “skills,” do we not tacitly invite our authorize a remaking of an institution we find students to retain their prejudices, whatever so stale, unmalleable, lifeless and stolid. This is they might be? And in purporting to measure not only happening in universities, of course. “learning,” must we not rule out that kind of Think of the ways we increasingly talk, not knowledge that cannot be rendered on a numer- about our churches, synagogues and mosques, ical scale? There, too, we set our sights to low, but rather about our “religious communities.” and make our universities at best, Think Tanks. Do we not, in speaking that way, provide a war- That is, we make them into something they are rant for making them into something other than not. what orthodoxy would declare them to be? Toc- This issue of Utraque Unam, like all the others, queville thought that the democratic age was is concerned, in varied ways, with ideas about

2 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | Joshua Mitchell

how to live well. However the reader responds to is to be found a more noble and capacious un- the conclusions that each authors reaches, he or derstanding of the task set before students in this she will have to acknowledge that in these pages most hallowed of institutions, the university.

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 3 THE FORUM

Lactantius & Religious Freedom

Louis Cona

actantius, a fourth century Christian and out of the church, demonstrates the impor- scholar and apologist, played a piv- tance of understanding his arguments in order L otal role in the rise and development to confront the challenges of ensuring religious of Christianity. His teachings helped secure the freedom today. development of the young and emerging Chris- Believed to be born in Numidia, Lactantius tian faith. Lactantius’ views are best expressed in was originally a pagan and spent his early life his most influential work, The Divine Institutes, as a teacher of rhetoric. As his reputation grew, in which he established the early groundwork he became a professor of rhetoric at Nicomedia for a methodical exposition of Christianity and at the request of Emperor Diocletian.2 It is likely advocated for religious freedom on behalf of this that he converted to Christianity, at the cusp of persecuted minority. In The Divine Institues, writ- the upcoming Christian persecution, after his ap- ten between 303 and 311, Lactantius contrasts pointment to Nicodemia. As a practicing Chris- the inefficacy of pagan beliefs with the truth and tian, it became extremely difficult for Lactantius reasonableness of Christianity. Although it was to remain a public teacher and he was shortly originally directed at pamphleteers who assisted dismissed. He quickly descended into poverty, in the persecution of Christians, Lactantius de- losing his previous stature and reputation. In or- veloped The Divine Institutes as a robust work der to survive he became a teacher of Latin for capable of silencing all opponents.1 The Insti- local students. As the persecutions continued, tutes sets itself against the demoralized Roman he left Nicomedia until about 313. It was only culture, emphasizing the revelation of Christ due to his friendship with Emperor Constantine as a new era ushering in freedom, peace and that he was pulled out of obscurity and in his prosperity. old age appointed as a Latin tutor to the Emper- What is most striking about Lactantius’ work or’s son Crispus3. Many believe that through his is that his arguments and understanding of free- friendship and advisory role, Lactantius greatly dom, namely, religious freedom, were revolu- influenced Constantine’s religious policies con- tionary for his time. His awareness of the reality cerning toleration and Constantine’s conversion of Christ’s Incarnation and his understanding of to Christianity. human nature and the proper ends of govern- Lactantius wrote The Divine Institutes in the ment, all converge into a consistent and pro- period between Diocletian’s Edict and his ap- vocative call for robust religious freedom and pointment to Constantine’s court. The work a virtuous society. His views not only impacted emerged in what was likely a very brutal and the freedoms of ancient Rome, but also the mod- dangerous time for the small Christian commu- ern era’s understanding of freedom. The Divine nity. Lactantius not only responded to the false Institutes are cited in John XXIII’s Pacem in Ter- accusations and heinous persecutions of Chris- ris and the Second Vatican Council’s Dignitatis tians, but also advocated for a change in Ro- Humanae. The recogntion of his work, both in man society, culture and government. Arguing

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for full and unrestricted religious freedom, he from persecuting others. Religion by its very na- contrasted the immoral and false Roman cul- ture, as argued by Lactantius, creates a fraternal ture with the reasonable and virtuous nature of brotherhood and therefore governments and Christianity. Ultimately, Lactantius’ arguments individuals must respect others with dignity. demonstrate how Christian values have contrib- He continues, “all were born under the same uted to the freedoms that many enjoy today. God in the same state and all are bound by the With the goal of liberating Romans from their rights of brotherhood.”7 This statement reveals false pagan religion and philosophy Lactantius the innovative nature of Lactantius’ work, as the pointed them to the truth of Christianity. He ar- same claims resurface centuries later. Lactantius, gued that Christianity entails belief in one God, however, goes on to argue that all are bound to common brotherhood, virtue, justice (fairness worship this one God and have a duty to respect and piety) and peace. Using his skills as a rheto- Him and his creation. Those who do not fulfill rician, Lactantius presented aspects of Christian- this duty will be punished. Lactantius writes, ity that were very attractive to Roman society “the wicked who still persecute the good in and he argued that Christian ideals would actu- other parts of the world will pay full measure for ally perfect and complete Roman culture. their evil to the Almighty one.”8 Lactantius’ ar- Appealing to his Roman audience with a gument is original because he does not provide a philosophical discussion on the nature of God, defense of Christianity from traditional sources, Lactantius scathingly attacked pagan belief but rather, presents a coherent argument that in multiple gods, arguing that, “no intelligent appeals to his Roman audience. He chooses to man who can do the sums would fail to see that present the nature of Christianity as the basis of there is only one, the God who founded it all his arguments for religious freedom, and hopes in the first place and who now controls it with to build a civilization based on this nature. In the same virtue with which he founded it.”4 He fact, the very nature of Christianity supports hu- continued by asserting that, “God is therefore man freedom—and it is this claim that serves as one, given that nothing else can exist without his point of departure. a power equivalent to his.”5 Belief in one God It is important to note that Lactantius does became the foundation for his advocacy of reli- not wish to destroy Roman civilization, but con- gious freedom. Expanding upon this, he utilized versely, he wishes to build Roman civilization the paternal nature of God to justify worship on the basis of Christianity. Romans took pride to Him and respect of neighbors. He argued in their culture of “Romanitas,” a Latin word that since everyone is a child of God, there is a meaning “Roman-ness.” However, during Lac- duty to respect Him and one another as siblings tantius’ time, Romanitas was based on pagan united under Him—and from this, he rendered beliefs, causing justice and wisdom to suffer due all men equal: to its falsity. Lactantius sought to appeal to the core of these beliefs by emphasizing their rela- God who created human beings and gave tion to the Christian narrative. For example, we them the breath of life wanted all to be on a know that the Romans valued religious contri- level, that is, to be equal, and he established butions in the public sphere and that they un- the same conditions of life for everyone, cre- derstood how religion was intimately connected ating all to be wise and pledging them all with other parts of civilization. Similarly to this, immortality; no one is cut off from God’s Lactantius believed that true religious freedom celestial benevolence.6 includes the liberty to bring one’s values and be- liefs into the public square in order to influence Without this understanding of religion, there society. In essence, this is what he wanted Chris- is nothing holding back the state or individuals tianity to do: he wanted Christianity to influence

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 5 Lactantius & Religious Freedom |

Roman society and create true justice, which Learned men despise it since it lacks suitable would lead to piety, equity, wisdom and peace. champions while the ignorant hate it because of In order to build Romanitas on Christian its natural austerity.”12 Living in the truth is dif- values, it was necessary for Lactantius to dem- ficult and entails discipline, however it is noble onstrate the truth of Christianity. In Book I, and beneficial for both the individual and soci- which is appropriately titled, “False Religion,” ety. In light of this, he urged Romans to look to Lactantius heavily emphasizes the significance Christ who is the embodiment of wisdom and of truth both for the individual and for society. religion for his life, passion, and death, teach He argues “there is no sweeter food for the soul man how to endure suffering and live a virtu- than the knowledge of truth.”9 He believes that ous life. Roman society, to its detriment, has abandoned Lactantius developed his call for religious an authentic search for truth and has lost respect freedom in this virtuous life with a discussion for it. Lactantius notes that in Greece, philoso- of free will. He argueed that free will must be phers used to be held in high esteem for their respected in all times and circumstances. Hu- quest of truth and the well being of man. This man beings are by their very nature free. In high regard for truth brought with it a virtuous order to authentically live and contribute to people. He continues, “the very word virtue and society this freedom must be protected. He the power of it had so much weight with them tied free will into the proper worship of God, that in their judgment it contained in itself the highlighting that if people do not want to be prize of the supreme good.”10 Unfortunately, reluctantly obeyed, how much more will God Lactantius believed that the Romans abandoned despise reluctant worship? Man must be free to this. Some believed that truth could be found make his own choices in order to be fully com- in themselves, but Lactantius argued that truth mitted. Forced worship or actions do not create “cannot be grasped by the intelligence and the authentic commitments. In order for a society to senses that serve it.”11 In other words, truth can- be healthy, people must freely worship and live not be attained by human capacities—instead, without molestation from others. Furthermore, it must be revealed to man through the Chris- Lactantius argued that Christianity respects the tian religion and specifically in the Incarnation freedom of man. He goes as far back as to the of Christ. Lactantius argued that revelation and Fall to imply that even Adam and Eve had free- faith perfect reason, and elevate it to heights dom, but used their freedom to make a wrong where it could not reach without it. choice.13 Wisdom and religion go together and en- Christ was a teacher, not solider, and he hance one another. He writes that, “[when] wis- guided man to the truth through his preach- dom is linked with religion in an inseparable ing and sacrifice on the Cross. People must fol- bond, each is bound to be true, because in wor- low the example of Christ and reject violence. ship we need to exercise intelligence—we must, He states, “there is no need for violence and that is, know what we are to worship and how— brutality: worship cannot be forced; it is some- and in exercise of our intelligence we must wor- thing to be achieved by talk rather than blows, ship that is, we must fulfill what we know and so that there is free will in it.”14 Respecting the in real earnest.” He blames Roman philosophers freedom of man also guarantees the freedom of for separating wisdom and religion. Addition- religion. Lactantius believes that religion is so ally, due to their persecutions of Christians, closely united with the nature of man that any Romans do not live in the truth, which causes protection of freedom falls short if it does not instability, violence and unrest. He writes that, entail full and unrestricted worship. He writes, “few take advantage of this bountiful gift from “nothing matters more in human affairs than heaven; the truth is wrapped in obscurity. religion and that it ought to be defended with

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every endeavor.” And further, “religion must be Christianity and have instead adopted secular defended not by killing but by dying, not by vio- values, choosing to overlook the religion that has lence but by endurance, not by sin but by faith: sustained the free world. that is the contrast between bad and good, and Lactantius is just as important now as he was in religion the practice must be good and not during the Christian persecutions of the 4th cen- bad.”15 Here Lactantius clearly called for the un- tury. His arguments must be restored and the forced freedom of worship and peaceful means contributions that Christianity has made on be- of persuasion and argument. He urges toleration half of human freedom must never be forgotten. to give way to open debate and peaceful discus- It is noteworthy that the Catholic Church has sion before making judgments about any belief, revived Lactantius’ teaching in the Divine Insti- writing: “we beg these people, nevertheless, by tutes to address the modern world. John XXIII’s the law of humanity if possible not to condemn Pacem in Terris and the Second Vatican Council’s before they know the whole story.”16 Christians Dignitatis Humanae both cite Lactantius in their must also defend their religion by respecting decrees. peace and freedom. Issued by Pope John XXIII on April 11, 1963, Lactantius’ arguments have had a profound Pacem in Terris, was the first papal encyclical to be impact on both the ancient and modern world. addressed to “all men of good will” rather than His call for unrestricted religious freedom was being addressed exclusively to Catholics.20 Simi- fulfilled in Emperor Constantine’s Edict of Mi- lar to the writings of The Divine Institutes, Pacem lan in 313 AD, which proclaimed toleration for in Terris was written during a time of extreme all religions, paving the way for Christians to turmoil. The Cold War was beginning to escalate worship “freely and openly, without molesta- with the rise of the Berlin Wall a few years prior, tion.”17 Additionally, the Western world owes and the Cuban Missile Crisis occurring only a much of its development and respect for human few months before its publication. Again, similar life, religious liberty, and the poor to Lactantius’ to Lactantius, John XXIII calls for the use of argu- exploration of Christianity. ment instead of force, and stresses the dignity of The new “Romanitas” built on Christian human life and freedom. Furthermore, his dis- values have propelled the West to great heights cussion on rights and duties demonstrate how and has changed the way society views (so- the Christian understanding of man contributed phia) wisdom, justice (iustitiæ) and the human to the development of these concepts. In fact, person; however, the modern world faces new Pope John begins his encyclical by establishing challenges as the West deliberately overlooks the nature of man writing, “God created man ‘in Christian contributions in its development. The His own image and likeness,’ endowed him with Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European intelligence and freedom, and made him lord of Union omits any mention of Christianity and creation.”21 The pope continues with rights lan- God18 and the preamble to the Treaty on Euro- guage that is strikingly similar to Lactantius’ pean Union merely “draws inspiration” from language, writing that, the “the cultural, religious and humanist inheri- tance of Europe from which have developed the Any well-regulated and productive asso- universal values of the inviolable and inalienable ciation of men in society demands the ac- rights of the human person, freedom, democ- ceptance of one fundamental principle: that racy, equality and the rule of law.”19 Lactantius’ each individual man is truly a person. His arguments show the uniqueness of the Christian is a nature, that is, endowed with intelli- understanding of the human person, freedom, gence and free will. As such he has rights and equality. The European Union and others and duties, which together flow as a direct in the West are indebted to the contributions of consequence from his nature. These rights

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 7 Lactantius & Religious Freedom |

and duties are universal and inviolable, and involves their recognition and respect by therefore altogether inalienable.22 other people.25

Unlike the European Union, Pope John was not And further, that when “society is formed on afraid to acknowledge whence these rights and a basis of rights and duties, men have an imme- duties are derived. He stated, “when we consider diate grasp of spiritual and intellectual values, man’s personal dignity from the standpoint of and have no difficulty in understanding what divine revelation, inevitably our estimate of it is meant by truth, justice, charity and freedom. is incomparably increased. Men have been ran- They become, moreover, conscious of being somed by the blood of Jesus Christ. Grace has members of such a society.” It is clear that the made them sons and friends of God, and heirs arguments presented by Pope John XXIII in Pa- to eternal glory.”23 Again, this is similar to Lac- cem in Terris are made in a similar spirit as the tantius’ call for religious freedom from the pa- arguments set forth by Lactantius in The Divine ternal nature of God. If these similarities are not Institutes. However, Pope John was able to make enough, Pope John goes out of his way to specifi- these arguments with 2,000 years of history and cally cite Lactantius, teaching to guide him. Lactantius produced his arguments well before a coherent theory on Also among man’s rights is that of being rights or freedom was ever established—further able to worship God in accordance with the demonstrating the revolutionary nature of The right dictates of his own conscience, and to Divine Institutes. profess his religion both in private and in Confronting the modern world was one of public. According to the clear teaching of the primary goals of the Second Vatican Coun- Lactantius, “this is the very condition of our cil. This remarkable time in Church history, birth, that we render to the God who made produced several documents discussing Church us that just homage which is His due; that teaching on a wide range of topics, among them we acknowledge Him alone as God, and emerged the Declaration on Religious Freedom, or follow Him. It is from this ligature of piety, better known by its official Latin title, Dignitatis which binds us and joins us to God, that re- Humanae. The document “develops the doctrine ligion derives its name.”24 of recent popes,” including John XXIII, “on the inviolable rights of the human person.”26 Among John takes up Lactantius’ argument for freedom these is the “right to religious freedom,” which by asserting that the nature of both man and the has its “foundation in the very dignity of the hu- Christian religion require freedom of worship. man person as this dignity is known through the John also follows the approach of Lactantius by revealed word of God and by reason itself.”27 The stressing the equality of mankind and the duty Council declares that all men should be free to to respect others who are united as children of pursue truth, and once the truth is known, man God. He writes, must be free to adhere to it. The document con- tinues, “it is in accordance with their dignity as Today, on the contrary the conviction is persons—that is, beings endowed with reason widespread that all men are equal in natural and free will and therefore privileged to bear dignity...man’s awareness of his rights must personal responsibility—that all men should be inevitably lead him to the recognition of his at once impelled by nature and also bound by duties. The possession of rights involves a moral obligation to seek the truth, especially the duty of implementing those rights, for religious truth.28 Recall that the pursuit of truth they are the expression of a man’s personal was central to Lactantius’ defense of Christianity dignity. And the possession of rights also over and against the false pagan beliefs. He also

8 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | Louis Cona

argued that the “demands of truth,” that is, the The Divine Institutes. Both highlight the impor- worship of God and the practice of faith, must tance of Christianity in the freedom of man and be unrestricted by the government or other indi- the dignity of the individual, and both respect viduals. The document states that it is in the gov- the freedom of man to pursue the truth unmo- ernment’s interest to promote religious freedom, lested and without coercion. asserting that “government is also to help create While the obstacles facing religious freedom conditions favorable to the fostering of religious may change over time, the human heart never life, in order that the people may be truly enabled changes. The search for truth, justice, and peace to exercise their religious.”29 More importantly, is the goal for each generation. Finally, it is of Dignitatis Humanae, argues that religious free- extreme importance to study the history of re- dom is intrinsically tied with the Christian faith: ligious freedom and analyze the major think- ers who have impacted the world since ancient It gives evidence of the respect which Christ times. As Lactantius’ arguments show, it is in showed toward the freedom with which society’s best interest to safeguard religious free- man is to fulfill his duty of belief in the word dom. In order for our freedoms to continue to be of God and it gives us lessons in the spirit secure, however, each generation must educate which disciples of such a Master ought to itself and understand the development of these adopt and continually follow.30 freedoms that are intimately tied with human peace and happiness. The Catholic Church’s official declaration on re- ligious freedom is remarkably similar to Lactan- Louis Cona is a junior in the Georgetown College of tius’ defense and promotion of Christianity in Arts & Sciences studying Government .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 9 THE FORUM

Morality and the Mortal God

ZongXian Eugene Ang

“Before there was any government, just and unjust had no being, their nature only be- ing relative to some command, and every action in its own nature is indifferent; that it becomes just or unjust, proceeds from the right of the magistrate. Legitimate kings therefore make the things they command just, by commanding them, and those which they forbid, unjust, by forbidding them.” —Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, 164231

he English philosopher Thomas is determined by “its sources, [and] not its mer- Hobbes has long been an enduring its.”34 This concept is expressed most evidently T figure within the rich tradition of po- in De Cive, which is another of Hobbes’ major litical philosophy. In endeavoring to answer the work on political philosophy that preceded the perennial question of politics—how human soci- Leviathan and shared many of its ideas. In it, ety ought to be organized—Hobbes prescribed Hobbes wrote, “Legitimate kings therefore make an absolutist form of government based upon the things they command just, by commanding his notoriously bleak analysis of human nature. them, and those which they forbid, unjust, by His most famous work, Leviathan, depicts a gov- forbidding them.”35 From this, Hobbes seemed ernment, or in his terms, a sovereign, with “the to assert that the validity of any law is solely de- use of so much power and strength conferred on pendent on the command of the sovereign, and him that by terror thereof he is enabled to con- not determined by any other factors, namely form the wills of them all to peace at home and concepts of the good that are independent of the mutual aid against their enemies abroad.”32 Of sovereign. particular interest was his referral to the sover- That said, seeing Hobbes as a legal positiv- eign as a “Mortal God.”33 In conferring his ideal ist provides an overly-simplified perspective of sovereign with an almost-divine quality, Hobbes his philosophy and discounts the influence that highlighted the superlative authority that his his laws of nature exert on his ideal sovereign. sovereign should possess. At the same time, this These laws of nature can be construed as ratio- analogy with God may create an unintentional nal constraints on the sovereign, since they are link between divine command theory and the derived from reason. Yet, it is more appropriate moral authority of Hobbes’ sovereign. Just as to consider these laws of nature as moral con- God may ordain what is moral, Hobbes’ sover- straints, since the reasoning process that gives eign—as a “Mortal God”—may likewise decide rise to them is ultimately informed by Hobbes’ what is good and bad, or just and unjust. conception of morality. Although Hobbes sees In fact, many scholars have granted that morality—the concept(s) of the good—as inde- Hobbes’ sovereign exhibited the related concept terminate social constructs based upon our de- of legal positivism, in which the law’s validity sires, his account of human nature does provide

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a meta-ethical framework that informs the char- a particular sovereign.42 This results in a sover- acter of his laws of nature. Hence, as these “laws eign whose absolute authority is derived from of nature” cannot be divorced from morality the consent of every man in the commonwealth. and yet determine the legal validity of the sover- In fact, Hobbes went as far as to assert that eign’s commands, Hobbes cannot be said to be a anything less than absolute power for the sov- legal positivist. ereign was akin to an infirmity of the common- In order to understand the claim that Hobbes wealth that would lead to its weakening and was a legal positivist, we must discern Hobbes’ dissolution.43 As a result, Hobbes conferred the conception of human nature and how this leads sovereignty a set of twelve rights, which can be him to advocate for his absolutist sovereign, construed as a sweeping series of immunities and the “Mortal God.” Human nature, according to powers.44 These rights range from an immunity Hobbes, can be summarized according to the of the sovereign against the forfeiture of his sov- “two maxims of human nature” he outlined in ereign power, to complete control over the do- the epistle dedicatory of De Cive: “one arising mestic and foreign policy of the commonwealth. from the concupiscible part, which desires to Here, what Hobbes calls the “seventh appropriate to itself the use of those things in right”—the right of the sovereign to establish the which all others have a joint interest, the other civil laws of the commonwealth— comes into proceeding from the rational, which teaches ev- play. To Hobbes, civil laws were the rules im- ery man to fly a contra-natural dissolution.”36 posed on the subjects of the commonwealth “for In other words, Hobbes believed that the two the distinction of right and wrong, that is to say, primary characteristics of humans are our inher- of what is contrary, and what is not contrary to ently covetous nature and our ability to reason. the rule.”45 Since Hobbes defined the sovereign This covetous nature, which Hobbes de- as the “sole legislator” in the commonwealth,it scribed as “a perpetual and restless desire of is within his purview to make “the distinction power after power, that ceaseth only in death” of right and wrong.”46 This is corroborated by in Leviathan,37 becomes problematic when we what Hobbes’ writes in De Cive: “[W]e have consider that Hobbes believed that humans are also shown that in a civil state the laws were the generally equal. In De Cive, Hobbes writes of the rules of good and evil, just and unjust, honest “brittle frame of [the] human body” and how it and dishonest; that therefore what the legisla- allows for “even for the weakest man to kill the tor commands, must be held for good, and what strongest.”38 Given this equality in the capacity he forbids for evil; and the legislator is ever that of man to hurt other men, when two men de- person who hath supreme power in the com- sire the same thing—which they cannot enjoy in monweal, that is to say, the monarch in a mon- common—they will naturally seek to destroy the archy.”47 Indeed, all these align with the legal other to fulfil their insatiable desire.39 As such, positivist perspective on Hobbes’ philosophy. this inherently covetous nature of men leads to As Jean Hampton asserts, “This is a positivist a state of war—“a war as is of every man against position, because law is understood to depend every man.”40 on the sovereign’s will. No matter what a law’s However, man’s ability to reason will allow content, no matter how unjust it seems, if it has him to escape from this state of war. Hobbes been commanded by the sovereign, then and writes of future goods as “a work of reason.”41 only then it is law.”48 From this, in order to ensure the state of peace, Moreover, in transferring their individual Hobbes advocates for the formation of a com- right of self-governance to the sovereign, the monwealth through a “covenant of every man subjects of the commonwealth effectively -be with every man” such that everyone will give come “author of all the actions and judgements up their individual right of self-governance to of the sovereign instituted.”49 In other words,

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this concept of authorship that Hobbes invoked gives rise to Hobbes’ first and fundamental law justifies the absolute obedience of the subjects to of nature: “that every man ought to endeavour the sovereign, for it makes no sense for them to peace, as far as he has hope of obtaining it, and disobey their own commands. As a result, the when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek and subjects are apparently obligated to obey the use all helps and advantages of war.”56 As the sovereign’s laws, regardless of the substantive rest of the laws of nature ultimately concern the content of those laws. endeavour towards peace, Hobbes’ framework Nevertheless, Hobbes did allow the subjects of these laws of nature can thereby structure the of his commonwealth a limited scope for disobe- legislative role of the sovereign. dience. He writes that “every subject has liberty For Hobbes, the sovereign of the common- in all those things the right whereof cannot by wealth does not have complete and arbitrary covenant be transferred.”50 These rights that can- power to set laws, as he is constrained by the not be transferred or renounced are those rights laws of nature that aim to achieve and sustain the of actions that compromise the individual’s own state of peace. Since this inclination for peace is life and the means of preserving it.51 As such, the outcome of the rational impetus for self-pres- Hobbes grants the subjects of his commonwealth ervation, Hobbes’ framework of natural laws the liberty to disobey the sovereign if he com- should be understood as a rational constraint on mands them to kill, wound or maim themselves, the sovereign. With the legal validity of the sov- or to do anything else that will compromise their ereign’s commands dependent on these prod- own lives.52 Since the subjects are not obliged to ucts of reason, the legislative omnipotence of the obey certain commands of the sovereign, these “Mortal God” becomes simply a myth. laws are invalid. The legal positivist position is Yet, while the laws of nature—forged by the therefore untenable in this case, given that it is impetus for self-preservation and the resultant clearly a factor separate from the sovereign’s inclination for peace—do constrain the legisla- will that determines the validity of those laws. tive authority of the sovereign, these supposed As a matter of fact, Hobbes hints that only products of reason have their fundamental basis the commands that are aligned with “the end not in human reason, but in morality; they are for which the sovereign was ordained” have ultimately informed by Hobbes’ notions of the obligatory value, and by extension, legal valid- good, and its antithesis, the evil. ity.53 Since the end of the sovereign is the state According to Hobbes, reason can be con- of peace, Hobbes implies that the sovereign can strued as the “conceiving of the consequence only establish laws that are targeted towards of the names of all the parts to the name of the achieving or sustaining peace. Those commands whole, or from the names of the whole and one that do not target peace are inevitably rejected part to the name of the other part.”57 Thus, rea- by the subjects, and thereby cannot be consid- son is not a monolithic process but an additive ered valid laws. or subtractive process that involves a few parts. This perspective ties in with the framework In regards to our impetus for self-preservation, of natural laws that Hobbes outlined. The laws this process is akin to addition: our impetus of nature are general rules derived from reason for self-preservation is the sum of not only the that forbid actions which are self-destructive to consequences of our covetous human nature, one’s own life or the means of preserving it.54 but also the consequences of the good. In other Given our inherently covetous nature and our words, our covetous human nature will only im- equal capacity to hurt other men, then, “there pel us towards self-preservation if we factor in can be no security to any man (how strong or the good as part of the reasoning process. wise soever he be) of living out the time which Hobbes confirmed this when he defined the nature ordinarily alloweth men to live.”55 This good as “the object of any man’s appetite or

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desire.”58 Since what we desire is the good, our conception of the greatest evil. Hence, while covetous human nature and the good becomes the good itself is plural, there is an overarching inseparable. This concrete relationship between moral structure based on evil in Hobbes’ philos- desire and the good implies that the reasoning ophy: the fear of death—our greatest fear—is the process that stems from our covetous human source of all morality. As Leo Strauss elaborated, nature must involve the good. Hence, the good “death—being the summum malum, where there is the fundamental basis for the constraints—the is no summum bonum—is the only absolute stan- laws of nature—on the sovereign’s legislative dard by reference to which man may coherently authority. order his life”63 However, Hobbes’ conception of the good is Rather than utilizing a pluralistic concep- arguably pluralistic. As he wrote in De Cive, the tion of the good, our reasoning process incorpo- differing “inclinations” of men will lead them to rates a singular conception of evil such that we different desires—“where what this man- com always seek self-preservation and by extension, mends, (that is to say calls good) the other un- peace. More specifically, our reasoning process dervalues, as being evil; nay, very often the same involves a meta-ethical framework derived from man at diverse times praises and dispraises the the plurality of the good and based upon the same thing.”59 Furthermore, Hobbes explicitly conception of the greatest evil as death. Thus, in discounts the notion of an overarching ultimate order to avoid this greatest evil, man will exer- good in Leviathan: “For there is no such […] Sum- cise his reason to prioritize the good of self-pres- mum Bonum (greatest good) as is spoken of in the ervation above all the other conceptions of the books of the old moral philosophers.”60 Thus, good within the plurality of the good. Indeed, the various conceptions of the good engendered the relationship between the laws of nature and by our desires can be deemed as irreducibly the good lies in the meta-ethical framework plural, with no unifying quality. This pluralistic based upon the fear of death. Thus, as Hobbes conception of the good therefore poses a prob- declared in Leviathan, “the true doctrine of the lem for framing the laws of nature as a moral laws of nature is the true moral philosophy.”64 constraint. If there are many differing yet valid In this case, since the laws of nature have conceptions of the good, how is it, then, that this a moral basis as shown, Hobbes’ philosophy plurality—of the conceptions of the good—will aligns more with natural law theory than legal always leads to the singular impetus towards positivism. According to natural law theory, self-preservation? as described by H. L. A. Hart in The Concept of To begin addressing this problem, Hobbes Law, “there are certain principles of human con- suggests that instead of focusing on the good, duct, awaiting discovery by human reason, with we should focus on its antithesis, the evil, which which man-made law must conform if it is to be is defined as “the object of [our] hate and aver- valid.”65 This corresponds exactly with Hobbes’ sion.”61 Hobbes states that despite the plurality philosophy: the only valid laws that the sover- of the conceptions of the good, “[a]ll men easily eign can issue are those that do not violate the acknowledge [the state of war], as long as they laws of nature, which are products of reason are in it, to be evil, and by consequence that peace derived by considering both our covetous hu- is good.”62 While Hobbes did not acknowledge man nature and the meta-ethical framework the existence of a Summum Bonum, he granted that deems death as the greatest evil. As a result, that there is a Summum Malum, namely, death. the laws of nature should be considered as “im- After all, if one dies, there is no way that he mutable and eternal” moral constraints on the can achieve the good, no matter what it is. The “Mortal God.”66 pluralistic conception of the good can therefore Consequently, Hobbes’ philosophy is often be subsumed under the antithetical yet singular associated with legal positivism because the

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sovereign still has wide-ranging legislative au- the laws of nature without significantly risk- thority despite the laws of nature acting as a ing his hold on the sovereignty, the conclusion moral constraint. As Mark Murphy suggests, “[i] that Hobbes provides is clear: the legal validity t is the weakness of the restraint that the natu- of a sovereign’s civil laws is wholly dependent ral law places on a sovereign’s commands that on the laws of nature, regardless of the conse- gives Hobbes’ legal theory a false appearance of quences of invalid laws. positivism.”67 He explains that this is because On the whole, then, Hobbes’ sovereign pos- “a typical natural law theory, such as Aquinas’s sesses near-absolute power, through the set of or Finnis’s, provides a catalog of human goods rights conferred to him. In particular, his mo- much richer than Hobbes’s, and as a result pro- nopoly of the right to establish the civil laws vides a correspondingly longer list of ways that of the commonwealth may give the impression a norm could violate these goods and therefore that this “Mortal God” possesses legislative om- be denied legal validity.”68 Moreover, there are nipotence; however, this is in fact an illusion— limited disincentives against the sovereign’s vio- the sovereign is bound by the laws of nature lation of the laws of nature, at least in the mor- to ensure peace. These laws are not only the tal realm. While the subjects are not obligated to products of our reasoning process, but also the adhere to the sovereign’s commands that violate meta-ethical framework that deems death as the the laws of nature, there is not much else that greatest evil. They are not the products of an om- they can do. The sovereign is immune from re- nipotent and out of touch Leviathan, as Hobbes bellion as Hobbes’ declared in Leviathan: “they is typically attributed to putting forth. The le- that are subjects to a monarch cannot without gal positivist label therefore cannot be applied his leave cast off monarchy and return to the to Hobbes; morality and the “Mortal God” are confusion of a disunited multitude, nor transfer inseparable. their person from him that beareth it to another man, or another assembly of men.”69 Ultimately, ZongXian Eugene Ang is a sophomore in the Ed- the sovereign is answerable only to the “Im- mund A . Walsh School of Foreign Service studying mortal God.”70 While the sovereign may violate International Politics .

14 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 THE FORUM

American Individualism and Its Discontents

Amanda Wynter

hen asked what she believed to fellows,” and can therefore participate equally in be the most pressing social is- the government and live freely in society.73 Act- W sue in Western society today, ing separately and individually everyone can Elfriede Jelinek, an Austrian playwright and enjoy the daily goings-on of their life without the recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature for interference of duties and obligations to anyone 2004, responded, “isolation is one of the greatest but themselves. Tocqueville asserts, “equality problems, an ever-growing obstacle to political daily gives each man in the crowd a host of small solidarity.”71 With her observation, Alexis de enjoyments,” and that “the charms of equality Tocqueville and John Dewey might agree. Pre- are felt the whole time and are within the reach senting us with the “isolated man” and “lost in- of all; the noblest spirits appreciate them, and dividual” respectively, both predict and foresee the commonest minds exult in them.”74 Not only this “ever-growing obstacle” and offer differ- does man take pleasure in these enjoyments but ent yet inextricably linked solutions. However, he purports to live in a world solely made up much like knowledge of the day’s temperature of them. We are told that all men are created is necessary in order to dress appropriately, nec- equal and so equal are the opportunities to ac- essary is the knowledge of the political and soci- quire money, land, and happiness. Because of ological temperatures surrounding the isolated this “truth,” no longer do we have obligations man, to our ability to appropriately address to help our neighbor, let alone those strangers his problems. Here, Michael Oakeshott proves who are the least among us. Ties that once held a prescient meteorologist. Oakeshott concep- the natural classes of society together are—like tualizes this temperature in what he calls “Ra- the bonds of human affection—made “wider but tionalism” and its monopoly on the collective more relaxed.”75 psyche—and fortunately, this prediction comes What exactly does this look like? Perhaps it not without counsel. By diverging paths, Toc- manifests itself in concern for the general wel- queville and Dewey circumscribe Oakeshott’s fare of a nation, combined with a disregard— advice of “taking the next step”72 and affirm his and in some cases distaste—for the policies that charge that politics, like man, requires some- bring equality to all because they do so at the thing more. expense of prosperity for some. Making an in- As democratic providence drives society fur- sightful observation about where the American ther towards equality, Tocqueville fears for the job market could be headed, Tocqueville states, psychological toll it will take on the individual. “nobody’s position is quite stable,”76 rendering Rendering all societal ties unnecessary and the incessant fear of losing one’s prosperity a priding individual success over the collective, constant state of being. Might this fear incite an we find man lost in isolation from his friends, increasingly “rugged individualism,” leading family, and neighbor. Beginning with the reduc- men to care not about one another, but treat one tion of differences, “no man is different from his another as strangers? Tocqueville would not be

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surprised at the evidence for this provided by to- encourage him to submit to greater autonomy day’s socioeconomic climate. As both the impov- and further self-aggrandizement. erished and wealthy convince themselves that Writing almost one hundred years after equality will save them, democracy will con- Alexis de Tocqueville publishes the first volume tinue to break “the chain and free each link,”77 of Democracy in America, John Dewey observes a and force man further into isolation. Refusing world in which Tocqueville’s fears are not only to acknowledge the realities of inequality—not realized, but exponentially so. Identifying flaws in potential, but in circumstance—the isolated with America’s corporate nature and rampant individual lacks the perspective to conceive of individualism, Dewey labels his theoretical solutions to his problem. Fastened to his self- specimen the “lost individual,”81 and with him, sufficient sphere, his gaze directs him to differ- explores very similar incongruities that Toc- ent methods and procedures that have proven to queville does, albeit through a different lens. be lacking in result. “Towards the great community”82 we march, The enervation of social links—be they of- espousing creeds that no longer match our re- ficial obligations to coworkers, or a salutary alities. But where does this march begin? When kindness among strangers—serve as testament we remember the age of the pioneer, we are to the secondary consequence of man’s isola- reminded of the open lands and bountiful re- tion. Operating in spheres distinct from one an- sources of the unconquered America. Landing other, isolated individuals serve their own gods on the shores of the new world, people were and measure by their own standards. Skeptical given free reign to explore, farm, and reside. of ideas beyond the reach of their touch, “men With a taste for expansion and private gain, our do not want to think beyond tomorrow.”78 With situation called “for [the] assertion of complete their spheres surrounding them, individuals economic determinism.”83Combined with that become obsessed with their prosperity. Fortu- determinism was “the ideal of equality of oppor- nately, the American delights in his self-inter- tunity and of freedom for all,” creating a creed est as it connects to the self-interest of others. that would cease to function in a world grow- “Rightly understood,” as Tocqueville ordains it, ing ever scarce. America stood for self-creation, self-interest grounds man’s morality in his tem- self-improvement, and self-growth, all while poral relationships rather than an eternal good- claiming to ensure those ideals for everyone. ness. Religion slowly phases out of his sphere Because there existed so much land, everyone and leaves him with “little faith in anything was promised success, and for a long time, ev- extraordinary and an almost invincible distaste eryone was able to achieve it. Unfortunately, the for the supernatural.”79Although he urges us not natural capital that characterized the new world to forget that religion gave birth to the English was not bottomless. In fact, it was barely that colonies, the isolated man sees no need for its deep. Soon, “squatters”—people without for- authority. This turning of man, in and towards mally recognized capital—were claiming their himself, cuts him off from the outside and ob- right to land and recognition, and were doing scures everything tangential to his interest. so at the expense of the wealthy. By occupying Without religious experiences to connect him a portion of someone’s land, farming and creat- to others, and the decrease in opportunities for ing sustenance, these squatters altered the man- him to interact with others, the individual wan- ner in which capital was obtained. With “free” ders the streets alone, subject to the will of the land diminishing, people began demanding for wind.80 No longer do we regard each other in re- those who had, to give. This imbalance of order lation, or as a collective. Man’s feigned attempts required the state to step in and create means at nationalism and camaraderie are pummeled for these people to acquire land, and therefore by the demands of economic advancements and created “preemption.”84 One can argue that this

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was the first step in the direction of our diverg- of individualism” set in.87 Individualism was ing creed. No longer could everyone have every- no longer tied to the interest of the collective. thing . The state had an interest in making sure Slow and patient progress towards an end goal that everyone had at least something . Here, “Amer- of happiness and religious prosperity was cata- ican Individualism” was truly born. Individuals lyzed by the need for efficiency and speed, ren- were required to confront each other in a market dering the individual and his work quantified, where resources were scarce, and every move mechanized, and standardized.88 settled their fate. With the onset of the Industrial revolution, This American spirit, as Tocqueville tells us, this individual became what Heidegger refers to was circumscribed by religion. With puritan be- as “standing reserve,”89 mechanized and placed ginnings, moving forward into many denomi- under rule of the large industries but in charge of nations, Dewey notes that “the spiritual factor their own welfare. Though positive results were of our tradition, equal opportunity and free as- rendered in an increase of decently prosperous sociation and intercommunication” constituted people, “rugged individualism [was] praised as our creed. Unfortunately, it has been “obscured the glory of American life. But such words have and crowded out” by what he calls a “pecuni- little relation to the moving facts of that life.”90 ary culture.”85 The men who were once fueled Again, the American individual—under the im- by religious aspirations to build a land on which pression that all of his hard work would propel to worship freely has allowed for his love of the him into the wealth and prosperity that his creed material to overcome his love of God. “Nowhere espoused—was met with the harsh facts that in the world” Dewey says, ”at any time has reli- there simply was not enough wealth to ensure gion been so thoroughly respectable as with us, equality. and so nearly totally disconnected from life.”86 Further, in an attempt to equalize the ability This individual has translated his passions for to achieve that wealth, technique and the appli- equality under God into a passion for equality cation thereof pervaded all areas of life. “How under the capital state. These individuals, as a to” and “steps to success” describe not only the collective, were once connected by their wish to means by which we accomplish specific tasks, exploit and harness the land for their religious but describe the way we view all spheres of life. freedom, told to care for one another, because “Technique” Dewey observed, became an end in they are brothers and sisters in the eyes of their itself because the dissonance between our abil- creator. This social responsibility was eventually ity in speech, and our ability in practice was coupled with the temporal sphere of corporat- so striking, and the lost individual required a ism and self-improvement. To their—and sadly surefire way to achieve his goals. Dewey asks our own—dismay, the American creed became the modern and lost individual: “Where is the double, speaking one way and acting another. wilderness which now beckons creative energy Speaking equality and compassion but working and afford untold opportunity to initiative and to ensure that some do not achieve—working to vigor?91 Because the unlimited landscape previ- ensure that some are crowded out and obscured. ously able to sustain American individualism is America’s individualism responded to this now limited, the “creative energy” must be re- duality by recreating itself wholly in the im- directed. Where the goals were clearly religious age of corporateness, rather than compassion. freedom and economic sufficiency and prosper- The old creed’s “promise of a new moral and ity, the unknown goals of today’s individualism religious outlook” was never attained, and in leave the lost individual desultory. Without a place a new individualism took root. Rather fixed goal towards which to rapidly progress but than pretend that equal individuals ruled and countless techniques with which to aimlessly prospered here, “a perversion of the whole ideal progress, the old individualism became a new

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individualism—the individualism that plagues every side and unable to come together and take us today. shape.”95 Stating his concern for the individual in In chapter four, entitled “The Lost Indi- this age, he refers directly to the lost individual vidual,” of Individualism Old and New, Dewey of modern liberalism that Dewey criticizes. Con- describes “the loyalties which once held indi- sidering the rejection of a religious guide and by viduals, which gave them support, direction extension, a concrete moral foundation, Dewey and unity of outlook on life, have well-disap- laments, “the lack of secure objects of allegiance, peared.”92 We can follow this process into mod- without which individuals are lost, is especially ern America. Not only is this a function of the striking in the case of the liberal.”96 increased concern for personal gain, but with Lest we believe that the problems posed by the secularization of the American psyche—al- this individual are distinct to the 20th century, though one can argue that the process has been we are privy to this individual in recent analysis less a secularization, and more a becoming igno- of the political sphere, as well as in our friends rant of that which is natural—we no longer feel and family everyday. In Achieving Our Country, obligated to those less fortunate. In order for the Richard Rorty commends the Left for its aban- least of us to be recognized, the individual will donment of any fixed reference and its ability to have to “assume a responsibility from which [he change course at a moment’s notice. Although was] previously exempt.”93 When religion was he is more critical of the exact manner in which at the helm, and one’s interest simply was the the political Left does this, he wishes to affirm interest of the whole, one needn’t be conscious the lost individual, and his ability to roam aim- of this fact because steps were taken to ensure lessly.97 Self-referential and proud of it, Rorty that prosperity was built into the framework of represents—on a public level— the type of society. This ceased to be the case with the rise person that we meet every day. Whether Toc- of the lost individual and his groundless world. queville would associate this meeting with the He is now lost in a sea of other individuals, all heart enlarging capacity he encourages, we can concerned with their respective spheres. speculate, but we do know that he is weary of The two individuals illustrated by Toc- their mode of operation. Those individuals that queville and Dewey are parallel, if not one. The live in spheres of their own creation, that require lost individual, caught in the midst of his cor- no firm ground on which to stand, are the indi- porate obsession with material gain, has turned viduals that both Tocqueville and Dewey hope himself inwards, concerning himself only with to expose and reform. But, what exactly pro- that which urges him on. However, this urge pelled the lost and isolated individual into the is not an “eruption” from the outside or above. world of isolation and materialism, and how do This urge is self-referential, comparable only to we stabilize the speed with which he flies? himself. Liberalism, for its benefits and strides, Michael Oakeshott provides an enlightened has placed man in a world without a ground. account of the “intellectual fashion”98 that bred Dewey despairs because the liberalism of old the lost and isolated individual. His version was one of “definite intellectual creed,” one of this man is the “Rationalist.” The climate in that believed in a “thought-out social philoso- which the Rationalist appears eerily resembles phy, a theory of politics sufficiently definite and the conceptions of America that Tocqueville and coherent.”94Far from a critique of “liberalism” Dewey depict, and with this climate, we can bet- as a whole though, the man whom Tocqueville ter prepare for future storms and perhaps alter and Dewey present is definitely a function of the atmosphere in which we currently live. liberalism gone awry. Tocqueville posits: “it Pragmatic, general, universal, and certain; would seem that human opinions were no more the age of the individual requires these traits than a sort of mental dust open to the wind on from its people and their actions. Tocqueville

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warns against the American tendency towards Again in concordance, Tocqueville and Oake- “general ideas” where Dewey highlights the shott remark that the individual in a “society or a general standardization of thought that fills generation which thinks what it has discovered the minds of lost individuals. Oakeshott might for itself is more important than what it has in- contend that as time passes—and we acquire herited,”104 is want to “seek by themselves and more means and methods—our character be- in themselves for the only reason for things.”105 comes “cruder and more vulgar.” We opt for Their wish for a “beneficent and infallible tech- techniques that ensure our individual success nique” overshadows their inability to prevent and remove any strain of uncertainty from our chance and the unexpected. Where the religious lives. Unfortunately, along with uncertainty, man finds solace in his uncertainty because the we rid ourselves of the intangible, abstract, and only certainty is his faith, the isolated individual poetic. Desperate for certainty, the rationalist must search for a method or idea that will explain atmosphere fosters an appreciation for “greater the world in certainty. As technological advance- precision and its alleged demonstrability.”99 The ments are made—and Dewey encourages us to preference for technical knowledge—knowledge extend open arms to these advancements—the that renders exact results by following a set of desire and persistence for certainty intensifies. rules—displays an attempt to place all power in Applying this insatiable need for method to the the hands of the individual. Unable to “imagine real world, Dewey describes the modern Ameri- a problem which would remain impervious to can’s “vast development of technological re- the onslaught of his own reason,”100 this indi- sources that might bring security in its train has vidual arrives at the “conclusion that everything actually brought a new mode of insecurity.”106 in the world can be explained and that noth- Our materialism requires a constant concern ing passes beyond the limits of intelligence.”101 with never having enough, and because we have Speaking directly to one another, Oakeshott rejected that which brings ultimate security, we and Tocqueville bemoan the prevalence of this are stuck in limbo between a promised answer individual and his overconfidence. In this in- and an insufficient question—between security, stance, Dewey takes a slightly different view of and the hope for ultimate certainty. our tendency to problematize that that requires Revering religion for its “rule over the heart no solution. He submits that it is only when we without support,”107 Alexis De Tocqueville em- view our situation as a problem that the idea of phasizes the importance of the “salutary yoke” any solution becomes genuine.102 It is clear that that it engenders. The coming together that oc- Oakeshott is concerned less with a solution’s sin- curs through the work of religious mores should cerity and more with its source: be “free from political prejudices,” ensuring that “The deeper motivations which encouraged the political and economic change of the tides and developed this intellectual fashion are, not has little to no impact on religion. This was Toc- unnaturally obscure; they are…certainly closely queville’s hope, or rather, his prescription. He allied with a decline in the belief in Providence: observes this by way of the Puritans, and subtly a beneficent and infallible technique replaced a submits that this is the proper alignment of re- beneficent God; and where Providence was not ligion and politics. Each person will be moved available to correct the mistakes of men, it was all by its tenants, but so internally that it needn’t be the more necessary to prevent the mistakes.”103 uttered. Mores, he alludes to, are those habits of Here, Oakeshott alludes to the foundation of the the heart that require no laws, they require no modern move: namely, the move away from an speech. However, their power is derived from the external authority or reference. Both Tocqueville ultimate authority to which they obey. Preserv- and Dewey note this move, referring to it as ing these mores would require the preservation troubling or problematic, respectively.

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 19 American Individualism and Its Discontents |

of certain understandings about the man, the applications of science and technology. He universe, and his place within it. thinks this to be “but the extension of our natural When we look at the isolated man, sur- organs of approach to nature,” and that by em- rounded by his desires and techniques, we ploying them, “with the understanding of their observe his inability to connect with others. possible import,”109 the lost individual will find Derived completely from within, the individ- his bearings again. It is less clear whether Dewey ual fails to recognize the authority in anything accepts the role of religion or would encourage outside of himself. Tocqueville believes that its diffusion back into the spirit of America. the salutary habits that form through religious Perhaps all that need be recognized revolves rituals and adherence draw man out of himself around his concern for the unity of spirit and ac- and into the community. When temporal goals tion, and that his middle way views technology cease to consume the mind, man is free to pur- as that action. sue unqualified goods—those goods analogous The isolated individual will always incline to Oakeshott’s “contemplative thinking.” Indi- towards the intangible. Her inclination towards vidualism would cease to be the only or primary that which lies outside the sphere of methodol- mode of experience. Instead, man’s heart would ogy and precision is “the only permanent state be ruled by one that directs the many modes. of mankind,”110 and she will always be inclined Wishing to restore America’s creed so that back to it. Her inquiry into what “works” in it no longer rings double, Dewey views the the world will inevitably lead her to ask: what ways to do this in cultural terms. In the spirit of is good in the world? Her orientation can lead Tocqueville, Dewey declares that the lost indi- her to science or to religion; but I think that Toc- vidual needs “equality and freedom expressed queville would argue that this is a false dichot- not merely eternally and politically but through omy reinforced by the democratic age. Keeping personal participation in the development of a both voices in mind, the isolated individual can shared culture.”108 For Dewey this shared cul- begin a conversation, allowing for each voice to ture is one that focuses on solving the problems contribute when necessary. that social inequalities reap—produced by the misalignment of our materialist creed and in- Amanda Wynter is a senior in the Georgetown Col- creasingly scarce resources—with innovative lege of Arts & Sciences studying Political Philosophy .

20 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 THE CHAMBER

The Nexus between Religious Homogeneity and Political Stability

Su Lyn Lai

olitical theory has long postulated a test the concentration ratio for firms in markets. positive relationship between religious This index can measure the probability of any homogeneity and political stability. two individuals selected at random in the coun- P 2 By creating societal cleavages that unravel the try sharing a religion. The formula is H=∑(S1­­ + 2 2 2 threads from which the fabric of society was S2 + S3 + … Sn ), where H is the value of religious woven, religious plurality destabilizes states. homogeneity, S is the percentage of the popula- On the other hand, a common religion can fos- tion subscribing to a particular religion, and n ter shared values that facilitate social cohesion, is the number of religions subscribed to in the thereby accounting for the positive relationship country. A larger value indicates a higher prob- between religious homogeneity and political sta- ability that these two random individuals share bility. Nevertheless, quantifying religious homo- a religion, and hence points to a more religiously geneity using the Herfindahl index reveals that homogeneous population. In order to compute many of the observed politically stable countries the level of religious homogeneity in each state in contemporary times are not religiously ho- using this formula, the statistics of the religious mogeneous. Conversely, the countries in which compositions of each state were collected from most citizens share a common religion are in the CIA World Factbook, which obtains its data fact the most politically unstable ones. That from official country censuses.111 said, it cannot be assumed that the data indicate On the other hand, political stability has been a causal relationship between the levels of reli- defined qualitatively in this study without using gious homogeneity and political stability within a definitive index. It is seen as the dependent a country. Factors such as good governance and variable and is assessed only when the coun- political maturity could have allowed religiously try’s religious homogeneity index is adjudged heterogeneous countries to enjoy greater degrees to be particularly high or low. A country which of political stability in spite of their religious plu- possesses stable political structures and institu- ralism. At the same time, the forcible separation tions that have survived without major conflict of religion and state in religiously homogeneous is considered politically stable. In addition, party countries could threaten political stability, given change is not indicative of unstable politics un- the absolutism in religion that leaves no room for less such power-transfers also involve signifi- compromise with a secularized political system. cant shifts in policy and changes to government The index for religious homogeneity used in institutions. Generally, coups and popular revo- this paper was created by employing the Herfin- lutions count for significant instability, while dahl Index, which was originally developed to rigged elections with the intervention of external

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 21 The Nexus between Religious Homogeneity and Political Stability |

political agents or factional politics count for mi- resulting from powerful religious institutions nor instability. is further exacerbated in a community where The levels of religious homogeneity of a broad a single religion is concentrated and where re- range of states were computed using the Herfin- ligion is separated from the state. As a result, dahl Index and compiled in Figure 1. The results the religious institutions become sidelined from show a general correlation between religious the decision-making process and are prevented homogeneity and political instability. Moreover, from effecting any change in secular policies to the states that exhibit higher levels of religious align them with their own view of the absolute heterogeneity generally do enjoy greater politi- truth. Given religious homogeneity, then, there cal stability. In order to assess whether these re- would be a critical mass of people to support sults debunk conventional political theory about the perspective of the dominant religion, giv- a positive relationship between religious ho- ing it sufficient force to destabilize the political mogeneity and political stability, it is therefore system. Hence, both the absolutist nature of cer- necessary to account for both correlations: the tain religious institutions and the secularization one between religious homogeneity and politi- of politics in religious homogeneous countries cal instability, as well as that between religious contribute to the greater political instability ob- heterogeneity and political stability. served in those countries. Starting with the correlation between re- For instance, Egypt, a country with a homo- ligious homogeneity and political instability, geneity index of 0.818 in this study, is considered one should note that many of the religiously highly religiously homogeneous, with a large homogeneous countries according to the index proportion of the population identifying itself as have prominent religious institutions that are so Salafi Muslims, a movement within Sunni Islam, insistent on imposing their values uncondition- with which the Muslim Brotherhood identifies ally onto the society-at-large that they are often itself. Despite Egypt’s religious homogeneity, considered fundamentalist or absolutist. This is Egypt has certainly failed to achieve political not to say that religious homogeneity causes this stability, as the revolution in 2011 has shown. prevalence of absolutist religious institutions; Although the roots of the current conflicts in rather, it is merely easier for such institutions Egypt should not be solely attributed to religion, to obtain support in a religiously homoge- the strong support for the Muslim Brotherhood, neous society than a religiously heterogeneous which has “a wide following in the slums of one. Given the prevalence of such prominent Cairo,”113 meant that religion was still a signifi- and even powerful religious institutions in re- cant factor in the political dynamics of the coun- ligiously homogeneous societies, religion tends try. The involvement of the Muslim Brotherhood to hinder concessionary action whenever conflict in “the street demonstrations of the Kifaya move- between political action and religious doctrines ment, …[the] debate on political reform and arises. This phenomenon is well-documented in [its] successful [contest of] parliamentary elec- research, for instance, by the political theorist tions”114 under the ambit of promoting a way of Bhiku Parekh, who found that religion’s char- life based upon Islamic principles would have acteristics of being “absolutist, self-righteous, collated popular religious sentiment and enabled arrogant, dogmatic, and impatient of compro- them to act in strong opposition to the govern- mise” has led to its potential to “easily destabi- ment, thereby promoting political instability. lize society [and] cause political havoc.”112 While Apart from fomenting political instabil- the statement cannot be generalized to describe ity internally, religious homogeneity may also all forms of religion, it remains a commonly ob- do so externally in other states. When there is served description of some prominent religious a dominant religious group in a country suffi- institutions. The potential for political instability ciently strong to influence the country’s foreign

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policy, inter-state conflicts may be incited when The aim of utilizing Saudi Arabia as an example that country’s foreign policy aggravates inter- is not to show that religious homogeneity results state religious fault lines. After all, it is only in a in political stability, but to show that religious more religiously homogeneous country that the homogeneity is not a barrier to political stabil- state and its foreign policy would be identified ity as long as religious institutions and the state as supporting a single religion overwhelmingly. government work in tandem and hold similar An example of inter-state conflict which can be values. attributed to religious homogeneity in the in- The excerpt from the Centre for Strategic In- volved countries is that of Pakistan and India. ternational Studies also serves to highlight an While the two countries were divided into sepa- important feature of politically stable nations: a rate states almost 70 years ago, bilateral relations strong, flexible government. In fact, good gov- between them are still strained due in part to ernance can help account for the correlation the conflicts between Muslims and Hindus in between religious heterogeneity and political the Northeast of India, particularly in the region stability. Religiously heterogeneous countries of Kashmir. The majority Muslim population of are politically stable due to a self-selecting pro- Pakistan and the majority Hindu population of cess. Those that survived the test of time and India view each other with suspicion, creating continue to exist today are simply the countries antagonisms that perpetuate inter-state conflict that had a government which could maintain and political instability. the state’s integrity in spite of religious plural- Nevertheless, a greater degree of political ism. Indeed, two circumstances emerge from stability has been observed in religiously homo- religious conflict in a religiously heterogeneous geneous countries where the institutions of reli- country: the country either breaks up and forms gion and state maintain compatible beliefs and independent states along ethnic and religious principles. One country in particular stands out; lines, or it evolves to form a government adept at as noted by the Council on Foreign Relations, handling religious conflict and preserving social “it is difficult not to notice that Saudi Arabia and political stability. avoided significant upheaval during the political Historical examples abound which demon- uprisings that swept the Middle East in 2011,”115 strate the first circumstance; countries which allowing it to be hailed as a “paragon of politi- have proven incapable of managing a pluralis- cal stability.”116 This view is corroborated by the tic society and have hence broken up include, Centre for Strategic International Studies: among others, Yugoslavia and, later on, Serbia and Kosovo, Indonesia and East Timor, and Every crisis in the Middle East since the time most recently Sudan and South Sudan. Despite of Nasser has led to a new round of specu- the creation of more religiously homogeneous lation about Saudi Arabia and the future of societies after the separation of those states, most the monarchy. Yet, it has now been more of these states continue to exhibit political insta- than half a century since that speculation bility, which can generally be explained by the began and Saudi Arabia has not changed factors mentioned about in the discussion on the its regime. As other countries in the region correlation between religious homogeneity and have shown all too clearly, a history of sta- political instability. Nevertheless, most of the ex- bility is no guarantee for the future, but it amples referenced here are recent examples, and is important to note that Saudi stability has the nascence of the states may be a factor of in- been the product of the fact that its govern- stability, since the governments are still search- ment has dealt with each wave of change by ing for a firm footing. making the reforms that are critical to main- On the other hand, countries which have been taining popular support.117 able to overcome a violent or conflict-ridden

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 23 The Nexus between Religious Homogeneity and Political Stability |

Homogeneity Homogeneity Country Index Country Index

Afghanistan 0.980 Pakistan 0.941 Algeria 0.980 Philippines 0.859 Argentina 0.884 Portugal 0.914 Australia 0.461 Saudi Arabia 0.805 Bangladesh 0.810 Singapore 0.255 Bhutan 0.620 Slovakia 0.727 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0.420 Slovenia 0.519 Brazil 0.851 Somalia 0.998 Egypt 0.818 South Africa 0.655 Finland 0.723 South Sudan NA Germany 0.521 Sudan 0.555 Iceland 0.802 Sweden 0.532 India 0.667 Switzerland 0.654 Indonesia 0.770 Syria 0.820 Iran 0.961 United Arab Emirates 0.437 Iraq 0.941 United Kingdom 0.541 Ireland 0.845 United States 0.632 Italy 0.726 Uruguay 0.689 Lebanon 0.509 Venezuela 0.961 Malaysia 0.415 Vietnam 0.731 New Zealand 0.436 Zimbabwe 0.620 Figure 1 past to create a cohesive society of religiously and private organizations and governments”118 distinct communities now stand as pillars of sta- and that maintaining it requires “appropriate bility. This stability is not a result of religious political involvement,” which plays “an instru- heterogeneity, but the result of good gover- mental role in a successful religiously plural nance which achieved stability in spite of—and society.”119 In other words, good governance fa- not because of—the religious fault lines within cilitates political stability by fostering harmoni- those countries. In a study by sociologists Gary ous relationships between the various elements Bouma and Andrew Singleton on the manage- in civil society. Perhaps, by according various ment of religious diversity, they assert that a private organizations, including religious orga- stable pluralistic society “involves both the nizations, the right to fulfill their own political deliberate and unintentional actions and deci- goals and objectives on the condition that they sions entered into by religious groups, public do not compromise others’ right to the same, the

24 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | Su Lyn Lai

government can help to maintain political stabil- electorate will see any difference between - it ity in a religiously plural society. self and its representatives as an impermissible Holding one of the lowest values in the index distortion,”122 which would lead to conflict and of religious homogeneity, Singapore stands out hence instability while a “politically mature elec- as an example of strong government holding a re- torate will know how to find the juste milieu”123 ligiously pluralistic country together in a “strict or balance between the ignorance and apathy of state-enforced doctrine of religious harmony.”120 a politically indifferent electorate and a conflict- Political strength is also quoted in this study as seeking naïve electorate. a primary factor contributing to religious cohe- Such political maturity is usually found in sion and stability within India. The country’s countries where any religious affiliation is un- choice to adopt “religious neutrality as a key common—for instance, Sweden, Germany, and feature of its constitution and the cornerstone New Zealand. These three countries have more of the strategy for nation-building…secur[ed] than 25% of their population declaring them- for India both stability and democracy.”121 In selves as non-religious. At the same time, they both of these countries, religious conflict played have considerably low religious homogeneity a significant role in their pre-independence his- index values which indicate a religiously hetero- tory, influencing both intra-state and inter-state geneous society. All three, too, can be considered conflict. Singapore and India were plagued by extremely stable democracies: Sweden and New internal religious and ethnic riots, and at the Zealand have not undergone a regime change same time, they attained their independence af- since 1905 and 1872 respectively, while Germany ter the separation of existing states along ethno- is often held up as a model of political stability religious lines: the partition of the British Indian since its reunification in 1990. A correlation be- Empire into India, Pakistan and subsequently, tween these three characteristics of irreligiosity, Bangladesh, and the dissolution of Malaya into religious heterogeneity and political stability Malaysia and Singapore. These examples dem- may thus be established. That said, it is prema- onstrate that the theory that religious heteroge- ture to conclude that irreligiosity itself accounts neity causes social and political instability was for political stability. Instead, it should be seen as accurate in the absence of a strong government. a symptom of a much broader phenomenon: an Yet, once the governments in each of these coun- increasing level of economic development based tries found their footing, they both successfully upon capitalistic free-market principles. After incorporated religious tolerance and harmony all, the three countries highlighted above have into their legislation, making it a core part of strong market-based economies and heightened their governing strategy. As a result, they could material standards of living for their people. overcome the instability which initially accom- Hence, since a market-based economy operates panied their religious plurality and establish po- upon the premise that people tend to act in a litically stable states. rational way that maximizes their welfare, the The political maturity of the electorate is an- advent of such a market-based system in those other important factor in the establishment of a countries might have encouraged people to act religiously heterogeneous yet politically stable precisely in such an economically rational man- state. In such states, citizens—religious or not— ner to increase their material standard of living. will choose to put aside religious affiliations to In the process, conflict will become less useful elect parties and support policies based on logi- and cooperation will become more attractive, re- cal principles, therefore constructing a society sulting in greater political stability. that is relatively immunized from the sectarian In conclusion, it is now clear that the con- biases of religion. The historical theorist Frank ventional theory about a positive relationship Ankersmit observes that “a politically naive between religious homogeneity and political

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 25 The Nexus between Religious Homogeneity and Political Stability |

stability has not been reversed in any way. In- secular governments found today, this translation stead, extenuating circumstances have prevented often does not occur. As a result, political instabil- this theoretical relationship from materializing in ity ensues, especially in religiously homogeneous the world today, resulting in the empirical obser- countries where there would be a greater number vation of a positive correlation between religious of people in favor of translating their dominant homogeneity and political instability, as well as religious beliefs in policies. Moreover, in examin- religious heterogeneity and political stability. ing the correlation between religious heterogene- The circumstances which have prevented theory ity and political stability, no causal link between and reality from converging contain a fundamen- the two phenomena can be drawn. Instead, other tal difference between the context in which the factors, namely good governance and the politi- theoretical relationship was envisioned and the cal maturity of the populace, especially in civil context in which these states exist today: the ex- society, have allowed religiously heterogeneous tent of the integration of religion into politics. countries to flourish in spite of their inherent pro- While religious homogeneity can theoretically pensity to conflict. lead to shared experiences, beliefs, and conse- quently stable political outcomes, this is based on Su Lyn Lai is a sophomore in the Georgetown Col- the assumption that religious beliefs can be trans- lege of Arts & Sciences studying Government and lated into political change. In the increasingly Economics .

26 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 THE CHAMBER

Marriage and the Constitution

Andrew Schilling

s defining marriage between a man and Many contend that traditional marriage stat- a woman a violation of the United States utes trigger a similar form of heightened review, I Constitution? It will probably be a few if those statutes, like the antimiscegenation laws more years before we see a judgment on this at issue in Loving, contain a suspect classifica- question from the Supreme Court.* That said, tion. On their face, traditional marriage statutes the trend among the state courts and lower fed- seem to discriminate on the basis of sexual ori- eral courts is clear: traditional marriage statutes entation. This idea has picked up some traction violate constitutional guarantees of equality and among lower courts. Of course, these statutes due process. This impression has left an im- never explicitly refer to “sexual orientation.” But print on the American political imagination, as it is true that traditional marriage statutes elimi- a growing number of Americans now think that nate marital designation to couples on the basis the redefinition of marriage is inevitable. Yet, is of sexual orientation. the answer so clear? Nothing in the United States Simply because traditional marriage statutes Constitution requires that states change their employ sexual orientation-based classifications traditional marriage policies. does not automatically invalidate those laws. In deciding this case, one must be aware of Only those “classifications which are invidious, the extent to which the Supreme Court has typi- arbitrary, or irrational offend the Equal Protec- cally recognized marriage as “a social relation tion Clause.”127 To determine the validity of subject to the State’s police power.”124 How- certain classifications, the Supreme Court has ever, this tradition has never indicated that the typically relied upon different forms of consti- “powers to regulate marriage are unlimited tutional review. It is clear that sexual orientation notwithstanding the commands of the Four- warrants a heightened level of constitutional teenth Amendment.”125 Marriage regulations scrutiny—the same level as sex-based classifi- containing “suspect classifications,” such as the cations. Sexual-orientation-based classifications, race-based one at issue in Loving v . Virginia, are like sex-based classifications, are subject to in- subject to “the very heavy burden of justification termediate scrutiny, since sexual orientation, like which the Fourteenth Amendment has tradition- sex, is “not fungible; a community made up ex- ally required of state statutes” that are deemed clusively of one is different from a community discriminatory.126 composed of both.”128 Hence, the issue presented is whether states have “exceedingly persuasive reasons” for with- *This essay was written before the announcement drawing the designation of marriage to same-sex of the Court's opinion in US vs . Windsor, and the couples. They have the sole burden of showing editors leave it to readers to compare and contrast that the marriage statutes serve “important gov- the position of this paper with the outcome of that ernmental objectives and that the discriminatory case. means employed are substantially related to the

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 27 Marriage and the Constitution |

achievement of those objectives.”129 Proponents linked with procreation. Yet, it is “exceedingly of the traditional marriage statutes have listed persuasive” that maintaining and promoting several important governmental objectives justi- that link constitutes an important governmental fying the use of sexual-orientation-based classifi- interest.137 cations. These are: the promotion of procreation The issue presented here is whether tradi- within married households; proceeding with tional marriage statutes are substantially related caution; protecting religious freedom; and pre- to the end of procreative marriage. They are venting children from being taught about same- substantially related to advancing the promo- sex marriages in school. Other state courts have tion of procreation within marriage by mere fact considered governmental interests such as the that they preclude same-sex couples—couples conservation of resources and the promotion of that cannot procreate—from receiving the mari- stable opposite-sex marriages.130 tal designation. To confer the marital designa- Throughout the Supreme Court’s marriage tion on same-sex couples would by entailment jurisprudence, the recognition of the “fun- diminish the link between the “fundamental” damental” nature of the marriage right has nature of marriage and procreation—a link the developed in tandem with the important gov- importance of which the Supreme Court’s own ernmental interest in promoting procreation jurisprudence has recognized. The issue is not within marriage itself. In Skinner v . Oklahoma, that traditional marriage statutes cause more the Court stated: “marriage and procreation opposite-sex couples to procreate accidentally or are fundamental to the very existence of the irresponsibly. The issue is whether those statutes [human] race.”131 In Loving, it implicitly linked are substantially related to maintaining mar- marriage with procreation in describing mar- riage’s “fundamental” nature as an institution in riage as “fundamental to our very existence.”132 which couples procreate. Common sense tells us In Turner v. Safley, it included in our rationale that it does. It is “exceedingly persuasive” that at the “expectation that [marriage] will be fully the core of traditional marriage statutes’ opera- consummated.”133 In Griswold v . Connecticut, tion and design is the important governmental the Court found it “difficult to imagine what is interest of honoring a proven successful family more private or more intimate than a husband structure in which couples are encouraged and and wife’s marital relation[ship].”134 In Reyn- expected to procreate.138 olds v . U S. ., it held that “no legislation can be The common rejoinder to this argument— supposed more wholesome and necessary in and the one advanced by some lower Courts—is the founding of a free, self-governing common- that states already permit same-sex couples to wealth…than that which seeks to establish it on adopt children, and permit heterosexual couples the basis of the idea of the family, as consisting to marry without any consideration of their ca- in and springing from the union for life of one pacity or intention to procreate. The implication man and one woman…the sure foundation of is, of course, that procreation and marriage are all that is stable and noble in our civilization.”135 already unattached, and that endowing same- In Maynard v . Hill, it concluded that marriage sex couples with the marital designation does “is an institution, in the maintenance of which nothing to either repair that link or erode it fur- in its purity the public is deeply interested, for ther. But the people of the United States could it is the foundation of family and of society, without rationally permit the adoption of children by which there would be neither civilization nor same-sex couples and other behavior on per- progress.”136 The lower court decisions bear ab- sonal liberty grounds while still harboring res- solutely no hint of any consideration of this long ervations about giving the same designation series of precedent acknowledging the “fun- to same-sex couples as it does to opposite-sex damental” nature of marriage as inextricably couples.

28 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | Andrew Schilling

Nevertheless, that states permit certain be- others.”139 Nor does it necessarily gainsay any havior that may erode the link between procre- marriage regulation justified on the grounds of ation and marriage does not necessarily strip promoting procreation within marriage. As long away their ability to take measures maintaining, as traditional marriage statutes are substantially protecting, or restoring that link. The reform related to protecting the link between marriage may take one step at a time, addressing itself… and procreation, they pass intertte scrutiny. to the problem which seems most acute to the legislative mind. The legislature may select one Andrew Schilling is a senior in the Georgetown Col- phase…and apply a remedy there, neglecting the lege of Arts & Sciences studying Government .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 29 THE SANCTUARY

A System of Love Understanding “Faith” through Newman and Balthasar

Christopher Cannataro

ne of the most complex theological the convergence of probabilities, since accepting concepts is the act of faith; specifi- that revelation without proper intellectual inves- O cally, the relationship between the tigation is neither authentic faith nor sufficient will and intellect in assenting to the truth claims for the intellect (and, by extension, reason) to ul- of a particular faith.140 Among the greatest think- timately accept.143 To bridge the intellectual gap ers on this subject is Blessed John Henry Cardinal and provide reasonable grounds for the intellect Newman, a convert from Anglicanism to Cathol- to accept this revelation as true, great thinkers icism, whose theory concerning the convergence designed their own arguments for God’s ex- of probabilities offers us a strong argument to istence and provided deductive explanations reasonably assent to that which cannot be per- of doctrinal truth using the language of Greek ceived empirically.141 Newman’s understanding metaphysics. They did so ultimately to con- of faith as an act involving both will and intellect, struct rational explanations for revelation and when juxtaposed with the prayerful meditations to underpin their ultimate thesis that the God of Hans Urs von Balthasar on faith as experience, of Christianity exists, eschatologically erupt- allows us to see the act of faith as a “system of ing in history in the person of Jesus Christ and love.”142 In this system of love, the act of faith is continuing throughout time (transcendentally) not a purely intellectual exercise, but becomes to lead humanity into truth.144 Arguments for a transcendental choice to accept and live out God’s existence include St. Anselm’s ontologi- God’s love. This paper endeavors to explore cal argument and the five ways of St. Thomas Newman’s convergence of probabilities, the re- Aquinas,145 while the Greek metaphysical lan- lationship between intellect and will according guage which explains doctrine philosophically to Newman, and will synthesize Newman and can be seen in the theological debates and ulti- Balthasar’s theories of faith in order to establish mate resolutions at Nicaea and Chalcedon.146 In the structure of faith as a “system of love.” addition to these philosophical explanations, the Newman’s first two propositions, under- Gospels and the tradition of the Catholic Church standing the essential premises of the conver- can serve as data to support one’s conclusion gence of probabilities and the intrinsic relation that the Christian God exists, since their found- between intellect and will, go hand in hand. The ing is underpinned by seeing and believing in former requires an understanding of the treat- the incarnate Logos, Jesus Christ. ment of the “God” question throughout the Prior to Newman’s time, no thinker had elu- centuries. The revelation of the incarnate Logos, cidated an approach that could encompass all the tradition of the disciples that followed Him, these arguments under one overarching theory. and the Gospel accounts that came out of that By doing so, Cardinal Newman sought to show tradition serve as the initial presuppositions for that all of the aforementioned data that proved

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God’s existence is not disjointed and partitioned, convergence calculation. Newman himself had but rather harmonious in nature; he realized that an experience at the age of fifteen, when he real- the vast array of arguments for the existence of ized only two things for which he had certitude: the Christian God was not as strong as the ag- he and God exist.153 gregation of these arguments. This product of Hans Urs von Balthasar, writing in the twen- Newman’s genius became known as his theory tieth century, also articulates the importance of of the convergence of probabilities.147 experiencing the aesthetic nature of God and To understand the second proposition re- how it leads to faith.154 von Balthasar suggests quires one to know the reasons why Newman that one way to experience Christ is through, in created the convergence argument. No person of his words, “the total image of the Church, which faith can have certainty of the propositions of his is the community of faith that both is now a liv- faith, because no one can be certain of things un- ing reality and that once lived as an historical re- seen.148 However, a person of faith has certitude ality.”155 For Balthasar, it is through the Church that those unseen truth claims are indeed true. that one can have an experience of Christ and The distinction is subtle; for Newman, there His beauty, an experience which can give the must be a rational underpinning for that certi- Will the necessary underpinning to act in renun- tude, and the strongest underpinning for him ciation.156 Further, and most importantly, von was allowing all of the data of God’s existence Balthasar makes the claim that another way to to converge and aggregate, with each argument experience Christ’s beautiful, kindly light is to taking a relative weight in the calculation.149 Yet see him mediated through our neighbor, our this still is not enough to establish certitude, for fellow-man.157 Our fellow-man, by living out the certitude also requires an act of the will to over- Catholic call of discipleship and love, mediates come the leap of faith and assent to the proposi- the love of Christ in the present moment. This tion at hand.150 The convergence of probabilities connection with God is the most visceral and endeavors to satisfy the intellect as much as tangible experience of Christ’s intrinsic beauty possible; unfortunately, the intellect will never which we can experience, Balthasar argues that be fully satisfied, for it will relentlessly pursue it can take “the loose threads of faith” and trans- an a priori rationale for propositions.151 Further- form them “into a perfect weave.”158 It is this more, the convergence is meant to sway the will connection in which we see the most compelling to overcome the intellect’s inability to accept the evidence for the will to assent. existence of God as definitely true by giving as- An onus falls on those who have experienced sent or making an act of renunciation.152 Christ mediated by the Church and our fellow- The scope of Newman’s argument concern- man and have also assented to the Truth. This ing the act of faith can be extended beyond sim- burden is for us to mediate the light of Christ to ply an aggregation of philosophical arguments our fellow-man by following the call of Christ to and revelation-based data of tradition and scrip- love. von Balthasar claims that faith “is at each ture. One point that also needs to be taken into instant tested through the senses, and, if it is au- account is the significant role a personal experi- thenticated as faith, it immediately receives its ence of God has in the act of faith, which brings sensory corroboration. For love that is practiced us to Balthasar. A personal experience of God contains the ability to demonstrate itself as the causes an internal transformation, and therefore truth.”159 This powerful statement means that, provides an overwhelming piece of data in New- when we live out our faith and love our neigh- man’s convergence of probabilities. This internal bor, we are mediating God’s love, and therefore experience more easily allows for the will to mediating His Truth. assent to the truth claim and certitude to be es- This fundamentally makes faith a system of tablished, thus taking a significant weight in the love, because if personal experience assists the

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mind to assent to faith, and that personal expe- of evangelization; if Catholics proclaim the Gos- rience involves God’s love, love obviously has pel and live out Christ’s call to love, others will an integral part in the structure of faith; in fact, feel this love in their lives, and may even experi- love fundamentally underpins it. Furthermore, ence faith, leading them to assent to the truth as von Balthasar shows that love, as part of faith, well. Clearly, faith is so much more than giving is systematic; once one feels the love of God and the intellect satisfaction through a movement of assents to the truth of the Christian faith, he be- the will, but a “system of love” through which comes more aware of his orientation as a child all are transcendentally united. of God to serve as a mediator of God’s love, a symbol through which Christ is radiated. This is Christopher Fitzpatrick Cannataro is a junior in the part and parcel of the Christian understanding McDonough School of Business studying Accounting .

32 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 THE SANCTUARY

Interfaith Dialogue and Ethics of Authenticity

Aamir Hussain

n The Ethics of Authenticity, Canadian phi- calls “social atomism”—that negatively charac- losopher Charles Taylor claims that de- terize modernity.165 I fining oneself in comparison to others is In order to begin any productive dialogue, a central component of authenticity, or being individuals must understand which aspects of true to one’s inner self or beliefs.160 He argues their identities are meaningful. Identity is often that modernization has created a hyper-indi- defined as the collective set of characteristics that vidualistic spirit, which he calls “radical anthro- comprise the self. The individual cannot unilat- pocentrism,” that leads people to define their erally declare that an aspect of one’s self has the identities in a vacuum; as a result, social cohe- most “meaning” since this deeper significance is sion has weakened and individuals are often un- only conferred by the other. Absent the other, aware of how their inner selves fit into society. there is no way to distinguish the most signifi- Since, according to Aristotle, humans are “social cant among the near infinite characteristics that and political animals,” Taylor argues that hy- comprise one’s identity. For example, an indi- per-individualism constitutes a deviation from vidual might be a 21 year-old Muslim man with true human nature, i.e. human authenticity.161 black hair. Without an other, the individual can- Taylor’s solution to this problem is to recognize not assume that his age, his gender, his religion, that human life has a “fundamentally dialogical his hair color, or other aspects (e.g. his DNA) character,” and that individuals can better -de would be the most significant in any given situ- fine various components of their own identities ation. Indeed, Taylor argues that identity traits through “dialogues with significant others.”162 “take on importance against a background of Although Taylor mainly discusses dialogue intelligibility… a horizon.”166 After “meaning” and identity as abstract concepts, his ideas bear is established, defining oneself “means finding striking similarities to the real-world practice what is significant in [one’s] difference from of interfaith dialogue understood as “formal others.”167 For the purposes of this analysis of conversation between individuals of different interfaith dialogue, I define a “horizon of signifi- religious/spiritual backgrounds with the goal cance” (with regards to religion) as a religion’s of understanding each other’s beliefs.”163 In this core beliefs that inform an individual’s religious essay, I aim to describe the conditions necessary identity. for effective interfaith dialogue and how such For the purposes of this paper, I assume that dialogue functions as a practical application of there is no rational basis for having faith, or for Taylor’s philosophy. Interfaith dialogue can en- following one religion over another; I assume able individuals to better define their own spiri- that faith and religious identity inform an indi- tual identities, and learn how their beliefs mesh vidual’s authentic self. According to this view, with others in society.164 This process can help interfaith dialogue allows individuals to more avoid the hyper-individualism and breakdown clearly determine the most significant aspects of of social cohesion—the latter of which Taylor religious belief that set them apart from others.

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For example, a dialogue between a Catholic and others over time. Therefore, interfaith dialogue a Baptist would establish that the belief in Jesus’s may help restore interpersonal relationships resurrection is central in Christianity’s horizon of central to individual identity and in doing so, significance, though this similarity does not help restore the authenticity of human nature based the partners distinguish their religious identi- on social cohesion. ties from each other.168 However, discussion of Although interfaith dialogue can effectively a related significant concept, salvation, would counter social atomism, participants must take reveal important differences: while Baptists be- care to avoid what Taylor calls “radical an- lieve salvation is found only through acceptance thropocentrism”: the hyper-individualism that of Jesus as the Savior, Catholics believe salvation characterizes modern society. The purpose of to be the fruit of a combination of faith, God’s interfaith dialogue for the individual is to gain a grace, and good deeds.169 By articulating specific deeper understanding of other people’s horizons differences such as the above, the dialogue par- of significance without compromising his or her ticipants will then be able to understand the most own beliefs. In practice, this ideal is often not significant components of their religious identi- fulfilled, and Taylor writes that the slide to an- ties that set them apart from others. In contrast, thropocentrism is “a negation of all horizons of it would not be authentic for these dialogue significance.”171 When discussing potentially di- partners within the Christian tradition to claim visive topics like religion, it is often tempting for mutual distinction based on a concept that lacks individuals to suppress their core beliefs in or- significance within the Christian horizon, e.g. af- der to avoid difference or discomfort. For exam- firming Muhammad as a messenger of God (a ple, many Orthodox Jews follow kosher dietary Muslim belief). Since interfaith dialogue helps restrictions based on laws from the Old Testa- uncover meaningful differences between reli- ment. If a Jew were to begin disregarding these gious traditions, it can also help individuals bet- restrictions only because she felt embarrassed ter articulate the important components of their when a dialogue partner expressed skepticism own faith identities. about Jewish tradition, this would constitute In this way, interfaith dialogue fights so- radical anthropocentrism.172 She would be “ne- cial atomism, the breakdown in social cohesion glecting or [delegitimizing] the demands that which Taylor claims results from moderniza- come from beyond [the individual’s] desires or tion. Individuals can build relationships with aspirations” (in this case, the “demands” are re- others through interfaith dialogue as long as ligious laws).173 This suppression of a horizon of participants are eager to learn about each other’s significance is antithetical to human authenticity differences while holding true to their own be- because denying difference removes an oppor- liefs. Social atomism involves “[centering] ful- tunity for one to define oneself as distinct from fillment on the individual” and is entrenched others. Both sides should instead use this dis- through society’s trend towards “impersonal agreement over dietary laws as an opportunity and casual social relationships.”170 However, if to articulate their distinctive faith identities, and interfaith dialogue leads one to define one’s faith affirm their different horizons of significance (i.e. identity as distinct from that of another person, the most significant aspects of their own beliefs). logically this means that one cannot define one’s Remaining true to one’s horizons of signifi- faith identity only on an individual basis. Con- cance is also useful because it emphasizes the sequently, a person’s affiliations with others differences between various “options” of iden- become necessary for the intangible process of tity that allow for authenticity. Taylor argues, self-definition. Since self-definition is an ongo- ing process, the hope is that individuals will One of the things we cannot do, if we are to deepen and strengthen these affiliations with define ourselves significantly, is to suppress

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or deny the horizons against which things without either compromising their own beliefs take on significance for us…In stressing the or imposing their beliefs on others. legitimacy of choice between certain op- My experiences with interfaith dialogue also tions, we very often find ourselves depriving demonstrate the practical effectiveness of the the options of their significance…Authentic- goals and intent of Taylor’s ideal of authenticity. ity can’t be defended in ways that collapse As a former president of Georgetown Univer- horizons of significance.174 sity’s Interfaith Student Council I organized and participated in many interfaith dialogues. Dur- In this specific case, the “options” are various ing these dialogues, I noticed that the value of religious identities. Although religions may community service is a common horizon of sig- have similar views in some areas, they disagree nificance in virtually all religious traditions, and on a variety of other issues. For example, Bud- therefore constitutes an excellent platform for dhism and Islam, despite holding similar moral recognizing similarities across different faiths. guidelines, are very different with regards to Many religions believe in serving the poor, heal- belief in God. For Islam, belief in a singular de- ing the sick, and advocating for the disenfran- ity, Allah, and submission to Allah’s will is the chised; thus, people of various religious and most important pillar of faith; in contrast, Bud- non-religious backgrounds can unite around dhism centers on the elimination of suffering these common activities and goals. Once these from one’s own life through the Eightfold Path. areas of common ground are established, it be- This path consists of essential guidelines for vir- comes much easier for participants to articulate tuous living such as proper speech and proper their differences from each other and engage thoughts, among others. In most denominations in self-definition. For example, for the past few of Buddhism, belief in a deity is irrelevant to years, Georgetown students of diverse spiritual one’s personal quest for nirvana, i.e. the perma- and religious backgrounds have met to distrib- nent elimination of suffering.175 Although dia- ute sandwiches for the homeless population in logue participants may likely find several areas Washington, D.C. While doing this service work, of common ground, religious disagreements are these students discussed each religion’s stance what constitute the “significance” of different on social justice and in the process, gained a faith identities, and suppressing religious differ- deeper understanding of the uniqueness of ence essentially deprives each faith identity of their own traditions and, from their perspec- its uniqueness. In the previous example, a Mus- tive, the religious other. Another observation is lim would learn that her religion is distinct in its that dialogue participants often become close belief in God’s oneness, while a Buddhist would friends even if they diverge sharply on religious learn that his tradition is unique due to its em- doctrines; this can be explained by the partici- phasis on personal actions rather than divine pants’ desire to understand religious difference intervention. Both sides do not need to accept through sustained interpersonal relationships. the other’s belief as true; instead, they should Finally, after an interfaith dialogue, virtually all view their dialogue with one another as a way participants consistently report both a greater of clarifying their own beliefs while gaining a understanding for various religious horizons of better understanding of the religious other. To significance, and more confidence in articulating put it bluntly, this often means “agreeing to their respective faith identities. disagree,” and refraining from imposing one’s Western society is currently experiencing a religious truth claims upon the other (i.e. prose- crisis of faith that jeopardizes the ideal of au- lytizing). Therefore, interfaith dialogue partners thenticity with regard to religious identity. can avoid radical anthropocentrism by striving Many residents of developed countries consider to learn each other’s horizons of significance organized religion to be hypocritical, irrational,

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or anachronistic, and an increasing number of horizons of significance” that constitutes radical people view their religious affiliations as “purely anthropocentrism. As individuals build strong instrumental.” As a result, they have difficulty interpersonal relationships and better define clearly defining their religious identities.176 In- their own religious identities through interfaith terfaith dialogue is especially useful in these con- dialogue, they come closer to the ideal of authen- texts since, if conducted properly, it can counter ticity with regards to religious belief. By defining some negative characteristics of modernization. one’s faith identity through conversations with Firstly, interfaith dialogue helps individuals to others, one exemplifies human life’s “fundamen- distinguish the most meaningful aspects of their tally dialogical character.”177 faith identities in relation to others in society, thus preventing social atomism. Next, by em- Aamir Hussain is a senior in the Georgetown Col- phasizing and embracing religious difference lege of Arts & Sciences studying Government and interfaith dialogue avoids the “negation of all Theology .

36 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 THE SANCTUARY

A Tale of Two Cities The Dialectic of Law and Grace and the Political Realism of Martin Luther’s Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms178

Caleb Morell

I have written more splendidly and profitably of civil authority than any teacher has ever done (except perhaps St. Augustine) since the times of the apostles. In this I may glory with a good conscience and with the testimony of the world.179 —Martin Luther

I am almost inclined to boast that since the time of the apostles the temporal sword and government have never been so clearly described or so highly praised as by me. Even my enemies must admit this.180 —Martin Luther

ew historical figures can be considered senseless; instead, placing the two side by side more polarizing than Martin Luther. reveals a strong affinity between the two. Upon F Living from 1483 to 1546 in Germany, studying Luther’s theological doctrine of the re- this “great reformer” fostered both admiration lationship between Law and Grace it becomes and indignation; respect and disdain. In part, apparent how his theology informs his political these varying responses result from his theologi- writings on his “Two Kingdoms” doctrine. The cal claims, but also because of the difficulty in theological tension between Law and Grace war- recognizing the “real” Luther.181 Scholars of Lu- rants a necessary political tension between the ther often note inconsistencies in Luther’s writ- Temporal and Spiritual Kingdoms, which in- ings, which is particularly true of his political forms the relationship between these Two King- writings. In fact, even during his own time, con- doms in Luther’s political theory. temporaries called Luther’s political stances con- Understanding the relationship between tradictory.182 However, those who emphasize Law and Grace, the Old and New Testaments, such a dichotomy between Luther’s theological reveals that the apparent dissonance between and political writings often fail to comprehend Luther’s theological and political writings stems how Luther’s theology informs his political from a misunderstanding of the focus of Lu- writings, which is the topic that this paper will ther’s theological project. This theological un- address. derstanding helps make sense of Luther’s later This paper seeks an affinity between Luther’s writings Against the Peasants and Against the Jews. political principles and his theological convic- For Luther, Christ’s coming did not remove the tions. Attempting to make sense of Luther’s po- need for the Law completely, but revealed man’s litical theory without regard to his theology is inadequacies to fulfill it and the need for Christ

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to satisfy the claims of the Law in their place. itself in man’s “desire to wipe out sin by its own Whereas the peasants employed Christ’s coming power;” a desire Luther was all too familiar with as an excuse for licentiousness and abandoning from personal experience.188 the law completely, the Jews denied the inad- The corruption of reason, the second aspect equacy of the law to justify man. Both positions of Luther’s anthropology, only compounds Lu- are diametrically opposed to Luther’s views, ther’s pessimistic view of human nature. The which helps explain even if it cannot excuse his plight of man is so severe that man cannot by subsequent virulence against them. natural reason discern the spiritual truths of Before the relationship between the Law and God. As a result of the fall, the presence of sin Grace can be discussed and fully comprehended, cannot be limited to one aspect of man; rather the reasons for the necessity of this relationship sin permeates everything, including man’s ra- as part of Luther’s thought must be explained. tional faculties.189 Consequently, man’s reason Luther’s theology begins by conceiving of man- is unhelpful in coming to salvific knowledge of kind as divided between the righteous and the God.190 Contrary to the teachings of the school- wicked. In the salvific language of Old Testa- men of his time, Luther’s pessimistic view of ment imagery, the wicked are those spiritually man’s innate rational faculties lowers his un- enslaved in bondage in Egypt. The righteous are derstanding of what can be achieved by natural those spiritually set free from bondage on their reason and furthers the need for divine inter- way to the Promised Land. Conceiving of man- vention.191 For Luther, reason “cannot show or kind as divided in these two parts intermixed find the way or the path that will lead from sin until Christ’s return forms the basis for ruling and from death to righteousness and to life…”192 the wicked with the law and the righteous by Thus Luther’s theological anthropology places grace. man, in his reason and his will, at odds with God Luther’s binary distinction between the righ- and confines all of humanity to spiritual bond- teous and the wicked consists of two compo- age in Egypt. nents, both of which result from the fall of man The plight of man, evidenced by mankind’s in Genesis: (1) a corruption of the will and (2) a tendency toward wickedness and rebellion corruption of reason. Exploring the first aspect, coupled with his inability to discern the things the corruption of man’s will, begins with the fall. of God by natural reason, warrants Luther’s two While man once enjoyed perfect fellowship and distinct functions of the law: (1) first to restrain harmony with God, man has since been sepa- sin and protect the righteous by keeping the rated by Adam’s original act of rebellion against wicked in check, and (2) secondly to bring men God. Since sin is rebellion against God,183 the to despair from their inability to fulfill the law saturation of sin consists of “... an inclination to and to seek God. Together, these two aspects of evil, a distaste for good, a boredom with truth the law form the foundation for understanding and wisdom, an attachment to error and dark- the relationship between Law and Grace. ness, a hatred and avoidance of good works, The first function of the law—to restrain the an onrush towards evil.”184 Sin has been passed wicked—is solely pragmatic. Following Old Tes- down from Adam as an intrinsic part of Fallen tament imagery, the first function of the law is Man who is now “contaminated by sin.”185 Con- similar to chains that bind the slaves in Egypt. sequently, the will of man is by nature so cor- Slaves are not internally bound as a result of rupt that “…Human nature, in itself and apart these chains; rather the chains are necessitated from grace, is so evil that it neither thanks nor by the internal corruption of the will demon- worships [God].”186 The primary outworking strated in Luther’s anthropology; without the of Man’s sinful nature rests in his ambition for law’s restraining power, chaos would break out. glory.187 Such pride and self-seeking expresses Luther’s pessimism is akin to Hobbes’s state of

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nature when Luther writes, “If God did not sus- all men”—man’s obedience to God’s law can- tain governmental authorities with His power, not come through reason apart from revelation: Mr. Everybody (Herr Omnes) would kill all of “it must be taught by the Holy Spirit alone.”196 them,”193 Luther’s nearly paranoiac fear of “Herr More than anything men need to be made aware Omnes” fosters an expectation of disorderly of their need for God, a task impossible for rea- conduct without the law: son alone. Luther explains the limits of reason in his first disputation against the antinomians:197 Now I have frequently taught that the world neither should nor can be governed accord- So great is the corruption and blindness of ing to the Gospel and Christian love; it human nature that it does not see or sense should be governed according to strict laws, the greatness of sin. To be sure, all men nat- with the sword and with force. So it must urally have a certain knowledge of the Law; be done, because the world is wicked and but it is very weak and obscured. There- accepts neither Gospel nor love but acts and fore it was and is always necessary to hand lives according to its caprice if it is not com- down to men the knowledge of the Law, pelled to behave by force... [Without force] that they may know the greatness of their everybody would take what belongs to the sin, the wrath of God, etc…198 other, and such a mess would develop that no one could exist because of the other.194 Reason has a distinct sphere of competence when pertaining to external things of this life, but rea- These laws, whether civil or divine, place son commits a grave error when it traverses into bounds on human freedom for the sake of order; spiritual matters because they can only be dis- laws serve to keep the slaves bound in Egypt.. cerned by faith through the Spirit. Natural or For this reason a harsh sword must be placed in unregenerate reason can provide a framework the hands of the political rulers: to punish dis- for the earthly sphere of existence, but can do obedience and restrain wickedness. nothing to inform man of the heavenly reality.199 The second function of the law—to bring While reason possesses no intrinsic evil, it must men to despair from their inability to fulfill the be restricted to its proper place. Slaves in Egypt law and to seek God—corresponds to man’s can be taught by unregenerate reason to better need to be made aware of his bondage and illus- bind themselves, but they cannot by aid of un- trates Luther’s convictions of the inadequacy of regenerate reason set themselves free from sin. reason. Slaves in Egypt must first be made aware A few observations can be made on the dif- of their sinfulness. However, a slave in Egypt ferences between these two functions of the law. cannot by his own power overcome his bondage. The effects of the first—restraining the wicked— Externally imposed bonds and laws, however are external, while the effects of the second—to well they are followed, will never bring man to incur despair—are internal. The first often takes justifying faith in God, but they can bring man political form while the second takes a more re- to a place of despair so that he may then turn to ligious bent. The first can more readily be identi- God and repent. The limitations of human rea- fied with the Old Testament, while the second son are such that man would remain ignorant of plays a more prominent role, on a Lutheran the extent of his corruption without the law of reading, in the New Testament. The first func- God. Because of sin, Luther contends that each tion fits more readily with Luther’s general ideas is predisposed to vainly “think that he is right” when he speaks of “the Law” while the second apart from God.195 Although natural man may is more readily identified with his writings on have some knowledge of the truth of God—“the “Grace.” But like the Law and Grace, both func- Ten Commandments are written in the hearts of tions of the law play vital parts.

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Distinguishing between these two functions Christendom.”205 Since, unlike earthly laws, of the law turns out to be central to understand- God’s law must be fulfilled “in your very heart, ing Luther’s political theology. While good and and cannot be obeyed if you merely perform just civil laws fulfill the first function of the certain acts,”206 the plight of man is twofold: law—to restrain wickedness—civil laws cannot “[1] First, men do not recognize their ailment; satisfy the latter function of bringing man to an [2] secondly, they do not know how to use the awareness of what is missing. Luther allocates remedy.”207 The work of Grace responds to these the first function to civil and temporal authorities two dilemmas by first bringing an awareness of through “magistrates, parents, teachers, laws, what is missing, through (1) confrontation with bonds and all civil ordinances.”200 However, the God’s law, and (2) providing a means of salva- second function of the law, which “doth nothing tion. The twofold work of the Gospel responds else but reveal sin, engender wrath, accuse and to the twofold work of the law by first, “reveal- terrify men, so that it bringeth them to the very ing sins and… pronouncing guilty those who brink of desperation,” cannot solely lie with tem- were righteous in their own eyes,” and second, poral authorities.201 As seen in Luther’s view of proclaiming the good news of God’s forgive- the corruption of human nature, slaves in Egypt ness, “through which the Father of mercies need the first function of the law to restrain their freely (gratis) gives to all people peace and righ- wickedness, yet these bounds never set them free; teousness and truth.”208 The law, which “wants at best, they can only reveal the slave’s bondage. to have (something) from us,” brings man to a For Luther, the dual functions of the law are place similar to Luther’s own experience of de- primarily negative in nature. Obedience to laws spair (Anfechtungen), but cannot bring man fur- can at best restrict evil and incur desperation, ther.209 The gospel, in contrast, “exacts nothing but never bring salvation by justifying the sin- of us; rather it gives freely and enjoins us to hold ner before God. This place of desperation in per- out our hands and to take what it offers.”210 As sonal experience is essential to prepare a person St. Paul writes in Romans, to be ready to receive the Gospel.202 To bring a person to a place of psychological desperation at For what the law could not do, in that it was their inability to satisfy the righteous claims of weak through the flesh, God sending his the law “is the proper use of the law, and here own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh, and it hath an end, and it ought to go no further.”203 for sin, condemned sin in the flesh: That the Following this reasoning, slaves in Egypt are righteousness of the law might be fulfilled not set free, in a spiritual sense, by their dutiful in us, who walk not after the flesh, but after submission to slavery, nor by their further ac- the Spirit.211 cumulation of chains. While the law may cause men to negatively “recognize their ailment,” As the Hebraic Law of the Old Testament it provides no positive remedy to set the slave could bring man to a place of desperation, but free from bondage in Egypt.204 The fundamental could venture no further, temporal government implication of this is Luther’s this-worldly divi- can employ its force to a certain point but no sion between carnal and spiritual realms. Since more. At this point, the message of the Gospel obedience to temporal laws cannot bridge these that brings grace must step in. realms, both carnal and spiritual realms will al- According to Luther, the message of the Gos- ways exist in the world of time. pel is both simple and incomprehensible: “the Here we arrive at Luther’s distinction be- man called Jesus Christ, true God and man… tween the Law and Grace. So important was died for our sins and was raised from the dead the difference between the Law and Grace that for our justification.”212 Luther’s view of salva- Luther called it “the height of knowledge in tion is substitutionary since it consists of an

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exchange: man’s sin for Christ’s righteousness, be allowed to continue their work, the man’s punishment for Christ’s reward, man’s one to make people just, the other to cre- death for Christ’s resurrection. The beauty of ate outward peace and prevent evil doing. the Gospel for Luther consists of what it reveals Neither is enough for the world without the about God’s love because of the cost God incurs other.214 in extending forgiveness of sins. Where the law falls short, grace and the gospel Our salvation costs us nothing. Nonetheless step in. Where the government ends, the church it has cost God something; it has cost Him begins. so much that His only Son had to become With an understanding of the dual functions man and redeem us.213 of the law and the Gospel, the political implica- tions of Luther’s doctrine of the two kingdoms Through Jesus Christ’s life and death, God the can now be discussed. On the basis of whether Son willingly submitted himself to metaphoric or not one has been justified by faith in Jesus bondage in Egypt so that all who put faith in Christ, all men are divided into two classes: “... Him might be set free to live as pilgrims in the the first belong to the kingdom of God, the sec- Wilderness in this life in anticipation of final ful- ond to the kingdom of the world.”215 The neces- fillment in the Promised Land in the next life. sary dual processes that emerge from Luther’s Now that the relationship between Law and this-worldly division consist of (1) convicting Grace has been discussed, the relationship be- man of sin through just laws and (2) provid- tween Luther’s theology and politics can be ad- ing the message of the Gospel, and require two dressed. We know from Luther’s theology that distinct institutions. Moreover, both institu- the Law (in a theological sense), although inad- tions “must be permitted to remain,” meaning equate to secure man’s salvation, has a function that they must co-exist.216 Temporal authorities it must complete. In the same way in Luther’s must seek to establish just laws to restrain the political writings, temporal rulers or govern- wicked, to protect the righteous and to convict ments, although unable to make one Christian, sinners of their inability to fulfill the precepts of have a task to complete in establishing a law that God. Spiritual authorities must first bring men reflects God’s law. This is the essence of Luther’s to despair of their inability to fulfill the law and doctrine of the Two Kingdoms as elaborated then preach the message of the Gospel to bring in On Temporal Authority (1523). Both Temporal hope and life. Each is accountable to God to ful- rulers (government) and Spiritual authorities fill their responsibilities without trespassing on (churches) have a role to play in an individual’s the rightful jurisdiction of the other. salvation. By reflecting God’s law in their rule, Distinguishing between the functions of tem- temporal governments allow the two functions poral and spiritual authorities allows Luther to of the law to do their work in restraining the lower his expectations for what can be achieved wicked and incurring desperation, conviction, politically by governments while raising expec- and guilt. Although inadequate on its own, the tations for what can be accomplished spiritually government can pave the way for the church to by churches. For Luther, temporal authorities step in with the message of grace and forgive- exist to enforce the first function of the law to ness. Thus, as the messages of Law and Grace are protect the just by punishing the wicked; rather related yet distinct, the works of the Two King- than establishing just laws to justify men, “God doms are related, but must also remain distinct: wanted to have government” so that “life in the world might go on in an orderly manner.”217 As Therefore care must be taken to keep these Luther famously wrote, “Temporal authority and two governments distinct, and both must government extend no further than to matters

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 41 A Tale of Two Cities |

which are external and corporeal.”218 The mea- As with the Law and the Gospel, the temp- sure of a good government is neither the number tation to err politically on the side of despotism of Christians, nor the degree of spirituality, but (the Law without the Gospel) or on the side of on its ability to establish and enforce just laws. In leniency (the Gospel with no Law) is an ever- Luther’s case, laws can only be deemed “just” in- present threat. The failure to maintain a balance sofar as they restrain the wicked, protect the righ- politically, for Luther, reflects a failure to under- teous and convict the ungodly of their sin. The stand the theological relationship between Law task allotted to spiritual authorities is to provide and Grace. This theological failure is the crux the message of Grace and the Gospel. of his response to the German Peasants’ Revolt While Christians have no need of the Law, (1524–1525) in his vehement tract Against the Luther is adamant that temporal authorities Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants (1525). must rule with stringent laws and not with the Scholars and critics often contend that Lu- Gospel since society will never consist solely of ther’s call for the princes to quell the German Christians. However, Luther’s pessimism about Peasants Revolt can be used to justify authori- human nature produces an impasse: since rul- tarian governments.221 After all, Luther’s charge ers abuse power and subjects misuse freedom, to “stab, smite, slay whoever you can” seems which should be granted greater autonomy? to contradict his principles of grace and for- While Luther placed definitive bounds on the giveness.222 However, Luther’s emphasis on authority of civil governments, the precise bal- maintaining both Law and Grace suggests a ance between despotism and leniency is more continuity in his thinking that explains even if it difficult to pinpoint. During his lectures on Gen- cannot excuse his writings. For Luther, the peas- esis he cynically remarks, “In the state you will ants’ demands ignore the necessary functions find it to be true that almost invariably the poor- of the Law. Emphasis on grace, forgiveness and est statesmen administer it.”219 Yet at the same freedom outside of the functions of the Law, un- time Luther remains equally concerned by the dermines the message of the gospel. For Luther, prospect of too much leniency: “... Pray for our the New Testament fulfills but does not negate government that the devil may not turn us into the Old Testament. Both Law and Grace must a mob… God does not want the common rab- continue for the preservation of society and the ble (der gemeine Pöbel) to rule.”220 Thus, Luther furtherance of the Gospel. seems caught between endowing power and To conclude, Luther’s realism regarding hu- freedom to either wicked subjects or to wicked man nature warrants his two uses of the Law and rulers. limits his expectations for what can be achieved This political tension between despotism and politically. Temporal government can no more leniency too must be seen as linked to Luther’s fully establish justice than the Law can bring theological understanding of Law and Grace. salvation. Temporal government can at best ad- As has been noted, in a spiritual sense, the Law minister the first function of the law—punish the of the Old Testament performs two functions: wicked and protect the just—but can do nothing restraining wickedness and convicting of sin. to justify and make righteous. So convinced is While the message of the Old Testament’s em- Luther of temporal authorities’ inadequacy that phasis on the Law is rendered insufficient by the one ought to be surprised when governments New Testament’s message of grace and forgive- are not corrupt: ness, it is not rendered useless. Its function re- mains to prepare people for the message of the In government as in all other estates, there gospel. Finding a political balance between des- are always more of the wicked than of the potism and leniency is the equivalent of holding pious. It is not to be supposed or hoped the Law and the Gospel in a dynamic tension. that we shall ever have an entirely pious

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government; nay if good government or a Law must rule politically through Government, beneficial use of power is to be had at all, while the Gospel must rule through the Church. it must come as a gift of pure grace or by While political theologies have often con- special prayer and merit... we must wonder tained binary categories of this world and the and thank God when it does not wrong us next, Luther reshapes political philosophy by es- and do us injustice.223 tablishing a this-worldly divide between carnal and spiritual realms. Similar to St. Augustine’s Indeed, due to the difficulty in ever finding or two-city cosmology, Luther’s cosmology consists maintaining a just government, Luther writes, of Two Cities (or Two Kingdoms) that continu- “[a] wise prince is a rare bird indeed.”224 ously interact in history.227 The world is not ruled Laws and institutions can never suffice to cre- solely by Law or by Grace. Instead, both the Law ate a perfect society, which is neither possible nor and Grace are necessary in Luther’s cosmology. a safe goal in the world of time. Rather, Luther’s The Law must rule through Temporal Authori- distinction between the righteous and the wicked ties and the Gospel must rule through Spiritual precludes any attempt to establish a Christian Authorities. The tension between them may not kingdom in this world, thus legitimizing the be pleasant, but it is necessary for the preserva- divorce between the distinct functions of tem- tion of society. When considered outside of their poral authority and spiritual authority into Two theological underpinnings, Luther’s political Kingdoms. Since, as Luther writes in On Secular writings can and have been twisted to suit other Authority, “the wicked are always far more nu- interests. Yet any attempt to wrest Luther’s politi- merous than the pious,” society must be ruled cal writings from their theological foundations by the Law and not the Gospel.225 Luther’s this- will lack the consistency and clarity they can worldly division between the righteous and the only possess when fit in the overall structure of wicked dismisses any possibility for this-worldly his dialectical understanding of the world rooted utopianism. Instead, the scope of Luther’s expec- in the relationship between the Law and Grace. tations of government is not salvation, but lim- ited to “keep the world from becoming worse,” Caleb Morrell is a sophomore in the Edmund A . to keep wickedness in check “at least in part,” Walsh School of Foreign Service studying Interna- and “to keep everything from perishing.”226 The tional History .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 43 THE ARCHIVE

The Rise and Fall of Doubt The Development of the Office of the Promoter of Faith in the Canonization Proceedings of the Roman Catholic Church

Peter Prindiville

ince Christ’s crucifixion, exemplary holy Pope John Paul II eliminated the Office of the men and women have led lives in imi- Promoter of Faith in 1983, removing its extraor- S tation of Him. Throughout Church his- dinary powers and forming a new Office of the tory, the Roman Catholic Church has recognized Promoter of Faith. This new Office of the- Pro these holy people as special and worthy of praise moter of Faith, however, does not hold any of the and reverence. Although the formal recognition duties of the previous Office of the same name, of sanctity by the Holy See—a process called can- but rather conducts general theological research onization—has taken varying forms at different surrounding the cause. John Paul II reformed periods in the history of the Church, it has un- both the Code of Canon Law and the norms for doubtedly become centralized in the Roman Cu- the canonization. In his Apostolic Constitution ria, the central bureaucratic organ of the Vatican. Divinus Perfectionis Magister, he radically altered This process of centralization has led to the the long-standing bureaucratic tradition of the formation of a canonization procedure that is Congregation for the Causes of Saints, which had organized, bureaucratic, and juridical in nature. assumed the authority and norms of the Congre- This procedure took a particularly organized gation of Rites in canonization matters in 1969. form in the sixteenth century with Pope Six- Without the promoter of faith, the church tus V’s creation of the Congregation of Rites in lacks the institutionalized safeguard of doubt in 1587.228 The proceedings of the Congregation in the bureaucratic processes of canonization. Like canonization matters were similar to those of a many Church institutions the Office of Promoter court case: a petition was brought before the tri- of the Faith was initially organic and informal bunal, a canon lawyer defended the cause of the but became increasingly institutionalized over holy person, and another prosecuted the cause, time in response to the needs of particular cir- attempting to argue why this holy person should cumstances, before being dissolved by John Paul not be recognized as a saint. This prosecutorial II. This paper will substantiate this claim by ex- position was called the Office of the Promoter of amining the early historical developments of the Faith. Office prior to the 1917 Pio-Benedectine Code of The Office of the Promoter of Faith played a Canon Law and Pope John Paul II’s 1983 reforms startling role in the proceedings. The promoter of the canonization procedure, elimination of the was charged with examining the documents of Office, and the resulting fall of the safeguard of the petition and witnesses. He would then raise doubt. questions surrounding the legitimacy of the pe- Although the centralized legal processes that titioner’s sanctity. examine the reputation for sanctity of a Servant

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of God emerged in the late sixteenth century, Congregation of Rites in 1588, the canonization their roots are found much earlier in the history process was centralized in one office of the Cu- of the Church. The veneration of martyrs in the ria. Inheriting the statutes and institutional tra- early Church originated with the spontaneous ditions of times past, the congregation became devotion of the Christian people and suggests the primary bureaucratic body for canonization an instinct to honor and venerate those who had matters in the Roman Curia until the mid-twen- led lives marked with extraordinary holiness.229 tieth century. Later, bishops began to exert authority in these Urban VIII, in the larger context of his bu- matters and investigated sanctity to sanction for- reaucratic reforms, instituted wide-ranging mal veneration. These episcopal examinations alterations of the Congregation of Rites from took varying forms and degrees of thorough- 1631 to 1634. He mandated the presence of the ness.230 As early as the fifth century, a procedure unique form of the procurator fiscalis, an officer of certification was consistently utilized through- who was charged with preventing crime and out the Roman church. Although the procedure upholding ecclesiastical law within tribunals, at developed considerably, early and late medieval all canonization tribunals.232 This required a sit- procedures--episcopal and papal--indicate a spe- ting member of the canonization tribunal of the cific intention: to verify through examination the Congregation of Rites to ensure the juridical in- sanctity of a proposed Servant of God. tegrity of the proceedings and to protect against Beginning with the case of the Bishop Ulrich misguided decisions. This new position was of Augsburg in 993 and continuing throughout charged with raising objections if he thought the Middle Ages, the papacy gradually asserted the integrity of the tribunal was compromised in increasing authority over the procedures of can- any way. At this point, we can properly speak of onization and began to establish a rudimentary an “Office of the Promoter of Faith.” papal canonization process. The resulting pro- Informed by the historical developments cesses and norms influenced the formal codifica- outlined above, the 1917 Pio-Benedectine Code tion procedures in 1917, and thus are important presents a highly centralized and juridical can- to the development of the Officer of the Protector onization process with all authority for adju- of Faith and the inclusion of an institutional safe- dicating canonization cases placed with the guard of doubt. Roman Curia. The Code outlines the precise pro- During the reign of Gregory IX, consultation cess in detail, noting the roles and duties of each became an essential part of the process. A con- participant. It also outlines, for the first time, the temporary historian of the pontiff noted the new role and rights of the Office of the Promoter of value of bureaucratic, procedural, and eviden- Faith, establishing two phases in the process of tial integrity in the process: “they will be done adjudicating a canonization case: a local Ordi- exactly, faithfully and prudently,” with special nary Process and the Roman process. The Code attention to the “the articles and interrogations,” clearly defines a promoter of faith at both the lo- of the pope’s consultants in the tribunal.231 This cal and apostolic tribunals. In Chapter 2, Section marks the first mention of a formal juridical 4, the Code defines the role of the office at the examination-based process in matters of canon- local ordinary level: ization. Although the process was rapidly devel- oping, it was spread over a few different Curia It is for the promoter of faith to prepare offices, causing bureaucratic complications. straightforward interrogatories [that are] The sixteenth century saw a renewed cen- merely historical [and] that do not look to tralization within the Catholic Church that miti- elicit a given certain response from those gated these bureaucratic complications within interrogated, but which are suitable for elic- the Roman Curia. With the establishment of the iting the truth on those articles proposed

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 45 The Rise and Fall of Doubt |

by the postulator and that are shown to the For the first time in the development of canon- judge, who is bound by secrecy. It is, more- ization proceedings, doubt holds a central and over, for the same promoter to ensure that legally protected institutional role. witnesses by office are cited and to raise The promoter of faith also has considerable opportune exceptions; but the judge can control over the progression of the proceedings. by office seek witnesses even without a re- There are multiple canons that require the ap- quest by the promoter of faith or over his proval of the promoter of faith before the pro- objection, although [the promoter] must be ceedings can advance. If, at the insistence of the informed.233 promoter of faith, there are factors within the writings of a Servant of God’s case that are not Later in the same section, the Code discusses the “entirely consistent with the faith,” a copy is sent role of the office in the apostolic tribunal at the to the pope for approval to proceed further.235 Congregation of Rites. Even at this moment, however, the promoter of Thus, the Office of the Promoter of Faith, a faith maintains remarkable autonomy in the pro- collective canonical role that encompasses the cess. The following canon states, participant promoters of faith in both the local and apostolic tribunals, is charged with three The favorable judgment of the Roman Pon- important duties: calling and questioning wit- tiff does not bring with it approval of the nesses; ensuring the juridical legitimacy of the writings, nor does it in any way impede the proceedings; and, most importantly, raising any Promoter general of faith and the consulters doubts and objections he may have regarding a from being able and required to propose ob- case. jections in the discussion of the virtues taken Thus, there is centralized power in the Ro- from the writings of the Servant of God.236 man Curia throughout the formal information gathering stages of the canonization process. Thus, the promoter of faith not only has canoni- Although other members of the local ordinary cal authority, but also a canonical command, to tribunal are appointed by the ordinary from the disagree with a decision of the Supreme Pontiff. legally-trained priests of the local jurisdiction, These extraordinary institutional safeguards the promoter of faith, following the promul- not only promoted juridical legitimacy, but gation of the edict of Canon 2043, must be ap- also preserved the importance of doubt in the pointed by the Congregation of Rites in Rome. proceedings. Canon 1587 specifically refers to the rights The second historical period of the present ex- held by interrogators in tribunals regarding amination begins in 1917. The 1917 Pio-Benedec- ecclesiastical property. It states that if “the pro- tine Code of Canon Law, with its institutional moter of justice or the defender of the bond [two safeguards of doubt in the canonization process, interrogators in these proceedings] is not cited, was the law of the church until the considerable the acts are invalid unless he, even though not 1983 reforms of Pope John Paul II. On January cited, actually participated.” 234 Thus, the pro- 25, 1983, John Paul promulgated a revised Code moter of faith must be, at least, summoned to of Canon Law. He released the Apostolic Consti- all meetings, lest the findings and acts be made tution Divinus Perfectionis Magister that reformed invalid. The right of the promoter of faith to be the canonical canonization process on the same knowledgeable of every piece of evidence and day. These revisions had practical implications party to all actions within each step of the pro- for the canonization process and the role of the cess of canonization is canonically protected. promoter of faith. No longer are the processes This considerable authority is unique among the of canonization enshrined in the code of law other actors in the local and apostolic tribunals. of the church, but instead form a supplemental

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document issued by the pope. John Paul’s Apos- In the opening of his Constitution, John Paul tolic Constitution Divinus Perfectionis Magister is II wrote, the standing “special pontifical law” on the mat- ters of canonization. Most recent experience, finally, has shown Not only did John Paul reform the legal ba- us the appropriateness of revising further sis for canonization proceedings, he also man- the manner of instructing causes and of so dated considerable institutional reform of the structuring the Congregation for the Causes processes of canonization. In his 1983 Apostolic of Saints that we might meet the needs of Constitution, he changed the method by which experts and the desires of Our Brother Bish- information is gathered and also reformed the ops, who have often called for a simpler constitution of the apostolic tribunal, namely process while maintaining the soundness eliminating the Office of the Promoter of Faith as of the investigation in matter of such great it was envisioned in the 1917 Code. import. The new Office holds very few of the previous Office’s duties. There is no mention of preserving This historically significant office, which devel- the juridical legitimacy of the proceedings or of oped in response to calls for reform and juridical presenting causes for doubt; the new promoter legitimacy over hundreds of years, was removed of faith is merely a theological advisor tasked in the name of efficiency and simplicity. with assisting the cardinal-priest members of the It is impossible to say that the Office of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints in their Promoter of Faith will be forever a remnant of proceedings. In addition to reforming the du- a Code of times past, but its rise and fall have ties of the office, the new process completely -re impacted the development of the canoniza- moves it from the local inquiry phase.237 The new tion process. As the church continues to adapt process also lacks the institutional safeguards to the changing times, the canonization process that allowed the promoter of faith to halt pro- will grow to address the needs of the church. It ceedings if he was not satisfied with their prog- will maintain, however, a singular age-old mis- ress. On account of John Paul II’s reforms, doubt sion: to recognize the exemplary holy men and no longer is enshrined in a canonically protected women who have led lives in imitation of Christ office. Furthermore, the role is not assigned to as special and worthy of praise and reverence. other remaining offices in the proceedings. Not only has the Office of the Promoter of Faith been Peter Prindiville is a senior in the Edmund A . Walsh eliminated, but also has the importance of juridi- School of Foreign Service studying International cal legitimacy through doubt. History .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 47 THE ARCHIVE

The “Genocide” Controversy A Historical Re-Reinterpretation of the Ukrainian Famine (1930-33)

Joshua Schoen

he Ukrainian famine of 1932-33, often that the blood of millions of people is on the called the Holodomor, is one of the more hands of the Soviet regime. But was the famine a T complex subjects of Soviet history. Its deliberate act fulfilling the requirements of geno- controversy stems from its connection to political cide, comparable to the Nazi extermination of the and identity issues that still persist in modern- Jews? Conquest has been criticized for not call- day Ukraine. The perennial issue that plagues ing the famine an act of genocide.238 To answer the debate is whether or not the Holodomor can this question, the facts must first be examined. be classified as genocide. Inevitably, any person If one had to point to the roots of the Ho- who uses the term genocide to describe an event lodomor, it would be the intermingling of the wishes to draw comparison to the Holocaust. threat of war with the Ukrainians’ fears of eco- But because of the peculiarity of the Holocaust nomic instability which led to the abrogation few examples truly match the definition of the of the New Economic Policy. By 1928, the rapid travesty that occurred. This paper is an attempt expanding cities were outstripping the avail- to answer the question of whether the Holodomor able food supply, largely because even the NEP constituted genocide. First, it presents the gener- failed to provide the necessary incentives for ally agreed-upon facts surrounding the events. economic exchange. It was based on the Soviet Next, it considers the views of a number of ideal of “food for tractors,” the exchange of farm scholars who have penned their opinion on the equipment and consumer goods from the cities debate, assesses the nature of Stalin’s role, and for grain from the countryside. In these circum- examines whether his policies fit the definition stances, the homo economicus peasantry began of genocide. Finally, it suggests how we should “hoarding” their grain. Essentially the Com- treat the Holodomor in its historical context. munist system was trying to cheat the invisible The breakthrough in scholarship regarding hand of the market, and given that they had lim- the famine that occurred in Ukraine in 1932-33 ited “carrots” they began to use “sticks.” That is came with Robert Conquest’s The Harvest of Sor- to say, they saw no point in delivering it to the row (1986), which was one of the first books to State in exchange for commodities they did not recount its horrifying events in detail. Since its value. The grain crisis of 1928 unwound all of publication, access to Soviet archives has in- the liberal policies, particularly in what had now creased, leading to even more detailed literature become the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. on the subject. Given the research conducted at It was this impasse that paved the way for the both Yale and Harvard, there is now no question systemization of the Stalinist State, an autarkic

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alternative to capitalism that extracted tribute that the famine was a necessary consequence of from the peasantry in order to develop a Soviet achieving the state’s goals, while at the same Union based on heavy industry. time beating the Ukrainians into submission. As Naimark points out, the war scare and Overall, 4-7 million Ukrainians died as a result the impasse over grain gave rise to a “breakneck of the forced collectivization and the brutal state and widely violent attempt by Stalin to steer the policies that exacerbated the famine. economy in a different direction and to save the Neither this paper nor most other historical Bolshevik Revolution.”239 In place of the NEP, accounts can fully describe the terror and grief of Stalin unveiled his Five-Year-Plan. In the first the Ukrainian famine. But was it genocide? The months of 1930, fully half of the Soviet peasantry term “genocide” has important political and other were forced into hastily constructed Kolkohzi, or implications and should not be used loosely. To collectivized farms.240 The goal of the program do so can weaken the profound historical mean- was to break the will of an independent peas- ing of what happened to the Jews, homosexuals, antry and force them to provide grain at a lower and Gypsies during the Holocaust, and later to price to the State, which would then sell the grain the Tutsis of Rwanda. Article II of the 1948 Con- abroad and use the proceeds to purchase the ma- vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the terials required for rapid industrialization. Crime of Genocide defines genocide this way: As property was requisitioned from the ku- laks, the peasants would often destroy their in- In the present Convention, genocide means ventories rather than allow the State to get its any of the following acts committed with hands on them. Not only that, but the inefficiency intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a na- and misery of the Kolkohzi further reduced the in- tional, ethnical, racial or religious group, as centives for the peasants to work, and this at the such: very time that the demand for tribute from them (a) Killing members of the group; was increasing. “Between the end of 1932 and (b) Causing serious bodily or mental the summer of 1933, famine in the USSR killed, harm to members of the group; in half the time, approximately seven times as (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group many people as the Great Terror of 1937-1938.”241 conditions of life calculated to In 1932 the famine took on a new “national bring about its physical destruction characteristic”: it was artificially strengthened to in whole or in part; teach a lesson to peasants who refused the new (d) Imposing measures intended to socialist serfdom. Stalin became even more para- prevent births within the group; noid, in August 1932, in a letter to Kaganovich (e) Forcibly transferring children of he wrote “we may lose the Ukraine.”242 In May the group to another group.244 Stalin gave the peasants a simple choice: “he who does not work, does not eat.” However Sta- There is no question that of all of the peoples lin did not give the peasants much of a choice, of the Soviet Union, the Ukrainians bore the as he wrote to the Ukrainian Central Committee brunt of Stalin’s collectivized terror. However, authorizing any means necessary “for collecting whether Stalin aimed to eliminate the Ukraini- grain from collective and private farms or for ans as a people is doubtful. If his intent was to delivering grain to state farms.”243 Given these totally destroy the Ukrainians through famine, demands, Communist officials continued to req- why would he have made the clandestine at- uisition grain far beyond the peasant’s ability in tempt to purchase grain for them?245 Secondly, Ukraine to sustain themselves. That in turn led as Kuromiya points out, “if Stalin had intended to massive starvation on the level of millions. It to kill millions (and particularly the Ukraini- is important to note that Stalin seemed to believe ans), he could have prepared a justification for

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 49 The “Genocide” Controversy |

it just as he had for wholesale collectivization However, as Naimark and others also recognize, and dekulakazition.”246 While he did indeed “the kulak” was never really a political or so- indiscriminately demand quotas for arrests of cial group, but rather a Soviet construction.251 “enemies of the state” and exiled and executed Given the circumstances, Stalin distrusted millions, the very fact that he targeted the peas- the Ukrainian peasants, but he also distrusted antry indiscriminately suggests that Stalin was peasants in general. Without justifying the re- concerned to break the back of the Ukrainian re- gime’s actions, it can also be noted that the pros- sistance, to force the Ukrainians into submission, pect of foreign threats was likely an important rather than to eliminate them as a people. factor in pushing the Soviet Union to rapid in- It is true that Stalin’s terror particularly tar- dustrialization by any means necessary. More- geted Ukrainians, whether in their homeland over, this was not the only time in history that or in the Volga. Ivan Maystrenko, the editor of a famine was caused by a governmental lack of the leading Odessan newspaper, describes two empathy for suffering. The historical-economic villages on the Russo-Ukrainian border. In the study of the 1942-3 Bengal Famine by the Nobel village on the Ukraine side all the grain was req- Prize winning economist Amartya Sen describes uisitioned, but in the village on the Russian side, a crisis that echoes the one experienced in the So- only a reasonable quota was required.247 In ad- viet Union ten years earlier. With the Japanese dition, in 1932 Stalin reintroduced the system of poised to invade India, Churchill ordered the “internal passports” specifically to prevent peas- destruction of the Bengali fishing fleet and the ants from fleeing to the cities, where there was stockpiling of food for the soldiers.252 The famine still an adequate supply of food. In the month of that broke out was, according to Sen, essentially February 1933 alone, the OGPU arrested 220,000 a failure of the colonial government to provide Ukrainian peasants attempting to flee their- vil for the citizenry, a failure that stemmed from its lages, sent 190,000 back to their homes, and de lack of accountability. Likewise, Irish textbooks facto condemned to death 30,000 who were sent claim that the nineteenth-century potato famine to the gulag.248 The Kremlin was well aware of was a case of “hunger, disease and criminal mis- what was happening and by some accounts the management.” 253 toll of the famine contributed to the suicide of The case should be made that Stalin commit- Stalin’s second wife, Nadezhda Alliluyeva, in ted criminal mismanagement, and he should be 1932.249 Most scholars agree that there was indeed seen as a massive violator of human rights. But enough grain available to feed everyone – about as in the cases of Bengal and Ireland, the starva- three million tons. But even by 1933, 1.8 million tion in Ukraine, on the Don and the Volga, and tons was still exported abroad from Ukraine.250 in Kazakhstan should be seen as leipocide, killing Stalin committed mass murder, but did he by abandonment, not as genocide, the murder of do so in order to eliminate the Ukrainians? In a people.254 Collective suffering can often help Stalin’s Genocides, Naimark argues that this is to define collective identity, and perhaps that is exactly what Stalin did. Naimark buttresses his why the Ukrainians desire to compare their suf- argument by claiming that the original proposal fering to that of the Jews. It may be granted that made by Raphael Lemkin (who went on to coin in their degree of horror, the Shoah and Holodo- the term “genocide”) to the League of Nations in mor are the same; however, the issue of intention 1933 included crimes not only against racial and to exterminate distinguishes the two events as religious collectivities, but also against social and separate (albeit closely related) cases. political ones. Naimark goes further, arguing that because the Soviet plan of dekulakization aimed Joshua Schoen is a senior in the Edmund A . Walsh at a hated entity, namely the kulaks, which it School of Foreign Service studying International aimed to exterminate, it can be deemed genocide. Politics .

50 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 THE ARCHIVE

Monumental Warning, Guilt, and Invisibility

Sofia Layanto

t is easy to understand why governments After precursory issues on different views of and groups invest millions building mon- the purposes of monuments, three main expla- I uments to commemorate positive things, nations deserve examination in greater depth. such as military victories or great leaders. But The first states that monuments to tragedies are why does Germany spend so much money erect- erected to help people remember, and so to avoid ing monuments and memorials to the biggest, its repeat. The second claims that monuments are ugliest blot on their history? The Holocaust was erected to force people to remember their guilt. an especially traumatic event in German history, The third goes in the opposite direction, and ar- yet Berlin is dotted with Holocaust monuments gues that monuments are created to allow people and memorials along all its streets and intersec- to forget both the event and their guilt. As social tions. The official opening of the 2005 Monu- constructs, monuments cannot be examined ment to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin without overlaps into other humanities studies— shows that monuments are still being erected 60 history, psychology, memory and even politics— years after the Holocaust. Considering the great and so this essay will also briefly address those deal of time, effort and thought that goes into the aspects. The design, creation and response to a designing processes, it is clear that this issue de- few tragic monuments will be covered, although serves more attention. this essay will focus mainly on the Holocaust as Monuments are complex creations. They are a significant historical event with the greatest physical objects, yet do not exist in a vacuum number of monuments and memorials. devoid of meaning. In fact, the major aspect of Monuments to tragedies are often built to their existence is derived from the social realities move the event into permanent public conscious- constructed around them and from their psy- ness so as to avoid repeating the things that chological significance. Monuments are gener- happened. Monuments for remembrance are ally built for commemoration, or as “something physical ways in which people attempt to keep that serves to preserve memory or knowledge of events from fading into oblivion as time erodes an individual or event,” and they generally re- their significance, as shown by countless- me flect how pasts are represented, remembered or morials to now obscure skirmishes or people of forgotten.255 the past. However, monuments in public spaces The most common reasons for commemora- have an “ability to direct attention to larger- is tive memorials of tragic events are to recognize sues,” representing not only an event but the the significance of the event, honor the dead or circumstances that brought about that event.256 act as some kind of tribute to the sacrifices made. Julian Bonder points to this when he says that However, this essay will discuss three other monuments to tragedies bring up the question of, reasons for monuments to tragedies: to avoid ‘how could this happen?’—forcing people to think repeating them, to keep guilt fresh, and to help about the issues behind tragedies.257 Often, tragic forget and move on. monuments are erected as a way of declaring, ‘we

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 51 Monumental Warning, Guilt, and Invisibility |

reject this forever’—it becomes a physical mani- with in Germany on a daily basis serves this festation of the rejection of the principles, pow- purpose. The Memorial to the Murdered Jews ers, and ideals behind the tragedy itself. In the of Europe caused a stir with its sheer size and case of the Holocaust, this would be a rejection central location—near the Reichstag, Bundestag, of Nazism, genocidal racism and systematic ex- Brandenburg Gate and embassies—which made ecution. Holocaust memorials are then ways of it impossible for Berliners to ignore. A great sealing that rejection of ideals and doctrines into number of other monuments, such as the Jewish the public identity, and cementing it there as a Museum in Berlin, with the Hall of Faces, Gar- permanent warning to keep future generations den of Exile, and Holocaust Tower, were pushed from repeating mistakes of the past. Monuments through by the Jewish population “to convey a also achieve this purpose in a second way, by specific message to the non-Jewish German pop- directing attention to the victims and promising ulation.”260 Some have argued that the guilt has to protect them in the future. By recognizing the been used to manipulate Germany and make it violation of the victims’ rights, monuments also feel as if it owes the world something; in October reaffirm their rights and symbolize the stand a 1998, Walser claimed that Auschwitz had been group, government, or society takes to defend used as “a routine threat, a tool of intimidation, them. The Memorial of the Murdered Jews of a moral cudgel,” and condemned the “exploita- Europe officially claims both these aims in the tion of our disgrace for present purposes.” An Bundestag Resolution of 1999, which states “to extension of this view is that Holocaust monu- keep alive the memory of…inconceivable events ments are built to fuel remembering of Ameri- in German history and admonish all future gen- can guilt, to sustain support for Israel and the erations never again to violate human rights, to immense volume of military and monetary aid defend the democratic constitutional state at all provided to them each year.261 times, to secure equality before the law for all Also addressing the issue of German guilt is people and to resist all forms of dictatorship and the third view, which argues that monuments regimes based on violence.”258 are built to allow people to forget things. Rob- Another more controversial view, made ert Musil once wrote, “There is nothing in this prominent by Martin Walser claims that monu- world as invisible as a monument. They are no ments to tragedies are built to keep guilt fresh, doubt erected to be seen—indeed, to attract at- mostly for political reasons. At the beginnings tention. But at the same time they are impreg- of this view is the phenomenon of German col- nated with something that repels attention…”262 lective guilt, which was actually fuelled by an First, this argument explains that monuments Allied initiative at the end of World War II. The are created to bear the burden of memory and Psychological Warfare Division embarked on a allow it to pass out of the public conscience.263 propaganda campaign which aimed at “devel- Commemorating a monument to something oping a German sense of collective responsibil- seals off the memory and emotion of dealing ity,” using radio broadcasts and posters with with it from the people, providing a comfort to slogans such as “These atrocities: Your Fault!”259 them just by “knowing the monument exists, do- This campaign influenced both Germans and the ing the memory-work for them.”264 It lets people rest of the world, who have found it difficult to feel as if, by recognizing something through a separate the German identity from the branding memorial, they have fulfilled their obligation of the “evil” Nazis in World War II. The perpetu- and can move on. In Argentina, mothers of vic- ation of this guilt depends, in part, on prevent- tims protested the creation of the Monument to ing the trauma of the Holocaust from fading the Victims of State Sponsored Terrorism out of into the distant past, and the plethora of monu- the underlying fear that it would dull the need to ments and memorials Germans are confronted pursue justice and accountability for the wrongs

52 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | Sofia Layanto

committed.265 One of the paradoxes of a monu- monument will inspire in its first ten years.” This ment is that it “turns pliant memory into stone,” monument was not built for the Jews, who re- transferring the guilt of the people into a static jected it, saying, “We did not ask for it. We do not object and moving an interior memory into an need it.”269 It was a project largely by and for the exterior memory.266 Second, it points out that German people, as the monument’s architect, this exterior memory is then forgotten as “every- Peter Eisenmann, confirmed in an interview: “it thing permanent loses its ability to impress”; by is part of the process of getting over that guilt. placing these memorials in places where they are You cannot live with guilt.”270 This “process of passed by every day, people stop noticing them engagement with the community” allowed Ger- and the events they represent.267 One example of mans to privately wrestle with the Holocaust, this practice is the design of the Memorial to the publicly debate about it, and create something Murdered Jews of Europe, where there are no in the culmination of all their efforts that helped plaques or inscriptions anywhere—intentionally them leave their guilt and move on.271 leaving the memorial “open to interpretation,” The three alternative explanations for the cre- which often robs the monument itself of mean- ation of monuments to tragic events should now ing. Markus Wachter from a German newspaper be clear. The first shows how tragic monuments found that there was very little connection to the serve to prevent a repetition of events by publicly Holocaust itself, with some people picnicking rejecting its values, and promising to protect the and sunbathing on the stones and little children victims. The second affirms that monuments are playing hide-and-seek.268 On a more positive created to sustain public memory, but for the note, there are also people arguing that the pro- purposes of exploiting the guilt of perpetrators cess of creating memorials helps people to con- and other parties. The third argues the opposite, front and get over their memories and guilt. The that monuments are erected to “bear the burden Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe seems of memory,” although conceding that some- to be a case in point—the effort and debate that times the process of conceiving, designing, and such a massive project on the memorialization of deciding on the monument allows communities such a sensitive topic spawned over 800 design to confront the event and get over the emotions, entries by 528 teams of artists and architects. facilitating a healing process. In the time it took to take a proposal and com- plete building the memorial, James Young ob- Sofia Layanto is a sophomore in the Edmund A. Walsh served that “the process has already generated School of Foreign Service studying International Po- more individual memory-work than a finished litical Economy .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 53 THE PARLOR

From the Unity of Two, The Diversity of One Eve, The Tragic Hero in Paradise Lost

Beatriz Albornoz Though both Not equal as their sex not equal seemed: For contemplation he and valor formed, For softness she and sweet attractive grace: He for God only, she for God in him.272

n art historian looking at a replicated condone Eve’s original sin, but he does encour- print of Leonardo Da Vinci’s original age a reading of the poem that is uniquely femi- A painting The Starry Night might hesi- nist in its original rendering. tate to qualify the image as anything other than Although Adam was created first in Milton’s comparably imperfect to the original; the scholar poetic adaptation of the Bible’s Genesis, Eve is reading John Milton’s Paradise Lost might hazard the first to recount her origination in Eden in that Eve is Adam’s inferior. Indeed, there is va- Book IV of Paradise Lost. Eve begins this recollec- lidity to the claim that anything distanced from tion by paying homage to Adam: the original image is weathered by degrees of imperfection, and so, while Adam was made in O thou from whom God’s image, Eve was merely created for Adam, And from whom I was formed flesh of thy from the rib of Adam. Conventionally, many flesh would argue that Milton seems to assume the And without whom am to no end, my misogynistic voice of the seventeenth century guide British society in which he lived and wrote by And head, what thou hast said is just and relegating Eve to the inferior position in Eden. right.273 Milton confronts a paradoxical dilemma when gendering Eve as feminine and when portray- As readers, we enter Eve’s psychological frame- ing her as the tragic hero of his poem by having work through her very first spoken lines in the her eat the fruit after numerous demonstrations poem and are immediately thrust into the mind- of virtuous activity, pure innocence, and logi- set of subservience. In fact, it is Eve’s obedience cal reason. In analyzing Milton’s discussion of to Adam’s “head,” or intellect, that seems to marriage in the poem, one notices that Eve’s most sharply differentiate her from him. While desire for individuality—bolstered by lack of this is certainly in line with the conventional self-knowledge—is what ultimately prompts reading of Eve as inferior to Adam and Milton’s her to eat the fruit; for this reason, she becomes misogynistic choice to author her as such, the the protagonist of not only the fall from Paradise psychological narrative Eve presents the reader but also the redemption of man. Milton does not is far more revealing and worth consideration.

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Having given praise to Adam, Eve then con- and birth humanity in turn. Eve’s self-concep- tinues by remembering how she first awoke in tion is recast through the lens of Adam, and in- Eden: “Much wond’ring where / And what I was, evitably, this marks her psyche and confuses her whence thither brought and how.”274 Eve is im- self-perception. mediately thoughtful of herself, her surround- Led by the Voice, Eve sees Adam and recalls: ings, and her existential purpose—albeit a very “Yet methought less fair, / Less winning soft, less nascent existential purpose. Her curiosity inevi- amiably mild”282 than the image she saw in the tably prompts her toward the “clear / Smooth lake. The salient feature of this statement is two- lake”275 where “With unexperienced thought”276 fold: the term “methought” denotes Eve’s own she gazes at an illusion that delights her. recognition of her first independent thought, Eve’s experience with the reflected image and Eve’s immanent and noteworthy capac- in the lake is a clear reinterpretation of Ovid’s ity for self-love over Adam is underscored. Eve Metamorphoses where Narcissus becomes en- eventually yields to Adam, and while Milton’s thralled by his own image: lines clearly indicate that she does so because she becomes convinced that man’s wisdom and There was a pool, limpid and grace is superior to her own feminine beauty, it is silvery… psychologically profound that her “meek surren- The boy lay down, charmed by the quiet der”283 is preceded by such a palpable desire for pool, self-knowledge. Eve is stunted in her search for And, while he slaked his thirst, another self when the Voice leads her away from a broach thirst with self-identity towards the external object of Grew; as he drank he saw before his eyes identification, Adam; this latent desire within A form, a face, and loved with leaping heart Eve to individualize herself will prompt her to A hope unreal and thought the shape was more fervently assert herself later on in the poem. real. Eve submits herself to Adam from this mo- Spellbound he saw himself, and motionless ment forward: “God is thy law, thou mine. To Lay like a marble statue staring down.277 know no more / Is woman’s happiest knowledge and her praise.”284 In Book IV, therefore, Mil- Where Narcissus “pined with vain desire”278 af- ton presents us with the psychological version ter the image in full recognition that it is a reflec- of Eve’s origination in Eden, but in Book VIII, tion of himself—“The image is my own; it’s for Adam provides us with her physical creation myself / I burn with love”279—Eve, by significant in Paradise: “The rib He formed and fashioned contrast, does not understand that the image in with His hands / Under His forming hands a the water is merely a reflection of her own face. creature grew, / Manlike but different sex.”285 This is evidenced by the fact that she does not God begins to form Eve from the rib in Adam’s assign the appropriate feminine pronoun to the side only after Adam requests a partner with image but instead refers to the image as “it ”. 2780 whom he can share in the qualities distinctive of Eve, still seeking answers about who she is and human beings. God grants Adam his request for why she is in Eden continues to contemplate the a companion, and says: “it”—to the very point where she might reach the same vain self-love that Narcissus held for Thus far to try thee, Adam, I was pleased himself—until the Voice apprehends her from And find thee knowing not of beasts alone doing so. The Voice instructs Eve that the image Which thou hast rightly named but of she sees is actually herself, and then immedi- thyself, ately redirects her to Adam, “He / whose image Expressing well the spirit within thee thou art,”281 so that she may bear his children free.286

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 55 From the Unity of Two, The Diversity of One |

In other words, God tested Adam by creating status of the female as the men in his society. him first as a solitary individual and is proud of What effectively salvages Milton, and Adam in Adam for recognizing the salient feature within turn, from this conventional reading is Rapha- himself that makes him unique from the beasts el’s persuasive advocacy for marital union. The around him: his free will. Adam was able to ar- gendered cleavage initiated by Milton through rive at this knowledge because he was alone and Adam seems to be rehabilitated by the unifying therefore, contemplated himself as markedly love of their marriage. distinct from the animals and plants in his midst. Ironically, it is Satan who details the first In this more physical portrayal of Eve’s creation external appreciation of Adam and Eve’s pre- therefore, the most poignant suggestion offered lapsarian marital bliss. In his famous soliloquy is that self-knowledge factors critically into one’s in Book IV, upon spying Adam and Eve for the own individuality, whereas in Eve’s psychologi- first time, Satan describes the two: “So hand in cally revelatory account, the lesson derived was hand they passed, the loveliest pair / That ever that she exists to cohere with Adam. since in love’s embraces met.”289 His description Adam is able to formulate what classifies him is invariably tinged with romance, and Milton’s as human, but he has not yet arrived at the con- choice to have Satan—the greatest proponent cept of gender; this cannot occur until Adam has of evil, hate, and solitude—admire the wedded met Eve and observes her femininity as a charac- pair is decidedly meaningful: if Satan himself teristic foreign to his own masculinity: “Woman can yearn after their bliss, then their marriage is her name, of Man / Extracted.”287 Adam ad- is truly perfect. Once more, Satan is made vul- mits to Raphael in Book VIII that he was first nerable as he belies his hateful nature to admire taken aback by Eve’s beauty, and admits a lack- the young couple’s union: “Sight hateful! sight ing in his own nature to the abundance of her tormenting! Thus these two / Imparadised, in feminine charm. However, just as brazenly as one another’s arms, / The happier Eden.”290 The Adam commends Eve for her feminine appeal, use of the transitive verb, “Imparadised” gives he goes on to say: greater emphasis to their union and securely en- sconces Adam and Eve within their own idyllic For well I understand in state; marriage becomes the blissful microcosm the prime end within the larger Paradise. Furthermore, Satan Of nature her th’inferior in the mind coins their unity “The happier Eden,” and in And inward faculties which most excel, this regard, suggests that marriage entails a love In outward also her resembling less so pure and profound, nothing can exceed it in His image who made both and less value. The characterization seems hyperbolic, expressing but it serves Milton’s end of depicting Adam The character of that dominion giv’n and Eve’s nuptial love as entirely perfect and O’er other creatures.288 admirable. For as much as Adam and Eve’s marital Adam’s remarks portray Eve dimly, and in fact, bliss is explicitly detailed, Milton also employs it seems that any seed of reason, wisdom, or subtle physical gestures to reinforce the har- knowledge withers if implanted in the barren mony of their union. For example, when Eve soil of her nature. Thus, by postulating Eve’s first meets Adam, hesitates to join him asin- intellectual inferiority to him, Adam inevitably structed, and then quickly yields when won cleaves the genders (all the while asserting him- over by his “manly grace,”291 she recalls: “With self as male). Instinctively, one may conclude that thy gentle hand / Seized mine, I yielded.”292 that these lines mark Milton as anti-feminist, These gestures characterize their “youthful dal- or perhaps, as large a supporter of the inferior liance,”293 and inevitably the pair consummate

56 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | Beatriz Albornoz

the bonds of their marriage in the purest act are not all of them to be found in the Epic.”298 of connubial bliss; here, Milton most fervently As such, Book IX must adequately uphold the praises the sanctity of marriage: “Hail wedded characteristics of the tragedy: “A tragedy, then, love, mysterious law, true source / Of human off- is the imitation of an action that is serious and spring, sole propriety / In Paradise, of all things also, as having magnitude, complete in itself”299 common else!”294 These acts are pure, untainted, and “Tragedy is essentially an imitation not of and beautiful because they are characterized by persons but of action and life, of happiness and innocence and virtue. In light of the meaning misery.”300 For as strong a proponent of marital Milton places behind these innocuous physical bliss as Milton is, it is all the more noteworthy, acts, it is especially intriguing, therefore, that the therefore, that Book IX introduces the first mar- turning point of the poem—the Fall in Book IX— riage argument between Adam and Eve; it seems is initiated by Eve releasing Adam’s hand and that even at the threshold of the Fall, this “fall” going off on her own. from grace is comparably damaging. Milton regains control of the narrative at the While marriage certainly assists in equaliz- beginning of Book IX and puts forth a striking ing Adam and Eve, conventionally, Eve is con- declaration: sistently perceived as inferior to Adam and all the more, purposefully cast by Milton as such. I now must change Milton redeems her once more, however, by Those notes to tragic: foul distrust and having Eve be the one to suggest a novel, almost breach capitalist concept: divide the labors of adminis- Disloyal on the part of Man, revolt tering over Eden for the ends of efficiency. Eve And disobedience.295 comes to this intelligent decision after reasoning that “their work outgrew / The hands’ dispatch Most notably, Milton heralds a change in the of two, gardening so wide,”301 and therefore, style of the poem to “tragic”; in full awareness of Milton redoubles the possibility that Eve has in- this transition, Milton wittily employs the word tellectual prowess independent of Adam. Eve is “heroic”296 multiple times in the remaining lines commendable, but also the initiator of a much of his opening authorial narrative in Book IX. larger, brewing issue: Adam takes concern with This is significant because it indicates Milton’s their separation because he believes she will be earnest attempt to reconcile his overwhelming more susceptible to temptation if left alone. In epic with tragedy. Albeit difficult for Milton to expressing this concern, Adam strikes a nerve in “change / Those notes to tragic,” he is actually Eve that comes to be poignant and even explo- only echoing his first few lines of the poem: sive: “But that thou shouldst my firmness there- fore doubt / To God or thee because we have a Of Man’s first disobedience­ foe / May tempt it I expected not to hear.”302 The and the fruit key word employed in these lines is “firmness” Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste because it reveals the psychological dimension Brought death into the world and all our of Eve first revealed in Book IV and so- exces woe sively fractured throughout the poem when she With loss of Eden till one greater Man is repeatedly characterized as nonintellectual Restore us and regain the blissful seat.297 and, therefore, inferior to Adam. Eve feels be- littled and betrayed by Adam and is noticeably Furthermore, he can confidently execute the hurt by the insinuation that she would be so frail tragic within epic style because in the Poetics, as to have her “firm faith and love”303 undercut Aristotle explains: “All of the parts of an epic by some unknown foe. Adam, still tempered are included in Tragedy; but those of Tragedy by the virtues of purity, love, and goodness,

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 57 From the Unity of Two, The Diversity of One |

attempts to assuage Eve’s hurt, but in testament she asserted the strength of her own willpower, to her self-proclaimed “firmness,” Eve touches Satan deems her as intellectually inferior as pre- on a paradigmatic concept in the poem: viously determined in the poem: “The woman opportune to all attempts, / Her husband (for I If this be our condition view far round) not nigh, / Whose higher intel- thus to dwell lectual more I shun.”308 Satan clings to the rhe- In narrow circuit straitened by a foe torical tool, pathos, to persuade Eve through Subtle or violent, we not endued appeal to her emotions, and he is successful in Single with like defence wherever met, doing so because women are characteristically How are we happy, still in fear of harm?304 attuned to their emotions more so than torea- son. Specifically, Satan complements Eve by us- Eve puts forth a resounding argument for free- ing language that manipulates her psychological dom, and she qualifies this freedom as the ex- framework: “Wonder not, Sovereign Mistress, pansive opportunity to explore, experiment, and if perhaps / Thou canst, who art sole wonder… express oneself independently and fearlessly. Fairest resemblance of thy Maker fair.”309 Sa- In fact, she innocently expresses a sophisticated tan’s intentional use of words like “Sovereign,” idea first introduced by Milton himself in Areop- “Sole,” and “Fairest,” leads Eve to believe she agitica: “I cannot praise a fugitive and cloistered is indeed an individual and not only that, but virtue, unexercised and unbreathed, that never also capable of a superiority previously com- sallies out and sees her adversary, but slinks out promised by her inferiority to Adam. “Into the of the race, where that immortal garland is to heart of Eve his words made way.”310 and con- be run for, not without dust and heat.”305 Pre- sequently, Eve is not intellectually susceptible viously, we examined how Adam was able to to temptation, but rather, emotionally frail due formulate himself as human by pitting himself to her subjugated self-perception. Indeed, even against the beasts and fauna of Eden; here, we after the serpent has slithered its way into the see Eve devise the essence of human virtue fur- recesses of her psyche, Eve employs reason to ther echoed in Areopagitica: “Since therefore the intellectualize the circumstances: “What fear I knowledge and survey of vice is in this world, then, rather what know to fear / Under this ig- so necessary to the constituting of human virtue, norance of good and evil, / Of God or death, of and the scanning of error to the confirmation of law or penalty?”311 What Eve expresses here is truth.”306 She feels she has no choice but to test consistent with what Aristotle discusses in his the waters, so to speak, and Eve is affirmed in Nicomachean Ethics: “Now each man judges well this supposition by virtue of the fact that she the things he knows, and of these he is a good never fully had the opportunity to self-concep- judge.”312 Eve only knows not to eat from the tualize her own identity at the moment of her tree because it will cause death, but here, she origination in Eden—at the moment the waters rightfully sees that the serpent has eaten and not presented her with her own image. Indeed, Eve died, and so she is confused. She does not know, was stunted in this regard, and now, presented however, the difference between what is good with the opportunity to stand alone firmly, she and what is evil; indeed, the tree is paradoxi- is confident and understandably eager to do so. cal in nature: “And next to Life / Our death, the Therefore, “from her husband’s hand her hand / Tree of Knowledge, grew fast by: / Knowledge Soft she withdrew”; Milton has given us the re- of good bought dear by knowing ill”313 which verse subtle gesture that initiates both Eve’s in- directly echoes Areopagitica once again: “And dependence and the fall.307 perhaps this that doom which Adam fell into of Following this symbolic gesture, Eve is ac- knowing good and evil, that is to say of know- quainted with the serpent, Satan. For as much as ing good by evil.”314 Eve chooses to eat the fruit

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not because she intentionally chooses evil over “Though all by me is lost, / Such favor I unwor- good but because she is motivated by a desire to thy am vouchsafed, / By me the promised Seed assert herself: “And render me more equal and, shall all restore.”316 Eve, in free self-acceptance perhaps, / A thing not undesirable, sometime / of her role as mother of mankind, has shed the Superior: for inferior who is free?”315 Thus, Eve, cloak of inferiority and rises within a purpose of no longer the inferior, has freed herself by chanc- duty. Where once the seed of wisdom withered ing death for the sake of virtue. in her barren nature, now the seed of life grows After eating the fruit, Eve actually begins to perennially fertile in her womb so that one day, feel an even sharper adrenaline for life, and so “One greater Man / [can] Restore us and gain it almost seems that the entire threat of death the blissful seat.”317 Indeed, “she for God [in us is nullified. Ultimately, however, a figurative all]”318 falls and rises, inferior made free. death is conveyed through Adam and Eve’s fall from innocence, and from the imposition Beatriz Albornoz is a senior in the Georgetown of punishment by the Son. For Eve, however, College of Arts & Sciences studying English and this “death” is more baptismal than terminal: Philosophy .

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Illustrations of Don Quixote Art and Music Since 1605

Maria Teresa Roca de Togores

ineteen hundred five marked three of Don Quixote first arose in the internationally- hundred years since the publication printed, illustrated editions of the text. Through- N of the first part of Miguel de Cer- out the novel itself, Cervantes actually prefigured vantes’ Don Quixote in 1605. In 1905, a commu- this international appropriation of his work, as nity of prolific Spanish novelists, playwrights, he suggested that Don Quixote would be widely and musicians collaborated to organize national represented in pictorial art; this likely spurred festivals and exhibitions commemorating the European printing houses on to begin adding 300th anniversary of Cervantes’ novel. Inspired images to their editions of Don Quixote.319 Since by the movement called the Generation of 1898, 1618, printing houses in England, France, Ger- which explored and criticized the effects of the many, and the Netherlands have published Don Spanish American War, these exhibitions marked Quixote both in Spanish and in their respective na- the novel’s consistent fame since its publication tive languages; along the way, these publications as a marker of Spanish culture and literature. have gradually included more illustrations. Each The audiences who attended these exhibitions country cast the characters of Don Quixote in the were able to rediscover the multiplicity of inter- imagery of its own culture. The first illustrated pretations and representations of Don Quixote version of Don Quixote published in Brussels in both in Spain and in other European countries. 1662, for example, includes “humorous images In 1927, a new group of poets, novelists, and es- of the novel and [places] the action in a Flemish sayists called the Generation of ’27 worked thor- scenery and with human types who have little in oughly to reconstruct the Spanish image of Don common with the Castilian reality.”320 Thus be- Quixote after it had been modified upon enter- gan what could be identified as a European ca- ing the imaginations of other European cultures. sual competition between printing houses to find The various appropriations of Don Quixote on out whose illustrations were most original, artis- display at the 1905 festivals attested to the fact tic, and also authentic and accurate to the book. that this work of literary genius has, indeed, Even though other European countries were penetrated the European imagination; images of perhaps taking on a task that could have been Don Quixote and its characters abound not only better accomplished by Spanish printing houses, in literature, but also in text illustrations, tapes- “it was not until the last third of the 17th Century tries, paintings, and music throughout Europe that a generation of brilliant [Spanish] writers between 1615 and 1958. decided to place on the market quality editions From its original publications in 1605 and that could compete with publications abroad”— 1615, Don Quixote traveled quickly across Eu- editions that offered authentic, Spanish images rope. In the art world, international conceptions of the characters of Don Quixote.321 These editors

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collaborated with the Real Academia Española to In 1716, Charles-Antoine Coypel was com- create what was considered the best illustrated missioned by the Gobelins Manufactory in Paris edition of Don Quixote ever published in Spain. to be the artist in charge of painting cardboards These efforts resulted in the 1780 edition, which for the French tapestries. Between 1717 and 1797, was completed in collaboration with Madrilian Coypel produced nine series of tapestries based priter Joaquín Ibarra. Antonio Carnicero and on the cardboards he had painted between 1714 other Spanish artists illustrated this four-volume and 1751 of the adventures of Don Quixote.325 In version of Don Quijote, which quickly gained in- his tapestries, Coypel depicted Cervantes’ char- ternational renown.322 acters in the style of the French society of the Arguably, the only real competitor to Car- time. The cardboard images “recall the Rococo cinero’s 1780 illustrated volume was a French style of the fête galante,” a painting style that rep- edition of Don Quixote published between 1833 resented a “graceful, usually aristocratic scene and 1888, which was illustrated by Gustave in which groups of idly amorous, relaxed, well Doré. Unlike many other artists, Doré contrib- dressed figures are depicted in a pastoral- set uted significantly to the transformation of the ting,”326 which was very much in vogue in France existing comic image of Don Quixote. His series at the time.”327 Because French culture fascinated of three hundred and seventy illustrations re- the rest of Europe, other monarchies across the trieves the humor of the novel quite accurately, continent began to mimic French fashion and transmits the psychological and social message refinement. Indeed, the Gobelins tapestries of of Cervantes, and “consecrates… the character’s Don Quixote “testify how Louis XIII and Louis romantic metamorphosis.”323 XIV disseminated Don Quixote... from North- Cervantes prophesied not only the text illus- ern to Southern Europe.”328 Thus, the Gobelins trations but also the tapestries that would depict tapestries framed Don Quixote in a French iden- his work: in the novel, Don Quixote’s squire San- tity and also served as a means by which French cho Panza predicts that his master’s feats will high culture spread throughout Europe. be reflected in the best tapestries worldwide. Meanwhile, as Coypel continued to paint Initially essential pieces of furniture employed his French Quixote, Philip V of Spain founded to insulate European houses and palaces, tap- the Royal Factory of Tapestries in Madrid and estries became works of decorative art coveted ordered a series of tapestries of Don Quixote.329 by all Royal Families. Since the fifteenth century, In 1747 Royal Factory of Tapestries “had knitted their manufacture has undergone continual twenty four tapestries of The Story of Don Quixote improvement. to decorate the summer palace of Philip V and The eighteenth century saw the manufacture Isabella Farnese in San Ildefonso.”330 The Span- of two prominent series of tapestries inspired by ish tapestries differed from the French because the adventures of Don Quixote. These two se- they portrayed the Spain that Cervantes knew. ries—produced in Spain in 1722 and in France Coypel’s illustrations reflected “a lot more of in 1794—“provided their vision[s] of Don Quix- Versailles during the reign of Louis XV than of ote, and contributed to its acceptance from the seventeenth century Spain”331 given their aris- aesthetic and moral authority granted by the fact tocratic feel and fête galante pomposity. By con- of [their] belonging to the most important noble trast, the scenes in Spanish tapestries—designed families and even to the kings.”324 The processes by Procaccini, one of the architects of the Royal of manufacture of these two sets of tapestry il- Palace of San Ildefonso—set the novel in “lumi- lustrate the cultural rivalry between Spain and nous outdoor scenes”332 and depicted the char- France; although the Spanish cloths were manu- acters with “more human and real features.”333 factured first, there remains uncertainty about The distinction between the French high- which set was first designed. society refinement and Spanish low-class, rural

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authenticity demonstrates the different ways Spanish painter Francisco de Goya com- in which both countries understood Cervantes’ pleted a drawing in 1799 entitled The Sleep of work, and stands as yet another example of the Reasons Produces Monsters,335 which is, according timeless rivalry between Spain and France. The to French scholar Jean Caravaggio, “an astonish- Gobelins tapestries represent the work of Cer- ing work, one of those to have most creatively vantes filtered through a French Rococo lens; represented the knight.”336 In this drawing, Don they reached not only the French public but also Quixote, thin and scrawny as described by Cer- the broader European high-culture spheres. Tap- vantes, sits at a desk and points to a book. Under estries from the Madrid Royal Factory, in turn, the table lies the “greyhound for the chase” men- educated mostly private viewers on the real tex- tioned by Cervantes.337 His sword, symbolizing ture and meaning of Cervantes’ novel in the con- chivalry, rests nearby. Over his head float beasts text of his time. Hence, the reputation of these and maids born in his dreams, which emerge two series of tapestries competed in the Euro- from his bristly hair. This drawing is one of the pean courts, but for very different reasons, dem- first personal representations of Don Quixote. onstrating the skill of tapestry craftsmen and the Indeed, Goya was one of the first Spanish Ro- artistic versatility of this novel. mantic painters, and his representation of the Perhaps even more so than the scenery of nobleman can arguably be considered a catalyst Don Quixote represented in the tapestries, the for subsequent Romantic representations of Don character of Don Quixote himself has inspired Quixote. international artists throughout centuries. His French painter Eugène Delacroix, author of figure has generated a wide array of artistic rep- the allegory of the French Republic, Liberty Lead- resentations that have tried to capture the mys- ing the People, painted Don Quixote in His Library tery and depth of his character in personal and in 1824.338 Here, Don Quixote “does not appear private settings. as a lonely reader: one can distinguish the priest, In the first chapter of the first part of Don the barber, and the housekeeper behind him,” Quixote, Cervantes physically describes his main who discuss how to cure him or to prevent him character as “close on to fifty, of a robust consti- from committing more follies.339 The irritation tution but with little flesh on his bones and a face that the viewer observes in Don Quixote’s face that was lean and gaunt.”334 Leaping in time be- reveals the disharmony between the Roman- tween 1799 and 1958, the various paintings that tic world he cultivates in his thoughts—which will now be analyzed highlight the individual would come to be defined as “quixotic”—and figure of Don Quixote as a character with a deep the real world of the other characters who do not and complex psychology characteristic of the understand the idealistic nobleman. post-Romantic period. Ten years after Delacroix, German artist By the end of the eighteenth century, Roman- Adolph Schrödter painted Don Quixote Reading ticism emerged as a reaction to Classicism and Amadis of Gaule.340 This depiction of Don Quix- to the Enlightenment philosophy that governed ote exemplifies the Romantic spirit: the man on Europe for approximately one hundred years. the margins of the society that corrupts him, ab- This literary and artistic current focused on the sorbed by his chivalric fantasy, and in peace in individual as the master of his own self and in his solitude. Schrödter´s Quixote is “under the harmony with nature. Since the end of the 18th lines of an emblematic character, a sort of al- century, numerous European artists understood legory of the solitary genius which creation re- the character of Don Quixote to be Romantic in mains misunderstood and common.”341 essence; consequently, they employed the figure French artist Gustave Doré’s depiction of Don of Don Quixote to embody the individualistic Quixote perhaps best represents the Romantic Romantic philosophy. image of Cervantes’ character that so many have

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tried to capture.342 This print, which is included different moments from the adventures of Don in the series of illustrations previously discussed, Quixote. Using smashed bread-crumbs dipped depicts Don Quixote in his library, sheltered by into ink, Dalí painted these through the French books. As in Goya’s drawing, Don Quixote here method of Tachisme, which “feature[s] the intui- appears overwhelmed by the characters that lead tive, spontaneous gesture of the artist’s brush- him into madness. Medieval knights with armor, stroke”344 and gives a more modern flair to the swords, shields, helmets and horses; dragons paintings:345 and villains kidnapping maids who have to be rescued by Don Quixote—even the head of a gi- One of them compares Don Quixote to ant on the floor—haunt Don Quixote. In Doré’s Minerva. Four black stains representing a work, most of the figures carry a monstrous or windmill’s blades sit on top of him, and are even demonic aspect. All these figures surround taken way by a cloud evoking an angel. The Don Quixote and attack his lucidity; he fights not second depicts Don Quixote in the battle only to defend his honor as knight, but also to field under Dulcinea’s protection. In the find inner harmony within the anguished fan- third one he appears crawled up, his spear tasy of post-Romanticism that Doré portrays in piercing him as if killed by his madness. In his drawings. the last one, he admires a scene representing The representations by Goya, Delacroix, the golden age.346 Schrödter, and Doré are directly connected to the Romantic and Post-Romantic movements, Dalí’s paintings depict various understandings and they capture more than simply the character of the complex psychology of Don Quixote, and his madness. They also call upon Cervantes’ including his eagerness to defend a nebulous repeated explanation of his own character: Don ideal though it may cost him his life. He does so Quixote was a sane crazy man who lived tor- through the image of Don Quixote’s spear pierc- mented by his deliriums, his fantasies and by the ing him. Metaphorically, his spear represents search of something more important—namely, his madness his madness and his identity as a his own identity. knight. These also kill Alonso Quijano—Don Two Spanish artists from the mid-twentieth Quixote’s real identity—when he discovers that century further contributed to Cervantes’ leg- Don Quixote has been a product of his imagi- acy. In 1955, Pablo Picasso produced a simple nation. Dalí’s paintings also portray Don Quix- lithography representing Don Quixote and San- ote’s idolatry of a woman who in reality is only cho Panza in the Manchegan plains.343 With un- a peasant and whose virtue only exists in his adorned lines, Picasso reproduced in this small dreams by presenting her as a protective Virgin. drawing many iconic features of the Spanish Another of Dalí’s painting depicts Don Quixote culture: Don Quixote’s tall and skinny figure contemplating the Manchegan plains, which stands under a high and blazing sun falling over represent the Golden Age of ancient civilizations the rough plains of La Mancha, with windmills for which Don Quixote longs. This same Golden in the background as only population. In the left Age, in fact, served as Cervantes’ inspiration in foreground, a round Sancho rides his old don- writing Don Quixote, which stands as a criticism key. Don Quixote dominates the image. Twice of the society of his time. as large as Sancho, he wears the barber’s tray, Don Quixote also sparked much musical cre- a pointy beard, and his shield; his long spear ativity during the Romantic period. The depth of nearly blends in with the paws of his skinny but personality and meaning of Cervantes’ charac- strong horse, Rocinante. ters allowed for composers to explore the psycho- Only a few years later, in 1958, Salvador Dalí logical multiplicity of the novel and to represent created a series of four paintings which represent those concepts is the abstract environment of

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the musical art form. Two compositions of the inventions, notably the Dulcinea theme… and a Romantic period – Richard Strauss’ symphonic dazzling display of thematic transformations on poem Don Quixote, and Manuel de Falla’s Master the various Don Quixote motifs.”352 The beauty Peter’s Puppet Show – contribute to “the knight’s of Strauss’ composition demonstrates his ability musical fortune, which asserts itself all the more to transport Don Quixote from Doré’s drawings so as it is diversified.”347 Strauss introduced Don into music, thus capturing the essence of the Quixote to the music of Romanticism with an 1897 novel and its characters in the uniqueabstract of symphonic poem entitled Don Quixote. The piece musical art form. is divided into “a prologue, depicting the Don’s Strauss’ Quixote captures not only the psy- descent into madness… followed by a theme and chological force of Romanticism but also the ten variations portraying his adventures and an complex psychology of the character of Don epilogue describing his death.”348 Throughout Quixote. The cello dramatizes Don Quixote’s the piece, a cello and a viola—as Don Quixote descent into dementia. Each subsequent varia- and Sancho Panza, respectively—engage in dia- tion, as well as the exchanges with the Sancho logue, telling the story of the cunning knight. and Dulcinea themes, represents Don Quixote’s Before he composed his Don Quixote, Strauss deliriums. Thus, Strauss lends musical personal- looked to Friedrich Nietzsche and Richard Wag- ity to Don Quixote’s psychological experiences ner; these two figures’ understanding of the and manages to reassert the essential character- metaphysical inspired him to explore increas- istics of Don Quixote: “deranged Don Quixote ingly abstract ideas in his music. In his Don Quix- may be, yet his mind possesses an inner logic of ote, however, Strauss’ composition underwent a its own and his fantastic visions have an emo- radical transformation: he returned to classical tional reality that those around him can neither forms inspired by Brahms and Mendelssohn and conceive nor comprehend.”353 used musical language to cover the manifold Ro- Early twentieth century Spanish musicians mantic and phsycological aspects of Cervantes’ took on the same cultural responsibility of por- novel. Following the influence of Post-Roman- traying Don Quixote as did Picasso and Dalí. ticism, Strauss carried the anti-idealism “on a Along with the Generation of the ’27—an artistic literary work much more straightforward in movement lead by Federico García Lorca, Rafael its critical aims than Nietzsche’s texts.”349 He Alberti and Miguel Hernández, among others, detached his style from the metaphysical Wag- to transform and promote Spanish culture in nerism he had followed earlier, now reflecting Spain and abroad—there existed another group “a psychological subtlety worth of Mozart.”350 of musicians known as the Group of Madrid or Strauss’ music became more affective, more me- the Group of the Eight. Manuel de Falla stood lodic, and less violent, thus better reaching his out from the group as a consequential promoter audience’s sensibility. of the ‘real’ image of Spanish culture. De Falla Strauss composed Don Quixote while his himself attended the Madrid festivals of 1905 master, Alexander Ritter, experienced the - dis commemorating the 300th anniversary of the heartening effects of old age. Consequently, in original publication of Don Quixote. his Don Quixote, Strauss created a “striking par- The strong Spanish spirit of these festivals in- allel between the tragic delusions of Cervantes’s spired de Falla to explore the nationalistic roots, Quixote and the unhappy idealism of Alexander the history, and the customs of the most authen- Ritter… like the character, Ritter was obsessed tic and rural Spain in order to compose the music with an outdated mode of idealism and he lived that brings to life the episode of the puppet the- in semiretirement, buried in his books.”351 More- atre of Master Peter, which can be found in the over, his adoration for Cervantes’ novel “drew second part of Don Quixote. De Falla knew how from Strauss some of his happiest melodic to combine in this puppet opera “the growing

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cult of Don Quixote as a symbol of national iden- however, the depth and miltuplicity of themes tity”354 with the Modern Movement of the Span- encapsulled in Don Quixote encouraged artists ish nationalism after 1898, “taking frangments and musicians of the eighteenth century to as- from modern works by Debussy, Stravinsky, pire to greater artistic representations of both the Albéniz and Ravel,” who also promoted nation- novel and the character. Consequently, Coypel, alism in their respective countries.355 Schrödter, Delacroix, Picasso, and Dalí, among The overture of de Falla’s Master Peter´s many others, appropriated Don Quixote into Puppet Show honors the Spanish Renaissance their respective media and cultures by viewing and Baroque periods and “mirrors Cervantes’s the text through the lens of the artistic move- literary borrowings, which… include the con- ments that influenced them. Finally, the com- ventions of chivalric literature.”356 De Falla bor- plexity of Don Quixote has rendered Cervantes’ rowed from the Spanish musical tradition of work suitable for adaptation into even the more these two periods. Tambourines and the traces abstract form of music. Musicians such as Rich- of dulzainas—traditional Spanish wind instru- ard Strauss and Manuel de Falla have employed ments in the oboe family—recall the traditional their compositions to elevate Don Quixote and Aragonese Jotas dances and allude to the popu- Sancho Panza even further than visual art, usher- lar musical styles that existed during Cervantes’ ing the characters into the transcendental realm time (and that probably inspired specific parts of of music. Through the centuries, Cervantes’ his work). Moreover, Master Peter’s Puppet Show Don Quixote has been one of the most fascinat- honors the classical Spanish opera form of the ing works of literature ever writen. Many have Zarzuela and street-cries. These various popular explored and appropriated its characters and art forms, “which [de Falla] had known since have transported them into all art forms; yet, the childhood”357 Cast this piece as one of the utter strong themes and psychological implications of representations of Spanish musical culture, and the novel remain constant in all its different rein- “place [it] on the international scene [as] a non- ventions. Even today, Don Quixote continues to adalusian approach to Spanish music.” inspire artists worldwide with its immortal and Thus, Cervantes’ Don Quixote has traversed chameleonic essence. Europe, taking on forms and cultures foreign to its original text. During its first century of re- Maria Teresa Roca de Togores is a junior in the nown, the text inspired artists to represent and Georgetown College of Arts & Sciences studying revitalize its characters especially in visual art; Government and American Musical Culture .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 65 THE PARLOR

Reflections on Storytelling Metaliterature in the Decameron

Irene Kuo

iterature as a form of reflection appears In Decameron and the Philosophy of Storytell- in both religious and secular medieval ing, professor of philosophy Richard Kuhns dis- L works as a means of challenging and cusses the manner in which literature surpasses reconstructing established modes of thought. both the limitation of human mortality and the In Boccaccio’s Decameron, the act of storytell- superficiality of appearances. Kuhns recognizes ing conveys profound truths and contradictions the cultural implications of literary works, which about reality by drawing attention to the con- perpetuate themselves in spite of their authors, structed nature of literature itself. By departing who remain chained to the limitations of their from the tradition of the didactic exemplum, human mortality. He thus understands Boc- Boccaccio exposes the indefinable character of caccio’s Decameron, written in the context of the fiction and its role in forming representations plague, as the outpouring of a desire to survive of culture that illuminate one’s understanding imminent, human death and perhaps to reach a of existing world structures. By straddling the kind of cultural immortality in the realm of ideas. ambiguous space between fiction and reality, lit- In reference to such restraints imposed by erary works like Boccaccio’s Decameron uniquely reality, Kuhns discusses the “bankruptcy of real- manage to transcend predefined concepts of re- ity,” a term through which he asserts that reality ality and offer new insights where other media in itself is lacking, and, more importantly, that in the Middle Ages failed. it actually competes with literature in the deter- Even with this particular, expressive freedom, mining of truth.358 Although he does not directly however, literature acknowledges its own limited suggest that literature is a means of critical self- nature as man-made construction. In so doing, lit- reflection, Kuhns suggests that literature can erature comments on itself and identifies itself as transcend the restrictive logic of reality and cre- a vehicle of thought to be questioned, recognizing ate liminal spaces that allow for the questioning that there exists a fine line between the making of of established thought. On the topic of literary what one deems factual history versus imagined liminality, Kuhns also perceives the use of masks tales. Narrative structures thus strive to imitate and magic in literature—uncanny elements he and to reinterpret reality, as well as to demon- considers natural to and constitutive of dream- strate the precariously multifaceted meanings ing—as elements that enable spaces of interpre- embedded within the act of storytelling. Even as tative ambiguity in their ability to express inner such structures risk leaving open the floodgates feelings and thereby uncover latent thought. for a countless variety of meanings, they achieve Accordingly, Kuhns reflects on the illuminating a greater purpose in exposing the arbitrariness function of the disguises adopted by duplicitous that often attends acts of interpretation. Boccaccio story characters, who, in their evident lying and engages in this metaliterary act within the Decam- mischief, do not simply highlight falseness, but eron, affirming the role of self-reflection in unveil- also intimate certain truths to the reader about ing the truths that underlie literary constructs. the real world. As Kuhns writes, “It is not a

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case of simply ‘reading a story’ and laughing or he reaches a status of sainthood as a result of his sensing irony; it is a challenge to the masking- lies.362 In addition, Marcus also discusses the ef- unmasking ability of the receiver by whom the fect of the framing device, drawing attention to stories are seriously entertained”; Kuhns thus the way in which various levels of narrative au- recognizes the way in which Boccaccio encour- thority and readership in the Decameron reveal ages the audience to inquire into truth exposed the inevitable issue of human credulity amidst by such irony.359 On one level, it appears para- false appearances and lies. As frame narratives, doxical to attribute discovery of truth to stories or stories told within a larger story, the tales of such as that of Ser Cepparello in the first tale, the Decameron not only constitute a third level of which clearly depicts a case of dishonesty and reality in addition to that in which the Brigata, false sainthood. On a deeper level, however, an or company of storytellers, resides, but also that implied claim emerges from the very act of swin- of our own as readers of the entire collection. In dling—namely, that storytelling can be used as this sense, the Decameron’s own layered, narra- a means of deception. The underlying implica- tive structure makes inevitable the difficulties of tions of Ser Cepparello’s act of obvious fraud distinguishing truth from fiction. Accordingly, therefore orients the reader to interpret what Marcus determines that Boccaccio not only sub- lies beneath the deceptively straightforward, verts his and Panfilo’s own narrative authority “masked” narrative. As a result, Kuhns’ concept by highlighting human naiveté, but also demon- of masked narratives in the Decameron demon- strates how literature calls into question its own strates how the text encourages readers to read legitimacy by offering “[an] analogy between between the explicitly stated lines and to reflect pandering and literature.”363 By establishing upon the world with the awareness that appear- this parallel between deception and storytelling, ances do not necessarily amount to reality. literature divulges its own fabricated making, In the same vein, Millicent Joy Marcus ad- along with its natural potential for deceit. dresses the Decameron in her book An Allegory of Panfilo’s narrative unreliability is further Form by elaborating on the subversive qualities reinforced by his questionable claims that God of Boccaccio’s storytelling techniques. First, she would not ignore the innocent prayers ad- distinguishes the Decameron as a departure from dressed to false saints. Panfilo’s flawed argu- the rigid didacticism of the exemplary tradition, ments readily expose a gross and arrogant logic a status that liberates the work from subjection to that attempts to ascribe events caused by human “absolute interpretive systems” and makes room actions directly to God’s will. Even as the narra- for a “non-dogmatic fictional space.”360 Like tor consciously weaving his tale, Panfilo himself Kuhns, Marcus uses the example of Ser Ceppar- is misled by his own spurious reasoning.364 Boc- ello and the implications of the frame established caccio’s usage of framing in the Decameron thus by Panfilo, one of the more starry-eyed members delineates varying degrees of gullibility ranging of the company of storytellers, in his narrative. from the deceived parishioners, Panfilo, the sto- Through a close reading of this particular tale, rytelling Brigata, and even Boccaccio himself, to Marcus demonstrates how Boccaccio under- the readers of the Decameron. As Marcus notes, mines the moral value of the tale and the validity “Narrative thus serves to undercut its own of Panfilo’s divine invocations.361 The notori- mechanism...[by showing the] deceptive quality ously depraved Ser Cepparello of his tale, for ex- of fictive creation and the power of fiction to ex- ample, who becomes fatally ill during his travels, pose its deception”; Marcus reasserts that story- takes advantage of the trusting friars who agree telling goes hand in hand with the interpretative to hear his last confession, and proceeds to tell act of reflection.365 Literature thus transcends a them lies about his life that portray him as a vir- portrayal of the known world, laying bare its tuous and pure man; moreover, upon his death, own artificial workings to communicate that the

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 67 Reflections on Storytelling |

exercise of creative power exposes both truths the Decameron stands as a secular literary work and falsehoods. that eludes established systems of interpretation In his article “The Modality of Moral Com- and promotes self-reflective modes of reading to munication in the Decameron’s First Day, in delve further into the pursuit of truth. Contrast to the Mirror of the Exemplum,” liter- In The World at Play, literary scholar Giuseppe ary critic Timothy Kircher examines a different Mazzotta also addresses the marginality of liter- means of reflection—a “speculum”—manifest in ature as crucial to the Decameron; he analyzes the the Decameron. Kircher defines the traditional ex- manner in which this condition enables the work emplum as that which provides a form of Chris- to suspend prevailing notions and social struc- tian moral guidance, such as narratives of the tures. Mazzotta notes that the Decameron does lives of saints, in light of which man can engage not provide a form of escapism, but rather of- in self-reflection and thus correct his moral short- fers an alternate means of reflecting upon reality comings. Kircher observes that the Decameron, that occupies a privileged space outside of estab- unlike traditional moralizing texts, discredits lished systems of thought, which he defines as a the didactic function of the exempla, encourag- “condition of marginality, of provisional separa- ing instead “a more sceptical readership.”366 By tion from historical structures, a place for secular presenting tales that deliberately evoke moral literature.”370 He further observes that the act of qualms, Kircher argues that the Decameron seeks reflection allows readers themselves to reorga- to heighten the reader’s awareness. He further nize their worldviews and to therefore under- refers to Emilia’s short tale of Fresco and his vain stand new truths about the surrounding world. and ill-tempered niece whose uncle admonishes Mazzotta’s analysis of the tale of Ser Ceppar- her not to look at her own reflection in the mir- ello echoes those of authors who acknowledge ror if it upsets her to look upon unpleasant peo- the essentially literary nature of history-making. ple.367 Drawing on the theme of self-awareness Ser Cepparello’s ability to transform his entire re- in the tale, Kircher assigns a symbolic value to cord of corruption into a perfectly convincing ac- the image of the mirror, and more specifically, count of confession reveals a dangerous tendency the meaning of “speculum” in terms of the ex- of literature: to embed fictions within historical emplum. Kircher’s concept of the “speculum” reality.371 In this way, Mazzotta also understands thus functions as a self-reflective mode of inter- storytelling to be a mode of reflection whose end pretation in the Decameron, which fosters closer lies in unmasking or reinterpreting values deeply scrutiny of the text and exposes deeper truths ingrained in societal views and upheld as his- as a result. The need for this sustained line of torical fact. Upon noting that literature “can only questioning surfaces in the case of Ser Ceppar- perform its service of demystification by being in ello’s false sainthood, the tale of Frate Cipolla’s an alienated region,” Mazzotta argues that the questionable worship of relics, and the rebuke storytelling elements in the Decameron free them- against vanity in Emilia’s tale.368 Moreover, selves from predefined notions of interpretation, Kircher proposes that the tales create “a differ- such as moralizing Christian doctrine, in order to ent type of ‘mirroring,’ engaging the active par- challenge societal values.372 ticipation of Boccaccio’s readership as a second In addition to focusing on the interaction of Brigata.”369 By implicating the readers in this historical truth and story as addressed in the self-reflective practice of storytelling, the tales Decameron, Kuhns elaborates on the methods by bring to light the necessity of an individualized which stories become believable, legitimate reali- manner of reading and interpreting in which the ties in themselves. He first refers to the observa- reader becomes personally invested in the truth- tions of psychologist D.W. Winnicott, whose work seeking process. Characterized as an indefinable on child development through “object relations” genre separate from the Christian exemplum, has led him to categorize stories as “transitional

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object[s].” This analogy from the study of psy- creatively redefine a flawed, established world chological development studies clarifies how the precisely by deforming, hiding, and reconsti- process of storytelling conjures up worlds com- tuting that world.377 These analogous narrative plete with their own cultures, characters, and structures in both familiar and fictional worlds events; such a process thus works in parallel to provoke the reader to perceive not only the simi- children’s transition from an identity inextricably lar ways in which reality, story, and history are linked to that of their mother’s, to an understand- story are constructed, but also the ways in which ing of their own personal identity. Kuhns then they are deconstructed and redefined. defines the imagined, cultural elements of stories Boccaccio’s Decameron exposes the tricky art as style structures that nurture particular mean- of “world-making” and the very tenuous truths ings that stand apart “from doctrines and sets of and realities that such narrative creation presup- arguments to a way of living.”373 By way of such poses. As the members of the Brigata take turns to stylistic structures, which tailor these constructed tell their tales, they fashion their own contained worlds to their own particular sets of meanings realities, in which we perceive particular systems and interpretative systems, stories realize their of thought which parallel in some ways, our own own truths and realities. He ultimately notes that familiar world, but represent the countless, al- language serves a double function in literature: ternative values that might also be valid. In so it serves to both obscure and expose reality as it doing, they also render transparent the creative forms these alternate worlds. mechanisms that underlie the creation of a real- Kuhns’ insight into these style structures ity, allowing us to question—as privileged read- furthers the understanding of storytelling as a ers inside and outside its substantive being—the process that both imitates and reconstructs the absolute truth of this reality. Boccaccio’s literary known, familiar world. Kuhns also refers to work thereby complicates the experience of nar- the tragic love story of the princess Ghismonda rative, as it brings to light the fabricated nature, and her lowborn lover Guiscardo to critique and consequently precarious position, of so- the social laws of the story world that parallel called historical truths. As in the tale of Ser Cep- social hierarchies in the real world.374 In this parello, one may misuse such creative inventions tale, Ghismonda’s father Tancredi, the prince of for the purpose of deception and trickery. By Salerno, kills her daughter’s “unworthy” lover calling attention to the literary origins of his nar- in a seeming victory, only to ultimately cause rative reality, however, the Decameron rejects not Ghismonda’s defiant suicide.375 The tale not the notion of truth, but rather our ability to reach only mirrors these prejudices and social rela- total certainty of it. In this way, Boccaccio strives tionships, but also calls attention to the glaring not to arbitrarily affix truth onto certain beliefs or incongruities apparent in these social structures standards, but rather to provoke his readers into through Ghismonda’s insightful commentary. engaging in their own critical inquiries into the As Ghismonda criticizes her father’s decision to question of what constitutes truth. By inviting “accept a common fallacy rather than the truth,” the readers to participate in the self-reflective ex- she exposes the unwarranted injustice shown to perience of storytelling, the Decameron not only those of low rank.376 In doing so, she initiates a undermines the authority of dogmatic systems process of change that culminates in her father’s of thought, but also affirms that every individual public display of repentance and recognition of has the capacity to expose the fault lines of real- their marriage. By depicting social structures in ity and to uncover the deep truths which make the story world which parallel the existing, so- up the foundation of our understanding. cial prejudices of the non-story world, the tale of Ghismonda and Guiscardo establishes a con- Irene Kuo is a junior in the Georgetown College of nection that allows these fictional structures to Arts & Sciences studying Comparative Literature .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 69 THE CLOCK TOWER

“An Intense Interrogation of Self” An Interview with John Glavin

Michael Fischer

ew figures at Georgetown carry the a certain type of self-discipline, motive, and way same longstanding gravitas as Dr. John of living—an “intensive interrogation of self”— F Glavin, professor of English and Direc- that has struggled as the Jesuit community has tor of the Georgetown Office of Fellowships, diminished. He frankly admits that the dwin- Awards, and Research (GOFAR). Holding a dling number of Jesuits on campus, as well as the Ph.D. and M.A. from Bryn Mawr College, Dr. community’s move from the center of campus at Glavin captivates the attention of both student Ryan Hall to the outskirts at Wolfington, was a and administrator alike as an undergraduate significant loss, even if economically inevitable. alumnus and forty-five year member of the fac- Nevertheless, the Jesuits who remain—few but ulty, and Fellowship Secretary and Director of “brilliant”—are “heroic,” by Dr. Glavin’s esti- the Carroll Fellows Initiative. His diverse roles mate. The Jesuits remain ever popular and make and vault of experiences color his perspective. “I so much of a difference in so many lives, yet see everything in terms of arcs,” he relates. His the numbers are the numbers. Dr. Glavin has intellectual pursuits, his teaching, his initiatives, little confidence in efforts to preserve that Jesuit his understanding of the university – for Dr. style by making people “Ignatian” – placing the Glavin, they all consist of interwoven goals and onus of the Jesuit identity of Georgetown on lay stages, ever adapting, changing, and reinventing faculty and administration instead of Ignatius themselves. of Loyola’s direct clerical descendants. “That His corner office in New North mimics its in- conflicts with the basic notion of academic free- habitant: well-worn volumes of Victorian litera- dom,” he affirms, “and in an increasingly secu- ture reside on shelves, framed on one side by the lar world, it is unlikely that you will find many latest ergonomically-friendly standing computer who will take up that burden.” Nevertheless, Dr. island. Though his third-floor windows offer Glavin feels that the addition of new perspec- vistas of northwest campus, his desk faces away tives and the increase in diversity of thought has from the light: he admits in humor that he has significantly benefited the Hilltop, both among no desire to encroach upon the private lives of students and faculty. Harbin’s freshmen who are his neighbors across As the university changes in identity, so too the patio. Like Dr. Glavin himself, his office is the Hilltop changes physically, and Dr. Glavin a blend of the traditional and the innovative, of sighs at the “disappearance of campus” and looking back while blazing forward. remembers fondly how open the Hilltop once From his easy chair, he tells me of the stood, how many trees once graced the lawn, Georgetown of yesteryear. It is the change in and how wide the woods grew. Certainly, Dr. “style” that he has noticed the most: the Jesuit Glavin recognizes the need for more buildings, character of the university, he recalls, produced noting how constraining such limited space is

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for the current university administration. Yet, distracts from the engagement of professor and Dr. Glavin worries about the present loss of “sol- student, or when it serves as a crutch, it becomes itude and silence” at Georgetown, where every a problem. Yet, the ideal for true learning re- space is filled and every noise is a neighbor. A mains “two minds meeting in discourse,” and necessary change, perhaps, but one that loses “a when technology resolves the shortcomings of certain dimension” of the university life. the traditional classroom and facilitates such a Yet the most noticeable transformation, Dr. meeting, then for Dr. Glavin it is a welcomed ad- Glavin claims, is found in the students them- dition to the University. selves. The Georgetown of Dr. Glavin’s youth, This learning discourse takes place in his he relates, was a university of “tremendous ho- own scholarship. He describes his field of study mogeneity”: all male, nearly all Catholic, and as “the afterlife of texts;” while his materials largely all elite. With the opening of the college range from Victorian literature to film screen- to women, the increased presence of students play writing, Dr. Glavin sees all his intellectual of non-Catholic or no faith, and the prioritiza- work as unified in the idea of “adaptation.” tion of full-need scholarships in recent decades, Change and reinventions pervade his courses a greater diversity now exists at his Alma Ma- and his writings: early texts, like Shakespeare, ter. In one sense, such transformations have left become nineteenth century novels; Victorian certain aspects of the university untouched: he novels, like Dickens, become twentieth century asserts that though the religiosity of the school feature films. Each new adaptation, Dr. Glavin has lessened, Hoyas take religion seriously, proposes, opens a new opportunity for the ma- both academically and outside the classroom, in terial to engage its context. Literary studies have a way that his colleagues do not find at many become cultural studies: no longer is the dichot- other colleges. All the same, the consequences omy made between the aesthetic and the his- of such heterogeneity outweigh the vestiges of torical, the words themselves and their author. sameness: the Church year no longer defines the By focusing on how each text interacts with its calendar of the University, and the past decades’ culture and future cultures, scholars return sub- economic trends have molded how students ap- stance to materials “thinned out” by past, nar- proach their education. Hoyas today are more row methods of interpretation. “risk averse,” he argues – citing the increased I ask Dr. Glavin if, given this new emphasis, need for student loans and the decrease in post- literature should remain classified as a liberal graduation prospects – and so students are “anx- art. He is emphatic about it: the study of texts is ious” to ensure their investment pays off. The key to the successful understanding of the lib- university is no longer about fostering intellec- eral arts, for only following much habituation tual “leisure”: the student now wants and needs and experience will students appreciate and be to study “English and something else.” able to “take seriously complex texts.” For him, The change in students’ demands has driven it is at the heart of Georgetown, and he lives change in instructing supply. “People are more out that philosophy in the classroom, empha- committed to standing up for non-utilitarian sizing exercise over explanation, practice over approaches to old education,” Dr. Glavin com- lecture. Adaptation takes practice; one can only ments, particularly the hesitation many faculty reinvent with what one has familiarity. In Dr. members have had to new career-minded meth- Glavin’s mind, his programs provide students ods of teaching (especially long-distance learn- the opportunity to “explore their own capac- ing). Dr. Glavin supports integrating technology ity to create”: he wants each Hoya to graduate into the process of education, but he and his with the mantra: “I want to be a creator, not a colleagues argue that education cannot merely consumer, of knowledge.” Yet, he confesses, his be an “information transfer.” When technology studies of English adaptation are not the heart

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 71 “An Intense Interrogation of Self” |

of his commitment to the liberal arts: that honor for the early application: they had reflected that belongs to the Carroll Fellows program. the program helped them “make sense of their And so, our conversation finally arrives at first year.” And the ever popular remark about the heart of Dr. Glavin’s work at Georgetown, the “cult of John Glavin?” Dr. Glavin smiles. “I one of his proudest programs: the Carroll Fel- wish John Glavin could just vanish,” he admits, lows Initiative. Described on the program’s web- for the “spirit of John Glavin” is “too important” site as “Georgetown’s flagship opportunity for right now to the program: nevertheless, he is its most academically talented and ambitious wary that his departure could create “a loss of undergraduates,” the Carroll Fellows fosters a coherence” within the Initiative. “I fight hard small undergraduate community of scholars, against the cult of John Glavin,” and he points researchers, and leaders who are “thinkers who to “the mentoring by older students” as “a really do.” Outside of the two-semester Forum course, remarkable feature” of the Carroll Fellows, one it is hard to pin down exactly what it is the Car- he hopes will continue to expand in the future. roll Fellows do, because the diversity of the un- For Dr. Glavin, Georgetown is a university dergraduate fellows and the fluid nature of the “whose aspirations constantly exceed its means, program lead to a kaleidoscope of varying ex- and which phoenix-like renews itself from near periments, methods, projects, and efforts. For Dr. collapse” again and again. Every fifty years or Glavin, this fluidity is the program’s strength, so, the Hilltop “reinvents itself” to meet current for it therefore regularly fills in missing niches challenges, such as the expansion of the endow- for students at Georgetown. Furthermore, Dr. ment and the quest for the next hundred acres. Glavin mentions that as undergraduate research Adaptation, change, and reinvention: the spirit becomes more and more a focus at Georgetown, of the man and his Alma Mater find mutual the Carroll Fellows will need to rethink and tin- ground on which to stand. ker with the program in order for it to meet the In some ways, Dr. Glavin is a paradox. He is needs of the next generation of Hoyas. Twenty- both the well-versed and impassioned guide of a five years from now, he hopes the Carroll- Fel famous Jesuit Heritage historical tour of campus lows “will look nothing like it looks like now” or as well as the founder of some of Georgetown’s else “it will fail.” most cutting-edge programs. He is a man who Regarding this need for adaptability, Dr. could only exist at a place like Georgetown: tra- Glavin ensures that the Carroll Fellows Initiative ditional but innovative, versed in the past but constantly responds to feedback. When some entrepreneurial in spirit, working at an institu- complain that the program is wrong to focus on tion that clings to a rich heritage but always has applicants’ high school records and have Hoyas its eyes on the next horizon. And in that sense, apply in their freshman year, Dr. Glavin admits he is not as much a paradox, but a Hoya through that it is a “telling criticism.” He weaves a nar- and through. rative of the admissions process dating back to the program’s birth in 1997, detailing different Michael Fischer graduated from the Edmund A . methods and approaches, but concludes that, in Walsh School of Foreign Service in 2013 with a degree the end, the Carroll Fellows themselves pushed in Political Economy and Classical Studies .

72 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 THE CLOCK TOWER

Opening the Vault Unleashing Georgetown’s Hidden History

Kevin D . Sullivan

he metal vault door creaked open, let- in basements—no, these artifacts were meant ting light into a cold, stone room deep to animate the spirit of Georgetown “for gen- T in the bowels of Healy Hall. Mountains erations to come.” That is to say, the contents of of gold coins, jewels, and silver chalices covered Healy vault, Carroll Parlor, and many other for- the floor. Well, not exactly. But visiting the Healy gotten locations are the links in a chain, real sym- Vault this summer did expose me to a few of the bols that tell the narrative of our Alma Mater’s Hilltop’s hidden treasures; over 20,000 artifacts essence expressed in different ways throughout maintained by two University curators are kept human history. These “missing links” can and in various locations across campus. They exist should anchor our dear University in times of not only as a record of Georgetown’s own rich identity crisis. history but also as a tangible sign of George- Georgetown faces one such schizophrenic town’s role in the history of the world. identity crisis right now. The Jesuit presence is Inside the vault was a large collection of fading, and we are scrambling to find ways to Smithsonian-worthy artifacts. I saw, among keep the Jesuit tradition not only alive, but as other rarities, a cannonball unearthed during an animating spirit. The “both into one, utraque the construction of Healy; a “haunted” cradle unum,” paradox of a liberal arts college and that once held Georgetown’s fifteenth president; “elite research university” is reaching a boiling hand-woven silk vestments worn by Jesuits point. The guiding light of our Catholic intellec- celebrating the first Catholic masses in colonial tual tradition shines brightly, but it needs more America; cavalry sabers from the Civil War; and faculty and students to carry it forth from the souvenirs from post-war Germany that Fr. Ed- secluded areas of Campus Ministry and the The- mund Walsh, S.J. brought back after attending ology Department. Without a healthy apprecia- the Nuremberg trials, sitting on a shelf next to tion of the challenges, failures and triumphs of his old opium pipe. “Georgetown past,” and without knowledge of Just upstairs, in the seldom-visited Carroll our common purpose, our community will be- Parlor, treasures “hidden in plain sight” dot come uprooted; we will forget what it means to the beautifully decorated room. “Georgetown be men and women for others, and we will scat- medals,” given to the greatest achievers from ter like dust before the educational and ideologi- each class in the various liberal arts majors and cal fads of the day. made of real gold, lie gleaming on glass shelves. In order to combat the forces that threaten A mosaic-covered table from the Vatican stands to render our communal past meaningless, in one corner, while General Custer’s West Point Georgetown should make three significant, but uniform and a lock of George Washington’s hair feasible, changes. First, it must make a greater sit inconspicuously in various cabinets. effort to share the treasures and memories of its Why were these artifacts given to George- alumni; many of the artifacts were given in the town? Certainly not that they might gather dust explicit hope that future students would find

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 73 Opening the Vault |

purpose in them. Carroll Parlor is precious but years of tradition ground them. Many George- insufficient—there needs to be a dedicated dis- town Jesuits, long forgotten, devoted their lives play area for the pieces that have found their to bring such concepts, stemming from the Gos- way into boxes, locked cabinets, and basement pel, into reality. vaults across campus. Implementing these recommendations—giv- The collective memory of alumni should ing students a stronger sense of Georgetown’s also be unleashed—creating a better outlet past, and of their place in Georgetown’s pres- for alumni-student engagement on pressing ent—will teach Hoyas two great lessons. First, it Georgetown issues would open the “human will teach them that what happens on our Hill- vault” of alumni memory and experiences. In top truly can influence the world. Early students the past, the College Journal specifically brought from our once-fledgling academy, like William alumni into the conversations of the publication, Gaston and George Kavanaugh, went on to be in much the same way that this journal does. The among America’s most influential Catholic recent alumni-student petition against the hor- statesmen despite Catholic discrimination in the rendous Northeast Triangle dormitory design in early 1800s. After the devastation of the Civil favor of a more traditional stone and brick de- War, Georgetown united the Blue and Gray to sign was another bright spot. build a new common heritage and rise from the Second, the University must offer more inter- ashes of terrible war. Following World War I, disciplinary seminars on the history of our Alma Fr. Edmund A. Walsh, S.J., founded the School Mater, showing how Georgetown history relates of Foreign Service, in the face of immense Jesuit to various areas of academia. The School of For- opposition, to train Catholic diplomats to guide eign Service will offer one in the fall of 2014—a morally sound and just foreign policy as Amer- course on Georgetown’s unique role in Ameri- ica was rising to global prominence. In today’s can international relations—at the insistence and rapidly changing arena of American Catholic encouragement of a student-alumni partnership; higher education, Georgetown has pioneered the yet, one is not enough. Imagine how inspiring way for discussions reaffirming the necessity of it would be for students in each of the major a pluralism ”centered” around the Catholic tra- disciplines to learn about the Hoyas who were dition and discerning how a Catholic university pioneers in those very fields. Many of our peer can continue to bring the Church to the world institutions have such courses despite their more and the world to the Church. Understanding limited histories. this paradigm will lead students of all faiths to Finally, Georgetown must add a stronger return from their Washington ambitions and to and more in-depth history component to New re-engage themselves within Georgetown’s hal- Student Orientation, for multiple reasons. Our lowed walls, in order to serve the world better. newest students need an earlier opportunity to Second, implementing these recommenda- discover how Hoyas-past both drew from and tions will teach Hoyas that they are part of a poured into the wellspring of Georgetown, so “community of souls,” composed of Hoyas-past, that they might ascertain their own unique places present, and future. While the items in the vault in the University’s community. Furthermore, the are made of nothing more than wood, metal or great “catchphrases” that dot campus banners stone, their true value is found in the common and campus media remain but abstractions apart identity they provide to generations of students. from their historical contexts. “Cura personalis”— With pluralism becoming an increasingly impor- care for the whole person—and “contemplation tant cornerstone of the Georgetown experience, in action” did not just appear out of thin air as we need to recognize the past that we inherit Georgetown transitioned into a modern Ameri- when we are adopted into the Georgetown can institution of higher learning—four hundred community.

74 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | Kevin D. Sullivan

A respect and reverence towards the history New World, the “St. Clement’s Island Cross” is a of our Alma Mater is crucial to its continued real symbol of the mission we have inherited and flourishing. Many years ago, while exploring the are heir to. Let us not only dare to imagine what vault, Fr. G. Ronald Murphy, S.J., had an experi- else lies behind vault doors, but zealously bring it ence that altered his perspective of the University to light. Successfully charting our future depends entirely. Murphy came upon a piece of metal cov- on understanding the triumphs and dangerous ered in dust and lying on the ground. That piece shoals of our past. of metal, made from the iron of the ships that car- ried the first Jesuits to America, is the cross that Kevin D . Sullivan is a senior in the Edmund A . Walsh now hangs in Dahlgren Chapel. Used in the cel- School of Foreign Service studying International Po- ebration of the first Mass in the English-speaking litical Economy .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 75 THE CLOCK TOWER

On the Disposition of All Things Reflections for Hoyas from Georgetown Legend Father James V. Schall, S.J.

“But you have disposed all things by measure and number and weight. For with you great strength abides always; who can resist the might of your arm? Indeed, before you the whole universe is as a grain from a balance, or a drop of morning dew comes down on the Earth.” —Book of Wisdom, 11:20-22.

“The heart has its own order; the intellect has its own, which is by principle and demon- stration. The heart has another. We do not prove that we ought to be loved by enumerat- ing in order the causes of love; that would be ridiculous.” —Pascal, Pensées, #283.

At the end of every Liturgical Year, the think, or at least provoke us to wonder: “What readings at Mass or in the Office often can such things mean?” Catholicism is ever a I. refer to “the end of things.” The best thinking revelation. These sentences expect us to book on these obscure but ultimate topics is know the meaning of words and the intelligibil- probably Josef Pieper’s The End of Time. But we ity of concepts that are used to describe what is . frequently come across passages in the philoso- If we are “chosen” before the world began, we phers, in Scripture, in or literature that somehow logically conclude that we must be more im- put things together. The Fourth Canon of the portant than the world itself taken to mean ev- Mass, when carefully attended to, is a remarkable erything in the world but us. We also see that, explanation of how things fit together. I think too in the intention of God, we are more important of St. Paul’s famous passages at the beginning of than the many good creatures that follow our be- Ephesians and Colossians. In Ephesians, we read: ing in the order of things.378 That is to say, the “God chose us in him before the world began” world, the cosmos, comes forth as something (1:4). And in Colossians, “In him (Christ), every- that is not God, that is good, that is subject to the thing in heaven and on earth was created…. He purpose of our own existence. We notice, more- is before all else that is.” (1:16-17). To be “before over, that we did not “choose” to exist. We are all else that is” means: 1) that we are not ourselves “chosen” to exist, each of us. For a finite being God and 2) that we are initially, in God’s order of to himself “choose” to exist would mean that he creation, before creation itself. God did not first existed before he existed, something in principle intend creation then us, but us then creation. unthinkable. As I read such brief passages, I am struck by And if we are created “in Christ,” we must their insightfulness. They assume that we can have some relation to the sort of being that

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Christ is Himself in His humanity. We are his they were chosen to happen by real agents that “image.” Nothing else in creation is His image were not themselves God. We can investigate, in the same way, even though all things are understand, and categorize these events. “disposed” to be what they are. Each thing has Through an image about the strength of God’s its own gravity, its own weight, or measure, or arm in the Book of Wisdom, we are alerted to number. What else is it that we look for in our the possibility of resisting this power. We could research but how things differ from each other, not do this opposing if we were only chance, if how they are related, similar. In the case of be- we had no real power of our own. But if God is ings with quantity, as Plato taught us and Pope still more powerful than we, it gives us hope that Benedict reminded us, we can express these re- our errors and sins are not the last word in the lationships in mathematical terms. Still, there universe. Two great images are given to us. We are, as Pascal said, things that are quite true that are to look on the world as one side of a balance we cannot “prove” as if they were material bod- scale. On one side is the whole cosmos, on the ies. Just because, from my studies of literary and other but a grain of sand or a drop of dew. We philosophical authors, I can give a list of reasons are told that they still balance. The size and com- why someone, including myself, might be love- plexity of the world are no real rivals to God, but able, it will not follow that therefore I am loved they are not nothing either. as a result of some automatic scientific formula We are next told that God has “mercy” on or understanding. Something basic of me or any us, precisely because He can “do all things.” He person stands beyond any analytic description can do all things that are “do-able.” He cannot of what I am. And what most stands apart is do contradictions. The power and knowledge of “that I am,” not just what I am, a human being God do not reduce what is not God to nothing or and not a god or a toad. to a meaningless insignificance. God’s power is shown in the bringing forth of things, in bring- Here, I want to follow nine verses ing them to what He intended them to be. of the Book of Wisdom, Chapter Next we are told that God “overlooks our II. 11:20 to 12:2. The Book of Wisdom, sins.” Why does He do this? He does it in order though not unique in this, does show many that we might “repent” them. Presumably, if He glimmerings of philosophy and the way that did not overlook them, He would have to deal philosophy and revelation come together. To with them with justice immediately on their ex- begin with, things are “disposed.” They do not ecution. He would not be a God of mercy, one just happen. This disposition does not mean that who could wait for us to grasp what we are do- there is no chance or accident in the universe. ing and see the truth of things, even in wicked Chance, however, is always reduced to the cross- things we ourselves put into the world. ing of purposes, whether in the case of particles Still talking to God, the writer of the Book of or human willing agents. Augustine and the me- Wisdom tells us that God “loves all things.” We dieval writers were fascinated with the notion exist first because God loved us, not the other of measure, weight, and numbers. Since things way around. We did not first exist, and then God are what they are, we can figure out second- decided to love us. That is our way, our human ary causes, real actions that are not exclusively way, of coming to love. We must first exist for God’s actions. The greatness of God consists, in someone to see us, to come to love us. God’s love part, because He could create real beings which is a creative gift; ours is a gift already in being, could themselves cause other things to happen. not created by us. God’s love is the cause of our The greatness of God is that He made a world existing. And He knows that we are the beings that was not simply Himself. Rather He created who can love others if we choose to do so. Real a world in which true events happened because love is never just a passion; it always is also and

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 77 All Things |

primarily a choice. This teaching even applies friends.” Love that is not free is not love, includ- to God Himself. He overlooks our sins “that ing divine love, especially divine love. This is the we may repent.” He gives us a chance, space. lesson of the Book of Wisdom’s brief nine verses. That too is what time is about. That is what the world is about; what our cities are about. They Recently, my Dominican friend, are places in time waiting for our actions, for our Father Innocent Smith, called to repentance, for our return to order. III. my attention the following pas- God “loathes” nothing that He has created. sage from Aquinas: We recall the hymn in Daniel, the one that says “Sun and moon, bless the Lord; ice and snow Good is the cause of love, as being its object. bless the Lord,” we see that all things that are, But good is not the object of the appetite, ex- by their very existence, are the results of God’s cept as apprehended. And therefore love de- blessing. There is no sin in creation short of man. mands some apprehension of the good that Yet, all other things exist for man’s sake, to make is loved. For this reason, the Philosopher his life possible and fit. His life is made not just (Ethics, IX, 5, 12) says that bodily sight is the for this life but for “eternal life.” If God “hated” beginning of sensible love and in like man- something, the Book of Wisdom further tells ner the contemplation of spiritual beauty or us, He simply would not have created it. Every goodness is the beginning of spiritual love. being that exists is good. Nothing can remain Accordingly, knowledge is the cause of love in existence itself unless what causes what is in for the same reason as good is, which can be the first place decides to continue its being. All loved only as known (I-II. 27. 2). things are “spared” because of God. Everything that exists calls attention to that part of itself that Smith said that this passage struck him as simply makes us realize that we did not cause our own riveting. I found it that way too. We cannot love existence. The first thing we realize about- our a thing unless we know it as good. Aristotle re- selves is that we do not cause that which is our- minded us that there is such a thing as intellectual selves either to be or to be what we are. pleasure.379 This pleasure follows from knowing In all things we find the touch of what is not the good as good. Only when we know the good themselves. They are all called from nothing- can we really love it. This is why we are ratio- ness. Already here too in the Book of Wisdom nal animals. As Pascal said, we can know things, we have hints of the Holy Spirit. He is the one in their weight, time, and number. But we can also the Godhead who vivifies and sanctifies. If we know things immediately and love them because offend, which we have the freedom and power we know them. We cannot give a scientific proof to do, God reacts, usually gradually, “little by of what is not subject to scientific method, that is, little.” It is good to be “reminded” of our sins, of what is not expressed in numbers, weight, or of our wickedness. This is why we live in time. measure. Love is not material but spiritual. That God, once He creates us, cannot go back on His is why it is so powerful in its beginnings, in its word. His word is at the origin of each of us, completion, and, yes. in its betrayal. willed from before the foundation of the world. The object of love is what is known as good, All the alternatives to God that we can choose not just what is good. It does not strike us as are themselves good, as Augustine taught us. good until we know it. God “overlooks” the sins But we can reject God by choosing any of them of men that they might “repent.” He does not apart from God’s order, which is also our good. say that they are not sins. He affirms that they If we could not do this, we would not be worth are sins. This knowledge is why we have rea- paying attention to. We are offered the- friend son and commandments to inform us what they ship of God. “I no longer call you servants, but are. But God also knows that “all these beautiful

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things,” as Augustine called them, can lead us of beings we are needs time and experience, ex- away from Him if we choose to let them. God perience of the effects of the loves we betray in loves all the things that are. If He hated them, He our sins. If this greater love does not lead us to would not have “fashioned” them to be what repentance, nothing will or can. God is merciful they are, rooted in their very being and origin in in His wisdom, but He cannot and will not make His own being, power, and mercy. God’s spirit what is free to be not free. In the end, we either is in all things. repent or we are left to our own self-loves, the The beings that can and do sin are “rebuked” loves whose objects remain good, but only ap- little by little in the hope that they will repent. prehended as “our” good, not the good as such, What is it to repent for free beings? It is finally to His good, in which we are created and chosen, know what is good and to reaffirm it over against “before the world began.” our act which implicitly denied its whole good. This time of repentance is what the mercy of James V . Schall, S J. . served as a professor of political God gives to us. We would be justly condemned theory in the Department of Government at George- from the start, but, unlike the angels, the kind town University from 1978 until 2012 .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 79 Endnotes

The Forum 1 Healy, Patrick. “Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 30 Apr. 201. . 2 Healy, Patrick. “Lucius Caecilius Firmianus Lactantius.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910. 30 Apr. 2013 . 3 Ibid. 4 Lactantius. The Divine Institutes. Translation and Introduction by Anthony Bowen and Peter Garnsey. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007. Print: 62 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid., 310-311. 7 Ibid., 327. 8 Ibid., 59. 9 Ibid., 60. 10 Ibid., 57. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid., 57. 13 Ibid.,156-157. 14 Ibid., 320. 15 Ibid., 321. 16 Ibid., 281. 17 Edict of Milan: Lactantius, De Mort. ed. 0. F. Fritzsche, II, p 288 sq. (Bibl Patr. Ecc. Lat. XI). 18 “Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union,” Official Journal of the European Communities (18 December 2000), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf. 19 “Preamble to the Treaty on European Union,” Official Journal of the European Communities (18 December 2000), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf. 20 “Pacem in Terris: Fifty Years On,” last modified April 11, 2013, http://www.news.va/en/ news/pacem-in-terris-fifty-years-on. 21 John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, Paragraph 3 22 Ibid., 9. 23 Ibid., 10. 24 John XXIII, Pacem in Terris, Paragraph 14. 25 Ibid., 44. 26 Dignitatis Humanae, Paragraph 1. 27 Ibid.,

80 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 28 Ibid., 2. 29 Dignitatis Humane, Paragraph 6. 30 Ibid., 9. 31 Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, ed. Sterling Lamprecht (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1949), p. 129. 32 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Edwin Curley (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1994), p. 109. 33 Ibid. 34 John Gardner, “Legal Positivism: 5½ Myths,” The American Journal of Jurisprudence 46, no. 1 (2001): 199. 35 Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, p. 129. 36 Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, p. 5. 37 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 58. 38 Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, p. 25. 39 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 75. 40 Ibid., p. 76. 41 Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, p. 58. 42 Ibid., p. 109. 43 Ibid., p. 210-211. 44 Ibid., p.110-115. 45 Ibid., p. 173. 46 Ibid., p. 174. 47 Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, p. 128-129. 48 Jean Hampton, Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 107. 49 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 112. 50 Ibid., p. 141. 51 Ibid., p. 82. 52 Ibid., p. 142. 53 Ibid., p. 142. 54 Ibid., p. 79. 55 Ibid., p. 80. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid., p. 22. 58 Ibid., p. 28. 59 Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, p. 57. 60 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 57. 61 Ibid., p. 28.

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 81 62 Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, pp. 57-58. 63 Ibid. 64 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 100. 65 H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law, second ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 186. 66 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 99. 67 Mark Murphy, “Was Hobbes a Legal Positivist?,” Ethics 105, no. 4 (1995): 872. 68 Ibid. 69 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, p. 111. 70 Ibid., p. 109. 71 Griehesl, Marika. Interview with Elfriede Jelinek. Interview November 2004. Nobelprize. org. 72 Michael Oakeshott,Rationalism in Politics and other political essays, (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2005), 396. “We are not concerned with a society which sprang up yesterday, but with one which possesses already a defined character and traditions of activity.And in these circumstances social achievement is to perceive the next step dictated or suggested by the character of the society in contact with changing conditions.” 73 Alexis De Tocqueville, Democracy in America, (New York: HarperCollins, 1969), 503. 74 Ibid., 505. 75 Ibid., 507. This pattern is evident in America’s fixation on global initiatives and interna- tional charities that allow for us to reach out to those in distant lands, rather than to those we can see and touch. Although much compassion is fostered by these links, the account- ability is less intense, simply because of the distance. 76 Ibid. Discussed later, Tocqueville does not wish to go back to those links, for they were harsh and disinterested, but rather, to recreate the feelings that produced the links, albeit in a new way that takes into account the equality of the democratic age. 77 Ibid., 508. 78 Ibid., 548. However, on the next page, Tocqueville reminds us that “they can hardly keep their thoughts always confined within the precise limits of this life and will always be ready to break out through these limits and consider what is beyond.” How then do we do foster this consideration? Tocqueville places the onus on the government to “give men back that interest in the future,” and in doing so, closely aligns with Dewey’s wish to incite the modern American to consider the problems of today worth effort tomorrow. They differ on the medium with which to accomplish this. 79 Ibid., 430. 80 Ibid. 81 John Dewey, Individualism Old and New, (New York: Prometheus Book, 1999) p.26 82 Ibid. 83 Ibid., 6. Dewey is unfortunately unclear about his opinion about this determinism. On the one hand, he dislikes the rampant materialism that spawns from it, but at the same time,

82 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 wishes for it to fuel the scientific advances that he hopes will reinvigorate the American spirit. The line he might draw is hazy. 84 Hernando De Soto, The Mystery of Capital, (New York: Basic Books, 2000),113. De Soto out- lines the economic trend of materialism and individualism in order to elucidate the transfer of capital throughout American history. He concludes that our laws and procedures for acquiring capital were shaped—quite similarly to Tocqueville—by the habits and mores. He refers to them as the “law of the people”, urging developing countries to shape their economies in this way. 85 Dewey, Individualism, 9. This Pecuniary culture is subject to a rampant materialism that consumes any efforts to progress. 86 Ibid., 7. Dewey’s treatment of religion is spotty, at best. His call for a new or civic religion is borderline humanist. His tone in Individualism Old and New alludes to his distaste for our double creed, and would imply at least a respect for the role that religion plays, rather than a preference for its exact tenants. 87 Ibid., 8. This reference tends to place Dewey in the light sympathy towards religion, where in other places, he seems to discourage it. 88 Ibid.,12. 89 Martin Heidegger, Basic Writings: From Being and Time to The Task of Thinking, “The Ques- tion Concerning Technology”(New York: Harper Perennial, 2008), 332. This refers to Heidegger’s fear that man will be reduced to a moving part in the machine of modern technology. If he does, “he comes to the very brink of a precipitous fall.” 90 Dewey, Individualism,18. Striking similar to the observation that “if thought is to make sense it must in some way accord with the real-life conditions that it articulates,” found in Joshua Mitchell’s Fragility of Freedom. This accord is tantamount to making real steps and creating real change, rather than simply figuring and refiguring the theoretical possibilities of “inidividualism.” 91 Ibid., 40. 92 Ibid., 26. 93 Ibid., 23. 94 Ibid., 30. This is surprising, as Dewey often speaks of finiteness with disdain, but his prefer- ence for a defined agenda illustrates his cohesion with Tocqueville even further. While they both retain ideals in theory, they recognize that in order to function, they must make small concessions to accommodate the reality of politics. Dewey cannot realistically operate on an indefinite platform like Tocqueville cannot realistically bring his aristocratic virtue to America. They both settle for secondary options. 95 Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 433. 96 Dewey, Individualism, 30. “I do not think it is fantastic,” Dewey says, “to connect our excited and rapacious nationalism with the situation in which corporateness has gone so far as to detach individuals from their old local ties and allegiances but not far enough to give them a new center and order of life.” Interestingly, Rorty encourages just that, claiming that Dewey wished to sever the Left from any definite ties to the old order.

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 83 97 Richard Rorty, Achieving Our Country, (Boston: Harvard University Press, 1999), 29. “Dewey’s way of restating, in philosophical terms, Whitman’s claims that America does not need to place itself within a frame of reference.” I would argue that in fact, Dewey did wish to place us in a frame of reference, because our aimless and unbound liberalism did not render any results. Perhaps Rorty misinterpreted Dewey’s wish for a “new” allegiance for the complete destruction of allegiance at all. 98 Oakeshott, Rationalism, 23. “What in seventeenth century was ‘L’art de penser’ has now become Your Mind and how to use it, a plan by world-famous experts for developing a trained mind at a fraction of the usual cost.” Although writing in the 1930’s Oakeshott predicts the modern man’s obsession with “self-help” and mastery of the mind. Instead of tactile learning through hands on experience, we wish to medicate ourselves, numb the dif- ficulties in life with a lesser form of experience. 99 Ibid., 11. This could not be more evident than on a college campus where calculating GPA and percentage scores render what is considered an accurate representation of one’s education. Oakeshott claims that rationalism has and will continue to pervade every area of human experience, and its prevelance here only speaks to that fact. College campuses are breeding ground for lost individuals, concerned with only their personal and measurable gain, rather than the gain that cannot be calculated. 100 Ibid., 10. 101 Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 430, Tocquevile seems to grasp the “pragmatist move” made by his contemporary, William James. Because Dewey notes James as an inspiration and influence, it is important to see where Dewey’s thoiught and Tocqueville’s thought matches up. Though a pragmatist, Dewey bares the marks of someone skeptical of its de- tached claims. 102 Dewey, Individualiam, 16. Dewey’s focus on social justce and social inequality leads him to prefer concrete “solutions” that will render clear evidence of progress for that inequality. Here he takes Oakeshott’s advice to always “take the next step” in politics, rather than lie dormant, waiting for the ultimate answer to theorize its way into existence. Found in his essay “The Political Econmy of Freedom.” 103 Oakeshott, Rationalism, 23. Without explicitly stating it as his own religion, Oakeshott la- ments the decline in general of a religiosity, an sees its negative effects on the already weak- ened psyche. Rationalism replaces religion and enervates the many modes of experience that he finds necessary. 104 Ibid.,23. 105 Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 429. 106 Dewey, Individualism, 28 107 Tocqueville, Democracy, 47. Delineating the spheres that the Puritans so masterfully carved out for both religion and politics, he claims that religion, unlike politics, requires no sup- port from man, and should not be entangled with the factors in life that do—factors such as politics. When religion becomes entangled with politics, it will eventually also require support, for its transcendent nature will be temporalized and stripped of its strength to withstand the “coming into being and passing away” of the political world. 108 Dewey, Individualism17. Here, Dewey, although much more tactile than Tocqueville, reaches into the intangible, echoing 515 of Democracy in America: “Feelings are renewed,

84 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 the heart enlarged, and the understanding developed, only by the reciprocal action of man one upon the other.” 109 Ibid., 49. 110 Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 296.

The Chamber 111 Where data were not available regarding extremely rare religions in countries, which would total no more than 4% of the population, these religions were grouped together as “Others” and assumed to be statistically insignificant in the calculations. In addition, if the country is found to have a state-sponsored religion in which 100% of the population is assumed to subscribe to that religion, then the data would be considered inaccurate and other sources such as scholarly articles and news references would be utilized to estimate the country’s religious composition. There are obvious limitations to this approach, such as the potential inaccuracy of the data when individuals hold a religion officially but do not practice it, when states which forbid irreligiosity result in inflated numbers for particular religions, or when wildly varying data exists between different sources. There is no feasible way around such sampling difficulties and this study simply seeks to use the most accurate data available in each case. 112 Bhiku Parekh, “The Voice of Religion in Political Discourse,” in Religion, Politics and Peace, ed. Leroy S. Rouner (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1999), 72. 113 Zaid Hassan, “Four Reasons Why Egypt’s Revolution Is Islamic,” Religion Dispatches, February 3, 2011, http://www.religiondispatches.org/dispatches/guest_bloggers/4167/ four_reasons_why_egypt%E2%80%99s_revolution_is_islamic_. 114 Ibid. 115 Richard Haass, foreword to F. Gregory Glause III, “Saudi Arabia in the New Middle East,” Council of Foreign Relations Special Report, no. 63 (2011): vii. 116 Abdul Nabi Shaheen, “Saudi Arabia a paragon of political stability,” Gulf News, September 23, 2010, 117 Anthony Cordesman, “Understanding Saudi Stability and Instability: A Very Different Nation,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, February 26, 2011, 118 Gary Bouma and Andrew Singleton, “A comparative study of the successful management of religious diversity: Melbourne and Hong Kong,” International Sociology 19, no. 1 (2004): 13. 119 Ibid., 15. 120 Tsun Hang Tey, “Excluding Religion from Politics and Enforcing Religious Harmony – Singapore-style,” Singapore Journal of Legal Studies (2008): 118. 121 Subrata Kumar Mitra, “Desecularising the State: Religion and Politics in India after Inde- pendence,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 33, no. 4 (1991): 759. 122 Frank R. Ankersmit, “Representational Democracy: An Aesthetic Approach to Conflict and Compromise,” Common Knowledge 8, no. 1 (2002): 35.

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 85 123 Ibid. 124 Loving v . Virginia 388 U.S. 1 (1967). 125 Id. at 7 . 126 Id. at 9. 127 Clements v . Fashing 457 U.S. 957 (1982). 128 Virginia, at 533 [quoting from Ballard v . U .S . 329 U.S. 187 (1946)]. 129 Virginia, at 533. 130 Varnmum v . Brien 60. 131 Skinner v . Oklahoma, 541. 132 Turner v. Safley, 12. 133 Griswold v . Connecticut, 96. 134 Id. at 495 (Goldberg, J. concurring). 135 Reynotlds v . U .S . 98 U.S. 145 (1878). 136 Maynard v . Hill 125 U.S. 190 (1888). 137 Virginia, at 532. 138 Virginia, at 532. 139 Williamson v . Lee Optical 348 U.S. 489 (1955)

The Sanctuary 140 For the purposes of this essay, the “act of faith” shall be defined as the ability for the “will” to persuade the “intellect” to give assent to that which is unseen (Hebrews 11:1). This movement will be discussed later in the piece, in terms of Newman’s “convergence of prob- abilities”. The assent to truth refers to the act of faith, in the sense that a revealed religion makes the claim to be “true.” Therefore, assenting to truth claims merely means making an ‘act of faith.’ It is worth noting that the “act of faith” encompasses two different senses of the word “faith” – fides qua credo and fides quae credo. Fides qua credo is a personal act of faith, translated “the faith by which I believe.” This is more faith in a ‘subjective’ sense. The fides quae credo includes the necessary truth claims of the faith, translated as the “faith that I believe.” 141 Blessed John Henry Cardinal Newman (1801-1890) was a British convert to Catholicism. Prior to his conversion, he served as a tutor at Oriel College Oxford and played an integral role in the Oxford Movement. His greatest works included the Apologia Pro Vita Sua, The Grammar of Assent, and The Idea of a University. Newman founded the first Catholic Univer- sity of Ireland. The theory of the “convergence of probabilities” as is found in Apologia Pro Vita Sua, argues for an assent to belief via an aggregation of arguments for the existence of God, and assmes these arguments to be probabilistic in nature and that these probabili- ties can be reasonably ‘calculated’ in some way. The word “reasonably” is also crucial in Newman’s theory of the “convergence of probability,” as Newman believed that the “act of faith” must also be rational, the will involving the intellect in its assent. 142 Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905-1988) was a Swiss theologian and Catholic priest, who is considered one of the greatest contributors to Catholic thought in the 20th century.

86 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 143 Logos is a Greek term usually translated as “Word” when used in the phrase “Word of God” in the New Testament (see John 1:1-14). In this context refers to the second person of the Trinity, Jesus Christ. Faith that is ‘authentic’ means faith that is formed by reasoning that the claims of the faith are “true.” This refers to the fides quae credo. 144 Rahner, Karl “Oneness and Threefoldness of God in Discussion with Islam” [“Oneness and Threefoldness”], TI xviii, 105-121. 145 See St. Anselm’s Proslogion for the “Ontological Proof; See Summa Theologia for the five ways of St. Thomas Aquinas.” 146 The Councils of Nicea and Chalcedon constitute two principal doctrines of the Church, the doctrine of God and the doctrine of Christ, respectively. Metaphysical language of the Greek ancients including hypostasis, prospon, ousia and physis were used to help philo- sophically explain revelation. 147 Newman, John Henry. “History of My Religious Opinions up to 1833.” Apologia Pro Vita Sua. Ed. Wilfrid Ward. London: Oxford UP, 1931. 122-23. Print. 148 Newman draws a distinction between “certainty” and “certitude.” “Certainty” refers to claims that are a priori, for example “the leaf on the tree is green.” “Certitude” is having faith in something that cannot be given a priori. “Certitude” need not be religious, for the claim “I know the sun will rise tomorrow” is a claim from “certitude,” not “certainty,” for it is not given a priori that the sun will rise tomorrow. See: Newman, John Henry. “History of My Religious Opinions up to 1833.” Apologia Pro Vita Sua. Ed. Wilfrid Ward. London: Oxford UP, 1931. 122-23. Print. 149 Newman, John Henry. “History of My Religious Opinions up to 1833.” Apologia Pro Vita Sua. Ed. Wilfrid Ward. London: Oxford UP, 1931. 122-23. Print. 150 This refers specifically to the inability of the ‘intellect’ to assent to that which is not a priori or axiomatic. When the claim the ‘intellect’ (reason) investigates is an a priori (the leaf is green), the ‘intellect’ can be satisfied, for ‘certainty’ is established. The gap, when in the situation of that which is not empirical, is filled and can be overcome only by the ‘will’ in the ‘act of faith,’ establishing ‘certitude.’ For example, there is no certainty that the sun will rise tomorrow, however we have certitude that it will rise. This certitude can be established through the ‘will,’ and the time before it is established is the ‘gap.’ 151 Ibid., 122-23. Print. 152 Hans Urs von Balthasar, Seeing the Form, trans. Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, vol. 1 of The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics, 7 vols., ed. Joseph Fessio, SJ and John Riches (San Fran- cisco, CA: Ignatius Press, 1982-89); originally Shau der Gestalt in Herrlichkeit: Eine theolo- gische Aesthetik (Einsiedeln: Johannes Verlag, 1961f). 418. Print. 153 Newman, John Henry. “History of My Religious Opinions up to 1833.” Apologia Pro Vita Sua. Ed. Wilfrid Ward. London: Oxford UP, 1931. 105-110. Print. 154 Hans Urs von Balthasar, Seeing the Form, trans. Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, vol. 1 of The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics, 7 vols., ed. Joseph Fessio, SJ and John Riches (San Fran- cisco, CA: Ignatius Press, 1982-89); originally Shau der Gestalt in Herrlichkeit: Eine theolo- gische Aesthetik (Einsiedeln: Johannes Verlag, 1961f). Print. 155 Ibid. 420. Print. 156 Ibid. 417-425. Print.

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 87 157 Hans Urs von Balthasar, Seeing the Form, trans. Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, vol. 1 of The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics, 7 vols., ed. Joseph Fessio, SJ and John Riches (San Fran- cisco, CA: Ignatius Press, 1982-89); originally Shau der Gestalt in Herrlichkeit: Eine theolo- gische Aesthetik (Einsiedeln: Johannes Verlag, 1961f). 423-425. Print. 158 Ibid., 423. Print. 159 Ibid.,423-424. Print. 160 Charles Taylor, The Ethics of Authenticity, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1991). 29. 161 Aristotle, Politics, trans. C.D.C. Reeve. (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1998). I.1253a2. 162 Taylor, 32. 163 Interfaith Youth Core, “About the Movement: The Framework for Interfaith Dialogue.” Last modified 2012. Accessed December 8, 2012. 164 I use the term “spiritual” to encompass all aspects of religious and/or spiritual beliefs. Interfaith dialogue can occur between members of the same religion who differ on certain beliefs, or even the non-religious. 165 Taylor, 4-8. 166 Ibid., 37. 167 Ibid. 168 Encyclopdia Brittanica. Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc., 2013. s.v. “Salvation (Religion).” http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520007/salvation (accessed December 18, 2013). 169 Encyclopdia Brittanica. Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc., 2013. s.v. “Protestantism.” http:// www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/479892/Protestantism (accessed December 18, 2013). See also Encyclopdia Brittanica. Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc., 2013. s.v. “Roman Catholi- cism.” http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507284/Roman-Catholicism. (accessed December 18, 2013). 170 Taylor, 59. 171 Ibid., 60. 172 Not all sects of Judaism follow kosher laws by tradition. This example only applies in the context of a person who believes that their dietary laws are a core aspect of their faith identity. 173 Taylor, 58. 174 Ibid., 37-39. 175 Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs, “Islam.” Accessed November 18, 2012. http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/traditions/islam. See also Berkley Center for Religion, Peace & World Affairs, “Buddhism.” Accessed November 18, 2012. http://berkley- center.georgetown.edu/resources/traditions/Buddhism. 176 Taylor, 58. Also see Hollywood, Amy. Harvard Divinity School, “Spiritual But Not Re- ligious.” Last modified 2010. Accessed December 9, 2012, http://www.hds.harvard.edu/ news-events/harvard-divinity-bulletin/articles/spiritual-but-not-religious. 177 Ibid., 32.

88 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 178 This paper was originally written for a history seminar on Martin Luther with Professor Amy Leonard in the Spring of 2013 with the title “A Tale of Three Cities: Man’s Place in History in the Theological Foundations of Martin Luther’s Political Realism.” It has since been re-worked to its current form thanks to helpful conversations with Professor Joshua Mitchell, to whose own pristine scholarship on Martin Luther’s contribution to political theory in Not By Reason Alone (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), which relates the idea Law and Grace to the Two Kingdoms, my own work is grossly indebted. 179 WA 30 II, 110. Weimarer Ausgabe, D . Martin Luthers Werke . Kritische Gesammtausgabe. 90 vols. Weimar, 1883 ff. Vol 30. II. Schriften 1529/30, 110. The initials ‘WA’ are used through- out to refer to the definitive Weimarer Ausgabe of Luther’s works (Dr . Martin Luther’s Works: Critical Collected Edition), which is cited by volume, page, and (generally) also by line. Where the vol. no. is obvious it is omitted. Most citations from the AW are taken from Ewald M. Plass’ translation of select passages from the Weimar Edition of Luther’s works as published in What Luther Says (St. Louis: Concordia Pub. House, 1959). These will be later shortened to “WA,” followed by the volume number and page number. 180 WA 19, 625. 181 Bernhard Lohse, Martin Luther's Theology: Its Historical and Systematic Development (Minne- apolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1999) 182 David Whitford notes Thomas Muntzer and Johannes Cochlaeus’ accusations against Luther (David M Whitford, Luther: A Guide for the Perplexed (London: T&T Clark, 2011) 109. 183 WA 42, 73. In his exposition of Gen. 2:9, Luther identifies Man’s disobedience of God’s com- mand as the cause of the fall: “To be sure, Adam sank his teeth into the fruit; but in reality he sank them into a thorn, which was the prohibition of God and disobedience to God. This is the real cause of the evil…” 184 Thomas M. McDonough, O.P. The Law and the Gospel in Luther (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), 28. From W.A. lvi. 312, 1-15 185 WA 18, 708. Luther explains the transmission of sin with a metaphor in his 1525 treatise Bondage of the Will: “Although God does not make sin, He does not cease to form and multiply that nature which, with the Spirit withdrawn, is contaminated by sin, just as if a craftsman were to make statutes out of poor wood.” 186 John Dillberger, Martin Luther: Selections from His Writings (New York: New York, 1961), 26. Luther’s Preface to his commentary on Romans. 187 WA 32, 162. Luther comments in a sermon in 1530, “Human nature always wants to have a finger in the pie, to carry off the glory, and to lay the first stone.” 188 WA 20, 670. 189 WA xviii. 761. 30-37. In De servo arbitrio (or Bondage of the Will), later cited as “Bondage”, Lu- ther writes: “And this ignorance, and total scorn, undoubtedly, are not in the flesh and base affections but in the most eminent and noblest faculties in man where justice, faith, fear and knowledge of God should reign; yes, in the reason and the will, therefore even the faculties of free choice, and in the seed of virtue or in the very best which exists in man.” 190 WA 10 I, 1, 473 f. Luther spells out in no uncertain terms his contempt for human nature af- ter the fall in his sermon on New Years Day 1522 on Gal 3:23-29: “That a man is able by the

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 89 use of his natural powers to do so much that God will give him grace is a lie and a figment of the devil himself.” 191 Take for instance Erasmus, with whom Luther debated regarding the role of the will in Salvation. In Erasmus’ treatise “On the Freedom of the Will” he writes, “By Free choice in this place we mean a power of the human will by which man can apply himself to the things which lead to eternal salvation, or turn away from them.” E. Gordon Rupp; Philip S. Watson, Eds, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1969), 10. 192 WA 48, 76. 193 WA 24, 586. From a sermonic exposition of Gen 33:1-20: “Let government be whatever it pleases, it is not of men; otherwise it would not be safe for one hour. If God did not sustain governmental authorities with His power, Mr. Everybody (Herr Omnes) would kill all of them... Therefore as far as you are concerned, continue to humble yourself and honor your government.” 194 WA 15, 306. 195 St. L. 13a, 1315 f. The initials St. L. in this paper refer to the St. Louis German Edition (“St. L.”): Dr. Johannes Georg Walch, Ed, Dr . Martin Luthers Saemmtliche Schriften (The Complete Works of Dr . Martin Luther) Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis 22 vols., 1885-1910. 196 WA 30 I, 192. 197 The antinomians contended that the law is unnecessary for the church. 198 WA 39 I, 361 199 Gerrish, B.A., Grace and Reason (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), 26. Gerrish suc- cinctly describes the subtle distinctions at hand: “We must carefully distinguish: (1) natural reason, ruling within its proper domain (the Earthly Kingdom); (2) arrogant reason, tres- passing upon the domain of faith (the Heavenly Kingdom); (3) regenerate reason, serving humbly in the household of faith, but always subject to the Word of God. Within the first context, reason is an excellent gift of God; within the second, it is Frau Hilda, the Devil’s Whore; within the third, it is the handmaiden of faith.” 200 Dillberger, 139-140. 201 Ibid 144. 202 Roland Bainton eloquently describes Luther’s experience of Anfechtungen as a heavy despair of spirit: “… the most frightful insecurities beset him. Panic invaded his spirit. The conscience became so disquieted as to start and tremble at the stirring of a wind-blown leaf. The horror of nightmare gripped the soul, the dread of one waking in the dusk to look into the eyes of him who had come to take his life... These were the torments which Luther repeatedly testified were far worse than any physical ailment that he had ever endured.” Roland Bainton, Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther (Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009) 37. 203 Ibid, 144. 204 WA 47, 170. 205 WA 36, 25, 29 206 Dillberger, 21. From Luther’s preface to Romans.

90 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 207 WA 47, 170. 208 WA 1, 113. 209 WA 40 I, 336 f. Cf note 25 210 Ibid. 211 Romans 8:3-4 212 WA 37, 27 f. From Luther’s Easter sermon on Mark 16:1-8 from 1533. 213 WA 17 II, 438. From a sermon on John 6:55-58. 214 Harro Höpfl,Luther and Calvin on Secular Authority (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 12. 215 Martin Luther, On Secular Authority, “Works of Martin Luther” (Philadelphia: Muhlenberg, 1930), III, 234, 236. 216 WA 11, 252. On Secular Authority . 217 WA 18, 88. 218 WA 12, 334 f. 219 WA 42, 586. Lecture on Gen . 16:5 . 220 WA 19, 625. 221 Oliver O’Donovan and Joan Lockwood O’Donovan Eds., From Irenaeus to Grotius: A Sourcebook in Christian Political Thought 100-1625 (Grand Rapids, MI; Cambridge, U.K William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company: 1999), 581: “Luther’s spiritualizing of the church was counterbalanced by an extension of civil power; but with an extension invigo- rated and circumscribed by the theological rationale of the ‘priesthood of all believers.’” 222 E.G. Rupp and Benjamin Drewery, Martin Luther, Documents of Modern History (London: Edward Arnold, 1970), pp. 126. 223 WA 6, 72. 224 WA 11, 267 f. Similarly, in his exposition of Psalm 82 Luther writes, “In a word, next to the Gospel (ministry) or the spiritual office, no better jewel, no greater treasure, no costlier gift, no finer foundation, no more precious possession exists on earth than a government that administers and upholds justice” WA 31 I, 201. 225 WA 11, 252. 226 W 12, 675 f. 227 Evans, Gillian Rosemary, Ed., Augustine’s City of God (Penguin Books Limited, 2003). In contrast to the City of Man whose “institutions have one single aim – earthly peace” (878), “the Supreme Good of the City of God is everlasting and perfect peace... experiencing no adversity at all” (881).

The Archive 228 See Sixtus V. “Bulla Immensa aeterni Dei.” Bullarum Diplomatum et Privilegiorum (Agustae Taurinorum) 8 (1857). 229 Macken, Thomas F. The Canonisation of Saints . (New York: Benzinger, 1909), 45. 230 Blaher, O.F.M., Daminan Joseph. The Ordinary Processes in Causes of Beatification and Canon- ization . (Washington: The Catholic University of America Press, 1949), 4.

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 91 231 Hostensius. Commentaria et lectura in Decretalibus . (Frankfurt am Main: Vico Verlag, 2009), 45. 232 Baart, Peter A. The Roman court, or a Treatise on the cardinals, Roman Congregations [etc] of the Holy Roman church . (New York: Pustet, 1895), 105. 233 (Canon 2012 § 1, 2) 234 (Canon 1587 § 1) 235 (Canon 2071 § 1) 236 (Canon 2072 § 1) 237 Note the change in canonical terminology. Whereas the 1917 Code referred to the local information-gathering phase as the “Ordinary Process,” referring to the role and jurisdic- tion of an ordinary, the 1983 Code refers to this phase as “Inquiries to be Made by Bish- ops.” Although Divinus Perfectionis Magister says that those “who have the same powers in law” as bishops may also initiate proceedings, the Constitution still limits the breadth of individuals who can initiate proceedings, thus further centralizing canonization authority in the Roman hierarchy. 238 For example Yaroslav Blinsky takes umbrage at Conquest’s lack of discussion of genocide. See Bilinsky, Yaroslav. 1999. “Was the Ukrainian Famine of 1932-1933 Genocide?” Journal of Genocide Research. 1, no. 2: 147-156, 150-152. On Conquest, see Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine . New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. 239 Naimark, Norman M. Stalin’s Genocides. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010, 66. 240 Orlando Figes, The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin’s Russia (New York: Metropolitan books, 2007), 85. 241 Graziosi, Andrea. 2004. The soviet 1931-1933 famines and the Ukrainian holodomor: Is a new interpretation possible, and what would its consequences be?” Harvard Ukrainian Stud- ies 27, no. 1-4: 97-115,8, http://search.proquest.com/docview/220865533?accountid=11091, 97. 242 See Kuromiya, Hiroaki. Stalin. Harlow, England: Pearson/Longman, 2005, 111-112. 243 Naimark, 85. 244 Resolution 260 (III) A of the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948 . 245 Cited in Kuromiya, Hiroaki. 2008. “The Soviet Famine of 1932-1933 Reconsidered”, 666. 246 Ibid. 247 Conquest, 164. 248 Cited in Naimark 86. 249 A theory that Conquest has proposed. 250 Ibid., 88. 251 See Naimark’s Introduction. 252 See Sen, Amartya. 1983. “Chapter 6. The Great Bengal Famine”. 253 Quoted in Noack, Christian, Lindsay Janssen, and Vincent Comerford. Holodomor and Gorta Mór: histories, memories and representations of famine in Ukraine and Ireland. New York, N. Y.: Anthem, 2012, 13.

92 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 254 Leipos comes from the Greek Word Leipo, which means to lack and the Latin suffix for death “-cide.” While one should not typically mix Greek and Latin roots I tried to keep to the origins of the word genocide, which comes from the word “genus” meaning tribe and the same latin suffix. 255 Julian Bonder, “On Memory, Trauma, Public Space, Monuments, and Memorials,” Places 21 (2009): 62. 256 Bonder, “On Memory, Trauma, Public Space, Monuments, and Memorials,” Places 21 (2009): 64. 257 Bonder, “On Memory, Trauma, Public Space, Monuments, and Memorials,” Places 21 (2009): 62. 258 Sharon Chin, “A Self-Serving Admission of Guilt: An Examination of the Intentions and Effects of Germany’s Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe.” Humanity inAction Website: . 259 Herbert Friedman, and Franklin Prosser, “The United States PSYOP Organization in Europe During World War II,” Psywarrior.com . 260 Chin, “A Self-Serving Admission of Guilt: An Examination of the Intentions and Effects of Germany’s Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe.” Humanity in Action Website: . 261 Christopher Olver, “U.S. Foreign Aid to Israel: 2012 Congressional Report,” Journalists Resource: . 262 F.C. DeCoste, The Holocaust’s Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education. (Alberta: University of Alberta, 2000): 176. 263 Ksenija Bilbija, The Art of Truth-telling about Authoritarian Rule. (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, 2005): 32. 264 Cecily Harris, “German Memory of the Holocaust: The Emergence of Counter-Memorials,” Penn History Review 17 (2010): 12. 265 Bilbija, The Art of Truth-telling about Authoritarian Rule. (Madison, WI: University of Wiscon- sin, 2005): 32. 266 DeCoste, The Holocaust’s Ghost: Writings on Art, Politics, Law and Education. (Alberta: Univer- sity of Alberta, 2000): 176. 267 Neil Senhauser, “Robert Musil on Monuments.” Website: . 268 Chin, “A Self-Serving Admission of Guilt: An Examination of the Intentions and Effects of Germany’s Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe.” Humanity in Action Website: .

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 93 269 Chin, “A Self-Serving Admission of Guilt: An Examination of the Intentions and Effects of Germany’s Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe.” Humanity in Action Website: . 270 Charles Hawley and Natalie Tenberg, “SPIEGEL Interview with Holocaust Monument Architect Peter Eisenman,” Der Spiegel, November 20, 2012. 271 Bonder, “On Memory, Trauma, Public Space, Monuments, and Memorials,” Places 21 (2009): 67.

The Parlor 272 John Milton. Paradise Lost . Edited by Gordon Teskey (New York: Norton, 2005), 4.295-99. 273 Ibid., 4.440-44. 274 Ibid., 4.451-52. 275 Ibid., 4.458-59. 276 Ibid., 4.457. 277 Ovid. Metamorphoses . Translated by A.D. Melville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 63. 278 Milton, Paradise Lost, 4.466. 279 Ovid, Metamorphoses, 65. 280 Milton, Paradise Lost, 4.464. 281 Ibid., 4.471-72. 282 Ibid., 4.478-79. 283 Ibid., 4.494. 284 Ibid., 4.637-38. 285 Ibid., 8.469-71. 286 Ibid., 8.437-40. 287 Ibid., 8.496-97. 288 Ibid., 8.540-46. 289 Ibid., 4.321-22. 290 Ibid., 4.505-07. 291 Ibid., 4.490. 292 Ibid., 4.488-89. 293 Ibid., 4.338. 294 Ibid., 4.750-53. 295 Ibid., 9.5-8. 296 Ibid., 9.14, 25, 29, 40. 297 Ibid., 1.1-5.

94 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 Note 323

298 Aristotle. “Poetics,” in The Basic Works of Aristotle. Edited by Richard McKeon (New York: Modern Library Classics, 2001), 1460. 299 Ibid., 1460. 300 Ibid., 1461. 301 Milton, Paradise Lost, 9.202-3. 302 Ibid., 9.279-81. 303 Ibid., 9.286. 304 Ibid., 9.322-326. 305 John Milton. “Areopagitica,” in Paradise Lost, Edited by Gordon Teskey (New York: Norton, 2005), 350. 306 Ibid., 350. 307 Milton, Paradise Lost, 9.385-86. 308 Ibid., 9.481-83. 309 Ibid., 9.532-33, 538. 310 Ibid., 9.550. 311 Ibid., 9.773-75. 312 Aristotle, “Nicomachean Ethics,” in The Basic Works of Aristotle. Edited by Richard McKeon (New York: Modern Library Classics, 2001), 936. 313 Milton, Paradise Lost, 4.220-22. 314 Milton, “Areopagitica,” 349. 315 Milton, Paradise Lost, 9.823-25. 316 Ibid., 12.621-23. 317 Ibid., 1.4-5. 318 Ibid., 4.299. 319 Frederick A. De Armas, Ekphrasis in the Age of Cervantes (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 2015), 144. 320 Ministerio de Cultura, Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Fundación Gre- gorio Prieto, Don Quijote ilustrado: modelos de representación en las ediciones españolas del siglo

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 95 Note 325 Note 329, A

Note 329, B Note 329, C

XVIII y comienzos del XIX (Madrid: Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Fun- dación Gregorio Prieto, 2005), 11. 321 Ibid. 322 Antonio Carnicero, Illustrations of the edition of the Real Academia Española, 1780. 323 Jean Caravaggio, Don Quichotte, du livre au mythe : quatre siècles d’errance (Paris: Fayard, 2005), 134. 324 Sociedad Estatal para la Acción Cultural Exterior, Don Quijote: Tapices españoles del siglo XVIII, (Madrid: Ediciones El Viso, 2005), 24-25. 325 Antoine Coypel and the Gobelins Manufacture of París, Entrance of Sancho in the Isle of Bara- taria, 1717-1797. 326 Encyclopeadia Britannica Online . s.v. “fête champêtre”, accessed December 22nd, 2013. 327 Sociedad Estatal para la Acción Cultural Exterior, Don Quijote, 66. 328 Ibid., 202. 329 Real Fábrica de Tapices de Madrid, Collection of Tapestries of Don Quixote for Philip V (A.The adventure of the burial, B. Sancho tossed in a blanket, C. Don Quixote is knighted), 1722.

330 Sociedad Estatal para la Acción Cultural Exterior, Don Quijote, 220. 331 Ibid., 196. 332 Ibid., 234. 333 Ibid., 236.

96 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 Note 335 Note 338 Note 340

Note 342 Note 343 Note 345, A

334 Miguel de Cervantes, The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote de la Mancha (New York: The Viking Press, 1949), 25 335 Francisco de Goya, The Sleep of Reasons Produces Monsters, 1799. 336 Caravaggio, Don Quichotte, 91-92. 337 Ibid., 25. 338 Eugène Delacroix, Don Quixote in his library, 1824. 339 Caravaggio, Don Quichotte, 135. 340 Adolph Schrödter, Don Quixote reading Amadis of Gaul, 1834. 341 Caravaggio, Don Quichotte, 133. 342 Gustave Doré, A world of desorderly notions, picked out of his books, crowded into his imagination, 1863. 343 Pablo Picasso, Don Quixote, 1955. 344 Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, s.v. “Tachism”, accessed November 27th, 2013. 345 Salvador Dalí, Illustration for the xxxx edition (A. The combat, B. Dulcinea, C. The metamor- phose of Don quixote, D. The Golden Age), 1958. 346 Caravaggio, Don Quichotte, 263.

Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 | 97 Note 345, B (left) and C (right)

Note 345, D

347 Ibid., 188. 348 Tim Ashley, Richard Strauss (London: Phaidon, 1999), 67. 349 Charles Youmans, Richard Strauss’s Orchestral Music and the German Intellectual Tradition (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 201. 350 Ashley, Richard Strauss, 66. 351 Youmans, Richard Strauss, 203-204. 352 Michael Kennedy, Richard Strauss: Man, Music, Enigma (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 126. 353 Ashley, Richard Strauss, 66 354 Nancy Lee Harper, Manuel de Falla: His Life and Music (Lanhman: Scarecrow Press, 2005), 213. 355 Ibid., 101. 356 Carol A. Hess, Manuel de Falla and Modernism in Spain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 207. 357 Suzanne Demarquez, Manuel de Falla (Philadelphia: Chinton Book Co., 1968), 123. 358 Richard Kuhns, “Introduction. Storytelling: The Bankruptcy of Reality,” in The Decameron and the Philosophy of Storytelling (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), 1.

98 | Utraque Unum — Winter 2014 359 Kuhns, “Aspects of Storytelling: Dreams and Masks,” in The Decameron and the Philosophy of Storytelling, 53. 360 Millicent Joy Marcus, An Allegory of Form: Literary Self-Consciousness in the Decameron (Sara- toga: Anma Libri, 1979), 11-23. 361 Ibid. 362 Giovanni Boccaccio, The Decameron, trans. G.H. McWilliam (London: Penguin Books, 1995), 297. 363 Ibid. 364 Millicent Joy Marcus, An Allegory of Form, 11-23. 365 Ibid. 366 Timothy Kircher, “The Modality of Moral Communication in the Decameron’s First Day, in Contrast to the Mirror of the Exemplum,” in Renaissance Quarterly 54 (2001): 1035-73. 367 Ibid. 368 Ibid. 369 Ibid. 370 Giuseppe Mazzotta,The World at Play in Boccaccio’s Decameron (Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press, 1986), 49-69. 371 Ibid. 372 Ibid. 373 Kuhns, “Aspects of Storytelling,” 53. 374 Ibid. 375 Boccaccio, The Decameron, 297. 376 Ibid. 377 Ibid.

The Clock Tower 378 See James V. Schall, The Order of Things (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2007). 379 See James V. Schall, Reasonable Pleasures (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2013); On the Unseri- ousness of Human Affairs (Wilmington: ISI Books, 2001).

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