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Resilient Russian Women in the 1920S & 1930S University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Zea E-Books Zea E-Books 8-19-2015 Resilient Russian Women in the 1920s & 1930s Marcelline Hutton [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/zeabook Part of the European Languages and Societies Commons, Modern Art and Architecture Commons, Modern Literature Commons, Russian Literature Commons, Theatre and Performance Studies Commons, and the Women's Studies Commons Recommended Citation Hutton, Marcelline, "Resilient Russian Women in the 1920s & 1930s" (2015). Zea E-Books. Book 31. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/zeabook/31 This Book is brought to you for free and open access by the Zea E-Books at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Zea E-Books by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Marcelline Hutton Resilient Russian Women in the 1920s & 1930s The stories of Russian educated women, peasants, prisoners, workers, wives, and mothers of the 1920s and 1930s show how work, marriage, family, religion, and even patriotism helped sustain them during harsh times. The Russian Revolution launched an economic and social upheaval that released peasant women from the control of traditional extended fam- ilies. It promised urban women equality and created opportunities for employment and higher education. Yet, the revolution did little to elim- inate Russian patriarchal culture, which continued to undermine wom- en’s social, sexual, economic, and political conditions. Divorce and abor- tion became more widespread, but birth control remained limited, and sexual liberation meant greater freedom for men than for women. The transformations that women needed to gain true equality were post- poned by the pov erty of the new state and the political agendas of lead- ers like Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin. The defunct economy and widespread famine, disease, and misery of the 1920s and the policies of collectivization and terror of the 1930s make those decades dark periods in Russian history, as Bolshevik male-domi- nated work culture triumphed and women’s needs and voices were ul- timately silenced. When Russian society chooses to revisit those times, it will find in the remarkable poetry and prose of these resilient women plentiful evidence of the everyday horrors, struggles, and disappoint- ments the people endured. Marcelline Hutton is the author of Remarkable Russian Women in Pictures, Prose and Poetry (2013), Falling in Love with the Baltics (2009), and Russian and West European Women, 1860–1939 (2001). Cover: Ignaty Nivinsky (1881–1933), Zhenshiny, idite v kooperatsiyu [Women, Join the Cooperatives] (Moscow: VTsSPO, 1918). Zea Books Lincoln, Nebraska isbn 978-1-60962-069-1 ebook Resilient Russian Women in the 1920s & 1930s N Marcelline Hutton Zea Books Lincoln, Nebraska 2015 AaAaAaAaAaAaAa Copyright © 2015 Marcelline Hutton. All rights reserved. isbn 978-1-60962-068-4 paperback isbn 978-1-60962-069-1 ebook Set in Palatino Linotype types. Design and composition by Paul Royster. Zea Books are published by the University of Nebraska–Lincoln Libraries Electronic (pdf) ebook edition available online at http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/zeabook/ Print edition can be ordered from Lulu.com, at http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/unllib Contents Introduction 9 Gratitude 17 Russian Names and Places 19 Glossary 21 Part I: Russian Women in the 1920s Chapter One. Political Life 25 A. Russian Women in the 1917 Revolutions 25 1. February 1917 Revolution 25 2. October 1917 Revolution 28 B. Women in the Communist Party 35 C. Political Activists 46 D. Disenchantment with Communist Politics 50 1. Educated Women 51 2. Gentry-Class Women 52 3. Nelly Ptashkina 52 4. Kyra Karadja 54 5. Other Disenchanted Educated Women 55 a. Maria Shkapskaya 55 b. Marina Tsvetaeva 56 c. Alexandra Tolstoy 57 6. Social Revolutionaries 59 7. Marguerite Harrison 60 8. Maria Spiridonova 65 9. Socialist Opposition 67 10. Aida Basevich 67 E. Conclusion 70 Chapter Two. Women and Religion 71 A. Nuns and Priestly Families in the 1920s 73 B. Other Religious Experiences 76 1. Mme X 76 2. Maria Shkapskaya 77 3. Marguerite Harrison 79 4. Alexandra Tolstoy 82 C. Failure of Belief 84 1. Raisa Orlova 84 3 contents 2. Valentina Petrova 85 D. Religion in the Countryside 85 1. Vera Panova 86 E. Religion and the Intelligentsia 88 1. Alexandra Berg 89 2. Tatiana Tchernavin 90 F. Antireligious Songs 91 Chapter Three. Marriage and Motherhood 94 A. The Countryside 94 B. Urban Marriage and Motherhood 105 1.Working-Class Women 106 2. Bourgeois and Educated Women’s Weddings 108 a. Marguerite Harrison 108 b. Elena Skrjabina 110 c. Nelly Ptashkina 111 d. Maria Shkapskaya 114 e. Anna Akhmatova 117 f. Alexandra Kollontai 119 g. Nadezhda Mandelstam 120 C. Marriage and Everyday Life 122 1. Maria Shkapskaya 122 2. Marina Tsvetaeva and Olga Forsh 124 3. Tatiana Tchernavin 126 D. Conclusion 129 Chapter Four. Education 130 A. Irina Tidmarsh 131 B. Vera Broido 132 C. Nelly Ptashkina 133 D. Elena Gortskina Skrjabina 134 E. Larisa Reisner 137 F. Alexandra Tolstoy 138 G. Conclusion 140 Chapter Five. Women’s Employment 143 A. Agriculture 144 1. Alexandra Tolstoy 145 2. Elena Ponomarenko 147 3. Praskovya Pichugina 148 4 contents B. Manufacturing 151 1. Marietta Shaginian 151 2. Marguerite Harrison 153 3. Ekaterina Strogova 154 4. Anna Balashova 156 C. Service Personnel 157 1. Domestic Servants 157 a. Nelly Ptashkina 159 b. Elena Skrjabina 160 c. Alexandra Tolstoy 162 2. Mid-Level Service Personnel 163 a. Elena Skrjabina 163 b. Helen Dmitriew 168 3. High-Level Service Personnel 169 a. Teachers 169 b. Teachers in Art Academies 171 (1) Nadezhda Udaltsova 171 (2) Anna Ostroumova Lebedeva 172 (3) Aleksandra Exter 172 c. Teachers in Public Schools 173 (1) Tatiana Tchernavin 174 (2) Lidiia Seifullina 177 (3) Alexandra Tolstoy 178 d. University Professors 179 (1) Olga Freidenberg 180 (2) Anna Bek 182 e. Writers 185 (1) Maria Shkapskaya 185 (2) Marietta Shaginian 187 (3) Anna Akhmatova 189 (4) Vera Inber 192 (5) Nina Berberova 193 (6) Marina Tsvetaeva 194 (7) Émigré Writers 195 f. Artists 196 (1) Liubov Popova 197 (2) Varvara Stepanova 203 (3) Zinaida Serebriakova 206 (4) Anna O. Lebedeva 206 Conclusion 209 5 contents Part II: Russian Women in the 1930s Chapter Six. Peasants 217 A. Young Stakhanovite and Udarnik Workers 218 1. Rural Udarnik Workers 219 2. Stakhanovite Tractor Driver Pasha Angelina 219 3. Other Udarniks 222 B. Songs and Celebration of Rural Women 227 C. Generational Differences 229 D. Disgust among Peasants 230 1. Louise Huebert 230 2. Hilda Schulz Mielke 239 3. Collectivization 245 4. Dekulakization 247 5. Memoirs of Peasants’ Dekulakization 248 a. Tatiana Izyumova 249 b. Maria Andrievskaya 249 c. Maria and Olga Orlova 251 d. Regehr Family Letters 252 6. Factors in Peasant Resistance 255 7. Untouchables 257 8. Famine 259 9. Low Productivity of Kolkhoz 259 Chapter Seven. Working Women 263 A. Problems of Older Workers 264 B. Idealistic Udarnik and Stakhanovite Workers 266 C. Hard Lives during Industrialization 269 Chapter Eight. Education 271 A. Harsh University Conditions 276 B. Problems of Social Origins 278 C. Education and Upward Mobility 279 D. Women Teachers and Professors 285 E. Technical Intelligentsia 290 Chapter Nine. Surviving the Purges 293 A. Purges and Social Origins 295 B. Purges and the Intelligentsia 297 1. Tatiana Tchernavin 297 2. Olga Sliozberg 303 6 contents 3. Markoosha Fischer 306 4. Lydia Chukovskaya 308 5. Olga Freidenberg 311 6. Lydia Ginzburg 315 7. Lydia Seifullina 318 8. Anna Akhmatova 318 9. Anna Barkova 322 10. Natalia Sats and Larisa Lappo-Danilevskaia 323 C. Purges of Social Revolutionaries 326 D. Purges of Communist Party Members 328 1. Yelena Sidorkina 328 2. Olga Berggolts 330 E. The Purges: Knowing and Not Knowing 332 1. Elena Skrjabina 333 2. Markoosha Fischer 335 3. Anna Larina 336 4. Galina Shtange 336 5. Liubov Shaporina 337 6. Lydia Chukovskaya 339 7. Valentina Kamyshina 340 8. Nina Kosterina 341 9. Valeria Gerlin 345 10. Anna Larina and Nikolai Bukharin 346 F. Righteous Russians during the Purges 348 Chapter Ten. Religion in the 1930s 349 A. In the Countryside 350 1. Lifting of Some Restrictions, 1936 354 B. In the Cities 355 1. Helen Dmitriew 355 2. Elena Skrjabina 357 3. Alexandra Berg 357 C. In the Camps 361 1. Maria Joffe 361 2. Evgenia Ginzburg 362 3. Marie Avinov 362 4. A Dispossessed Peasant 363 Chapter Eleven. Marriage 365 A. Peasants 366 B. Educated Women 371 1. Galina Shtange 372 7 contents 2. Anna Larina 372 3. Maria Astafeva 373 4. Helen Dmitriew 374 5. Margaret Wettlin 376 6. Sofia Pavlova 378 7. Nadezhda Mandelstam 378 C. Marriage and Family Difficulties 380 1. Galina Shtange’s Demanding Children 381 2. Markoosha Fischer 384 3. Wives of Prisoners 385 a. Surrogate Families in Prison 385 b. Plight of Nonimprisoned Wives 387 D. Unequal Marriages 387 1. Happy Unequal Marriages 388 2. Unhappy Unequal Marriages 389 E. Marriage and Maids 390 Chapter Twelve. Osoaviakhim 394 A. Housewives and Osoaviakhim 394 B. Youth and Osoaviakhim 396 Conclusion 402 Afterword 403 Notes 404 8 Introduction Some friends and readers have enjoyed my recent book Remark- able Russian Women in Pictures, Prose and Poetry, so I have continued these women’s stories in Resilient Russian Women in the 1920s & 1930s. Some of the writers, artists, families, and issues are the same. How- ever, the cataclysmic events of World War I, the Russian revolutions of 1917, and the Civil War made the 1920s a difficult time, as did the purges, industrialization, and collectivization in the 1930s. For these reasons, I have applied the term resilient in discussing women’s lives in those decades. Marriage, family, and work remained important to women during the 1920s and 1930s.
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