The NRD Site Community Report

The NRD site Community report

Matt hew Campbell and Beatrice Hudson Th e NRD site Community report

Matt hew Campbell and Beatrice Hudson

CFG Heritage Ltd. P.O. Box 10 015 Dominion Road Auckland 1024 ph. (09) 309 2426 [email protected] Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Landscape, vegetation and climate 3

3 Traditional history 5

4 Th e archaeology of the Manukau 9

5 Archaeology 14

6 Dates 39

7 Environment 41

8 Taonga 42

9 Flaked stone 59

10 Mammal bone 63

11 Bird bone 66

12 Fish bone 68

13 Shell 72

14 Excavating and recording the koiwi 73

15 Th e burial population 78

16 How were they buried? 82

17 Disease and injury 95

18 Summary and discussion 107

19 Conclusion: memory and identity 114

Glossary 117

References 118

Appendix: Individual descriptions 123

i ii Th e Northern Runway Development excavations have been fully reported in two technical reports, one dealing with the archaeology, the other with the koiwi. Th is community report summarises the technical reports, and is written in non-technical language. It is designed to be accessible to the interested lay person, including tangata whenua of Pukaki and Makaurau Marae, whose ancestors lived and were buried at the site and for whom this report is primarily written. Th e authors of the various chapters of the technical reports are Matthew Campbell, Arden Cruickshank, Louise Furey, Jaden Harris, Stuart Hawkins and Beatrice Hudson, with additional work by Mark Horrocks and Rod Wallace. Th is community report has been prepared by Matthew Campbell (site director) and Beatrice Hudson (osteologist). Th e excavation team consisted of Matthew Campbell (Director), Jaden Harris (Assistant Director), Beatrice Hudson (Osteologist), Ben Th orne (Surveyor), David Carley, Greg Gedson, Noel Hill, Raylene Reihana-Ruka and Colin Sutherland (both seasons); Malcolm Hutchinson, Christina Neale, Diana Nueweger, Craig Scott and Noirin Teahan (season 1); Arden Cruickshank, Mike Dickson, Glen Farley, Andrew Hoff mann, Ana Kim, Ben Pick, Ella Ussher, Shirley Wallace and Ollie Wigmore (season 2). Finds were sorted and catalogued by Raylene Reihana-Ruka and Jaden Harris. In addition, Christina Neale and Andrew Hoff mann assisted with midden analysis and Beatrice Hudson assisted with fi shbone analysis. Th anks to Judith Littleton for her comments and advice for the osteological recording and analysis. Seline McNamee drew the fi gures in Sections 15, 16 and 17. Our thanks to Franswa Jooste, Kevin Carr and John Dooley of Auckland Airport Ltd; Nick Adams of Beca Infrastructure Ltd; Liam McCaff rey, Peter van Heeswyk and Aisake Vaisima of Fulton Hogan; Doug Cockburn of Hick Brothers and his crew, particularly Caleb Gamble, Brent Bowler, Brian Webb and Wayne Miller; and Andrew Prince of Bob Hick Earthmoving. Th anks to Te Warena Taua, Saul Roberts and Janice Roberts of Makaurau Marae and to Julie Wade, Jim Rauwhero, Brownie Rauwhero, Karen Wilson, David Wilson and Paddy O’Driscoll of Pukaki Marae for their kindness, interest and support.

iii iv Th e NRD site: Community report 1 Introduction 1

before moving down to le. It was excavated in two seasons: 4 March–2 March–2 4 in two was excavated seasons: It le. 1 Introduction ve Areas the beach was on terrace. exposed Human bone in Area A during earthworks is located are ere several with names associated the area general in which R11/859 beach the sandy terrace on which were Areas A–E nine ‘Areas.’ of up is made e site Th Th the Northern Runway of the western end Māori at archaeological site e pre-European 1. Location of the NRD site; the red rectangle outlines the area shown in Figure 4. Other archaeological archaeological 4. Other Figure in shown area the outlines rectangle red the site; NRD the of Location 1. shown. also are area general in the recorded sites April February by 2008 issued 2008–19 2009 2008/178 authority September 29 and under Zealandthe New Places Trust. Historic as theitself thisremains In to unclear. referred is report the site it the correct name for but continue As manawhenua Northern Development. NRDRunway which standsfor site, researchto their that the own correct history name will is hoped it known become in the future. . Each high m 7 bluff a terrace above higher 60 a wide, m while to on was were up Areas F–I a distinct archaeological of Area of clusters. cluster features consisted other separate from in March 2008Excavation began in the Areas the bluff G on F and the fi quickly that these and were it and became clear site on that several interred bodies were Māori in origin, was in almost also Area Bone certainly B. Excavation found pre-European. Th in the New Auckland Airport R11/859 at International as site recorded is Development Zealand Archaeological fi site Association before before icting, evi- sh, or the soils gar- or thatsh, were sh and shellfi Before describing the archaeology and the excavation and analysis worth and is the archaeology describing the koiwi it the excavation and of Before continued in order to establish the nature establish to the burials. of and extent in order consulta- Following continued withtion in Auckland Airport resumed excavation International tangata and whenua Ltd 2008, AreasSeptember the bluff of I on H and initiallythe excavation completing moving down to Areas A and B to disinter the burials. Areasmoving down to disinter B to A and of which vari- is the source environment, the the is includes examining Th the context. wider or build houses to wood Māori, whether pre-European available to that were resources ous marine make as such fi to tools, resources stone is the traditional context history the general of the site’s aspect important of Another dened. Tāmaki/Manukau times at though confl area, which considerable, is there for Māori the the and across landscape pre-European of the movements Understanding dence. explain helps the time particularsocial the was NRD at occupied political and situation site patternsobserved archaeology Finally,important inmuch the archaeology. carriedhas been reported, and lacking in Auckland, South out times at patchily a though and incompletely An overview. archaeological it place the understanding NRD must of comprehensive site within the area. wider the archaeological of record

Th e NRD site: Community report 1 Introduction 2 Th e NRD site: Community report 2 Landscape, vegetation and climate 3 e elds, whichelds, are rst erupted more than 50,000 more rsterupted years ago eld eld fi the the sea through Manukau to (Ballanceowed 1993: elds, but one of the reasons why this why has the evidence reasons survived of one but elds, 2.1 2.1 Local environment and resources 2 and climate vegetation Landscape, the archaeological free, to in contrast landscape further ese soils stone were 250–300is claysoverlying the topsoil Maungataketake from derived deep, mm soils productive and mild of the Tāmaki climate of much made combination e region On the bluff Auckland’s vegetation prior to human arrival to prior Auckland’s climax by vegetation which was dominated of forest, the marine by Auckland’s environment. dominated climate is warm temperate, and Th Manukau the runway Harbour the edge of of on and the end western at was situated e site rolling gently land with shallow low, of area consists Development e Northern Runway sunshine. e city Humidity of hours is high fogs and experiences an annual 2100 of average Tāmaki e which city isthmus, the on modern Auckland of between is centred, is and 1 stream is swampy further inland, and would probably have been more so in pre-European in so pre-European stream swampy is further more been have inland, probably would and Māori. by burnt being the forest to prior the swamp coring shows developing times. Pollen Th is characterised the coast Road, by the north Renton west, towards the stream. of To south inter- the present east, towards the south s. To bank running cliff low mudstone into low a the coastal of the end s beyond the cliff although the same is the situation runway, national mean sea level. m above between 10–15 terrace rise heights to m, in turn 2–3 of depths ash to overlying alluvial see also silts andsands (Ricketts 1977; Th Purdie 1981). Maungataketake Otuataua stonefi the and north the towards west and to soils (Furey stony 2007). weathered, less large A characterised and younger, lava by outcrops in recorded gardening been have pre-European relating to archaeological sites of number the Otuatauathe area stonefi of Th the Manukauowsto west Th Harbour. gulliesdraining smalla north into streamthat fl (Ballance 1993: 10). Maungataketake (Ellet’s Mountain), 1 km from the site and the and origin 1 km the site from Maungataketake Mountain), (Ellet’s 10). (Ballance 1993: et al. is only a little it, 2000: (Homer soils of the younger covering volcanic much of 24). these the Manukau soils, is a rich andBeneath forming of the main lowlands, much soil for alluvium theNorth transported and Island originating of Central by Plateau in the volcanic fl River it a time at when the Waikato 30). 9; Searle 1964: Morton and ranges (Cameron Hunua and arethere in substantial the Waitākere remnants was this a podocarp in of the mixed city smaller and forest or Much remnants itself. 1993) the of much originally over would podocarp/broadleaf located forest Such been have forest. pohutu- and broadleaf by more dominated been have would it although runway development the coast. kawa to closer Annual rainfall 1200–1600 averages hail. and mm with storms the possibility strong of occur tem- cits in 90% Average summers. of soil moisture defi but uncommon is Drought again and maximumperatures 24°C, a day in 2009, to on with range 1872 up a recorded (in uncommon. are frosts are mildnot though Winters 32.4°C. excavating) were of we when Th occur Auckland at Airport year 15 days per average (Hurnard on 1979). Māori horticulture,attractive pre-European for with the main constraints soil being drainage, which is necessary fungal kumara for which cultivation, can and humidity, promote disease. Th Harbour the north to the Manukaukm from in11 width and separates the Waitemata HarbourWhile the south. to all not Tāmaki of in volcanic is origin domi- cones the volcanic Auckland e fi volcanic Th the landscape. nate s ax, at but a local micro- created at and bluff basaltic tuff are from elds derived mate- of a combination is sand is probably e beach fl . Th sh in the harbour; and birds of forest, swamp sea in and the harbour;sh forest, of birds and sh and shellfi ) and other swamp along) and the other resources stream margins; and woods forest tenax

Locally available apart resources, harakeke fertile from included (fl have soils, would On the beach terrace free the soil draining, a light, is and the sand overly- yellow-brown was beach in the fl sandy pasture, on poor the site rather excavation the timeAt of climate,as we observed When during the wind in even was west, excavation. in the south could be the beach remained warm summer, while spring/early the the land bluff late above and exposed. cold unpleasantly Phormium berries; abundant fi berries; abundant andare wellLRI drained Our(Purdie 2008). that thethe soilsat experience showed 1981; becameNRD very sticky very and site wet, fertile, Although dry. hard when when they natureof e stone-free kumara horticulture. pre-European to suited less been have would Th horticulturethe soil of that means any evidence vulnerable by destroyed being more is to European farminglater activity. was generally thin.ing darktopsoil quite sand Th beach e streamonlyand form the rial down the stream washed and windblown material. Th distanceviable in canoe landing this some for part the harbour. of the fertile on richer much the soils bluff above basaltsin immediate the onlyvicinityvolcanic e stone but was scoria Th 12). and 11 (Sections Maungataketake available at nearby the Manukau and were Harbour high a quality contains 9). chert (Section source is because the archaeological sites and features are outlined in stone, which have not been been which not features and have are the archaeological outlined inis because stone, sites at e soilsstonefi the Th andso remain visible. out ploughed

Th e NRD site: Community report 2 Landscape, vegetation and climate 4 Th e NRD site: Community report 3 Traditional history 5 e links place for Waikato tradition in the recorded who e various people 3.1 Origins3.1 typeserent each knowledge, own with strengths of its and 3 history Traditional ese are diff quite this tradition in English and both Māori, of sources but outline are ere numerous withict as each their each other writer followed ese various are sources in confl often Another limitation is that history tradi- limitation is written important Another the victors, so that much by Th Th voyaging and continued traditions that indicate discusses of Sullivan a number (n.d.) One of the main limitations of tradition is the limitation of human memory – only what is human – only memory what the tradition main of is the limitation of of One limitations e early origin traditions they are are many and varied out, and, points as Sullivan (n.d.) times, which is demonstrated Māori by in pre-European was e NRD clearly inhabited site this available are for time archaeology ere two period: information tradi- and of sources 19th century, both Māori both century, Pākehā, and 19th all Land Court in Native had their cases own reasons: while Pākehā schol- calims establish environment, instance, to land ina competitive for to One Māori origins on pet theories history. and Best pushed Elsdon and Smith ars like S.P. century 21st archaeologists! t of thing the benefi is certain, tradition for record they did not the site. Ngāti of Whātua, all) by the occupants not was not recorded were who (though tion directly traditional that tells no that or relates have the information us who the site to We the historical the archae- provide of have we context the instead histories were, occupants kinds what taking historical were ology of and show processes Th in society. place Tāmaki/Manukau of between the people the North Island andthe of people andother the Tāmaki of out are and here. important region into people of movement various on secondary depends reports books and papers, of including sources published et al. Daamen process. the Tribunal by reports generated other and Tribunal the Waitangi a useful provide summary. in a background the Tribunal, report to (1996), necessarily occur in the same they don’t are told stories the same when – even own interests pri- account give or one any these contradictions sort out to here is made attempt No order. ority over another. Th all the Manukau and Tāmaki; ultimately outside from sourced their primary is on emphasis ‘the or Tāmakirst of occupants known as a people Turehu, were the fi Among places. other Tini the earth’ from Subsequently o Maruiwipeople 13). migrated (Murdoch 1990: north Kamokamo Mata settling and Oho in the Waitākeres. Turehu conquering Taranaki, from Tāmaki,conquered settling quarried Smart, and Rarotonga pā now (Mt at cone a volcanic lived as far north Oho, Ngā as the Kaipara his and descendants, as and far as south away) Oho Ngā al. et Daamen 13; 1996). 1990: Murdoch 33; 1898: (Smith Tauranga and Waikato eventually smaller Mangere/ including groups into Ngāti occupied Poutūkeka who split in the area north Papakura Oho Ngā of 58) [1994]: (1879 Puhinui. Fenton According to o Hua. Wai Iwi became Ngā Te and themselves Iwi,became Ngā who off the North Māngere Island. of was a stopping much around contact travellingpeople Whangarei. to regularly the on Manukau to Heads Manukau peoples went shing birding and expeditions. fi Th the nature both the archaeologyby discussed in Sections 6. 5 and of the and dates, below Th tional history. Th limitations. If used together with care, If used together archaeologylimitations. can tradition and give account a richer under- to Certainly, in order can perspectivesthan providing new history. alone, on either consideration. be taken into thestand to archaeology the needs NRD tradition at site, Th will important remembered. be considered rst for erently was is less a chief, IwiNgā whose by followed ey were 3.2 Canoes erent origins into Te Wai o Hua; on account of this of he account on o Hua; Wai origins Te into erent evidence. Pā buildingPā evidence. historical the have isthmus may on 3.3 tradition Later commentators. erent Te Wai o Hua occupied the isthmus at the same time that Kawerau are recorded as the the time isthmus same occu- at that are Kawerau occupied recorded o Hua Wai Te An important series of events at this time involves Maki this Maki at time Ngāti involves Awa. events An of settled of series important in In the mid 14th century a number Ngāti Awa (Te Āti Awa) of Taranaki moved north and moved Taranaki of ĀtiAwa) (Te century Ngāti Awa 14th In the a number mid Mataatua and Arawa, Tainui e canoes that are with Aotea, associated Tāmaki Te include pying from Manukau Heads to Karangahape (Cornwallis) (Waitangi Tribunal 1985: 10). 10). 1985: pying Karangahape to Manukau from Heads (Waitangi Tribunal (Cornwallis) as descend- or areKawerau variously described as the the original Waitākeres of inhabitants the Moekakara of o Hua, between landed that canoe Island Kawau Wai with along Te ants, Still, these two Whangareiand are we of groups with the presence (Daamen et al. 1996). rmer ground. on fi Th originally Tainui made association. has the strongest Of these, Tainui 1987). (Simmons landfall the North Kawerau Island. of the east coast journeyed and up near Cape East landfall made are o Hua described as already Tainui Wai near when established and Te the ventured then Tāmaki up It Devonport. River and was dragged across the Tauoma travelledportage it the Otahuhu Kawhia.the Manukau down to at to where of from Some the earliest from timesthat so Hua o Wai arrivals new intermarried with Te and Kawerau 1985: Tāmaki (Waitangi Tribunal of the people Tainui to and Manukau closely related were 10). mid around the to North Island, move generally to peacefully, in the continued 17th People Tāmaki,live at to coming Plenty of Bay the and Waikato from with groups centuries, 18th Tāmaki from and people Islands (Sullivan of the moving Bay to n.d.). Tāmaki in local feuding, became involved eventually he where of siding with the people conquest only is was short-lived a attackingTakapuna, his Tāmaki and defeating Th hosts. the Manukau the Kaipara. lands from to Th conquer to on moved then he and peaceful episode than the migrations of Ngāti Awa some two some centuriespeaceful earlier involved and than Ngāti Awa episode the migrations of a Maki Kawerau (Murdoch Te into and their incorporation Oho Ngā of most of the conquest Tāmaki of the century, peoples then, principally were the 18th By 12; Sullivan1990: n.d.). a Maki. Kawerau Te and o Hua Wai Te settled peacefully among Ngā Oho (Murdoch 1990: 12). Simmons (1987: 23) refers to Ngāti to refers 23) (1987: Simmons settled 12). peacefully 1990: (Murdoch Oho Ngā among as the earliest knownAwa tribe in the means fi Tāmaki, he which, by presumably, whichreasonable is can there we say Th (Sullivan with Ngāti n.d.). Awa commenced diffof people together gathered Hua, was a man Hua of accounts other By canoes.’ was knownof Kai the as eater ‘Hua Hua Waka NgātiPoutūkeka remains of unclear have the identity may there – NgātiPoutūkeka (though already Ngāti were when o Hua in occupation Wai and Te twobeen with groups this name), peace- they confused Hua,Wai either – rather o are then, Te originse of arrived.Awa Th anthey were or amalgam peoples Oho, Ngā from other separateidentity a of obtained ably diff and emphasised work at were processes both Perhaps Hua. by together gathered by diff

Th e NRD site: Community report 3 Traditional history 6 Th e NRD site: Community report 3 Traditional history 7 ed ed to the ed to is battle was known occurred Paruroa is battle before probably ghters but they were allthey were in feigned a but champions”) ghters e early historic period 3.4Th Te Wai o Hua, under their great ariki under o Hua, Wai Kiwi Tāmaki,1 Te occupied In the 18th century theIn 18th Ngāti Whātua the far migrated from Kaitaia north to Kaipara and century 18th In the late Akiaki the Āwhitu on Wahi sacked and Tarataua Te raised under then a taua Taoū Te to to escape attempted ey Puketutu at o Hua Akikai pā. Wai Th Wahi also Te Te besieged By the early 19th century the early 19th By the northern Kaipara was battleground a between the confed- Tāmaki of the e story conquest of Ngāti involvingby Whātua events and subsequent Fenton (1879 [1994]: 62) places the 62) beginning events of described [1994]: and here in the most commenta- (1879 1740s, Fenton Th ese best are the known traditions, well is known. Ngāpuhi settlement European and Th Tūhaere, A manuscript of places. in the Land other Court among recounted being records for as a memorandum around 1868 composed in the Aucklandheld probably Public Library, the Orākei Land Court these (Agnes Sullivan Native informative of case is the most pers. 2010). comm. in Kawerau a Maki. Kawerau Led Kawharu by Te Te theydefeated they encountered where Ngāti 68). 1898: Tīhore, Rau (Smith Patu conquest’ ‘the stripping the battles known as Te in Tāmaki o Hua various Wai couldWhātua not smaller and took pā but attacked then Te Maungakiekie. take or Maungawhau Kawharu returned killed was Kaipara later he to where 2001: 22). Stone 14; 1990: Murdoch 29; 1987: (Simmons in the Kaipara, established becoming were war- Tāmaki/Manukau. Taoū this At time Te ring with Ngāti Taoū Whātua and their allies drive Te to attempting out. were them who Raraku Raraku, quarrelled Te Kaipara, a boundary. of over with the south a chief to Te were Taoū than Te 1000 and war more Kiwi men of of to a taua gathered tokens who sent (Taylors Taurere the pā at at o Hua Wai Te utu from obtained Taoū Afterwardsdefeated. Te Kiwi attacked then area). the Panmure wider (the Tauomā Hill) of sacked and the whole Mimihānui of people nearHellensville, killing 2001: 40–45; Ngāti Whātua of men (Stone Ballara 2003: 206–209). Titirangi. at Hua o Kiwi 3000 Wai raised of taua a 4000 or attacked and Peninsula Te men Akiaki Wahi (Tūhaere’s his taua led Whau. Te as they neared Te Taoū attackedand Te “120only were fi there says manuscript turned the uphill Titirangi retreat the ridge top, broke theyand toward reached and, once Kiwi the Manukau where Paruoa ed down to to was fl o Hua Wai advance. Te o Hua Wai fl o Hua Wai Many Te routed. comprehensively were o Hua Wai killed and Te Tāmaki took then as eventually their own, returned but Taoū some the to Te Waikato. began return occupying to Hua o Ōrākei home, Kohimārama. and Wai Kaipara Te and their killed kinNgāti Whātua utu for seek to formerly Kiwi, decided by then sailing down Kohimārama. at o Hua Wai Te surprise to defeat and the Waitematā with the attacked way loss great on them Taoū darkness. of Te the cover Māngere pā under . Th driven were off Taoū Te though sides both to and after the sack of Tarataua. Te Taoū then returned to the Kaipara and further Te Wai returned then Wai the Kaipara to further and Taoū Te Te afterand Tarataua. the of sack allowed were o Hua return living to Tāmaki to at Taoū, they intermarried where with Te Māngere of in control remained o Hua Wai Maungakiekie, Te Māngere Ihumatao. and fl o Hua Wai century 18th Ngāti Whātua by in the later was Te and until conquered it south to their Tainui relatives (Fairfi eld 1938: 126; Tonson 1966; Ballara 1966; 2003: 211). 126; Tonson 1938: eld (Fairfi relatives their to Tainui south Moremonui Ngāpuhi at Ngāti and of Whātua.erations a battle was fought 1807 In around the Ngāti by Whātua supported under Roroa, confederation between Ngāpuhi and Te several losing chiefs. Th Murupaenga, Ngāpuhi defeated, were where Hika, Hongi Ngāpuhi, under began Kai 1814 Karoro‘the a te seagull’s From as Te feast’. with contact traders of in and missionaries the Bay acquire and monopolise to muskets tors since have accepted this, Ballara but argues (2003: 493) convincingly that the the date for conquest of Tāmaki would have been in the 1780s or 90s. 1 ect of erasing erasing ect of closely becoming more the Waikato, ed to 3.5 Summary including the area general the NRD e history for around the region, of site, e conquests by Te Taoū, Ngāti Whātua and Ngāpuhi Taoū, had the eff Te by e conquests Tāmaki of and the peoples between and the Manukau was Tainui is relationship Among those killed at Te Kai a te Karoro were Hongi’s brother Houwaea and his sister his and sister Houwaea brother Kai Hongi’s Karoro were te a killed those Among Te at Ngāpuhi did not occupy the Kaipara lands after Te Ika the occupy Ngāpuhi Kaipara ā Ranganui did not Ngāti lands after andsome Te Th e survivors fl ed in several directions: some to Te Roroa, some to the northern Wairoa, the northern to Wairoa, some Roroa, ined several Te to directions: some e survivors fl e traditional history Tāmaki of and Manukau is confusing and contradictory and, as which we have no specifi c history, is one of movement and change (this is true and change the history of (this movement of is one c history, specifi which no we have between Connections Tāmaki in general). Aotearoa of and the north, particularly Kaipara, all among constant this one were particularlyand the south, movement and Waikato, Tainui described the case as in that the groups interacting various is often closely ways were it and the establish social is to What occupation related. here is important and political of context the NRDat site. much of the earlier history and what remained is only a broken remnant, lackingremnant, the earlier history of in remained onlyis consist- broken a much what and came hapū) and (iwi is that named groups note What to is important 12). 2001: ency (Stone , assimilation marriage through alliance, and or off budding of processes through went and Th conquest. Islands. In contrast, Kaipara contrast, In Islands. with Pākeha Māori until had only limited interaction the 1830s 2006:(Waitangi Tribunal 15). the Ngāti utu, defeated and sought Hongi In 1825 2006: (Waitangi Tribunal 45). Waitapu battles Kaiwaka, around Whātua in of a series Ika ā Ranganui. confederation known as Te Th while others retreated south where they met a taua of their kin of a taua they met Tāmaki from where south while retreated others had who years 10 around for and the Waikato to ed they fl the battle.arrived Together for late too Tāmaki Kaipara the southern of and much remained only very sparsely with inhabited, the remainingfew living behind further in fear of Puhi Ngā raids. Whātua remain to behind and maintain able their were ahi ka. Eventually they able were arrivedHobson in Auckland return,to in 1840 Ngāti Lieutenant–Govenor so that when Whātua back in occupation. were Ika Ranganui ā asstrengthened after fl the latter Te con- the Tainui-Waikato wider marriage by into closely integrated and Tainui more tied to Manukau had customary the Manukau, on presumably and rights Inland Tainui federation. 11). 1985: (Waitangi Tribunal rohe in the Tainui elsewhere rights had reciprocal peoples Th make to formal, is made has European already historical attempt of no sense stated, been Th here. it

Th e NRD site: Community report 3 Traditional history 8 Th e NRD site: Community report 4 Th e archaeology of the Manukau 9 in 1982 (Lilburn in1 1982 elds but these have these have but elds cant archaeological sites sites archaeological cant all have elds described been surviving e fi stone 4.2 Wiri 4.1 4.1 Ambury Park Farm eld is associated with Rickard associated is Māngere Mountain. eld al. et Manukau the of e archaeology ed this interpretation. Two areas previously interpreted as stone as stone areas interpreted previously Two thised interpretation. 4 Th elds sites of South Auckland South of are nationally signifi sites elds cantly modifi ed middens were European in origin, excavated previously unrecorded Māori in unrecorded European origin, previously were excavated ed middens harbour, are the Lynn Whau portages New ere short to river at the and Waitemata fi e stone Th Brassey and Adds (1983) also excavated site R11/736 at Ambury Farm Park and found Ambury found at and Park Farm R11/736 also site excavated (1983) Adds and Brassey Only a preliminary the Wiri pre- has oil at terminal been the excavations site report of Excavations at Ambury Farm Park, sites R11/1123 and R11/1129, and R11/1123 Ambury at sites Park, Farm Excavations e Manukau Harbour the land the to that sand surrounds from closely is connected it, e Wiri oil terminal site (R11/1187) was excavated prior to the installation the bulk to of oil prior was excavated (R11/1187) e Wiri oil terminal site fi e Ambury stone Park Farm numbers Sites given here use the currenter from the numbering numbers site given system, which may diff in the original archaeological reports. and at Otahuhu to the Otahuhu Tāmakito and at River and the Hauraki Gulf. this Within landscape wider we are mainly with the archaeology concerned Mangere Auckland. and South of Th the Ahwitu of thedunes Manukau west, the and rolling with to Pukekohe City lands of andeast,their the Tāmakithefertile south to loams volcanic the north isthmus to andthe the ranges north to Connecting west. are these places the waterways the har- Waitākere of Th bour. 1982) signifi1982) structures be natural limited clear- to shown of was were evidence there features; in another gardens. create to stone ance of identifi that little gardening housing. an working or area of obsidian evidence but found middens, Th was surveyed and the 30 ha site excavation aerial both using facilities.storage photos Before alignments, features (heaps, stone archaeological, 985 made’, ‘man of survey. A total ground et al. 1982). (Cramond recorded were sites) walls house possible and that “structural which noted constructions, thanpared other evidence, (Bulmer stone 1983b) suggestedthata wide range of Bulmer (1983a) paper conference In a later was very elusive.” dry-land and yams taro, However, ti and grown pore. Wiri, were including wet- at plants Māori horticulture pre-European accepted; was cen- strongly longer is no this interpretation 1 and mapped to greater or lesser degrees and some archaeological excavations have been car- been have archaeological excavations some degrees and lesser or greater to mapped and analysis mixeddecidedly a but reporting and of been standard. have ried out, Th the surface alignments which mapped they generally and mounds, stone interpreted (1983) next to harbour the middens and dense ere are horticulture. and housing of Th as evidence as used been a have to is presumed in the garden areas it where present shell is commonly occupation. site be the result just of may it mulch,soil though additive or and have fi gured Māori gardening, only heavily a though pre-European in of discussions fi and have survive, now them fraction of Otuataua, at mostly Matukutureia Mountain), (McLaughlin’s Puketutu Ambury and Island all – Park near Farm the Manukau or are these Harbour. on pa in Tāmaki cone volcanic Other major also fi had associated stone Th all nearly quarried been built over. or away Motukorea Motukorea Motukorea Motukorea ned house sites, sites, house ned Taurere Taurere Wiri railway Wiri railway ( Wiri oil terminal Wiri oil terminal Matukutureia Matukutureia ( ( in 1985 was excavated e site Maungarei Maungarei Maungarei Maungarei Crater Hill Crater Hill ( Papāhīnu Papāhīnu (( elds is at Otuataua, 2.5at is kmelds the from MaungakiekieMaungakiekie Maungakiekie Maungakiekie Ambury Farm ParkAmbury Farm ParkAmbury Farm Park Ambury Farm Park Maungawhau Maungawhau Maungawhau Maungawhau ( ( R11/859 R11/859 ( OtuatauaOtuataua Otuataua Otuataua Maungataketake MaungataketakeMaungataketake Maungataketake PuketutuPuketutu PuketutuPuketutu ( ( 4.3 Otuataua OwairakaOwairaka Owairaka Owairaka suggest that the site had a 15th–17th century occupation. a 15th–17th had suggestthat the site (1995: 4) 1 July comm. pers. (Dave Veart reported been not have ese excavations showing sites At the Wiri railway site, R11/1188, nearly 1000 features were mapped (Veart et al. 1984). et al. 1000 nearly (Veart 1984). features mapped were the R11/1188, WiriAt railway site, fi the stone of preservedbest e complex andmost text highlighted. 2. The Manukau, The Manukau, 2. mentioned in the in the mentioned Other excavations also took place at the time, same at uncovering also two place Other excavations took well-defi partiallyanother prob- three damaged large house, some and earth 7 m long, one ovens, able garden areas. Th Th Features place. taken have no excavations but well has been mapped site e Th NRD site. outlines and boundaries, house including probable rows, and mounds stone include present lined pits. stone 2010). prior to quarrying, to prior rock and earth on their and construc- focusing on concentrating mounds, were plants grown that climbing indicates stakeholes of presence e Th 1992). (Coates tion fully been also not yam. possibly have Dates but reported, gourd probably the mounds, on and Sewell Foster but tred around kumara best importance minor at only been of have would while crops other 2006). (Furey surface of as terraces houses and gardens, the basis evidence on Again, interpreted these were was described asvillage a as a whole theand site hamlet. or Th

Th e NRD site: Community report 4 Th e archaeology of the Manukau 10 Th e NRD site: Community report 4 Th e archaeology of the Manukau 11 was eld analy- no dated, was not site e . While in was occupation, little there of evidence 2 4.4 Puhinui4.4 4.6 Crater Hill 4.5 Maungataketake ve areas were selected for excavation. A possible house was house A possible excavation. for ve areas selected were sh traps and were contemporary with the occupation on the terraces. on with traps contemporary thesh occupation and were which is of one two occupation, least of at e archaeology phases indicated ed,totalling around 1500 m rst occupation of New Zealand (e.g., Wilmshurst al. et be 2008), and so must Zealand New of rst occupation (e.g., nds was undertaken and no further excavation was undertaken when the motorway further wasmotorway the undertaken no nds and was undertaken when excavation lled with a transported soil to form gardens; stone mounds and heaps indicated clear- indicated heaps and mounds lled with stone a transported gardens; form soil to further and until 1990s the late was excavation e sewerage main completed was not Occupation at Puhinui dates to the 16th or 17th century. Th e single date from early the from date single e Th century. 17th or Puhinui at the 16th to dates Occupation Th Along terraces the with the Puhinui bank(Area A) scoria of retaining rock walls Creek times.erent e construction the terrace disturbed of in of the form it beneath an earlier occupation the Matukutureia Puhinui fi on of stone (R11/25) (McLaughlins e site Mountain) Th in scoria loam the underlying areas depressions In other cooking. of evidence and midden were fi Small as divisions. garden interpreted were rows while the soils; stone from stone of ance also were substantial no excavated. houses, but shelters, garden cantly earlier than the accepted AD to Area at 990–1280, dates A occupation which signifi is fi of date rejected. and (Clough in areas in the same 1979 excavated undertaken in 1997, in corridor the same similar features a eir reached that investigations the uncovered conclusion; Th 1998b). Turner relate primarily to cultivation. the form of any permanent or semi-permanent villages, some possible huts or shelters were were shelters or villages, huts possible semi-permanent or some any permanent of the form found. as constructed,well been had cooking as containing shelters of evidence andsmall or huts the partial disturbed or human alignments burial in the bed an creek Stone female. adult of were interpreted as fi Elletts in 1973 (Maungataketake) Mountain R11/31, undertaken site were at Excavations been never preliminary fully have but ese reported excavation quarrying.to prior Th 1975 and living and faced terraces, pits platforms that stone indicate 1975) reports (McKinlay 1974, were excavated. Th 2011) comm. (Robert pers. Brassey a potentially early date of Hill, explo- Crater a volcanic at R11/665 undertaken site were at excavations test In 1984 Platforms, terraces and et al. construction1985). motorway (Foster to prior crater, sion and fi noted were mounds stone unknown of platform function next– such pavements anfound to extensive cobble-paved New they with be associated may not marae, where but in tropical Polynesia, are common cooking of which a evidence wasZealand. by was itself overlain by overlain a pit Nearby Th wall, garden occupation. three of least phases at indicating fi of sis at occupied Hill intensively been have was available, to built. On the Crater evidence seems diff Th excavated ahead of a sewerage pipeline installation (Lawlor 1981). Several areas chosen were installation 1981). a sewerage pipeline ahead of (Lawlor excavated and cultivation areasoccupation surface of the basis possible on features excavation where for were identifi rst ve were ese were date e later elds. elds. Th akes of obsidian, akes obsidian, of ecting the two recorded phases. European tools and and ecting tools European phases. the two recorded 4.8 Papāhīnu 4.8 4.9 Summary4.9 4.7 4.7 Creek Pukaki elds were used for gardening but the interpretation of them them of the interpretation gardening but used for were elds both kumara distinctive starches of and other ey found residues Sewell and the later for Foster e two by obtained radiocarbon dates shhook points very similar to those found at the NRD site (Section 8). 8). very the (Section NRD similar points at shhook site those found to Puhinui from is 1981) extensive excavation best reported and (Lawlor e most elds as well as on Māngere and Wiri mountains and tested them for microfossils microfossils as for wellelds them Māngere tested and as Wiri and on mountains ned by rows of postholes and bedding trenches, all were one room and of similar of and all bedding and room trenches, size postholes one of were rows by ned Typical pre-European Māori artefacts including fl recovered, pre-European were Typical with external pits containing 24Also time the same storage was R11/1800, at excavated as major villages the as has Little since major taken investigation place be supported. can longer no a variety from 1980s. Horrocks soil (2006) samples within and Lawlor took locations of the stonefi starch silica.– pollen, and Th fi stone Otuataua and Ambury taroand mountain at Mangere Park, Farm which shows that the stone fi that thewhich stone shows In 1999 Foster (2000) excavated pit site R11/1930 on the Pukaki Creek. Of 11 pits, fi Pukaki the on pits, 11 Of Creek. R11/1930 site pit (2000) excavated Foster 1999 In (greater thandeep 600 had internal and external and mm) drains, mm 1400 to the up latter time depth some but occupation, a single represented suggested that the site Foster deep. was AD of 1460–1700 date radiocarbon E. single A Pit overlying H Pit by wasindicated obtained. Pukaki the on century, revealed an 19th early 229, Creek R11/ site Papāhīnu, at Excavation AD to dated this Beneath layer, was an earlier Māori midden period occupation. historic the early least at from was occupied that the site Historical shows evidence 1450–1690. Akitai refused the Te when until 1863 1835 from 1800s reoccupied and then until up 1823, and allegiance Foster of oath (Sullivan and departed the Crown the to Waikato to 1973; Th 56). 15, Sewell1995: excavated, were houses Fourteen are AD and AD 1695–modern. occupation 1704–modern defi refl overlying others, some and layout, had square cut houses phase Late phase. in the late artefacts increasingly common become early phase of retained the traditional layout but tools iron theof indicating use postholes a storage been European have artefacts had no to house and is thought late One houses. the same remained much have to seem sources Food 25). structure and Sewell (Foster 1995: and (Foster phase the late from with found in phases, both only very bone pig occasional 58). Sewell 1995: adzes and local basalt and abraders; chert; of Island), (Mayor sandstone mostly Tuhua from argillite; fi and bone nails, in particular clay artefacts, buttons, pipes, clustered European often included houses, inglass ceramics wayscooking many and typical bottles, pots; table century 19th any of New Zealand Papāhīnu is clearly the earliest an from transitional important contact site. site, in the archaeology. up begin show to uences infl European time a when to period drains, giving two dissimilar AD Th AD and of 1520–1800 dates 1704–modern. clear this no with were as is not there but Papāhīnu was contemporary that it indicate may 50). European artefacts and Sewell (Foster 1995: surface visible of the basis on over-interpreted been have elds is fairly clear fi It that the stone has than in features. every them Excavation to was less fi case much revealed is that there thought. Th

Th e NRD site: Community report 4 Th e archaeology of the Manukau 12 Th e NRD site: Community report 4 Th e archaeology of the Manukau 13 cant rm the agricul- the rm reported is no ere ected in the archaeology. y for its agricultural its y for soils and marine resources. eld sites probably biases our understanding of the archaeology. the archaeology. our understanding of biases probably sites eld elds. e emphasis on stonefi Th Examining traditional Māngere the wider area history was archaeology and together, Combined with a focus on these soils, pre-European Māori also the on had a focus with these soils, pre-European on a focus Combined found in stone mounds, open dry open walls mounds, paddocks, stone the in and areas stone surrounding found house were these crops gourd, mulberry yamthough of paper found, or Evidence not were sites. confi resultshelp ese Th grown (Horrocks 2006: and Lawlor probably 214). tural fi the stone use of archaeological evidence of preservation of seafood though this presumably was an this important seafood though presumably of preservation of archaeological evidence of evidence the NRD showed at Our excavation site marineaspect of exploitation. resource horticulture on the emphasis more Given black backed gullspreservation of 11). (Section also than would reported kumarabeen expected;be have pits that storage this indicate may gardening exaggerated. on has been Other activitiesthe archaeological such as emphasis manufacture the signifi area tool though no contains wellstone are represented, not sources. stone than past commen- lower some timesfairly much levels, at low inpre-European occupied chiefl exploited and proposed, have tators the Tāmaki on located than been have rather Isthmus to in seem centres population Major Puketutuand MāngereMāngere, Mountain though pā, have would Island, with their major e Manukau Harbour was an important travel Th substantial communities. of the focus been Harbour Hauraki and linked Gulf. the portages toward by the Waitemata Except route, to warfare major a lack though been of have to seems there period the pre-European of end All and realignment people. of this for is the context wasthere a fairly movement constant the NRD and, as we shall excavations see, is refl House sites are less common but the unreported excavation of the Wiri railway site contained contained Wiri the railway of site unreported the excavation but common are less sites House Papāhīnu period two in the historic well found several were and preserved houses houses horticulture Auckland into City, and incorporated contin- built up not where Today, site. land use, taking the dominate city the to fertileues advantage with of supply fresh soils to produce. marine the Manukau fertile Th of resources another Harbour, environment. nitive relationships nitive relationships e initial all stages of earthworks other was shallow features. In general, the midden ne 5.1 Method5.1 5 Archaeology 5 ed during the fi eld survey (Furey 2007a). Th is included the is included Th survey eld (Furey 2007a). duringed the fi over both seasons). Th both seasons). 2 over appropriate. where les Area B. Area 3. Plough lines 3. Plough , particularly the northern slope and the steep slope down to the beach fl at where shell where at , particularly the beach down to fl slope and the the steep northern slope Once the topsoil had been removed, any area where midden or other cultural other or midden any area where removed, had been deposits the topsoil Once targeted and likely areas sub-surface the site where shell areas deposits of e investigation beneath the midden in in midden the beneath Th identifi been had occupation for bluff was removed shell was also Topsoil where at visible. the and beachwas fl clearly visible, archaeological under hydraulic excavator 20 by tonne the slopes, on or, scrapers motor by 20,000supervision (roughly m between and each Areas is discussed established be could separately. not or in sites case unrecorded also were monitored withassociated therunway development R11/2292. archaeological site which assigned features to were uncovered, were close archaeological under hydraulic excavator was cleaned 5 tonne down by visible were supervision, expanding were Bulk samples the area midden expose deposit. to the whole Further with the excavator. was removed the midden before targetedtaken locations from defi to hand cleaning by down was done then destroying (Figure theout stratigraphic relationships 3), ploughed completely and had been survived midden in Area between the north of unploughed A, the slope features. on Deep, featuresin in of Area each Area in E, Area Area A sample the terraces of G. in F and patches the Season weeks (initially for four time limitations of Because hand. by excavated was then features such as earth features targeted. feature and For were clusters major 1 excavation), All described only was a small and excavated. ovens, features numbered, sample were visible features selected drawings and taken of were sections of made digitalmapped, photographs and feature profi Excavation was undertaken over two seasons in 2008 and 2009. Nine concentrations of of was two undertaken in over 2008 Excavation seasons concentrations 2009.Nine and archaeological labelled features excavated, Areas were I. Defi A to

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 14 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 15 e rst e meth- ning the topsoil e sandy the midden lled, before was carried is method through lled with clean soil with sandy brown 5.2 Area A ll, that demonstrating they and fi were dug, at and no features were visible prior to excavation. Th excavation. to prior visible features were no and at as aligned. precisely and not Some complex less smaller, were ese pits sh bone like snapper jaw bones would have been more commonly seen and col- and seen commonly more been have would bones jaw like bone snapper sh eld. e beach terrace is fl the on 4), (House outlined also were a house ere several that probably lines postholes of Th rectangular the same of on in them clusters Area excavated of A, were most pits Two Finds of artefacts AreasFinds they of were excavation collected in where othe were and bone With the discoveryin AreasWith koiwiin the midden of andtheB and A realisation that some Th A further cluster of 24 pits 10 m to the south east of the Area A Phase 1 pits was also the Area east of the A Phase south 1 pits on m to A further 10 24 pits of cluster lled with a clean brown sand containing occasional fragments of shell. Th ey fi are the shell.lled Th with of fragments containingclean a occasional sand brown virtually shell in the fi no Area A occupied around 40Area x 40 A occupied the beach m the north terrace of south just west corner variety and of concentration revealed the highest here the stream Excavation of (Figure 4). these limits outside features found were isolated A few in part any features the site. found of cleaning later and down between continuous, Area that features were Area and A showed B sparse,though between the two Areas. this than Below deeper mm. was subsoil a yellow–brown 150 no sand in was general shallow, of the this, below in some e layer visible which the archaeologicalinto features Th cut. were gravelly the beach, soil that,to closer features, sand–pumice was deeper yellow-brown, a naturalcontained shell deposits. alignment (Figure an and Five drain large associated all the north, pits 5). to not fully exca- onlyis waspart either Area the of arevated, certainly the earliest features in the Area. Th the and pits out ploughed be entirely to not deep ciently was suffi the midden B where A or fi were ey Th midden. the intact beneath located were balance of the allotted time for investigation in Season 1 was taken up with was 1 defi taken up in Season allotted investigation the balance of time for the burial of extent areas and the nature disturbance. of Th Season 2, the koiwi whichinto in is when Areas A, fully B and I were Th excavated. the koiwi excavating recording is described and in Section 14. for odology like highly or obsidian glossy items Highly visible way. in systematic a not observed, but patternedfi material of litre sample 10 taken a complete were samples Where measured midden lected. bagged. Finds were nds was in collected and the burial Areas all fi and material was sieved Each class material of was analysed sorted and givenwere a bag number. a specialist by in that fi of thisof material disturbed had been a 100% clearance ploughing, period historic by strategy entire meant excavating is the all that ensure to waswas retrieved. developed Th human bone smaller hand and sieving through by a 6 mm or All screen. it midden human, whether bone, all and sh, artefacts retained bagged and feature grid by were or square. Th fi or bird dog, features in this part the site. of that probable seems It ends. both at were disturbedese pits by Th alignmentsame as the pits. while the north to the remainder (Phase as the the phase same pits 1) to 4 belongs House the similarities Given phase. a later between to belong the two east cluster the clusters, south Phase 1a. is assigned to started to build up on site. Th ey are assigned to Phase 1. similar Five ey to Phase associated are assigned and pits Th started site. on build up to drains Area of are B in the north also end this as assigned to they are phase also the earli- phasesbetween of only is is instance the ll. Th a similarlyest features have and there clean fi Areas.c to are phases specifi – elsewhere related Areas probably being quite alignment.the same Th an larger nearby to pit. these related are often very but were small, pits, as bin to referred occupation. of the phase so they same all from were pits other probably cut them few of Very In general, they were truncated ploughing. by shallow were probably and the pits of Many fi

metres

0 50

Figure 3.25 Figure

2.5

Figure 3.39 Figure

Figure 3.22 Figure

5 .

0 1

B H

Figure 3.38 Figure

Figure 3.14 Figure

G Figure 3.37 Figure

Figure 3.35 Figure 10

Figure 3.4 Figure

Figure 3.27 Figure

.5 7

Figure 3.31 Figure

Figure 3.33 Figure F

Figure 3.30 Figure 5 4. The NRD site and excavated Areas, showing pre-excavation contours. The location of the site is is site of the location The contours. pre-excavation showing Areas, and excavated 4. The NRD site = 0.5 interval m. Contour 1. in Figure shown

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 16 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 17 e buildup is there ll, but 5. Phase 1, Areas A A Areas 1, Phase 5. B.and features Main The numbered. are are 2 rua kopiha Phase show to shaded lightly the separation of the two sets of features. 3549 3745 3550 3748 3454 House 4 1113 10 3015 3016 2899 originally Area is pattern of probably A. Th across extended the whole N metres 2901 0 Phase 1 rua kopiha Phase 1a features over- e other across these Area were Phase assigned 2. of been to A have Most nitive sub-phasing could not be developed. Phase 2 features earth be developed. generally of could not consist nitive sub-phasing Th 400 to was up Area and the midden mm deep In the of north A, west corner where Radiocarbon dates support this phasing, though the dates from Phases 1 and 2 have con- Phases 2 have 1 and from the dates thisRadiocarbon support though phasing, dates 2966 lain likely the by disturbed is most it that they originated would have various but at midden thesoil but midden by covered not were (some ploughing withindepths to prior the midden a but each other Phase 2 features intercut Numerous had still them above ploughed). been defi burials. and next includ- Section) Features, rua small (see kopiha postholes, pits, bin ovens, ll, features so with rela- ing burials, their fi had varyinginto incorporated midden of degrees ll generally would earlier been than have those with very shelly fi tively clean fi knowing the site. evenly built of up over way ifno midden survived was stratigraphic zone, preserved. phasing Earth the and plough beneath ovens had the midden various how showing at levels, the midden into cut could be seen postholes Th built up. of midden here is from a single phase of activity of phase a single is from with a sustained clear break no of here evidence midden of Figure (see 17). in occupation detailare ese dates discussed in in greater 6. Section Th overlap. siderable very ey were in Area A, Phaseve 1 pits all of ere are fi 5.2.1 Pits 10 N metres rectangular e in Area and two canA dividedbe pits the Phase pits 1 maininto groups: midden rua kopiha Phase 2a earth oven posthole earth oven 0 Th be part as to Phase 1 in the Area same occupation Phase Area 1 from of A B is considered cult to identify as their fi ll was hardly diff erent from the natural soil. Th e largestmeasured the natural from erent soil. Th ll was hardly diff cult identify as to their fi 6. Area A. The Phase 1 pits and drains are shaded grey. The extent shown for the midden is indicative, indicative, is midden the for The extent shown grey. shaded are and drains 1 pits A.6. Area The Phase chapter. in this of Areas all maps for case the is which A large number of pits of various types of least in Area at pits were A. of largeA sizes and recorded Most were number along with fully,partly, that indicated internal excavated features if such as not postholes kumara While are used for generally been pits. have bin and assumed pits to support, roof uses. had other they have storage may the in the area rectangular of other few A present were pits (Phasethe eastern cluster 1a). small quite these were burials of and shallow. most but Areas both Th are for described here. the pits so and which are large relatively the north same west alignment. and on east–south Th diffi

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 18 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 19 e e north- Pit 2901 had 18 had 18 2901 Pit 5240 x 2580 mm x 450 x 450 mm x 2580 5240 2966, (Pit mm deep Figure Pit 7) although at was deeper 2901 had 2966 700 Pit mm. a line of double post- running holes roughly with down the centre, smaller line of another along the postholes eastern wall. Along wall western the was a with trench a footing and board slots of series indicating postholes, a retaining wall built collapse of prevent to wall.the soft sand Th double line of postholes alsodown the centre repair the to indicates superstructure.pit runningpostholes and down the centre as well as eachside a small of stakerow holes indicating an internal division across its (Figurenorthern end Leading the from 8). was annorthern corner oval tunnel 300 x 150 700mm in and section into which led long mm substantiala U- open drainshaped between 200 700 and wide mm 700and mm deep leading north towards the stream. Th the other ern of corners 7. Phase 1 Pit 2966. 2966. 1 Pit Phase 7. along trench The the north west base a retain- indicates prevent to ing wall soft the of collapse The wall. pit sand of Pit open drain runs2901 across background. the 2901. 1 Pit 8. Phase from leads A drain north corner the at the pit of the of lefttop corner under- photo, the mm, 700 for ground as proceeds then A drain. open an at line of postholes end north east the indi- pit of the an internal cates subdivision. any from material obtained only e securely datable ll. Th and in this large pits part other pits other by were Area cut ere been of that had A Th in Area this the Area they Although m from Five B also to are pits phase. A 43 belong pits were not excavated but it might be expected might that they had similar it but drains. excavated not were pits clear. is not Phase 1 pits the other to features their and relationship they are similarpits they external have in form, drains very they are a on similar 2901, Pit to rst features in Area they and are the Area certainly to perpendicular A pits the fi orientation asB they very a had clean fi sand Phase 1 pit, Area A or B, was charcoal found in the base of Pit 3549, and is probably the is probably and 3549, Area Pit B, was charcoal A or in the of base Phase 1 pit, found was kahikatea, framing it roof burnt of as most of rimu bark, and remnants with 0.25 grams 1400–1630, earliestreturnedof is the date AD a date Th dated. be that could coprosma of not wasfully exposedit ran as 3745 Pit and were excavated pits of these ree Th the site. from e excavation at they so ll these pits of ed archaeologically. small shell were in ere the of fi amounts are all ese pits smaller shallower and with than the the Phase 1 pits drains e only partially were in slightly reveal to tapered – their form excavated at base. It isn’t clear why one pit had a draina had while onlyeachhad pit end at others clear one why isn’t base.It at than of Area the network from those A though simpler were e three pits excavated deep. 1 m m into are diameter and up e rua rangein kopiha 1–1.8 size around from the same on pits 11 Area of east in of theconsists south A pits of cluster Phase e 1a Th Th Th Area A contained 34 large round pits of a kind that have not previously been recorded recorded been previously a kindof not Area that have 34 large pits A contained round 9. Rua kopiha, Rua kopiha, 9. Graham (1922). Graham with drains some bases, at running the edge of around straight regular ey have walls fl and reproduced from from reproduced into the excavation baulk. Th is, along with unexcavated is, drains not with unexcavated along fully north to traced the baulk. the excavation Th into larger than features that this we observed. was of probably indicates cluster the pits of mm, x 450 mm x 2470 was the largest, measuring 5970 3550 Pit drains complex. was more and a tunnel down the centre leading postholes four corner in into with the south of row a middle the from ran underground drain large,a open was that partly Tunnels excavated. to connected with connect large, was drains. to not open 3454 Pit 3549 Pit of each end of also had drains pits two,a drain the unexcavated other running but tunnels from in their Th ends. south fl a towards e pits largerall had a central line Th mm deep. largest mm x 150 measuring 4650 x 2370 deeper, were but while postholes had no the smaller a roof, support pits to bin postholes of ranging 500–730 Th mm. from Th one or no drains. no or one a further them, and, in the middle of as the Phase1 pits orientation west north east–south each other featuresthese intercut of None north–south orientation. smallwith 13 more a pits house, a probable itself cuts and orientation erent a diff on two by pits is cut later 1113 (Pit Th as described above). probably date to a little later than the Phase 1 pits, when some midden had built up on site. site. on up had built midden some when than a little to Phase the pits, 1 later date probably the western part only covered Midden this of cluster. level with ground kumara a narrow at pits round Although entrance storage archaeologically. the usually ground, archaeologists as bell- by below wider to be much referred to out opening parts rua,shaped insome the North are of Island, particularly common the Plenty, of the Bay An in early 20th Area sided. straight A were pits Graham century George by (1922) account roof, a dome-shaped over with thatched and raupo wide deep and 3 feet about describes pits which called were kumara storing rua or kopiha used for and were kopiha, He (Figure 9). at excavation observed Otakanini these at Bellwood’s 1968 the Kaipara on Peter harbour. Pa the Otakanini though only rectangular 278) rua found bell-shaped (Bellwood or 1972: pits areas. than Th rather occupation the defences on was concentrated excavation rst time these identifi features been have the NRD is the fi site

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 20 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 21 lled as single had been is bowl lling therua kopiha nearest e possibility 10. Sketch profi le of half section section le of half profi Sketch 10. showing 2864 Pit rua kopiha through to in relation cut secondary the 52. Burial which back ll placed of were and some with cleaner thisll was interspersed but ll which could buried only been have delib- B52 ll, feature the (Figures of especially sides the 11 around 2 x 4 x x x x x 5 1 the secondary cutting Burialll 4) and shell; sand for the shallow 3) of 52; pit e burial originally been appears have to a fairly secondary intact burial its on 2 human bone shell midden in secondary cut sand yellow-brown crushed shell sand and fine, brown stones sand with whell and oven mid-brown stones sand with shell and oven brown in the harbour so theserocks be non- is scoria outcropping must e only local stone 3 3 4 5 1 2 x 2 is cut into the rua kopiha was a deliberate action. Th e location of the pit must have been been must have pit of the location e Th action. the rua was a deliberate into kopiha is cut cutting fi the rua of anduse 2) kopiha; 1) is: events of sequence e From excavating became clear the rua it if that few fi had been kopiha any From Eight rua burials contained kopiha Eight and further a in their human 24 bone had fragments of Burial was the shallow burial 52 a child of in an oval cutting scoop rua the edge of kopiha Th Th ll. In three instances burials were placed in the bases of pits (see Section 16 and Appendix and Section 16 ll. In three (see instances burials pits in the of bases placed were the base. From Graham’s description it might be assumed that the pits were used for kumara used for were be assumed that the pits might it description Graham’s the base. From were probably the archaeologyfunctions that some they but had other though shows storage burials this, Many contained feature of unique so far, pits. used as and the presence storage type within the burial surely ground is coincidence. no events. Most contained mainly contained in Most their shell fi events. midden mixed clean and of fi midden lenses examineto in half-section thisrst excavated process fi were the larger of pits Some and 12). had large rocks pits in Some their fi closely. more Th erately. one similarlocal. No for than in large features any other rua rocks found (except were kopiha Th rocks these from. came know where don’t We burialdog in Area B). distant. easily could the source more be km 1 Maungataketakeis but away about fi fulla for A burial of instance an description adult practice one In andindividual burials). was an and female adult wasmale reopened burial the pit in was the later and base placed all not rua had burials, However, kopiha interred. instances the burials and in some were the pit. rst use of the fi clearly not 2864. Th Pit fi ll shellin dense the was a rua kopiha of layer upper e Th position. in a crouched left side with the burial. cut that disturbed the burial and was then fi lled with shell midden. Figure 10 shows this Figurelled with shows shell midden. 10 that disturbedcut the burial was fi and then in section. sequence midden, typical Th bowl. forming a wide deep midden, midden, the overlying of the rua had disturbed and into kopiha cut thedeliberately child burial, dislodging the skull which remained in of the fi some vertebrae, and upper with a mixed fi accurately known this which occur, also that Burial for to was carefully implies 52 in placed the rua. rua to similar had other Many kopiha relation secondary all cuts, placed, accurately marked or after as remained clearly have surface visible they must depressions, so the pits sh is is Pit 1099 coarse sand, occasional shell occasional sand, coarse compacted sand (trodden) dark grey midden in grey/brown sand midden in grey/brown 500 mm 0 oor. It also It had an internal drainoor. around dense midden in black/brown sand dense midden in black/brown midden dark-grey dense, sand crushed shell in brown orange/ brown pebbly sand yellow/brown fine pebbly sand ll the secondary of and whale bone (Figure cut 14) 500 mm yellow sand yellow shell occasional sand, coarse sand clean yellow 0 nd with archaeological techniques. archaeological with nd lled, with the intention of reusing them. What them. the purpose reusing this of was of is not reuse lled, with the intention dense midden in black/brown sand dense midden in black/brown midden dark-grey dense, sand crushed shell in brown sand midden in grey/brown the purpose burial. for of dug always Th e rua deliberately not were then, kopiha, Rua kopiha Pit 2837 contained a complete dog burial at its base (Figure 13). Two other other burial Two dog base (Figure its at a complete 13). contained 2837 Pit Rua kopiha Th Rua kopiha Pit 918 had a layer of grey sand at its base that indicated people may have have may people that indicated base its grey at sand of had a layer 918 Pit Rua kopiha 11 (left). Top, Rua kopiha 753 excavated in half section; bottom, profi le of Rua kopiha 753 excavated in excavated 753 kopiha le of Rua profi bottom, section; in half excavated 753 Rua kopiha Top, (left). 11 half section. excavated 918 kopiha le of Rua profi bottom, section; in half excavated 918 Rua kopiha Top, (right). 12 in half section. part of the outer edge of the base. Features like the Features base. this edge of arepart typical the outer of kumara indicate and of pits pit also contained the is initially used been have might kumarathat for the pit Th storage. highly disturbed original its remains if burial not a juvenile dog func- this but was probably be not which we might uses, many of possible had multiple have to seem Rua kopiha tion. fi to able the midden. burials into in cut dog Area excavated B, buried were in pits complete relatively a from bone ipper fl a probably whale large a bone, of fragment 2276 rua Pit kopiha From the fi from large was species, recovered was in also three rua sea mammal Several other found of kopiha. fragments bone other features and other in the same the overlying from midden recovered were whale) (probably areageneral fi in pounamu Area unique, an unusual, A. 2545 possibly In rua Pit kopiha opposite on found were jaw a dog edge of the lower shank of made a hook and point hook burial no was ere koiwiof in surface. theexcavation Th below mm 150 about the pit, of sides these contained of rocks. Some Several large thisthe rua contained non-local of pit. kopiha burials while did not. others were fi burial to koiwi. wasfully related of in cases many it but understood, walkingbeen disturbing the pit, the fl the of base on one of the uses they were put to, but there seem to have been other uses, and in some instances in uses, and some other been have to seem there but to, put the uses they were of one burials. for they were re-dug Apart the fact from that allburials in rua are adults, kopiha of

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 22 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 23 ax, rm patterns. this of ection ritual bre were found in the sample in the sample found were bre infants children and for to was a tendency ere 5.2.2 Burial features ax fi bres does hint at the possible burial of items made from from made burial items of the possible at hint does bres ax fi variety much cult as is too make there to out see any fi to bres found in fairly found smallbres six from numbers burials, they probably where e presence of possible fl bres, with fi bres, burial 35 were features ere all within small found the same area in Area A. Apart from ax fi 13 (left). Dog burial in the base of rua kopiha Pit 2837. Pit kopiha rua of base the in Dog burial (left). 13 2276. Pit of rua kopiha cut secondary bone in the Whale (right). 14 be buried in such scoops but this burials Some be buried adults. pri- but also in single to such scoops contained applied had more and some Section 16.1), (see secondary single mary some interments interments, multiple frequently) less (though sometimes than burial, one together, interred sometimes the burial several where As burials noted, in feature was reopened. interred were interments secondary in cuts passages rua Although the kopiha. major burial of the is one deceased of lifeof and is almost always by ritual, accompanied the archaeological refl there is no standard pattern. In some rua kopiha there are primary rua there kopiha second- In some burials, pattern. standard in some no is there ary burials, burials, multiple partial burials, burials in secondary burials and cuts things of It highly artefacts whale dogs, bone, worked human stones. that bone: imported are or not likelyseems that many rua nothing have buried have that in appeared to may them kopiha survived: materials not that have of made cloaks buried fl items of deliberately contained burial non from tested con- were samples wrapping bodies. Four used for mats came from texts, three Small rua fi and a Phase of 1 pit. kopiha quantities feather or skin, wooden carvings or even foods. Ten soil samples were tested for possible possible for tested were soil samples skin, carvings or wooden feather Ten foods. even or fl whale dog no or burials, no 2868, stone, which rua imported contained from no Pit kopiha Th bone. organic caution. with materials, this some though be interpreted result must Th rua containing burials, kopiha theeight the remaining burial 27 features little have else burial features than for to that cut as other that they opposed are deliberately in common buried in were rua anddisturbed unclearis scattered contain some kopiha, why It bone. purposeswhich had other than burial just buried less were in others much koiwi, and why of formal features, shallow just Th often scoops. the NRD is diffiat site status buried higher were in been rua they have of may be that persons but kopiha, might It than other status. Certainly reasons marked or been for have therua selected must kopiha regularly, as reopened they were another or way carefully one their positions remembered burials whereas children of disturbed in often shallower were scoops features cutting later by Burial them. through practice is discussed detail in greater in Section 16.

5 N metres 0 rua kopiha burial Scattered bone Scattered MNE: 1–40 6 6 4 4 7 , 2 8 8 9 9 5,7 5 12 1 7 1 15, 17 15, 4 24 2 0 0 30 3 110 9 29 2 7 4 23, 3 34 3 7 22, 23, 26, 37 22, 26, 4 8 87 8 4 6 7 38 3 44 4 27 2 36, 3 5 35, 4 33, 36, 64 33, 25 2 32, 42, 7 5 31, 40, 5 7 50, 57 50, 28, 31, 32,39, 35, 40, 42, 43 28, 39, 74, 54, 0 8 6 66 6 51, 54, 74, 75 51, 3 62, 53 5 5 4 61, 62, 80 61, 8 41, 45 41, 68 6 2 52 5 9 49 4 0 60 6 6 6 56 5 46 4 5 65 6 3 63 6 8 48 4 7 47 4 15. Distribution of rua kopiha, burials and features containing scattered koiwi in Area A. Burial features A. in Area features Burial koiwi scattered containing and features burials of rua kopiha, Distribution 15. bone. scattered of density a highre indicates yellow numbers. Darker burial labelled with are in green

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 24 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 25

5 N metres 0 Scattered bone Scattered MNE: 1–18 N DFHJ X ZA C W S V Y B E G I K LM Q OP R TU 98 99 115 109 103 100 101 102 104 105 106 107 108 110 111 112 113 114 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 16. Distribution of scattered koiwi in excavated squares in Area A. Darker yellow indicates a highre a highre A. indicates in Area yellow Darker squares in excavated koiwi of scattered Distribution 16. bone. scattered of density erent levels in the north the in levels erent 17. Sequence of photos showing earth ovens cut cut earth ovens showing of photos Sequence 17. diff at midden the into A. of Area corner west 5.2.3 midden and features Other sh were being proc- being were sh cult in make the coarse- to out sh and shellfi taken have only is may of a matter largerese are much shells than Further earth are postholes and ovens the shell was cockle of Most (55.5%) as a built up have appears to e midden earth began of a series when e midden essed on an ‘industrial’ on essed could scale, it or occupation. of season takenhave a whole Th unlikely is it so to event continuous single than season. single a longer be the the area of throughout spread found cluster. pit ruathe Phaseand 1a kopiha in postholes of the large number Despite areas, clear houses no some of evidence structures other or than other was found postholes Most Phase 1. 4 from House probably represent temporary structures such as windbreaks drying or racks. Scallop eye (40%). cats by closely followed during the excava- notable were oyster and actually were the numbers but tion rather Th low. cockle and so a small them of number a larger amount contributed have would of food. Most other features other Most earth were either 2700 measuring mm but to ovens, up generally between 300 1000 and mm in generally and stakeholes post- or diameter, often in mm diameter 20 150 but from to earth of largeA and larger. number ovens in the areas found where were postholes in the north was deepest of the midden Earth postholes and the excavation. ovens in the midden into both cut found were zone, the plough below deposits layered Postholes the naturaland into soil below. were diffi been have may grained and more midden these Many of than recorded. were present features intercut one another indicat- this use of area (Figureing repeated 17). Th had unburnt and raked were out ovens whichmaterial them, in over dumped turn had further it earth into cut ovens building struc- the entire up sequentially, ture. Th days if fi

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 26 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 27 ed Area e burials in Area was fairly shallow all and was midden e it of 5.3 Area B 10 N metres midden posthole earth oven 0 Areadisturbed of B had been extent and, especiallye entire ploughing by along Th Area B was located along the beach terrace to the south east of Area A. It was fi rst exposed Area was east fi of A. the along the beach south Areaterrace to It B was located earth pits, few a and postholes, ovens, shell midden, of patch in as 1 Season discontinuous a the burials theextent of ed. Once identifi were and several burials also were identifi 18. Area B. Phase 1 pits and drains are shaded grey. shaded are drains and 1 pits B. Phase Area 18. B was left until Season 2. Features and burials continued right up to the edge of the dune the dune the edge of to up B was left untilburials and right 2. Season Features continued the beach, that 2 m down indicating an to unknown approximately that drops of portion features to also in the past.Isolated coastal continued to lost erosion been have may the site burials, numerous containing ough as not B wasArea the north Area west towards A. Th as burials Area no were A and there complex between the two Areas. Th squares were dispersed than was present, more in Area midden much B were A and, where m past each known 10 burialto missed. graves up were that no ensure to for excavated Th and rabbits. vegetation the by beachfront, ploughed. 55 82 is hints 71 3489 81 2 N metres 0 burial earth oven posthole 19. Top, House 3 and associated features in Area in Area features and associated 3 House Top, 19. a dating which from 3489, and Feature B (Burials 3 House bottom, labelled); are taken, was sample = 1 m. looking north. Scales after excavation, cult unlikely, two were seems ere graves it within and 3 House mark is may a wind 5.3.1 House 3 were small e postholes (150 while mm deep the measured 4900 2020) (Feature 210 e largest x 920 just mm by pit e burials these earth are by are cut of postholes, all or none ovens in grave but cuts As in Area A two and drain in Area main are pit Phase B. 1 is the phases storage present the Phase is partly 1 drains of small 3489) (Feature One one and is itself into pit cut small ruafew a just and No in kopiha Area rectangular B, sug- found were pits storage Th A house measuring 5.7 x 3 m was out- measuringA house 5.7 sides four on postholes lined of rows by missing, is the northern corner though withdivision a 2.5 the south from m wall Th (Figure 19). small a 2.5 constructed 3 x break outside Th m house. mm diameter at most) and closely spaced, most) diametermm at rather stakeholes indicating that they were smallthan posts driven (i.e., postholes in the postholes of Some thanrather in). dug and an also earlier Phase pit 1 were into cut drain features, which diffi them made complex to the north, to already as Area All phase the same discussedcomplex is from A Phase1. as it as Phase 2. features recorded in graves, and Area been other have B, including the midden Th 3. House for postholes by cut Th phase. the same to graves and belong would that the house impossible, not though has phasing ne this activity as with of fi of Area evidence phases but four least most A at at and the burials. the house order to possible isn’t It the plough. by destroyed been gesting during that kumara this in a large subsistence play occupa- cultivation role did not tion. Th While features was intercutting 480 there instances mm deep. of are pit deepest there some theburials contained of Most pits and time is involved. depth much that is little indicate to ll, withindicating that they are the midden. contemporary in their fi shell midden the burials had clear where living suggesting of were knowledge the site the that people at squares from features and be the may recovered fragments the human bone of Much located. of theextent disturbance was not there result of as wellduring but occupation as ploughing Phase 2 for in dates the is overlap ere an disturbance burials to was in that there Area A. Th or a generation least at that Area B was occupied probable is most in it Areas B but A and two than later Area A. align- Several posthole other identify. to the axis same on ments also were found or small fences perhaps the house, around windbreaks. Burials are into cut 81 and 71 suggesting the house by ned the area defi structure house thisthat no at was present that these were possible is it time, though the house. buried beneath deliberately any the disturbanceDue to the site to origi- been have features that may other nally with could associated not the house the main from Phase 2 out be separated are there several though occupation earth in area. general the same ovens

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 28 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 29 5 N metres Scattered bone Scattered MNE: 1–4 0 14 19 16 20 21 13 18 11 88 82 58 67 59 71 55 81 70 79 76, 77 69 72, 85 73 78 83 84 20. Distribution of burials and features containing scattered koiwi in Area B. Burial features in green are are in green features B. Burial in Area koiwi scattered containing and features of burials Distribution 20. bone. of scattered density a highre indicates yellow numbers. Darker burial labelled with 5 N metres Scattered bone Scattered MNE: 1–13 0 BG BF BE BY BB BZ BC BA BD 6 CA CB CC CD 4 3 2 12345 1 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 P MO LN DFH B A C E G I JK 21. Distribution of scattered koiwi in excavated squares in Area B. Darker yellow indicates a highre a highre indicates yellow B. Darker in Area squares in excavated koiwi of scattered Distribution 21. bone. scattered of density

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 30 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 31 ll ection ection ere were individual is was buried with pounamu a 5.3.2 Burial features 5.3.3 and midden Features Other erent in each case. erent ll, the burialthat time indicating midden the the same was in use at ground e burial features had varying ranging in clean them, quite fi from midden of amounts Th in Area earth features Earth excavated were B other postholes. and of majority e ovens 22 (left). Dog burial in Feature 3494. in Feature Dog burial (left). 22 3768. in Feature Dog burial (right). 23 Burial features in Area B were very diff erent to those from Area A. Th ey were generally were ey Area from those A. to Th erent Burial features in Area very B were diff Th a metre. over just mm in oval widthranging to or scoops 350 round from were ovens ranged very from smallPostholes 50–60 stakeholes mm in to diameter large up to postholes theselarger 300 of could in 500 diameter Some postholes to and more up mm deep. mm or substantial supported have structures clear no were there 3, patterns apart House but, from these structures likely the is what alignments of that many indicate or It to been. have may earth originally have may ovens windbreaks or had temporary with associated shelters them, the postholes. many of for which would account shallower and smaller, there were no rua kopiha and only one multiple interment. Th interment. multiple rua only and one no were kopiha there shallower smaller, and 24 burial only a further features but features (Figure containing human bone scattered 10 mm mm x 360 measuring x 770 1360 Burial 2895, features range Feature 20). in size from: containing Burialdeep, the partial 58, unknownan remains of adult of age and sex; to mm x 240 containing x 250 measuring Burial mm deep, 270 the skull 13, and 859, Feature child; a 5–9 year of old vertebrae even smaller to features very that were shallow and had been truncated.probably burial Most were well features some cut, straight- but were scoops containing Burial mm deep, 2064, x 580 features such as Feature 520 x sided measuring 570 burial Th female. adult the crouched an older of 21, and twopendant drilled few burials artefacts Very included humanteeth pendants. andonly is It years, 8 child a Burial around was pendant. buried with of of pounamu a 81 other, one particular as could easilythis marka of be it with equate status, to but tempting aff the deceased. for veryto shelly fi As in Area A,was site. the burials building on up are all circumscribed in a tightly area. In the nature this though of formality, some casesboth of the burial evidence show grounds formality diff is quite s furthers

10 N metres the to the bund by exposed e wasbounded midden 5.6 5.6 Area E 5.4 5.4 Area C 5.5 Area D 0 midden earth oven posthole CD and R11/847 R11/860, as archaeological sites are recorded ese middens Development. the Northern Runway is area of falls outside burials. mm x these dog 600 was in a large of One pit two x 550 were ere complete Area overlying B was than generally e midden eye dense was the less Area A.Cat’s Further similar inthe the beach southern exposures at section are present midden of Th Th ed. Most of these were earth ovens with the largest measuring 1350 x 1110 mm by 550 550 by mm earth these were of withed. Most the largest ovens x 1110 measuring 1350 the of several the earth from much and soilof red the underlying burnt had heat e ovens Area E was located at the back of the beach terrace at the foot of the steep slope leading up leading up slope steep the of the foot the beach terrace at of the back at Area E was located of midden layer dense wasere a Th Areas located. , where G were F and the bluff of the top to features fur- and some midden spilling dispersed of patch more and another down the slope for for this A Phase 1 Area and e dates (Figureat Area m from A. Th 25) 10 the fl on out ther south and was 5 m wide. Beneath the ploughed midden were one posthole, three posthole, medium one were midden the ploughed was and 5 m wide. Beneath south sized earth with ovens maximum between dimensions 570–490 larger and earth mm one the baulk. mm wide which ran into Cockle 1700 oven was the only shell found. species the coastal of cliff along the top intermittently and continue at the beach fl of end Th the southeast. to R11/2293. Th Area D was a 25 x 5 m exposure of shell midden about 15 m south of Area of (FigureC south m 15 Areait – about wasexposureD m 5 x 25 a 24) shell midden of Th part the deposit. same was of probably mm deep. Some of these earth ovens intercut one another or were spaced very were or close another together these one earth of Some intercut mm deep. ovens time. of period cooking a short over indicating that the used for area repeatedly had been Th was very fragmented. and burnt midden 180 mm deep that also contained non-local rocks, these rocks the only instance of in Area B that also non-local mm deep contained 180 certain burials thesethat dog similarisn’t a had It (Figuresymbolic purpose thedog to 22). burials possible. in is quite Area it A, but cockle by followed (37%). (60%), species common most Area the beach C was terrace (Figure a 25 x 6 m exposure the along edge of shell midden of 26 features iden- midden were the ploughed Beneath the south. to the bund by bounded 24), tifi 24. Areas C and D. Areas 24.

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 32 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 33 erent occupation occupation erent 25. Area E. Contour E. Contour Area 25. = 0.5interval m. evidence was no ere

10 down with slope ridgetop a steep at

7.5

5 5.7 5.7 Area F here, but similar midden was visible on the slope below below the slope on similar was visible but midden here, 5.6.1 5.6.1 and midden Features 10 N metres 0 midden earth oven posthole and not greatly disturbed not and was well as Th it bedded. since, Several earth ovens were found further out on the fl at where there was much less midden. midden. less was much there where at Several further earth the fl found on were out ovens certain is not 60 that all x 30 it m and over featuresArea of out the clusters F was spread the hill on of particularly e midden was dense, relatively the foot at was deepest it where part Area similar quite On the of E were the occupation. same from been and they have may a diff from been have may the slope of the foot at hand, the midden other as the relationship between these twoas the relationship parts clear. Area of E was not Th thrown been have to down appeared the bank the top during on It anthe slope. occupation of the bluff the bluff of top on an occupation of Earth ovens was disturbed excavated). midden was and not Area large roots by G (this pine was 90% e midden cockle. Th the slope. of the foot at the midden into cut were e largestdeep. was mm 2 m 150 in and diameter Th the beach the west, a shallow terraceto to of gulley the toe to slope the east a gentle and to this command- of slope, the top the north at the ridge Area to (Figure F was located 26). theing surrounding good views over countryside out and the Manukau the Harbour to out heads. disturbed been layers had not midden by – even if the upper occupation a single represent 12 and the fenceline cult Terrace determine. to thisploughing still would diffi been have cooking associated features another, its and 1 House cluster, one running form it from south the relationships but 2 another, theand Area six the west of F including terraces House at between are them unclear On top of the bluff the beach terrace above was a wide, fl the bluff of top On 12

0 1 10 N metres midden earth oven posthole 2 0 House 1 24 24 earth oven posthole metres 0 150 150 5.7.1 5.7.1 and terraces Houses Scales = 1 m. Scales N 23 23 22 22 cent to House 1 in Area F. 1 in Area House to cent 2121 House 2 216 218 436 411 211 404 right, House 1 after excavation, looking west. looking west. 1 after excavation, House right, 28 (right). Excavation of cooking features adja- features of cooking Excavation (right). 28 27 (above). Left, House 1 and associated features; features; 1 and associated Left, House (above). 27 26. Area F. Terraces are numbered. Contour interval = 0.5 m. interval Contour numbered. are Terraces F. Area 26. House 1 was situated on top of the hill of footing and 30 top postholes was on and over outlined by 1 was situated House x 3800 a wall measuring the north At trenches end mm. 4950 the ran the width across of had been oor creating a narrow (Figure the originalhouse porch of Any ﬂ evidence house 27).

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 34 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 35 e soil Terrace 12 to the north east of House 1 the 12 north to House east of Terrace AreaOn the edge of western F over- m and measured 4.8 x 2.1 216 Terrace e house and cookinge house areas together destroyed by ploughing and the entrance and the entrance ploughing by destroyed thenorth the east of To visible. wasnot three were large,house sub-rectangular earth cooking or of areas, ovens some which smaller had earthwithin cut ovens All (Figuresthem shal- were 28). and 27 dark charcoal-stained contained and low and frag- stones oven soil and numerous Th reuse. repeated indicating ments, was heat. stained them by red beneath Th thatthis was asso- indicate part the site of with status individualciated a higher or activity. revealed 4.3measured Excavation x 2 m. earthfour very one large ovens, a and aligned along roughly postholes of series the terrace. of the sides east and south wind- Whether just this or was house a m to breaks Running is unclear. 11.4 for the terrace east wasthe of a fence- south postholes. line 17 of looking the six stream of a series were terraces mostly overlain midden. by dense several were earth 218 Terrace into Cut large, quite and a rectan- some ovens, gular all along postholes of arrangement two the terrace that is either of sides four more construction or, house of phases twolikely, substantial windbreaks (House of earth wasere a cluster Th 2, Figure 29). 2 which may House of the south to ovens with associated be it. 5 midden posthole earth oven 5.7.2 Midden 5.7.2 N metres 0 216 218 411 211 had 15 earth ovens cut into it along with a subsequent buildup of midden. Terrace 221 meas- 221 Terrace midden. of buildup with along subsequent a it earth 15 had into cut ovens one was had just m and 3 x 1.3 411 x 2.5ured m, with 4.7 two Terrace it. earth into cut ovens surface its on occupation measured x 2.2 of 5.2 any evidence 436 m but earth Terrace oven. structure further. excavated concrete Terrace a historic by was not destroyed had been it and to have terracesseem ese Th 4 x 2 m. measured approximately but ned 404 well was less deﬁ 29. Top, House 2 and associated features; bottom, bottom, features; 2 and associated House Top, 29. looking after excavation, 218 Terrace and 2 House 1 m. = Scales north east. been mostlybeen cooking features. Between cockle. they 93% them were in Area F. recorded were midden of patches Four 87% cockle of consisted e midden 10 N metres 5.8 Area G 5.8.2 Midden 5.8.2 5.8.1 Features midden posthole earth oven 0

7.5 interval = 0.5interval m. e area also three contained small rectangular these were of Although none pits. storage 30. Area G. Contour G. Contour Area 30. Th Area running G was thescarp a large along the m of edge midden 38 area of overlooking for the beachterrace extending and inland was back 20 by the midden m (Figure In places 30). extended further e midden to west the Th fully been out. have to not ploughed enough deep impractical. excavation made heavy here tree but roots downand the slope well were EarthFeatures preserved it. parts both in the deeper and below the midden of within originated ovens the undisturbed varying at midden not were these though levels individually that the in earth the way excavated in Area the north Despite of A were. ovens the midden Beneath occupation. a single Area represent to G appeared midden, of the depth and small alignments postholes forming short stakeholes probably that were numerous were wind breaks with associated substantial the earth structures more no ovens; observed. were an by earth is cut one an suggestingexcavated, earlier to phase. oven, relate that they may extended revealed the that plough-zone the midden of a section through dug trench A test the shell was crushed and burnt of the and trench Much 200 least the midden. at mm into Th zone. the plough beneath rakeout ashy of layers showed and 6.5% cat’s eye. cat’s 6.5% and

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 36 Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 37 31. Area H. Area 31. oor of Pit 1633 a small bin 1633 Pit of oor rst feature in this dug part Area of I (presumably 5.9 5.9 Area H 5.10 Area I had internal drainage ese pits external systems which into led 5 e only partially three preserved of truncated pits features a group storage were N metres eye. cockle 84.5% of cat’s and 13% consisted e midden midden earth oven posthole 0 Pits 1633, 1634 and 1635 were three heavily truncated storage pits with Pit 1633 being being three 1633 with were heavily Pit truncated pits storage 1635 and 1634 1633, Pits grape is area vines. truncated for had been contouring Archaeological by features were pit (Phase 1) was found, which was the fi was found, (Phase 1) pit were the pits of survived). features they not this have Two other from were but there phase east north while a perpendicular (Phase is on west–south the other 2) orientated alignment external – its linking the Phase drain pits 2 of before the one other cuts cuts and in (Phase 3) the drainageto system already well After the drains in work place. to excavation seen were fully did not the pits end. in drain heavy of had a shallow one rain at one sump – it though drains running downhill In the fl the north to west (Figure 32). Th mainly almostvisible been have to completely which as shellfound smears were midden of destroyed. Th the hill of three top where on slope anda few earth the southern on and postholes ovens disturbed burials were also found. Th mm. 250 at deepest the Area H consisted of a large patch of midden which badly had been disturbed midden a large of of Area patch H consisted and spread mostly earth the midden, beneath A few features found were (Figure ploughing by out 31). ovens. Th 5 N 5 earth oven posthole 1634 N 1635 metres metres 1950 1 0 1633 0 3 2 32. Top, plan of Pits 1633–1635 and associated and associated 1633–1635 plan of Pits Top, 32. after features same the bottom, I; Area in drains excavated. yet not is 1950 Bin Pit excavation. 1 m. = Scales e buri- e ned. ned. Th Area I. Area m 35 features some of group other e Th 33. The southern part of The southern 33. drains ran down the slope to the west, but drains the but west, to ran down the slope draining they were whatever longer no likepits probably were ese survived. Th that possible is thethree thenorth. It to also were originallythere burials more in survived.Area not I that have to the south of the pits consisted of several of consisted the pits of the south to twoearth postholes, and drains ovens and e parts two of three burials Th (Figure 33). closely been related. have Area not I may the featuresBoth the and burials had Th truncated contouring. been by that the extent ected to als aff had been clear no defi be could grave cuts

Th e NRD site: Community report 5 Archaeology 38 Th e NRD site: Community report 6 Dates 39 at for burials, for at with the 1 while ese are listed in Table 1730–1800 (45.9%) 1720–18101830–1880 (57.4%) (1.4%) 1920–1939 (1.6%) (26.7%) 1580–1620 1400–1630 (15.9%) 1590–1620 (34.8%) 1530–1630 1540–1630 (52.8%) 1460–1640

6 Dates as thein buri- Area A, the midden occupation the same whichfrom from is dates ree was which is what in Area AD B, a Phase 1 pit was from e earliest date 1430–1630, very archaeologically seems unlikely but it Areas for B overlap A and that the e date Th similar: roughly the earth were of Several Area dates from one E, AD other ovens dated Th so tight is not the date but two combined, Similarly, the Area were from dates B midden Th dent that they don’t date as late as 1870 and the area was largely abandoned from the late the late the and area from was largely abandoned as 1870 as late date that they don’t dent expected from the archaeology. Th e Area A Phase 1 pits are assumed to be from the same to be the e from are assumed pits A Phase 1 Area Th expected the archaeology. from occupation. Area AD from I, dated a pit and AD dated 1440–1650; Area 1 from F, House 1440–1630; While 1460–1640. archaeological no is were there that these various evidence occupations were. least at that some possible is quite it closely related which has a the using OxCalals, AD combined of give program were to 1620–1690, a date much smaller error range. we can be con- As European artefacts the site no from recovered were ADat 1650–1870. ﬁ Area B. for reasonable seems 1650–1770 of date a so 3.3), (Section 1700s is occu- that the best e interpretation two time. the same Th used at areas been have would the Area where A burials of retained a memory Area as were, they of pants B probably used the beach that the ﬂ hapu same probable seems It them. avoided two occupations separated by a generation or two. or a generation by separated two occupations Eleven radiocarbon dates were taken on shell charcoal. taken and on were radiocarbon dates Th Eleven ranges the probabilities, exact not but are are e dates Figure Th graphically. them 34 shows which in are Figureof well demonstrated 34. Number Number Material Wk27371 Area Feature shell Type Wk28704 shell Wk28702 A charcoal A A CRA BP Sq 4 2837 2084 cal AD 68.2% midden rua kopiha Burial 15 246± 36 ± 36 709 cal AD 95.4% 648 ± 36 (22.3%) 1640–1680 (35%) 1530–1650 1620–1700 1560–1700 1470–1690 1510–1810 Wk27373 charcoal Area An Combine A, = 40.8% n = 3, A = 118.9%, B Wk27803 shell 3549 Wk22899 shell Wk27372 Phase 1 pit 1645–1670 B shell 403 ± 30 B Wk28706 3489 (41.5%) 1450–1520 B shell Area Combine B, n = 2, A = 104.8%, An = 50.0% Wk28701 pit charcoal 1620–1690 Sq 1 E E Wk28700 midden shell 594 Wk28705 708 test pit 1680–1810 charcoal I 643 ± 36 F earth oven ± 35 523 earth oven 426 ± 35 604 ± 37 1560–1710 ± 29 677 1937 1690–1860 424 dates. Radiocarbon 1. Table (52.3%) 1650–1870 1450–1510 1640–1810 1550–1680 1440–1520(60.6%) posthole 1 House ± 30 377 1510–1820 1683– ± 35 783 (15.4%) 1480–1520 1530–1870 1490–1710 1460–1580 1440–1650 Calibrated date AD combined 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 shell charcoal Wk 22899, 27372 combined Wk28701, oven Wk28706, oven Wk28700, House 1 Wk28705, post hole in pit Wk28702, beneath dog burial Wk28702, beneath dog combined Wk 27371, 28704, 28702 Wk27373, Phase 1 pit House 3 Wk28703, post drain, pre test pit Wk22899, pre-excavation Wk27372, midden Wk27371, midden 15 Wk28704, Burial Area F Area I Area E Area B Area A Figure 34. Oxcal multiplot of radiocarbon dates. radiocarbon of multiplot Oxcal 34. Figure

Th e NRD site: Community report 6 Dates 40 Th e NRD site: Community report 7 Environment 41 res, res, 7 Environment 7 rewood, and so tells us a great deal about the local environment. Based Based so tells and rewood, the local deal great us a environment. about ne charcoal present may have resulted from forest burning forest from resulted and cooking have may charcoalne fi present Microfossils, that is pollens, starch that is pollens, grains,can the Microfossils, local also what vegeta- etc., indicate Identifying in charcoal found wood in earth tells trees ovens us what and shrubs avail- were fi close for by able appears that puriri, the charcoal it on which burnt, pohutukawa, found, were with some have to the seem remaining trees remained, stands of vegetation but woody some indicates in land- a largely covered bracken shrub probably dominated vegetation, hebe of consisted original e removed. had been cover forest Th scape. fi e was. Th tion and bracken fern spores were the most common microfossil. Bracken quickly Bracken burnt microfossil. colonises common the most were spores fern bracken and the local so vegetation also were common, microfossils Grass gardens. areas abandoned and quail,idealfor is abundant and environment is grass an open land. fern and Th wasprobably 11). (Section in the middens quail found were bones aked ed. 14 2 3 1 33 14 3 11 2 9 3 20 8 3 11 1 2 1 4 2 cance. From this site 192 192 this site cance. From akes and worked bone fragments (fl fragments bone akes worked and cannds be compared. 8 Taonga Two piece point, bone bone point, piece Two tooth point, piece Two spine point, piece Two 27 pounamu point, piece Two 4 1 1 and bowenite Pounamu (human) Tooth 3 (shark) Tooth Table 2. Taonga by type by and quantity. Taonga 2. Table Adze item Bone point Bone PumiceBowl Chisel Fishhook 1 shank piece Two stopper Gourd Hammerstone Miscellaneous Needle blankNeedle Pendant Bone Shell 4 tool Percussion Pumice, worked Shell item chisel Tattoo Toggle Weapon Type Sub-typeType Abrader Number shhook point and a bone pendant, are unique. Rarely does a site produce more more produce are Rarely unique. a site pendant, does a bone and point shhook cation of a broken item for another purpose another identifi has been for item a broken of cation is typical e assemblage (AD late 1500–1800) the to mid material of culture styles Not only does the number of individual items set this individual apart of assemblage many only the other number items from does Not Th artefacts collection e of Auckland the NRDinof important is from the context and site stone artefacts are considered separately in Section 9). Several the artefacts, of artefacts separately in Section including 9). a stone are considered fi pounamu than a few items of Māori material of than culture, a few items and in fact are there only a small of number against assemblages regional which site the fi excavated collections, but the range of material includes pendants and other items of adorn- of items other and pendants material the range includes of but collections, excavated adzes chisels, and points, weapons, needles, bone shhooks, chisel, tattoo a toggles, fi ment, known which no have func- items and and miscellaneous bone abraders stone hammerstones, instances in and some state, nished in their fi or complete all were Not items 2). (Table tion the modifi Oruarangi coast west described from the Hauraki the Waitakere on Plains (Furey 1996), South on Hill the Tāmaki on and Waioneke Taylors River (Leahy 1991) (Lawrence 1989), formal artefacts were recovered, along with adzefl Th Manukau archaeology regional, national, signifi and if is of not

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 42 Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 43 . q–t, spine; sh erent to those from those from to erent (a, Z10786; b, Z10764; Z10764; b, Z10786; (a, d, Z10785; c, Z10790; Z10779; f, e, Z10775; h, Z10900; g, Z10784; j, Z10773; i, Z10769; l, Z10792; k, Z10791; n, Z10773; m, Z10780; p, Z10776; o, Z10777; Z10783; r, q, Z10766; s, Z10762; t, Z10768) 35. Fishhook points points Fishhook 35. a–o, from: fashioned fi p, bone; dog teeth p h g t o f n s e m 8.1 Fishhooks8.1 10 8.1.1 8.1.1 points Two-piece d rst settlers. l mm 0 c r k b j q a shing assemblage consists predominantly of bone points of two-piece hanging two-piece of hooks points bone of predominantly consists shing assemblage i including four (Figure bone, from points are fashioned 35) hook the 31 of majority e e fi Th wasere very unique, one also Th spine. sh a fi from one and tooth, a dog from made points pounamu. from made point executed, nely fi but there are there also twobut shanks. bone Th Matatuahu at Manukau South Head (Prickett 1987), and the Sunde and Pig Bay sites on on sites Bay Pig and the and Sunde (PrickettManukau Head Matatuahu at South 1987), 14th to the date probably sites ese latter Th 1982). Davidson 1970; (Scott Island Motutapu century cultural and the artefactsthe East Polynesian to closely related are more toolkit Zealand New to the fi by brought Kaipara Head (McKinlay 1971). StylisticallyKaipara the artefacts(McKinlay Head are very 1971). diff . sh- 10 (Z10789) mm 0 hook point 36. Pounamu fi Pounamu 36. sh, shing. shing. from example is made e complete ey instead may is is usually the nished needles, ranging nished in length23–64 from mm, 8.2 Needles 8.1.2 8.1.2 shanks Lure in the assemblage mandible are dog ere several of pieces from barbs notches or of e absence Th ectiveit. in holding ve of the fi ve of cult material. Pounamu is more usually is more cult material. Pounamu squared. or pointed rounded, was either the hole above form e head sh’s attention. Th cult to see how the shallow notching or multiple shal- multiple the shallow or cult notching see how to shhooks but occasionally a rough or oddly shaped exam- oddly shaped or occasionally rough a but shhooks are well the points with e majorityof made a high of level Māori hooks how about information deal great a of isn’t ere A unique point is made from pounamu (Figure 36). Th e inner e inner Th (Figure pounamu from is made point 36). A unique Th Th With two exceptions the needles were made from birdbone and two two a crescent- displayed birdbone from theWith needles made were exceptions 20 needle blanks, needles, were including three ere burial from i.e., eight and contexts, nish, and obviously made by skilled by made obviously nish, and craftsmen. Th have been decorative, or intended to mimic a small fi tasty or sh bait mimic small a to fi intended or decorative, been have attractto a fi case with fi suggesting in made a hurry in a site one particu- a for is present ple lar purpose, an by made unskilled or bone. unsuitable from person Figureand h o are in that the they sense two a lashing 35 have Both are examples. complete and the proportions but nished, unfi not are and therefore tip, a formed have and attachment points. other are to unusualshape compared the two (Figure of Only Th shanks one complete is 37). has and thewhich typical mandible cross-section lower dog a U-shaped of edge thefront Th the origin the bone. indicates of lacking these bone. edge, and are discussed worked the front in on the section nine of the points suggests they were not essential. suggests not they were the points nine of makingned, a beautiful it example are clearly defi notches outer and workmanship a diffi on of associated with high status items such as ear and neck pendants, such as ear with pendants, associated neck and high status items unimaginable is with and chisels It working adzes wood. and for skill with a high of degree fashioned point and that a pounamu everyday fi be used for would working the stone of knowledge It is therefore highly ritual likely was used for ceremonial is therefore that it or It purposes specialist a by high-ranking individual. or fi worked when catching a fi sh. Large barbs on the inside or outside outside or Largesh. the barbs inside on catching a fi when worked snaring of fi a increasedthesuccess have nearedge may the tip is diffi it but eff barbs been have would low Figure 37. Lure shanks shanks Lure 37. Figure Th was clear it that the inten- needle a where into made being of in slithers the process bone a hole have did not as the item completed not but shaped a needle, or form was to tion only fi However (Figure 38). Of the with needles placed of burials complete. (Figure were Two intact. b) anda were 38 common was the most hole, a broken-out or the head, of needles,the absence the broken the type of damage com- of damage which most this although a misrepresentation be may occurred: monly missed or duringbeen have small may excavation alone sharpened points fall small two to were needles straight but were had a longitu- Most enough through a sieve. dinal curve. Th manufacture indicating cross-section shaft. a shape from

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 44 Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 45 l . k garment. 10896) j ere are other items items areere other i an unusually were ere large Th 8.3 Miscellaneous tools bone brework shows that feathers and and feathers that shows brework h number of bone needles, which bone of number anhave unknown Surviving use. fi were borders, and items, other and not the fabric into woven sewn Sewing on. skins of such skinas in a dog pos- cloak is one recov- the number use but sible is suggestive anered industry of thanrather a one-off Analysis material culture of often many what about raises questions as for used were tools these of detailed or arethere records few use surviving. tool of descriptions types tool Formal are easily rec- a ognised, have often and most them, to descriptive term applied function a and known that is or inferred. Th a have which not may however grinding or shaping of high level g 10 mm f 0 b 10 mm e 0 d a c . b a 38. Bone needles: a, b, from burials; c–i, needles; j–l, needles; blanks c–i, burials; from a, b, 38. Bone needles: l, Z k, Z10830l; j, Z10827; i, h, Z10805; Z10804; g, Z10806; Z10850; f, e, Z10825; d, Z10824; c, Z10823; b, Z10818; Z10817; (a, 37. Fishhook two-piece shanks Fishhook 37. b, Z10763) Z10788; (a, . k c b a j 40. Bone toggles 40. Bone toggles 10 mm i 0 (a, Z10845; b, Z10847; c, Z10846) b, Z10847; Z10845; (a, d h 10 mm c 0 g with on these tools material e worked being b f a e . 8.4 toggles Bone k, Z10739) type tool is Oruarangi was recognised from reported and 64–66) (Furey 1996: i, Z10743; j, Z10737; j, Z10737; i, Z10743; e, Z10761; f, Z10771; Z10771; f, e, Z10761; stingray spine) spine) stingray c, Z10735; d, Z10740; d, Z10740; c, Z10735; two the latter worn have of toggles e holes g, Z10749; h, Z10748; h, Z10748; g, Z10749; (a, Z10742; b, Z10738; Z10738; b, Z10742; (a, and shafts: a–d,and shafts: is a class ere thathas small rarely recognised of been in yet items archaeological sites tools with usewear; usewear; with tools Bone toggles were used as fasteners on a neck- on used as fasteners were toggles Bone Th 39. Small bone tools bone tools Small 39. e top end may be fi nished, i.e., cut or ground, or may be roughly fractured be roughly may is ground, or or cut It i.e., nished, bone. be fi may end e top e–g, h–j, bone points; shafts; k, bone item (i, j j (i, k, item bone shafts; Four bone toggles were found in Area found A (Figure were toggles bone 40). Four been All and have birdbone, from made been have drilled a central and hole the ends both for at cut cord. Th suggesting pulled side the cordage in one that on direction. Images by a central pendant. which held lace cord early artists, indi- voyage, Cook’s such as those on tiki with associated hei were toggles other and cate in archaeological sites but puta, as such rei pendants pendant range of wider a alongside they are found types 87). (Davidson 1984: but which nonetheless were used in the manufacture of other items or in preparation of of in used in preparation or were the manufacture which items nonetheless other but of material food. or type a tool forms the distinctive is to the tool due wear which use. Typically from resulted (Figure point a–d). 39 with rounded a broadly end one to which tapers bone of a fragment Th moved a narrow inserted possibly were space then into these tools of that the ends thought acquire Th to grooves. the motion insideways a leave surface, to the bone was and on soft enough scratches leave so did not abrasive was not Flax the actual the material tool. on a polish mind but as to a suitable comes cordage use is Th unknown. theHauraki on sites and from Plains Hill (Leahy 1991), is also Taylors and there from one in reported the literature. been which not have

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 46 Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 47 ed by cation ey are e sides ed: teeth shape ed: teeth shape ed as a common ed as a common shark teeth e other alsoey are possibly ) were 9 and 12 mm long. 12 9 and mm long. ) were ed makinged identifi ers with position in the jaw, in the jaw, withers position cult. Th limestone. Th been not have but fossils are not identifi positively diff and these teeth also have been modifi diffi Th pointer. a white from a mako from shark which hasnot alsobeen identifi teeth. ear of source pendants e maximum teeth of number possible c 8.6 Ornaments 8.5 chisel Tattoo Dentalium nanum Dentalium ve. Made from birdbone, the upper end is cut cut is end the upper birdbone, from ve. Made nds indicate that this that was type used indicate nds adornment of Th end. near the upper a central is hole ere 8.6.1 8.6.1 beads Shell 8.6.2 teeth Shark b One tattoo chisel tattoo withOne blade the stumps teeth four remain- of ing is shown in Figure 41. Th in Figureing shown is 41. would have been fi been have would and ground. Th taper in towards the teeth and, unusually, the width of the teethis the width the teeth of in and, towards unusually, taper narrower part than each with side. in the body on the lower a step of surface kōkōwai convex by are accentuated the outer on Scratches staining. recovered were beads and including pendants items wideA range of shell used and andteeth modifi (Figures were Bone, 45). to 42 10 . both individuals of was extensive and the movement e post-mortem 10 mm 0 mm a . Area from (Figure A. shark teeth recovered tooth is a dark were One perforated ree c) 42 in the fossils are present where Waikato Port of be south would this e nearest to source site 0 grinding, shaping and notching and were then perforated for attachment to a cord. Fourteen Fourteen cord. a to attachment for perforated then were and grinding, notching and shaping burials in in Area in found Area A and the were remainder the B. Two 23 ornaments of and pendant had a pounamu woman, an Burial older Area ornaments: 21, B had associated sex, alsoundetermined of a had years old childBurial teeth; a and two8–10 perforated 81, Th pendant. pounamu be determined. could not ear, neck or at i.e., original the ornaments, of position small tusk from shell lengths cut shell ( of Two usually dentalium beads were Multiple strung wrapped been have around and may a cord on the wrist, ankle neck, or so two fi isolated lost. possibly pieces these and Th pointer. a white from is a fossilised possibly tooth likely, more or burnt, grey and is either colour Th 42. Shark tooth pendants pendants tooth Shark 42. c, Z10835) b, Z10837; Z10834; (a, (Z10843) 41. Tattoo chisel blade chisel Tattoo 41. c cations b 10 mm 0 10 cm ed to a high Other shine. modifi to ed . a threeed, and three molars, one and premolars 5 8.6.3 teeth Human 8.6.4 8.6.4 pendants Pounamu 0 1 2 3 4 (a, Z10820; b, Z10819; c, Z10821) Z10819; b, Z10820; (a, 44. Pounamu and bowenite pendants 44. and bowenite Pounamu 43. Some examples of human teeth used as pendants. as used teeth of human examples Some 43. the ed the tooth position could not be determined (Figure determined be selection a shows not could 43 position the tooth ed aked off All the teeth were perforated through a root: two were incisors, one a canine two All with one incisors, a root: through another were perforated the teethwere A pendant of the of A pendant ey are of straight and is a diagonalere Eleven perforated human teeth were recovered, and subsequently reburied withand the subsequently koiwi. human recovered, teeth were perforated Eleven twoburial a single another from were were and there in Area (Burial context not B, 21) Two withassociated burials. Area from Seven were A. modifi a canine been had it although possibly so heavily modifi wearing, was case from so the polish in one All although probably polished, were these). of deliberately buff have been must it comprehensive included cutting off a root (1), shaping of roots (1) and squaring of the tooth or removing removing squaring and or the tooth of (1) roots of shaping (1), a root cuttingincluded off during the grinding was removed the enamel of case most surface In one irregularities (6). process. pen- pounamu Two Burials from dants 21 reburied were and81, after described being photographed. and Th the kuru type. Figure 44 80 a is mm in length has and slight a longitudinalcurvature, while Figure 44 b, hasmm, measuring52 pos- and an hole intact hole out a broken sibly has been It it. above inthickness reduced and the hole through to the proximal end. kapeu type with a curved end lower (Figure 41 is 44 c) and is made mm long a softer bowenite, from material than pounamu alsoalthough a from Island source. South Th runningfault through with a spallthe stone, having fl lower two-thirds the lower of pendant on one side. It was also Area from B.

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 48 Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 49 ed. . surface e outer outward e curve, (a, Z10832; b, Z10840; b, Z10840; Z10832; (a, d, Z10803; c, Z10838; Z10836; f, e, Z10839; g, Z10833) 45. Pendants of Pendants 45. bone and whalebone, a–b, whalebone shell: c, bone pendants; d–g,pendant; shell pendants g c f b e rst one or two hundred years of settlement of New New of two or years settlement hundred rst one of erent forms are described. Two are whale- from made are described. forms Two erent d 8.6.6 8.6.6 pendants Shell 8.6.5 Bone pendants a is more it although whalebone of is is a known reduction technique for 10 mm placed been have notches Horizontal end. the upper at is a central hole ere 0 the type although bone identifi from been is made e 8 mm thick has not item end in with two and the lower pieces (Figure pendant b), whalebone 45 second e e remaining pendant is unusual and stylistically has affi nities withnities an earlier East unusual is e remaining stylistically and pendant has affi Another piece of whalebone (not illustrated), although only a fragment, has only straight fragment, a a although illustrated), (not whalebone of piece Another Th ree defi nite bone pendants of diff of pendants bone nite defi ree is triangular e pendant outward has in and section a slight curve end the lower towards Th Th (Figure c). 45 the and triangularthe notching in serpentine fashioned pendants of are section reminiscent settlement. rmly of the early period to attributed which are fi Prickett 1999) 1974; (Skinner the central from inter- made has been with 40 hole, mm long, shell pendant, complete One of item a large A similarnal of unperforated gastropod g). shell (Figure column but 4.11 across the apex of the triangle for the lower three-quarters theacross triangle the apex the of lower for the length. of Th Th with three mm long 93 holes approximately Figure piece bone. a is a large 45 shield-shaped hori- slightly concave is it and shaped and ground been have edges e Th end. the upper across Th zontally. Th the top. at hole out a broken and base has a rounded side, one missing on adzed been chiselled the or thickness, and has possibly reduce smooth to particularlyis not mm the thickness be particularly would 9.5 At end. of the lower at chunky a pendant for Th proportion. this (Furey tabs 2002). shhook fi on seen commonly like edge Figureupper a,similar a and 45 thickness curvature and does but the side, to in what a hole of side one of is the remnant there Instead edge. the upper at holes have not to side one bevelled edge hason been upper e Th the object. of the centre been have might the squared edge. culturalPolynesian the fi tradition of Th Zealand. e nish attish distinc- e 10 mm 0 smaller or to appear and st-sized e artefact is break. Th has a recent end e lower . 8.8 Pumice 8.8 erent function such as a gouge or drill function or as such a gouge erent bit. 8.7 Weapons nished, as there is no means of attachment. of means is no as there nished, 46. Knob of a whalebone patu patu 46. Knob of a whalebone (Z10849) , or was not fi was not , or e knob A broken artefact, during stripping in AreaA broken found topsoil A, a similar is of the to form cockle. the rim is from a dog of withTh hole, no item, incomplete Another A similar curved shell piece, without hole or notching for lashing, is made from the rim lashing, from is made for A similar notching or curved hole without shell piece, A fragment of greywacke of fragment A One pumice piece (Figure 47 a) is rounded, with a smooth outer surface and a narrow outer with (Figure is rounded, a smooth pumice piece One a) 47 the same size is shown in Figure 4.11 e, but the reduced end has bevelled a chisel-like end fi the reduced e, but sizethe same in Figure is shown 4.11 which may mean it had an had diff entirely which mean it may perforated shell pendant (Figure 45 f). It tapers to the upper end where there is the remnant is the remnant there where (Figure end shell pendant the upper to f). tapers perforated 45 It Th is missing. the end although a smallof hole a bivalve from made shell side. with one a pearly lustre on tive marks of the hinge are present on one side although it has been ground on all has on ground been it although surfaces side tive one marks on the hinge of are present (Figure d). 45 e partial in rim reduced cortex hasshell of width, and been the and the ground Th a paua. of is assumed this It was an the and ear smooth. ground has pendant been side the reverse on off has broken end upper Fragments of two of weapons Fragments were recovered. Th patu a whalebone of handle Area from is A, Burial 33. Figure the char- 46 shows acteristic the grooves on knob area, which were started cut- or incising by with ting,an widened then the hole of side One abrader. end. the lower at present is After breakage the handle of the has thickness the bone of both broad on reduced been adzing by surfacespossibly marks cut obvious are (no which has removed present) the decorative of most side. one on grooves curved broad with one surface part of Th a patu and edges is reminiscent ground of blade. surface curved is too be part to an adze. of All thesite. from are recovered fi were pumice of Fivepieces the coast. around up washed which are commonly pieces be naturally smoothed and rounded Only fl further (Figure working three or of but pieces evidence any had shaping 47) other polish to or as used abraders they were indicate surfacesmay the remaining on pieces objects. shallow centrally groove A longitudinal the circumference. around edge suggests one line on the inten- possibly the thickness. was therefore reduce It to off side sawing at one an attempt

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 50 Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 51 ca- of is reminiscent is item oat. A smallA (Figure bowl pumice 36 A small pebble pumice are ere shallow the on grooves tion to manufacture to tion a pumice as thebowl secondary modifi unlikely makestion it that the as was pumice grooved intended fl a net 47 b) is from Area A. It is only 59 Area only59 from is is A. It b) 47 mm deep. mm in length 19 and Th these and end one towards outside acquired been have may during the of smoothing and shaping pumice. mm in length has (Figure c) 47 two parallel mm long 21 grooves surface one withon vertical cuts between. marks like that Cut look a protuber- remove to an attempt the on elsewhere ance are present surface the pebble. of c a 8.9.2 Autoru 8.9.2 8.9 Miscellaneous8.9 10 8.9.1 8.9.1 stoppers Possible mm 0 b . stain leaving a visible on surfacesat grind used to that has been kōkōwai a powder, to Another stone item, Figure item, circular 48 c, has a roughly stone Another a rounded tapering to cross section, A scallop shell in (Figure Area top A has kōkōwai found red staining 48 a) between the a gourd stopper or plug. or stopper a gourd quartz. from is made stopper. a gourd It also of end. It is reminiscent Miscellaneous items, of which there are which there usually of any two,Miscellaneous be assigned or to cannot only one items, particular category (Figure 48). near and edge the hinge.surface Scallop the concave near theouter ribs often on shells were that purpose. used for kōkōwai ground this and for shell wasused as probably containers used (autoru) cobbles the smooth as were the site from also were Kōkōwai nodules recovered a powder. grind to to it gourd into seal with to unknown liquid stoppers contents items possibly function but Two Figure has b 48 circular a mudstone, from Made a found. section, cross were containers a transverse this and the edges on end surface fracture but one smooth at end the other at surfaceraw partially been have the sharpness. Th bevelled remove to two or with one cobble is a smooth a manufactured an autoru Although not item, shaped or broad fl (a, Z10841; b, Z10751; c, Z10985) Z10751; b, Z10841; (a, 47. Pumice bowl and other items items and other bowl Pumice 47. d akes Dictionary nal appearance c b aking, striking i.e., the rock purposes. Fiveerent chisels in the ne-grained greywackene-grained unknown of 10 chisels, e with narrow cutting edges, mm 0 Williams’ e name is taken from a greywacke, basalt, pounamu, from made are ey 8.9.3 Toheroa 8.9.3 erently to the wider, although not necessarily not longer although the wider, to erently 8.10 8.10 Adzes and chisels two were ere greywackealso which might be cobblestones, cations were confi Kath by rmed Prickett, Auckland Museum. confi were cations . c, Z10793; d, Z10733) (a, Z10842; b, Z10875; b, Z10875; Z10842; (a, cation they were nonetheless not obtained from within from obtained the Manukau Harbour not and nonetheless they were cation ne-grained greywacke. Two informal chisels made from a broken adze informal and fragment, ne-grained chisels a broken greywacke. from made Two 48. Miscellaneous 48. Miscellaneous type e material manufacturing dictated of the fi andtherefore methods stoppers; d, autoru d, autoru stoppers; b–c, possible gourd b–c, gourd possible ned edges (e.g., Figure 50 b and e). Stone that is shaped by fl by that is shaped Stone Figure e). b and 50 edges (e.g., ned A distinction between is made chisels and adzes. Th Stone materials used for adzes include Nelson–Marlborough metasomatised argillite metasomatised adzes materials Nelson–Marlborough used for include Stone Th items: a, scallop shell; shell; a, scallop items: near enough or which intact intact 25 adzes were of of a total were and chisels, ere only 17 must have been carried from a west coast beach. Th ey may have been used as containers for for used containers as been have may ey carried been beach. Th have coast a west from must the individual had symbolic have material meaning or buriedfor they were perishable some with. Four burials had a single toheroa valve placed with them. Although not tools and having and no tools valve not withAlthough them. placed burials toheroa single a Four had modifi Th three frag- still but to items, functional. be intact for mm Sizes 156 23 mm to ranged from suggest larger the been size have (Figures adzes may rangements of used here 51). to 49 length, short haftedand of were diff adzes, and were used in a diff erent way and possibly for diff for possibly and way erent adzes, in used diff a were and collection are allcollection ground Th (Figure over 49). and fi ake, respectively are illustrated in Figure g. f and 49 an adze fl Ears, and Mt both D’Urville(Ohana fi Island sources); basalt; siliceous possibly sandstone/greywacke of stone, volcanic undetermined source; unknown basalt; and greywacke, Tahanga source; adze reminiscent a greenish one colour of Hauraki the inner ne-grained greywacke islands of other and Island Motutapu from the fi of Gulf Stone identifi 3). (Table and shape of the adze or chisel. Th e method of reworking a broken tool or maintainingor tool broken reworkingof a method e the adze chisel. of or shape and Th the type on was also in working good dependant order material. Greywackethe tool of is nishing process with bruising by hammering shape, grinding or to worked in used the fi then results is adzesin regular a with appearancesharply and surfaces. therough Th smooth to defi uniform scars fl and can shapes, where predictable, result in less with a hammerstone, the stone (Figure Allthe stone Area 48 d). from were A. Th Th (1988). Language of Maori thist description. a pestle,termed whichfi

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 52 Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 53 g f e d Number 1 7 1 4 1 10 e small however, chisels and adzes may, . mm 0 an f, argillite Figure on 4.16 adze apparent is is c Pounamu basalt Tahanga Argillite (Ohana) Argillite Ears) (Mt Greywacke6 Silicious sandstone/ greywacke 2 Fine-grained greywacke Volcanic stone 3 and chisels. of adzes material 3. Stone Table Stone material having and bevel of in the blade the process broke possibly is piece two e in length largest although adzes are (Figure complete b) and a 50 b a adzes of assemblage as larger well are sized represented. not tools a complete is is not Th Adzes regularly broke, whether the damage was chips or corners detached from the blade the blade from Adzes the damage detached corners regularly was whether chips or broke, materials readily take a haft stone the lashing the adze on Some holding where polish atten out the high ridges, followed by grinding. Pounamu is worked by abrading by a groove is worked grinding. by Pounamu the high ridges, followed out atten from the D’Urvillefrom the the back above Ears on Island Heavy Mt source. is present use polish the front. not but thebevel, sides, on and Adzesgenerally were carefully after archaeologicalthat ownersso have by looked collections Th discarded or items. pieces, broken predominantly Th lost. have been damage the blade. ered on a has suff Figure 4.16 resulting in irregular sides. area, of breakage the adzes the adze. or of the through middleindications of have Most hammerdress- recent illustrated) has more (not a bevel fragment example For reworking. grinding. Th ing over reformed. secure in the haft Th has rubbed the stone. on 49. Chisels Chisels 49. g, Z10984) Z10988; f, e, Z 10753; d, Z 10759; c, Z 10756; b, Z10755; Z 10758; (a, have detached during detached have the manufacturingBasalt, argillite,process. and silicious sandstone aking bruising by then with shape, to a hammer to green greywacke initially are worked fl by fl akingon 51 technologye, can Figureseen be fl of e use grinding. and Th snapping then b d f 10 . mm 0 a e c 50. Complete adzes adzes Complete 50. Z 10727) f, e, Z 10720; d, Z10728; c, Z10772; b, Z 10720; Z 10725; (a,

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 54 Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 55 d j g h . c b 10 mm 0 f i a e 51. a–d, reworked and damaged adzes; e–h, adze fragments; i, adze roughout roughout i, adze e–h, fragments; adze and damaged adzes; a–d, reworked 51. j, Z 10723) h, Z 10898; i, Z 10721; g, Z 10722; Z 10732; f, e, Z 10754; d, Z 10760; c, Z 10757; b, Z 10729; Z 10730; (a, e at is ne- les, and fl and les, les were intact. intact. were les shhooks but smooth- but shhooks are the items e majority of basalt e adzes chisels and ne-grained greywacke ne-grained with greenish surfacesat be natural or with evidence stones ed to a single source place: instead they instead occur place: source a single ed to cant distance away. Th distance away. cant quarry e Tahanga adze is an of source important 8.11.1 Files 8.11 Abraders 8.11.2 Abraders 8.11.2 ne grained the and ne the east along coast basalt are found coarse.ne-grained to Other materials through as such fi a inles that fl they have may argillites area e metasomatised are also the Nelson–Marlborough from dis- cation is based on visual has is based on a distinctivecation thestone and observation only colour but les were probably used to smooth and shape bone items such as fi items bone and shape smooth used to probably were les le fragments were recovered recorded, from both the areas. of fi None argillites, material such as the Nelson–Marlborough stone of and Tahanga e presence Some of the stone sources are sources a signifi the stone of Some Th from materials probably were the chisel, pounamu the from stone Aside of the remainder fi elongated oval-sectioned or round is is a general term which encompasses e fi fi from er ese diff tinctive in appearance and colour: the black stone is from the Mt Ears D’Urvilletinctive the on Mt source is from in appearance the stone black and colour: Island, while the argillite, Ohana also D’Urville from Island is a grey with Th veins. black are most likely from Tahanga, at Opito on the east coast of the Coromandel Peninsula. Th the Coromandel the east of on coast Opito at are likely most Tahanga, from identifi Th appearance. high quality source, produced like adzes quarries these the locations Tahanga but, stone at it still However, not adzesthe was quarries this occupied. producing when probably site were likely is most that the adzes It unusual argillite that basalt and sites. is not in later are present in chiselsand time, length carefully reducing of had been a period over reworked and kept of use highlights stone e continuing that these and width with each breakage Th and repair. attributes. materials highly were their wood-working valued for this of age.basalt, Th is unusual in a site material and adzes this made of fi e Tāmaki portage facilitated this 2000). Th thenorthern North Island of west coast (Turner e use high quality of the geologically material areas to Th the west coast. poor on movement e reworked used artefactsand either were quarry the Tahanga of ceased around AD 1500. Th by the reinforced is is interpretation Th reused. and found were time, or of period long a over including the adze Burial the basalt pieces, from of overall 10, small the adzes. size of Two time before indicating in some they the them harbour been had on for cement oyster had retrieval. local within sources the Auckland–Manukau area. in Greywacke stream found is commonly the and fi the region, throughout beaches on beds and tinge the Hauraki inner from Gulf coastal area on is also margins present in the vicinity. the local materials can of be identifi None large a over area.widely Th slab-like pieces of sandstone with wear on one or more surface. Th more or with wear one on sandstone of pieces slab-like varyingsandstone very from fi grained sedimentary stone and andesite have also have used. been grained andesite and sedimentary stone Six fi Th ing wood, especially holes, cannot be ruled be especially cannot ing wood, out. holes, Th of usewear such as smoothing. Several (e.g. Figure 52 a) have elongated parallelelongated have or grooves, Figure a) 52 Several usewear (e.g. of such as smoothing. sharp- has been bone of the piece surface a transverse where indicating into worn grooves,

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 56 Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 57

. ake then and 52. Abraders Abraders 52. c, Z10857; b, Z10881; Z10866; (a, e, Z10861) d, Z10787; of evidence was no ere b e 10 a mm 0 8.13 Kōkōwai 8.13 d 8.12 bone Worked opportunistic been have e majority appear to available use of sandstone shhook points at Oruarangi but there is no worked bone reminiscent of this of reminiscent bone Oruarangi at worked is no there points shhook but c heavy a few have ne-grained sedimentary grinding but stone, which has a concave worn ened to a point. Th a point. to ened or fi surface. cutting grind- working, or either with of small evidence bone of of fragments A number that is, method, and the snap cut by segments shafts into Bone cut were present. ing, were with like a sharp circumference the around was a fl a groove cut tool edged the bone was snapped to form two pieces. In fi nished items such as toggles the broken edge the broken such as toggles items nished two In fi form to pieces. was snapped the bone appearance had a smooth bone the usual the worked appearance of but was smooth ground part thickness the bone an and the of through outer irregular A sharp the inside. edge on longitudinally processed be shaft, couldthen bone bone, in usually the bird of section or dog was dog a of mandible lower e blanks. Th point shhook make to needle way blankssame fi or makeused to fi was off the cut ventral jaw margin the lower of the However, NRD carriedbeing at site. out makeand used to shanks lure such as that illustrated in Figure a. Miscellaneous 37 other blanks, the early shhook or ranging bone, small from small of too square fi be shapes pieces to with a small wear shafts birdbone of to split amount manufacturestages of of items, other of other which no we have for made being items grindingor other edge attest to the lower on techniquedrillpoints a workingof stone means bone, for as a no evidence is ere Th evidence. AD until in thefavoured early up period about 1500. kōkōwai While ochre or of was recovered. amount coloured red cant A small signifi but known, several commonly was and on kōkōwai artefacts is more is also koiwi, there on and material Th whicha yellow-coloured varies yellow. pale from bright to yellow staining artefacts. any on Red kōkōwai was traditionally mixed with oil shark which shing nets bre, fi this: pattern individuals was to no sexes, both ere all of ages, pri- and was red Polynesia, symbolically e colour throughout sacredness and with associated tapu is in a natural with e pigment varying form, the red a pinky from a deeper in to colour Th Th with kōkōwai Burial a child, was found which 81, also pendant. pounamu a had Yellow Seven artefacts staining: had red a scallop shell (Figurebetween which had pigment 48 a) gave it permanence and was applied to a range of items including fi wood, items a range of to was and applied permanence gave it and bone ornaments, and also for oiling the body. It is not known yellow kōkōwai is not whether It and also oiling ornaments, for the and bone body. was also mixed with oil. In several on is also in island East Polynesia. groups yellow recorded pigment and the use of yellow some has reported from been Zealand,New common, is more while pigment the red First Oruarangi and contact (Prickett including Raupa 1992) sites (Fureyexcavated 1996). alsoaccounts describe that yellow the was hair, and as used on a face paint (Furey 1996: a pale 640–641) red. was considered reported that yellow pigment Best (1905b: 157–158). are Pieces small,red. illus- with yellow sample One across. mm the largest 50 nodule red dug or eroded was and probably iron, which was contained that the source a nodule trates the surroundingfrom matrix. in the grave koiwi seven was and present of Red kōkōwai the bones on staining was present three. another Th of mary and secondary burials kōkōwai. contained as used pigment cobblestones or shell; two (Figure the top the ribs autoru of one) shows d 48 slab against crush was to an used which andesite an abrader; autoru grinders; sandstone a (Figure pendant tooth a shark and chisel (Figure a tattoo blade powder; the material to 41); Area from were All A. these items of a). 42

Th e NRD site: Community report 8 Taonga 58 Th e NRD site: Community report 9 Flaked stone 59 is material akes covered e fl akes. Th source e next major ected light, but had a distinct brown hue under under distincta had hue brown but ectedlight, the coast of the Bay of Plenty. Th ere is a small is a ere Th Plenty. of the Bay the of coast e remaining 4486 analysed. were Th 9.1 Obsidian 9 stone Flaked which smaller the NRD 2434 from were akes of than recovered site, ed wood. cally the Te Ahumata source. Th e island is located approximately 100 km approximately located e island is Th Ahumata source. cally the Te akes were grey both in refl ected and transmitted light. Of theected and transmitted thirty light. of pieces akes grey in were refl both and too small Th too 2 and use as tools. to six types was into separated e obsidian characteristics physical on based (following Barrier the NRD from originated Great from the obsidian recovered site e majority of Th fl A Type onlyere are three Th all the site. B covered from the green obsidian recovered of Type materialC in appearedblack refl Type Type D wasD greya varietya covers material containing It impurities. with sources, Type of distinct E was the six yellowish-red and the most of types.Type is a black, dark-red It Type X referred to all pieces that did not display any form of translucency. It proved to be to proved It translucency. of form any display all to that did not X referred pieces Type Th fl stone ere were 6920 Th 10 mm a range of materials,a range including various of types chert, obsidian, basalt, greywacke, of argillite, and petrifiironstone Obsidian was used for a variety of tasks that steel blades are used for today, such as cutting a variety was today, Obsidian for used are tasks used for blades that of steel Zealand. New making scraping, and it Because an commodity in pre-European important it is brittle easily and was damaged used until importance it exhausted discarded. then and Its as ability an and its everyday survive to item is a good in the archaeological it means record activities in archaeological studying sites. for medium day-to-day spherulites and ow-banding, fracture, fl suchas colour, lustre, translucency, 1988) Moore was then these types in total) each of of A selection (150 phenocrysts (crystal inclusions). known to for data compared and analysed geochemically with Fluorescence) XRF (X-Ray Zealandthe New ascertain to sources obsidian their likely origin. Barrier Great Ahumata on source A material, twentyType the assigned nine Te to were be not dif- e couldlatter Th 4). XRF by the Coromandel Hahei on (Table to Island and one A material. characteristics physical based on Type the other from alone ferentiated known green material of sources in Zealand: New Kaeo and (Pungaere/Waiare), Waihi exploited the earliest most and considered is Island Mayor 1988). (Moore Island Mayor inobsidian source Zealand New the three green and of in obsidian Zealand New of sources of the 31% up materialis made this Th likely is of there. material came from it that most akes analysed that were geochemically assigned to were All assemblage. obsidian thirty fl Mayor Island. transmitted light. Th e 30 fl akes of this material analysed were sourced to Te Te Ahumata, of akesthismaterial to analysedsourced were fl e 30 Th transmittedlight. Cooks Beach/Hahei, Island, Huruiki Fanal and Whangamata. Cooks assigned Beach/Hahei, to pieces Ahumata, Island, Waihi Fanal Whangamata, Te and Huruiki. speckled with the fl making black 60% of the colour of approximately up north the Tämaki east of Th portage the and is the site. closest to source was all sourced to Great Barrier Island, notably the Te Ahumata Source. All this of was material all the Te Barrier Great Island, to notably sourced event as a single deposited in Areawas was A and found probably a variety from Barrier as sources, expected, Island, Great of Island, Mayor from with pieces Kaeo. and Whangamata Island, specifi off Island Mayor material that from is of mate- is is akes to each core. 182 of these cores these cores of akes 182 each to core. akeduntil small too they were fur- to cant amount from the Area B midden. the Area from B midden. amount cant 9.2 Chert wasclustering which there that indication was no ere and appear to have been fl been have appear2 and to able working areas such as carving or wooden implement workshops. workshops. working areas such asable carving implement wooden or events. A and B. 53. A selection of A selection 53. evidence Areas from that showed B and A recovered obsidian of pieces 2335 were ere both in the overlying Area from the A (71%), was obsidian recovered majority e of obsidian cores and cores obsidian Th Th Areas from tools ake fl 32 nearly 200 of were providing ratio ere a cores, as chert. Th recorded that were artefacts the site from 270 were recovered ere fl rial that appears to be a highly siliceous, sedimentary or metamorphic rock (Moore 1977). rial be a highly that appears 1977). to siliceous, (Moore rock sedimentary metamorphic or a variety from comes Chert areas of in Zealand, New in sources are and there multiple the Ponui; and occursthe Auckland the gulfIt on Waiheke region. Motutapu, islands of Aucklandmainland South with Ranges; associated the Kiwitahi in the throughout Hunua is known Chert occur to in a 1977). ranges (Moore the and in the Waitakere Volcanics; of use wear. Th is use wear is to likely be associated with the cuttingof harder or scraping Th use wear. of Th materials bone. such as or wood would show identifi Th smaller were than 30 mm evenly ese were across distributed Areas A akes and so were discarded. Th yieldther useful fl and B. Th Table 4. Sources of the 150 obsidian pieces tested by EDXRF. by tested pieces obsidian 150 of the 4. Sources Table material the Northland of from Huruikiamount of sources and Kaeo, and this is likely to one-off be single, with the and features a signifi below midden A 29 1 30 1 29 30 Type 30 2 5 302 21 BarrierA Great Coromandel 2 12 22 1 13 6 Fanal B 12 C D 261 4 9 12 E Island Mayor Northland X Total 77 Total 23 4 42 4

Th e NRD site: Community report 9 Flaked stone 60 Th e NRD site: Community report 9 Flaked stone 61 material that came e other that 12akes, pieces were there ake assemblage. Th ese ese a are varietyof akeTh assemblage. also were that appear six to ere pieces ed wood has come from an ancient fos- an from ancient hased wood come 9.4 Discussion 9.4 9.3 9.3 Minor materials akes showing polish, indicative of adzeakes of use, indicative damage polish, showing and and they appeared as have ochre stone, iron to staining on artefact be an was awl. appears one that to ere e quality this and medium, the material to in is poor general of ve pieces of greywacke identifi ed, they and are all likely be of to greywacke of ve pieces identifi ased drill. a Th half the the top of of material coast is the appears west along in large frequencies the basalt, two on of local two and from sources, pieces four Tahanga were from ere is argillite commonly and is most region, originates the Nelson–Marlborough from locally by ake obsidian, followed imported by sourced material in is dominated this site ected in the amount recorded as shatter, angular as shatter, discarded and unused or recorded fragments ectedin the amount two identifi were ere pieces seventy-fi were ere Although the thesite. from recovered wood ed twenty petrifi were ere of pieces seven e chert was examined likely come was most have visually to it was concluded it and good ected in the lack of e chert all an quality inferior be of appears to this and is refl Six pieces of argillite ArgilliteSix of the site. from pieces material for recovered were is a common Th Th Th Th Although there are numerous pieces of chert present at the site, only one piece was able was able piece only one the site, at chert present of pieces are there Although numerous Th erent types, some of which were imported into the site. Th ere is evidence of ochre is ere evidence grind- Th the site. types, into whichimported were erent of some e fl akes and tools in the assemblage. Th e material was most likely from the various deposits most material e was likelyvariousdeposits the from Th in the assemblage. akestools and making adzes, are likely use damage adzes these and pieces be the results of of to inthe Th site. in the is found North in Island. in It archaeological Island the and lower South found sites Manukau Tämaki and always in than but smaller amounts further region, always and south also 2000). greywacke be It ceased to basalt Motutapu and (Turner Tahanga by dominated quarried after AD about 1500. around the Manukau Harbour. types rock Minor fl than the total make less 2% up of diff the material of and fl some ing on repair.Th Peninsula. Coromandel ed as adze fl origin. AsMotutapu well identifi being as pieces ochrehave staining Th them. on them.Th 2010). comm. pers. Bonica North (Dante Island wear use have probably to seen were pieces ve ake quality, fi fl material generally is poor of likely is that this It petrifi withassociated scraping. have polishing on them indicating use as scrapers. Th as use scrapers. indicating them on polishing have et (Cameron the site the northto of metres ve hundred fi about located is that silisedforest al. 2008). Th the obsidian that was than of analysedchert. More 65% Barrier likely was most Great from with comparisons theIsland material on (based analysed XRF), by km 100 about north east was obsidian of source Zealand’s Island, New Mayor exploited earliest most and the site. of making analysed of common 32% most material. up the Th second the remaining up made sources Northlandfrom 3%. and Coromandel in the many littoral thefrom Manukau Unlike Harbour. collection deposits the Brambley variety qualities and in quantities the Manukau Harbour colours, of (Kath Prickett, pers. 2010). comm. to be identifi refl is andthis likelyuse wear, is most able the chert of artefacts Fourteen identifi displayed cobbles. scraping. be used for to fl e dis- c areas were used for particular c areas used for were akes adze from damage repair than or rather ax. ax or cutting fl esh does not leave use marks on most fl akes. Th fl use marks most leave on not does esh axcutting or fl akes attributed to adze use and damage. Th e material was present in such e materialpresent was adzeakes to attributed damage. use and Th akes across the site did not indicate any specifi any indicate did not akes the across site materials e minor are with sources, a rangefrom of argillite the South of the top from materials ese the Hauraki are of way by all the site Gulf to likely come and have to Th Th activities general and of as a series such cutting wear bone indicated Use of scraping and tribution of fl of tribution tasks, as such carving scarping or wood fl from the southern coast of the harbour, there was no imported Raglan imported was the there no harbour, of coast the southern from chert, a which is of quality higher much than thelocal Manukau Harbour material. greywacke. quarry Motutapu and the Tahanga Island,basalt from in of Many Coromandel, these artefacts are fl small numbers on thesite that it indicates fl manufacture argillite if adzes. new basalt were sources Nelson–Marlborough and Tahanga adzes these high of made but the time by the NRD was occupied exploited site longer no quality afterbe looked and used, to growing materials smaller continued all the time. pass the must instance, you Island for Mayor from the site Tämaki get to to In order Portage. the through Colville Peninsula, head the Strait that separates peninsulaCoromandel from BarrierGreat through the Island, Gulf the access Tämaki head to Islands past Motutapu ApartPortage. the small Northland from of amount obsidian and Nelson-Marlborough imported of ed source argillite, pass Island would every journey Mayor a single from identifi the site. at material present wood, while fl scraping

Th e NRD site: Community report 9 Flaked stone 62 Th e NRD site: Community report 10 Mammal bone 63

e erent ways ways erent sh and shell. and Animalsh are ere several diff e majority of foods eaten by pre-European pre-European by eaten foods of e majority 10.1 Dog Dog 10.1 10 10 Mammal bone an opportunityered characteristics assess the physical the kuri to of Common name name Common 191 A 1653 36 dog mammal 10 B 162 rat 75 C sea E 621 F 963 1 2 1 3 2158 119 G 2032 total Table 5. Mammal counts by Area (cattle, sheep and rabbit and rabbit sheep (cattle, Area by counts Mammal 5. Table shown). not bone are sh bone sections. A total of 5007 sections. A total of mammal bone sh fragments and teeth bone bones, Area. 5 by Th e mammal in Table remains are presented Dog remains used for food and raw materials were recovered as scattered bone and frag- as bone scattered materials and raw recovered food were remainsDog used for Th ne parallel cut marks indicating removal of meat or skinning. Dog bone was a common was parallel a common skinning.ne or bone Dog meat marks cut of indicating removal Dog remains were recovered from a variety from remains recovered Dog were burials, including contexts dog of earth ovens, con- midden from bones Dog layer. as well the midden general as post holes and from pits analysed were remains as food convenience) for bone’ as ‘midden below to texts (referred while burials the dog off Mäori prehistory. in later Areas of bones B. A small A and the features of midden and amount throughout ments as such burning, particular consumption signs of obvious display breakage cut of patterns or marks the cut marks. of and the are breakage deep Some quite showed pattern sometimes almost surgical neat, shafts sawn. Only breaks been had two bone as had if the bone long fi type tell what to used is bone of impossible often is it though from, make materialto tools of counting animalof and they archaeological from are used variably and in bone sites the here bird bone and fi mammal the majority of for bone accounted Rat bones the excavations. from recovered were in Areas which was dog, being concentrated with all nearly the (33%) rest (43%) count by Th dog). more much is there weight by but be greater, may numbers bone A, B, and E (rat of were number ere also a burials. dog whole Th deliberate, from were bones dog majority of European domesticated mammalsea Smallintroduced andseal) bones. of (whale numbers in Areas also B. and A were cattle, present sheep pig, and mammal including rabbit, bones ey are intrusiveclearly discussed not and are any further. Th remains are generallybetter preserved in than archaeological remains. Shell and plant sites analysinghistory of long a is these there and are recovered, hard,and easily bone excavated materials in Zealand New Th and elsewhere. this of evidence is circum- based, but plant been have would peoples, most Mäori, as for European agricultural by stantial: out soils, gardened which are ploughed often practices; than kumara had uses other which have for may developed Recently storage. pits, storage or like techniques starch the NRD and analysis tarothat at kumara and site, show eaten were harshthat the diet included indicate 17.4.2) the koiwion (Section toothwear patterns of fern.Animal bracken been have an remainspart important not would formed the diet but of with their interacted the this environ- main so, analysis part people Even how it. shows of was like. that environment what to clues important gives and some ment Four main classesFour animal of remains analysed; were mammal, bird, fi cant cant e assemblage prob- shhook points and the and points shhook cance in addition to their economic ciently intact to provide signifi provide to intact ciently signs no show these 4 pits from e bones size. dog burials on e adult data provided coincidence no is distribution is probably 10.2 Rat 10.3 Sea mammal ve ruave in Area kopiha A. Th food of evidence the and occasional pieces, as scattered bone, of e distribution with symbolic burials of dog human e association burials consumption and dog is allremains of were e dog ages, a mixture suggesting juvenile andadult/sub-adult, of burial from an recovered opportunity provided contexts skeletons dog to e complete Allo Bay-Peterson (1979) maintained that the kuri economically signifi was more (1979) Allo Bay-Peterson Th in buried, a manner very one deliberately were dogs similarFour human burials to in Th Unfortunately only two skulls suffi recovered were 10.21 height, mm shoulder was slightly larger 2837 male (353 rua e adult from Pit kopiha when artefacts are highly worked. Four dog teeth were made into fi into made teeth artefacts were dog when are Four highly worked. Th these are both of much but kg) feature from 3768 mm, 9.12 kg) than female (333 the adult 390 smaller of kuri than size, height the mean pre-European dog which averages a shoulder 1997). kg (Clark 18 about of a weight mm and lower edge of a dog jaw was made into a lure shank. a lure into was made jaw a dog of edge lower killed not adults were that and young dogs adult that sub age. by Considering preferentially juvenile of remains is of a number of the them, are presence on likely meat the have most to natural of the amount or represents deaths, assemblage bone midden the dog Either interest. other on based the population from selected were dogs and important wasn’t a dog on meat criteria. Th likely are themost suggests is scenario thelatter thedogs that unlikelyand preparation to died naturally.have rua indicating they kopiha, cultural/spiritual had signifi role. Th an intriguing killed being dogs of for priests given accounts by prospect historic and eaten 151). 1878: (Colenso religious ceremonies 3768 and 3494 assess Features kuri burials from dog 3 least uncovered At appearance. were Area from A (though 918 rua Pit kopiha probably and in Area 2837 rua B, and Pit kopiha Th very into). disturbed was re-dug the pit when symbolic spiritual buried that or these were for cooking is probable or butchery and it of reasons. is a eirshape type largewith workingdogs bodied common appearance. Th on information (Evans 1993). facial features assuch the German shepherd withwell-proportioned medium, features teeth the the skull, adult and other on Based on females. adult young both were link genetic between alsoBoth them. indicating a common extra had the same premolar, con- genetic teeth than less common a is usually or the norm, premolars, or molars Fewer kuri. just not Th populations, in many dog dition and, while the whale may be food remains (some from Feature 2097 was burnt), the deposi- 2097 Feature was burnt), from and,while remains the whale (some food be may during the Early period judging by the smaller quantity of dog bones from Late period sites, sites, period Late from during the smaller judging bones by period the Early quantity dog of be an the NRD appears exception. to but site whether determine to possible in both Areas was not Rat remains A and common B. It were been have may the rat of Some European introductions. or (kiore) rat they Polynesian were attempt no but nesting scavenging in or the midden, from there was probably some and eaten distinguish to made has been naturally culturally from Th rat. deposited both processes. of a combination represents ably sea mammalof relatively largePieces bone, and almost certainly in the whale, found were secondary in cuts fi

Th e NRD site: Community report 10 Mammal bone 64 Th e NRD site: Community report 10 Mammal bone 65 (Ian ipper Smith pers. comm. 24 June 2010) and had a maximum dimension of about 300 about a maximum had and which mm, means of dimension 2010) 24 June comm. pers. were allpieces spongy no other intact inner e bone with very a from is largeit whale. Th seal was species. One also ined to Area bone found B. be identifi cortex and could not tion of the bone appears to be deliberate. Unfortunately it was very it Unfortunately fragile be deliberate. appears to fell and the bone apart of tion as fl a from a bone in the probably is shown large Figure dried piece it but 14 ed to species. species. ed to irteen the species of black-backed e southern was e coastal assemblage bird site. by was represented habitat e forest ed, most of which small were of ed, medium most sized to 11 11 bone Bird y cloaks and these birds would be kept alive as long as possible for repeated repeated for y cloaks alive kept be would as these and birds possible as long e Australasian harrier also [1942]). may valued feathers been (Best have 1977 which the distinctive coastal of four and wetland separated into ese were habitats and wing gull of humerus) (20 proportion higher has much a black-backed Southern e Bird remains were most abundant in Area abundant A, Areas. with most only small remains were other from Bird amounts Most of the species were abundant near the site all near the site Th year abundant round. the were species of Most It is also likely that some bird species were not hunted for food but for feathers. Historical feathers. for but food for hunted is also not It species were likely bird thatsome Th only two alsois (but grassland species) count open very e by habitat well represented In total 1915 bird bones were recovered of which half nearly of recovered were could be identifi bones bird 1915 In total At least 28 distinct 28 identifi least At were species birds. Th 6). (Table numbers and represented species both of in terms prominent most were habitats Th been have may environments indicating that forest is low representation habitat forest but hunt- bird (forest was occupied locallyalso the site the season indicating scarce possibly and Th ing historically [1942]). was focused mainly see Best 1977 in winter, Th coastal habitat. by were which birds count had the highest gull black-backed bar andthen the southern by taileddominated godwit, wrybill, or one by e wetlanddominated was assemblage gull.two petrel, the and red-billed of species Th dominated wasopen grass e assemblage teal. brown grey and rail Th by duck banded followed Zealand the New by quail, which became extinct it during but settlement, early European Australasianalso of had a number harrier remains. Th mostly kaka small snares in set and being tui some of remaining a limited indication bones, while the today, the site to adjacent are obvious Coastal swamp and patches. habitats forest kumara cleared for forest, cultivation then and former was probably grasslandopen habitat reverted grass to and fern cover. accounts have detailed how the white heron, a rare visitor with a rare only the visitor small by heron, the detailed white colonies have how accounts European arrivaltime of and Robertson 2005), highly (Heather were valued Mäori for by feathers for chiefl Th plucking. gulls could have been taken on site as they were scavenging midden refuse gulls as have could scavenging as midden they were taken site been on have could the Australasian Zealandbeen New quail was hunting scavenging. as and hawk it rats and grassy the open quail wetland rail very throughout banded and been have would abundant (bar waders tailed of Zealand godwit, New A number wrybill) dotterel, environment. were taken whilealso feeding with probably the as tide they massed in large making numbers (southern species represented e abundantly most three Th easy missiles nets. and targets for gull,black-backed rail, banded Zealand New available the quail) site at also probably were as the bar tailed godwit exploitation of alsois allthere element summer a but year round wrybills and Zealand New migrates Petrels to the arctic from each summer. to also tend 2005). Robertson and Ducks migrants the Northbe summer (Heather Island to are also large and ightless leaving fl them usually moulted have their feathers taken when in summer a such of suggestion no is there although [1942]), take (Best would 1977 place hunts duck present. bones duck of withonly a limited number exploitation scale of which are robust bones, the most femur) (1 than leg bones upper tibiotarsus) (15 leg lower that these be expectedand would survive probable to most seems It numbers. in greater off consumption later preserved being were for bones meatier

Th e NRD site: Community report 11 Bird bone 66 Th e NRD site: Community report 11 Bird bone 67 A B E G Total 1 1 1 16 1 4 4 4 23 23 43 43 27 43 5 22 3 3 1 1 354 26 31 380 2 11 1 10 1 1 279 11 110 33 12 290 135 12 22 3 19 1 148 1 9 9 123 2 2 50 4 54 196 8 204 8 196 1 1 1 1758 154 154 1 1758 2 1915 sher 13 13 13 sher ed bird ed bird 1 1042 1 101 940 Table 6. Bird species by habitat and Area. habitat by species 6. Bird Table Habitat Habitat Bar-tailed godwit 50 Coastal 7 godwit Bar-tailed 43 gull Wrybill gull black-backed Southern 2 2 petrelPetrel shag 2 2 Lapwings Red-billed 22 198 1 21 diving 13 Black Plovers, Noddies Zealandheron New dotterel Common Dotterels, petrel Reef Shearwater 13 Giant 211 rail subtotal teal Banded Wet land Brown duck Grey Pukeko 5 5 White heron 13 Zealand New kingﬁ Duck 25 25 subtotal grass Open Australasian harrier 15 Zealand New quail subtotal Kaka Forest Tui 4 1 4 1 Bellbird pigeon parakeet Red-crowned bird Song Zealand New subtotal unidentiﬁ total Sole e

c. In Conger

sh. Th

Stargazer cance throughout cance throughout eel Freshwater

they though sh, may sh inhabiting sheltered Kingfsih

take a hook not ey would atﬁ

Wrasse Wrasse

Parore

ounder ﬂ Sand

sh are an open water ﬁ water are ansh open taken hook with been have ey would baited mullet Grey

fragile quite be to appeared eir bones so their

Barracouta

12 12 bone Fish Mackerel

and eel alsosh only occur in very small Parore numbers. Gurnard

ounders (15) which, like is a ﬂ the sole, (15) ounders

Kahawai Trevally ghters – perhaps more were hooked than landed. Th e specimens from the e specimens from than Th landed. hooked were more – perhaps ghters

shery centred on the Manukau that take species with on harbour, a baited sheryother centred Snapper Generally all other species can be considered as bycatch. Some are represented by very by are represented Some Generally as bycatch. all can species be considered other Eel is an unusual species archaeologically. Despite eel weirs being a commonly recorded recorded eel weirs a commonly being Eel is an Despite unusual archaeologically. species Table 7. Fish counts for all Areas. for counts Fish 7. Table A 2645 139 185 131 86 15 12 14 6 3 4 3 2 1 1 14 12 15 86 131 Area 185 7 8 1 1 1 139 A 11 2645 1 36 B 44 7 6 4 3 3 1 1 64 15 917 2 20 C 2 1 22 3 99 1 E 37 170 F 6 230 G 1 204 J 3607 Total 1 e fi shbone is dominated in all Areas by snapper (Table 7), with kahawai, 7), trevally in all is dominated (Table gur- and Areasshbone snapper by e fi fl sand are more ere a few Th numbers may be underrepresented. Wrasses, of which there are 16 species in Zealand New which are there of 16 Wrasses, be underrepresented. may numbers ey live familyvery to have as similar most able Th bones. 2000:(Paul are only identifi 107), hook also commonly caught. 1. of count total a each instance, have Zealand New and eel for Conger sole, bones. few Th spearing – either or method the same by caught as such bays the Manukau, was and probably almost that landed only take would and on Stargazers a hook netting. predators are ambush wrasse, Parore, kingfi them. of top are vegetarian, inhabiting shallow and mangrove reefs estuaries. Th speared. or Th netted been have must and nard the next most common species. Species such as mullet are probably underrepresented species. underrepresented Species such as mulletnard the next are common probably most as they survive small, have not do fragile that well probably bones in – mullet are common can characterise the assemblage with We are and a net. the Manukau easily today caught fi as a snapper on reefs where they feed on invertebrates. As Leach and Anderson (1979) note, wrasses note, are As Leach invertebrates. (1979) they on and Anderson feed where reefs on food” of source prestigious unlikely and mundane more be targeted but where to standby “a Like they to dwellers, parore, are which reef seems abundant. were as such species snapper heavily targeted. that was not Kingfibe a habitat enter bays in search of food (Paul 2000: Th (Paul food in search bays of 88). enter are fi strong but all were assemblage larger than specimen. mm comparative our 725 middens, Marshall are in their pre-European rarely bones found 1987) timesin historic (e.g., particularly but only in then and very fresh- small Eels, including sea eels (Congers) numbers. Zealand New any value of eels, are nutritional plentiful fi the highest water have and including in the Pacifi the world throughout in archaeological sites found are commonly (Leach period Th in the early historic 2006). common Zealand only eels become New sites particular that they is have that eels are uncommon reason mythic signifi

Th e NRD site: Community report 12 Fish bone 68 Th e NRD site: Community report 12 Fish bone 69 sh- ere ey were sh caught sh caught sh was (see was (see sh the of occupants e ey fi can by most be caught in are ese species all common reasonably shore to deeper water in winter (Paul 2000: (Paul in winter water deeper to shore shery on the South Island east coast where shery the Island east South where coast on shery. shery. Th shing gear they and been are have usually to thought erent from theNRD from Th distributions. erent 12.1 12.1 reconstruction Size the be case Zealand. in to New after seems is Eels became acceptable shbone can be measured to determine what size what the living determine can measuredbe to fi shbone almostis is certainly the Manukau nursery because Harbour was snapper a n fi sh taken at the NRD site. Snapper is the third most common species (15.8%) (15.8%) species is the third common most Snapper the NRD takensh at site. n fi sh in many later pre-European middens on the upper North Island east coast (e.g., North Island east (e.g., the coast upper on middens pre-European insh many later c and in many, though by no means all, Pacifi c societies this is expressed through all, means no by though Pacifi c and in many, three e other main are species kahawai, gurnard trevally, and which also take baited Th Of the main species, snapper accounts for over 80% over in Areas was both clearly for B. It A and accounts Of the main snapper species, Barracouta and mackerel are found throughout the assemblage in small the assemblage Th Barracouta numbers. throughout and mackerel are found also ey may take hooks. baited Leach and Boocock 1995 for snapper; Leach et al. 1996 for kahawai). Snapper ranged in Snapper kahawai). Leach for al.snapper; et for 1996 LeachBoocock and 1995 which are than less mm size in the 50–100 class, specimens), four mm (i.e., size 50 from which mm, the maximum is close 850 to at specimen one year to size old, modern one of the 0–50 from very mm size Some class could small not probably were but bones snapper. Areas from A and snapper be measured. histograms Figure of the size-frequency shows 54 AreasBoth B. markeda peak show in the 200–250 sizemm class, which smalleris thanthe fi of the majority current legal Clearly mm. size limit 270 in the North of Island small.were Th in breed longer harvested no being were sh the Snapper NRD at site. veryand fi young leading a decline to in increased sea grass,the sedimentation Manukau to due which is an Leach’s (2006: data (Morrison al. 80) nurseries et 2009: in snapper 52). essential component as (Leachsize a which frequency bones histogrampublished is 8847 2006: Houhora, from of with peak480 a minimum a and normalmm around a distribution size shows Figure4.11) around 220 diff mm, which is quite habitats. snapper erent targeting were diff quite Houhora NRD and site North Island sites. fi Archaeological ing methods but the preponderance of snapper in the assemblage and the presence of 31 31 of the and presence in the assemblage snapper of the preponderance but ing methods were some (though hooks with baited largely that they were caught indicates points hook very small, size of see the reconstruction, discussion below). these species is particularly of none Th though inhooks, the assemblage. common all fi theprobably snapper a byctach of throughout the country analysedthroughout in assemblages Leach by only behind barracouta (2006: 62) off move Snapper cod (16.6%). blue and (25.1%) the main fi was an important pre-European barracouta fi barracouta was an pre-European important calmrelatively allowed specialised using waters surface be caught schooling barracouta to the from in assemblages found they are commonly less but 1981), trolling (Anderson lures turbulent Barracoutawest coast. will harbours 2000: (Paul in search food enter of and 120) and are sh the most taken been incouldso have small Mackerel are fairlynumbers. a small fi common fi In these al. et Campbell 2003 2005 Plenty). in Northland; of in the Bay in Felgate Campbell is very there littlesites fi of evidence 53). particularlytaken in nets, as they run mouths, [1929]: creek at with (Best the tide 1977 Th the Th NRD at site. occupations summer which indicates 96) the Pacifi food avoidance. Th pre-European in late common more somewhat they European though become had contact, this change as Christianisation response a or was resultof a Perhaps (Leach 2006: sites 189). to changing environments, when high energy food sources became important. Early historic c ritual, suggesting that that eel catching was still specifi show by accounts accompanied in Leach quoted journal still handle were (Brunner’s to eel 1847, from dangerous and tapu or abundant the NRD whether targeted been at Eel, have than, site not would 2006: 188). consumed. not were necessarily found specimens the four mean this though doesn’t not 800 700 Area A, n = 102 Area Area B, n = 428 = n B, Area Area A, n = 1322 Area mm 300 400 500 600 300 400 500 600 200 200 100 100 ebimodal size distribution probably represents

5 0

5 0 0

30 25 20 15 10 percent 30 25 20 15 10 20 15 10 percent percent 54. Size-frequency histograms for snapper from: top, Area A; Area top, from: snapper for histograms Size-frequency 54. few too were A (there Area from kahawai bottom, B; centre, analyse). B to Area from kahawai netted. been have ey must 12.2 12.2 rays and Sharks erent pattern a marked and the frequency bimodal shows dis- erent sh – Paul (2000: 92) records that kahawai that 60 (2000: least – Paul records sh “at grow to 92) sh ey ey are sh and probably entered entered and probably sh Zealand e New ray eagle Both shark and ray, and bony bony and ray, and shark Both While the larger snapper would have been taken with baited hooks the majority of snap- While of the majority taken hooks with been have would baited the larger snapper Kahawai diff a quite show Th While sharks will take a erent schools being targeted. As with snapper, both nets and baited hooks must have have must hooks baited and nets both targeted. being As schools with snapper, erent kahawai a Manukau the that was not indicating nursery. probably snapper, to erent sh vertebrae were counted in counted were vertebrae sh the Manukau seasonally. fi per were probably too small to take a large bone hook (though smallare readily snapper small (though too take to hook a large bone probably were per Th hooks). metal modern on caught juveniles both under Sizes (Figure range 100–700 which from mm, tribution represents 54). very and year old largeone fi years Kahawai four old, size, by about withcm.” to school age juveniles schooling by up mixed whilecontain schools adult ages. Th diff capture used to kahawai.been Little kahawai is known about spawning the pattern is but diff Sharks rays are and known to an resource been important have period in Mäori the historic for archaeological a lack of evi-but their means importance dence in pre-European timesis pretty much unknowable. Th wellless known archaeo- from fi than the bony logical sites fact they that the simple for usually and bones no have all that survives are a few dense Ray vertebrae. cartilaginous also tail plates tooth and spines survive, rarely in any num- but Allbers. the at abundant were NRD site is widely distributed around Francis and ZealandNew (Cox has a stinging It tail 64). 1997: plate-like of rows and spine (Summers jaws teeth in both 2000).the tail Both and spine recovered were the toothplates plates tooth 454 the site: from in Area found A and 106 were in Area B with from a few other areas. rays eagle are hook, more baited Th in set nets. usually caught dwellersare feeding bottom on shellfi

Th e NRD site: Community report 12 Fish bone 70 Th e NRD site: Community report 12 Fish bone 71 shery. order to provide a comparison. Th e are roughly twice as many bony fi sh vertebrae (11607 (11607 sh vertebrae fi e roughly are twice as many bony Th a comparison. provide to order usually vertebra given ray and that shark but, (6500) as ray and shark Areasfrom B) A and only survive in small Zealand in New this that originally numbers indicates middens, there are these ray eagle of If most vertebrae. sh fi than them bony of more many been have may characterise accurate to the site more be are might large certainly and it sharks) from (some than,shery as rather fi well or as, a snapper as an fi ray eagle HGFEDBA HGFEDBA to be be to sh by count appeared cat’s eye cat’s oyster cockle sh species by Area, by count (top) (top) count by Area, by species sh minor species scallop whelk variation in the composi- is considerable ere which is weight, by ey are better represented cant numbers. All numbers. cant the main of shell species 0 0 80 60 40 20 80 60 40 20 100 100 55. Percentages of shellfi Percentages 55. residue). discounting (bottom, weight and 13 Shell 13 e immediate sh. Th lling basket a bag or ats. Whileats. the environ- ats and shell and banks. ats Cockle Although cockleAlthough in species all far is by the dominant cat’s Areas B, where A and except areasIn most taken. several were Th samples Manukau Harbour largest is the second harbour in Zealand a New and encompasses main e eye, cockle with shellspeciesin all whelk, either cat’s were or scallop middens e harbour shallow is relatively ats and shell and banksats are exposed, present are available in easily the Manukau been have taken Harbourpresent would and by today and, Mäori. Other while species are very they have common may less pre-European much allowed, can as as generally bycatch. occasion the regarded then be and targeted now been unlikely is It beach species. dosinia, an which is open 10 Area from F contained A sample likely been they and have are to the more beach together on up wash that these shells would 20 least km the Manukau at canoe. by heads, away collected during outside a visit scallop and that oyster was noted it duringeye is also excavation common, ese much larger species two more are vis- than cockle so were eye and cat’s and Th common. Th common. not they were number by but ible larger a diet– to shell will their contribution generally accurate measure a of contain more a around half scallop or for oyster could account either samples In some food. larger of amount shell. between Figure the contrast of shellfi shows the portions of the weight 55 analysed). Areas than sample each Area had more one for (most and weight Th in still smaller but present and oyster signifi tion of midden between areas, but just as much between samples within between between as much just area. the samples same areas, midden but of tion range marine of environments. Th 4 m and with to a tidal up range of large tide low expansesat mud- of fl large to popula- which are home shellfi of tions the NRD at environment foreshore a narrow of shelly is composed site beach, with exposed rocks volcanic near tide low at lava and platforms muddy to leading out the shore, sandfl conspicuous the most is probably inspecies the harbour and today the case in this probably was most Cockles can be most prehistory. easily harvested the outgoing on popula- a healthy and where tide fi exists tion A minutes. takes of only matter a can shell species be other range of the rocks on in the either found further or zone on out inter-tidal the mudfl as asit pristine today not is ment the in prehistory been have would full represented species range of can still the site theat on be seen beach.

Th e NRD site: Community report 13 Shell 72 Th e NRD site: Community report 14 Excavating and recording the koiwi 73 56. The parts of the skeleton skeleton parts The the 56. of Roberts from (reproduced 2007). and Manchester can we gain ‘reading’ a skeleton of some the process rough 14 14 koiwi the recording and Excavating Burialsthe past. of andskeletaldirect, a remains theprovide people to personal connection ected their the things of are that aff some and people who about information hold Skeletons bodies during their lives.Th insight into who that individual was – whether they were a man or a woman, old or young, young, or that individualwho old woman, a theyman a or into was were whether – insight individualwhat traits activities, they what and had illnesses left their injuries mark on or can across the group teeth. give Patterns or an kindthe bones what life understanding of of with had, By especiallythat population the archaeology the site. wider considered of when these things of pre- we can between ourcomparing some build understanding of up sites Māori time.European changes and over they underwent e e ways erent eir skeletons cance for their for cance ne the extent of theburial of the extent ne nd out whether there were were there whether out nd icted prehistoric people, particularly people, prehistoric icted orts were made to treat the bones gently and respect- gently the treat bones to orts made were 14.1 14.1 Finding thekoiwi rst discovered at the site in March 2008 stripped was being the site at the topsoil rst discovered when children and all of women ages. e burials men, Th of the were NRD at site Th Mortuary diff many were died there was practice varied, a person when that is, Although this in anatomical terms, discusses report often skeletons the or koiwi as bones All be collected, had to so a grid divide human the bone scattered to was the set up Areas the aim defi 1, was to Season the excavation, stage that of At between Auckland Airport consultation International Following tangata whenua Ltd, an area of midden that archaeologists were to excavate and record. Small record. and of fragments excavate to were that archaeologists an midden area of all and features and were in 1 was Season continued midden established e methodology showed many of the common health problems that affl that health problems the common of many showed for also evidence showed Skeletons wear severe those of the and tear teeth andjoints. of and spinal accidental anomalies, genetic some as well as kidney stones, gout of presence the miscellaneous changes. Th infectionother and bone cases of of a number and injury, violent par- or fragments and as burials human both as bone scattered koiwi found were complete of tial in graves. An skeletons unexpectedly individual large of number burials uncovered; were Zealand New one any from site. koiwi recorded of the largest number they could be buried. Burial leaving the body involved that practice sometimes was a process return- included the process sometimes burial or before the site, elsewhere at decompose to it. from bones a burialing to some after time remove to some individuals that these are deserve people, the remains who forgotten of respectful is not it remains carry and whose signifi and treatment, considerable consideration Eff the tangata whenua. descendants, fully during destructive their no recording, analytical used and all techniques were remains at reburied e koiwithe been Pukaki have marae urupato the close Th together. kept were large care All makewas takenin grave, one to but together site. placed theremains were next again. placed each were other to buried been had together Th who surethat the people Pukaki both from representatives proceedings from reburialwith appropriate was blessed and Makaurau maraes. Excavating and moving koiwi their from resting can place be upset- ting during and unsettling, will that the that recording was the done process is hoped it but they lived they and how – for were – who these people preserve about to information help the past. of the people into wishingan future have insight to generations Koiwi fi were off Areas over A and the midden dispersed and throughout scattered found were human bone in these areas between ceased until Excavation then B (Figure Aucklandconsultation 4). Airport wasInternational undertaken regarding tangata and whenua Ltd the discovery and tangata by whenua. was blessed the site squares. 1 metre All these into squares all and from was sieved the midden of fragments collected, were bagged,human bone and labelled which according to square they came from. Any artefacts and animal also were bone collected. archaeological features, fi and non-burial the excavate ground, the the features under was removed, the midden Once burialsintact bone. scattered just or was left skeleton the ceased and If a burial excavation excavated. were was found, midden with and covered in geotechnical place, textile regarding possible decisions await and soil to was known it that 1 excavation the Season of the end reburial By and elsewhere. excavation the remains, six by which to appeared of was individuals a minimumthere 13 of represented be burials thanremains. All rather scattered collected was that had been bone the scattered Pukaki at reburied Marae urupa. until February 2009. continued and in September resumed excavation CFGand Heritage, Th all and excavated material was sieved.

Th e NRD site: Community report 14 Excavating and recording the koiwi 74 Th e NRD site: Community report 14 Excavating and recording the koiwi 75 lled gently were bones e also ese would get a burial entered fragments were ese bone e bodies are still in the grave, a more erent individuals. Th 14.2 Excavating the koiwi 14.3 Recording the koiwi in the ground drying from the bones is prevented quickly too reduce and helped lled out to describe the grave, the way the person had been buried, the position buried, had been describe the position the grave, to the person the way lled out surfaces e was catalogued allentering by each checked then bone and of were bones 14.4 14.4 ‘Reading’ observing the bones: and recording lab the in bones the onsite After lifting, each skeleton was examined in the onsite laboratory. Th Afterlifting, laboratory. was examined each in theonsite skeleton Each skeleton, or partial or Each skeleton, was given burial a unique identify skeleton, to that indi- number in extra the lab, was cleaned being recorded would or bones a skeleton when Sometimes features was dispersed non-burial or through in the midden bone scattered However, Burials were excavated using small wooden and plastic tools in order to minimise to damage in order Burials small tools using plastic and excavated wooden were transportation bags trays for in on paper lifted, or placed were As bones either they were some been simply could have buried, but deliberately been have ese extra not may bones While it is possible to obtain some information while information Th obtain some to While is possible it individually into a catalogue of loose bone. individually loose a catalogue of into can be given disease and injury their or age, sex of accurate they estimation height and suf- after excavation. can be recorded fered of their limbs, how complete the skeleton was, whether the bones of the body were all the body were of the bones was, whether still the skeleton in their complete limbs,of how articulation is, lying theybe if would all how (that still and any artefacts connected) other or artefacts, rocks, unusual ochre). red shells or in the grave (e.g., items Burial bones and each thanvidual, person, set of graves more one 34. contained Some e.g., A burial individual was fi given register their another own were number. that represented keep track all to of in during order the burials. the excavation out individual. another Th to the grave from that belonged be found they only be a few bones. may even though person, another they represented since number, Th the burial around from human that was bone ground accidentally the mixed scattered of into was dug. the hole grave when else’s someone be could not assigned bone burial this fragmented because not of large numbers, amount diff assigned and to together grouped When each burial was all the stage that it to was excavated exposed in the grave, recording sheets were fi When a burial was discovered, it was carefully excavated by one or sometimes two archae- sometimes When was a burial or carefully it one was by discovered, excavated damaging from the bones exposure protect to in order a tent under worked who ologists directto rain. sun or Th had generally e bone survived very well soils,sandy in the and cracking Th anddegradation. was in condition. good taken as during the koiwi were were the excavation, photographs Numerous the bones. to lifted the grave the grave, afterwards from of and that as ensure much this to – was done map grave Each was also complete that a so was preserved mapped as possible. information allof burial features could be produced. non-burial and and serve the as koiwi a temporary further onsite house lab where to the portacom set up to than they allow used rather because bags plastic were the Paper details could be recorded. preserve dry which them. to helps bone and evenly, slowly cleaned by brushing and wiping with a damp sponge. Any bones that were stained withcleaned brushing that were red by Any with wiping and bones sponge. a damp the remove wiped to with a cloth so as only not and not brushed were ochre (kōkōwai) ochre.Th erent rates. rates. erent betweenerences male and ed adult Approximate age Approximate 0–3 3–12 inthe pelvis childbear- erences are to mostlyrelated 14.4.1 14.4.1 or female? Male diff e Infant (I) Child (C) (AO) Adolescent (YAd) adult Young Middle (MAd) adult 12–20 20–35 35–50 (OAd) adult Old (Ad) Adult 50+ unspecifi report. this in used brackets Age 9. Table 14.4.2 14.4.2 died? when they they were old How M Male M? F Female Probable male F? U Probable female Im Unknown sex estimate sex Immature: to young too report. in this used 8. Sex estimates Table e koiwi were housed in the lab, fi rst on site immediately adjacent to the burial to adjacent immediately site rst on in fi the lab, e koiwi housed were erences in theskull erences muscularity. are to are mostly If related these not bones Bones were kept in paper bags and boxed in sturdy storage boxes, one or two or in bags per sturdy in one and boxed paper boxes kept were boxes, storage Bones the diff because skeletons children’s Sex for be estimated cannot certain of e shape features the pelvis on and the skull a skeleton whether determine to help To estimate a young person’s age from the skeleton, the stage of growth the stage of and age the the skeleton, bones from of person’s estimate a young To weargrowing, nished of andtear theon amount has fi an who adult teethis assessed. For if can they determined: be were age categories only broad adults, assessed. is For thebones children the age adults, estimates can With young and be more old. middle-aged, or young, exact, we all not since though slightlyprecise, diff at grow and develop female skeletons do not become pronounced until after through puberty. has gone a person pronounced become not do female skeletons details directly into a computer database in the lab. Limb bones were measured so that the were bones Limb inthe lab. database details directly a computer into all taken of were skulls, Photographs could be estimated. teeth jaws, any and height person’s tell that age, help sex, diseasefeatures the signs skeleton abnormalities. of or of individual. Th a high to moved they were there, secure keep them to longer was no it when areas, later, then security the airport area of until they remained reburial. where grounds, Th Th a man a woman. was that or of ing; the diff have is best to It can help. bone) (thigh the femur of the head of a measurement then present, all get an accurate to sex three estimate. in order

Th e NRD site: Community report 14 Excavating and recording the koiwi 76 Th e NRD site: Community report 14 Excavating and recording the koiwi 77 ected by, or respond to, to, respond or ected by, 14.4.3 14.4.3 Disease and injury is usually the mark skeleton e disease on chronic its disease that leaves that a person Th so any re-form, or re-grow cannot enamel While can heal, bone Tooth teeth cannot. Bones can respond to disease by creating more bone or by dissolving bone. Sometimes evi- Sometimes dissolving by or bone. bone diseasecreating to by more can respond Bones will disease in of bones addi- of large dence verybe lumps withholes, obvious, large, eroded will there Sometimes andhealed badly. clearly thatbroken have been bones or tionalbone changes the surfaceonly subtle be the bone. to of time. Disease that killshas of lived a period with for quickly a person will no leave often time be aff have to not may the bone because thesigns skeleton on the disease. record. a permanent leaves it to damage done ll. Much were infant e bones Area I Area Area B Area ~25% ~50% ~75% 100% Area A Area 0 50 40 30 20 10 Figure 57. Graph showing the number of burials that that of burials number the showing Graph 57. Figure a quar- or complete, half complete, near complete, were complete. or less ter e burial population 15 Th 15.1 15.1 many burials How were there? ese are divided into burials that represent a more-or-less complete complete more-or-less a burials are ese divided into that represent bone e scattered have may is bone lling the pits underneath lling underneath the pits e archaeology indicates that they come from several communities (see Section 19.1) Section 19.1) (see several from communities that they e archaeology come indicates Many of the burialsMany was of only partial part it of because were a body that of either skeletons, burials3 and in Area with in28 Area (32%) B allOf theburials, in Area were (65%), A 57 to relationship e koiwi are human some remains have a collection of that are to presumed fragments in Area A come from from in Areafragments A come those and a minimum 9 people of 3 least at from Areafrom B come people. taken back to the container where all the other koiwi were being housed. all housed. where being koiwi were the the other container taken to back the burial buried, because had been or disturbed had been activity later by in pre-European complete were there individuals times. modern of Figure whom or the numbers for shows 57 partialor remains. Th half those where three-quarters (~76%), those that represent a skeleton of (~100%), skeleton and those with a quarter the bones of less or (~50%), are present the skeleton of the bones of burialsof e majority in both only about A B were Area and Th (~25%). present the skeleton of complete. 25% was also human bone fragmented scat- As of a large described in Section 5, amount I (3%). the under overlying Area postholes and through the midden Area A and tered pits B. Many also dispersed variousmidden human through their contained bone fragments fi of in the midden bone the scattered of disturbedwas probably historic by the fact that but ploughing, period through scattered was bone there the soil fi was there that shows the midden also disturbance human bone of Th in prehistory. from accidentallybeen removed re- and burials dug were as pits is ere also Th across the site. dug digging deliberate of into evidence times to graves in pre-European Th bones. remove Th a single from immediately clear is – they come may that relationship what isn’t It each other. com- be more may the relationship or communities related of a number from communityor plex. Th would those communities all as of a burial them to Not members population. so we refer lived have may here. those that were and few of buried been here, have A total of 88 burials were numbered. During the excavation, 86 individuals were identifi ed 88 burials During of 86 individualsA total numbered. identifi were the excavation, were after partial checking thebut excavation when two tiny infants of found were more skeletons Th site. the at largethe through animal quantity was that found of bone

Th e NRD site: Community report 15 Th e burial population 78 Th e NRD site: Community report 15 Th e burial population 79

e follow- is trait is atter base atter er slightly. slightly. er at surface.at Th e zygomatic arches (the the 88 buri- are for ese numbers rm this showing characteristics by that are an estimate, usefulis and provides is comparing for 15.4 Polynesian ancestry 15.3 tall How were they? 15.2 and children many men, women How there? were e observations on the skeletons confi Table 10. Numbers of individuals in each age and sex category. age and sex category. in each of individuals Numbers 10. Table Infant 15 15 17.0 15 12.5 4 15 4 3 11 12.5 11 1 11 6 2 1 14.8 5 1 Infant 5.7 13 10.2 6 9 5 2 Child 3 27.3 Adolescent 24 adult Young F 23 1 adult Mid 88 32 Adult Old F? 4 24 1 13 Adult total 14 M M? % total U 15.9 Im 1.1 14.8 total % total 4.5 27.3 36.4 100 Many of the characteristicsMany of that are typical individuals of ancestry with Polynesian are typical Polynesians. of the of the NRD the shape At the muscularity to site the people. related of robustness and skulls the body generally very of conformed bones well and other charac- with Polynesian viewed the back, from when shape skulls be a pentagonal example, to tended teristics. For Th (Figure rounded 58). more be to tend ones European whereas the skull down on look you from are when visible the temples) over the cheekbones, back of visible theface and not of the side closer be to to a European these tend on whereas the top, a characteristic called have shape often jaw’ meaning jaw the ‘rocker Polynesians above. from that will base has a rounded that it backwards rock if a fl sitting on with a fl be squarer, to tends the jaw whom for in Europeans, common less much the NRD two At jaw. thirds site, had a rocker the adults (Figure of 59). If we measure the long bones of the arms of we can the and legs, equa- use a mathematical bones If we measure the long Th height. the person’s estimate to tion diff body proportions perfectly everyone’s accurate is not since it though heights, At the NRD site there were people of both sexes and all ages. Table 10 shows how many how shows 10 sexes both and all of people the were ages. NRDAt there Table site there section, in the previous As in mentioned each age were sex and there group. people tell to their be able age to or enough complete not were skeletons many whose adults were Th skeletons. sex, children’s and sex be estimated for cannot fragments. bone the scattered include als not do and females. Th cm for males cm and 160 for was 172 this,Based on the average height one least had at who and women the men estimates for the height shows 11) (Table ing table that couldlimb be measured. bone pre-European of were was expected it that the skeletons the archaeology by the site, Judging at Māori. Th Table 11. Height estimates for all individuals with at least one at least with all individuals for estimates Height 11. Table be estimated. sex could whom bone and for limb measurable Area Burial Sex A Age bracket estimate Height 29 (cm) 49 Female adult Old 63 Female 15 adult 155.1 Young Female 28 155.3 adult Young Female 61 158.3 Mid adult Female 10 adult Old Female 6 169.2 adult Young Male 41 170.7 153.9 36 adult Old Male Male 53 adult Mid Male 62 170.7 adult Mid 7 Male 17 173.9 adult Old B 175.9 Male Male 170.5 adult Mid Adolescent Male 27 178.5 adult Young 16 161.7 170.8 adult Mid Male? 21 84 Female 173.8 adult adult Old Young Female Adolescent 173.1 Female 67 161.4 adult Old 156.1 55 Female 76 157.0 Mid adult Female 14 Mid adult Male 77 162.7 I Male 69 164.9 adult Young Male 71 166.1 adult Old 3 Male adult Young Male? 169.8 173.6 adult Mid adult Young Female? Adult 173.6 174.8 157.0 Figure 59. Examples of a rocker jaw and a non-rocker jaw (reproduced from Houghton 1980: Figure Figure 1980: Houghton from (reproduced jaw jaw and a non-rocker Examples of a rocker 59. Figure 4.5).

Th e NRD site: Community report 15 Th e burial population 80 Th e NRD site: Community report 15 Th e burial population 81 ciently attened attened ese can is disagreement ere of skeletons in prehistoric noted often is is 15.5 Other general characteristics At the NRD site very deep pits were often found on women’s skeletons on the inside of of the inside on skeletons women’s on found often the were NRDAt very pits deep site Other characteristics that are typically the skeletons of in seen the shape were Polynesian area at the front of it called Th it ‘squatting of facet.’ area the front at the of the habitually front putting would on their pressure heels, who down on squat people ankle. and narrow certain at Pits hollows parts the pelvis Th of can pregnancy. be a result of Th strainresult from pregnancy. during the stages ligament of on the late telling these are reliable has for given a woman birth. how as whether to pelvis whose was in suffi women theOf 10 part pubis). thethe front pelvis of (dorsal this check thisfor had feature, them to of seven been pitting have that may condition good males No had pitting in this pregnancy. by caused place. of the femur (thigh bone), the fact that many people did not have a full have did not the fact that third many people set of molars bone), (thigh the femur of had a distinctive fl bone) and the fact (shin the tibia that teeth) the base of (wisdom 58. Diagrams illustrating the pentagonal typical Polynesian head shape and the more rounded typical rounded more the and head shape typical Polynesian pentagonal the illustrating 58. Diagrams 4.2). Figure 1980: Houghton from (reproduced form European erent burialerent esh had decomposed, the had decomposed, esh ne cut marks cut ne the remain- on was buried in person a that is means 16.1 16.1 Burial types erent states of completeness. Some burials were complete and burials Some complete were completeness. of states erent 16 16 buried? they were How esh and the soft tissues still held the bones together. and the softesh tissues still together. the bones held 16.1.1 16.1.1 Primary 1: burial, articulated, fully complete. Type erent ways of burying a person have been divided into fi ve main types, fi burying divided ways of into been have person a erent 16.1.2 16.1.2 Primary 2: burial, articulated, fully dismembered. Type A secondary burial in which the is one body was initially somewhere buried deposited or erent positions and in and diff positions erent being shortly after without has and there remained death was buried complete, is person leaving small, removed, fi deliberately limbs e been have diff many were burythere the NRDto way at a person one site; was no ere Incomplete remains, such as a torso without limbs or an upper body only, have been buried. been have body only, limbs an or remains, upper without such as a torso Incomplete Th Th Th disturbedintentionally (Figure 60). practices. In both Areas In both practices. B, A and type any barely to feature, ranging of pits sizeable from a burial could contain scoops, discernable a partial or buried were in a variety burial. People diff partially were some and articulated,dismembered been fully had or prior some decomposed e diff burial.to Th which are described below. A primary afterand long that death body was buried not burial in which the person’s is one An archaeologist can tell that bury a they today. to remained, asis where tend we people burial was a primary is articulated, burial the skeleton because which that all means the Th connected. as if are were they stillbones position in this while way the fl the fl when later sometime then, but in cave) a tree or else (e.g., buried;be to this their place becomes second a to collected andbrought or up dug were bones secondary burial. In a secondary burial will the bones be partly fully or disarticulated. ing bones, but the torso remained articulated (Figure 61). Th is means is that the were limbs remained articulated Th the torso but ing bones, (Figure 61). 2 is a primary burial Type these individu- the corpse had decomposed. but before removed 1 primaryals mortuary an had clearly stage additional received of that the Type treatment burialsdeath of seven the ree of a in thisviolent had category evidence burials Th had not. since buried with were this, ceremony, some Despite Section 17.3). 18, and (Burials 17 10, burials with shells ochre and red some found this were of type.toheroa

Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 82 Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 83 and limbs esh and soft tissues esh 60. Example of a Type Type a of Example 60. was 21 Burial 1 burial. woman. old small, a been Her body had deep, a into placed she and grave narrow in a upright sitting was crouched position. All articu- were her bones and joints at the lated been still clearly had the by held together fl buried. was she when Example of a Type 61. this 18: Burial 2 burial. had woman young an with been buried and torso articulated her without but spine, marks cut Fine limbs. the hip, on her right and backs of her ribs and splintered cut the of her left remains collarbone showed that fl been deliberately had removed. 0 10 20 30 40 50 cm 0 5 10 15 20 cm 25 esh to decom- 50 cm 40 also or often were one ere 30 20 ed thyroid cartilageed thyroid of (cartilage the front from miss- that were burials no the site were at ere found 10 to cutting any breaking sign of the bones or was no ere of 0 16.1.4 16.1.4 burial secondary Partial 4: Type 16.1.3 16.1.3 Secondary burial, 3: disarticulated Type and 43). and 43). (Burial 31) and a 31) (Burial 3 burial. This was was This 3 burial. young adolescent adolescent young remains of several of several remains that contained the the contained that a secondary burial burial a secondary the skulls of a child of a child skulls the people. Most of the of the people. Most 28). There were also also were There 28). Initially it was thought that the burial of hands and feet could belong to some of the Type the Type of some to that the burialInitially could belong hands feet and was thought of it bones were from an an from were bones other adults (Burials (Burials adults other 39 and 40) and three and three and 40) 39 adult woman (Burial (Burial woman adult babies (Burials 35, 42 42 35, (Burials babies burials smallwere ese other only with the hands of andfeet disarticulated of selection a disarticulated, partial partial disarticulated, 62. Example of a Type Example of a Type 62. a few bones from two from bones a few (Burial 32), along with with along 32), (Burial ing only hands and feet and the other bones found in this type found bones the other and burial.ing only feet hands and of more loose teeth, ribs and often some ossiﬁ teeth, loose ribs some and often more the (Figure throat that has begun turn to 63). bone) into taken had been the and hands bones 2 burials as if the long limbs removed, had been whose maketo this buried together feet burial and type. the the case this because not is However, 4 burials, Type while the in dismembered Type tailbone included kneecaps and were hyoid, 2 burials still Th had those bones. burials. forceful suchgive as separation, in appears of seen theto dismembered evidence It in this after resulted that had collection burial decay of process a type. been have be may It was left to a body as it from became detached what represent bones of that these collections burial. before Th somewhere decompose Th articulated the showing were hands that and feet Sometimes foot, bones. hand or as a whole these parts for fully to enough but long elsewhere decompose; deposited been they had not disarticulated. and completely Other small and jumbled they loose were bones sometimes these and usually the hands feet and to the hyoid in included addition alwayswere present kneecaps tailbone. and Th the throat), of the front small at bone (a After death the body was buried or exposed somewhere long enough for the ﬂ for After enough thewas death body long exposed buried or somewhere pose and the bones to disarticulate (Figure 62). Th e disconnected bones were then gathered gathered were then e bones disconnected disarticulate to pose and the bones Th (Figure 62). buried and in grave.new a up

Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 84 Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 85 30 40 50 cm 64. Burial 53, a Type 5 burial burial 5 a Type 64. 53, Burial and been disturbed had that and upper body jumbled the body was lower the but broken, that. beneath intact 63. Diagram of the bones usu- bones of the Diagram 63. 4 burials. in Type ally present 10 20 0 is erent erent clear was no ere ese burials initially had had primary, been but ey could be buried grave in: a deep in which the erent types erent graves, irrespective of the types of of 16.1.6 Other 16.1.6 16.2.1 Graves 16.2.1 16.1.7 Unknown 16.2 Who was given each type burial? of disturbed and broken suggests that ifbody was not the e fact the that lower 16.1.5 16.1.5 disturbance. to due articulated, Primary, but incomplete 5: largely Type It seems that these burials seems It and the cranium revisited were were limb bones and sometimes articulated and body was present that except whole Burial was the curious man’s since 10 erence according to age or sex – men and women of all of a variety ages and women received age sex according or to – men difference of e burials in a variety placed were diff of disturbed or kind tell burial to what of burials many incomplete were too ere that were Th mortuary the body was given. Th treatment a shallow grave large that was just body was position; usually enough in an upright crouched was the remains, usually in whichfor the skeleton lying horizontally with a limbs bent; Several burials had a tight cluster of broken, jumbled bones that turned out to be sitting on that turned sitting be on to bones out jumbled Several broken, burials of cluster had a tight the articulated of and limbs.top Th torso lower burialis discussed furtherburnt bone. to in relation below All common. burial the most 4 were 1 and typesBurial in areas, both Types found were 4 burials in Area Type far A than were there more though in Area B. Th diff types burials. of rules were If there which as type to they burial receive, of should person a bury to how them of the decision age sex. and on based Perhaps been have appear to not do things left clear a to archaeological not theyrelated that have trace came as such – where year time of they what died. or from been dug into some time later, which had disturbed, broken and jumbled the bones of the of which the had disturbed, bones time and jumbled later, some broken into dug been In each case the skull body. only was a small missing, withupper it sometimes of fragment in the grave (Figure was present ever suggest that it to 64). a tooth or removed. Th retrieve with skulls, to digging knew, them into dug the being graves people then for were dig. certainty, to where reasonable of ree Th these types of ast any Other. together grouped were and Several burials fi did not secondary be to appeared burials only the pelvis, of sacrum (Burialsthem 11) and and 4 1, in small a placed grave. feet, the scooped hands or of bones lying with andtorso the downhead face on body, andlower the upper was separatedinto it this, back, Th of facing the lower pelvis the top grave, up. the on base of but and placed legs Th they given. had been treatment

Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 86 Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 87 e is is is ax. Th bres consistent withbres consistent fl ax mat, or its hands were tiedax hands were its or mat, kinds burial of anerent individual was that when is is the in Area e rua only found were A. kopiha Th 16.2.2 16.2.2 body the of Position 16.2.3 16.2.3 body of the Orientation 16.2.4 16.2.4 body the binding and Wrapping describes 5.2.1) (Section the archaeology of the site e discussion of ax the body in this an cord, unnatural could hold so that even when position, in mortuaryerence practice between the two Areas. fi graves from found study soil samples of e microscopic burial observers early European from that a crouched was pre- indications are ere some Burial 14, an old man, had been buried sitting in a crouched upright position. Th e posi- e Th position. upright buried man, sitting been in had crouched a anBurial old 14, Th Many rua kopiha did not contain burials as contain a ruaMany re-used all. did not been have at kopiha to appeared Some Th bres would seem to be from items that were deliberately buried, such as fl ax to used mats buried, as such fl deliberately that were items from be to seem would bres fi wrap Māori the bodies. Historical the burial of descriptions practices mention frequently together with fl together having can the it there from been be read of the evidence had decomposed, mat or the cord the skeleton. of position within that the body had decomposed a space that allowed showed the the bones of tion the soil by in in place fall the grave. to held being Th bones of instead each from other away was buried. he Burial in when something had a toheroa encased 27 had been he indicates which the face, also of bind- suggests or wrapping in front side its on shell sitting upright In the double in this way. upright be to something by held be to have would it ing, since Th together. Burials bound and 62, the of two 61 left probably hands were interment the burials of Some had burials,discussed detail in multiple below. greater in on the section ankles Burial bound. been have 15’s that knees and they must were bent tightly so their legs drawn with legs back her her up on lay she though even next each other, to in position held fallen have the would legs apart together, from bound been If they had not body. her over each other. If careful attention is given to the articulation and position of the bones within the bones If the articulation careful the grave, is given of to it position attention and the inbody certaina before organic canheld materials give for that evidence once position if example, a body was wrapped in a fl For away. they rotted small, full scoop round a rua articulated sometimes disarticulated of infant bones); (or bones ll the pit. of the fi in secondary a or the into base dug at cut found either kopiha, bury to place Th the dead. fully. Th this more unusual kind pit of diffmajor between factor the many diff common One back – this their side, could on be position buried in they a crouched were was buried whole, burials no with were their laid limbs there out extended. that were – but sitting upright or “in the buried could sit since ferred then natural lying of instead and easy straight manner, our not Jackson and seen manner do Port to been have who whichas some Europeans do, 62). journal, ms 1973: in Oppenheim (Hobbs cited approve” that burial found cultures in grounds many often is It will all with the dead have oriented where however, at NRD case the the not is wassite direction. the same Th to their head in any could pointing be theskeletons of head) bodies if was no there upper (or the heads direction. c erent partserent 1977). 1977). ey certainly died around erently erent parts of the body diff body of the parts erent 16.2.7 16.2.7 burials Multiple ere seem to have been diff erent attitudes to diff attitudes to erent diff been have to seem ere the skull e exhumation of was also the early practiced South at 16.2.6 16.2.6 retrieve bones to graves Revisiting 16.2.5 16.2.5 diff Treating east, with facing south his curled around legs sides their right ey on lay a young and (Burial aged woman 1 burials a young/middle 61) of Type ey were their hands, left palm since hands were be holding ey appeared to palm, to resulting Burials 61 and 62 were a particularly were Burials and 62 61 striking burial, they a double were since of example What was being done with the skulls that have been removed from some of the burials of some with from the skulls Whatwas done being removed been have that at burials had clearly buried two together been two were where people double ere cases of the same time as they were buried together while fl esh held their bones in articulation. their bones held esh As is while fl timethe same buried as together they were usually the case with remains unknown. death archaeological of remains, their cause bodies being wrapped in a mat and/or trussed into a crouched position (Oppenheim 1973: 1973: (Oppenheim position trussed a crouched into wrapped and/or bodiesbeing in a mat 44). hers. Th e must hands two left armin her twisted being in back an unnatural her behind Th position. in the grave, arm a posi- upright upper sat the woman’s tied since in been thishave position body in otherwise. stayed upper have arm her His right not underneath lay would it that tion spec- to reasonable seems (Figure It shoulder right 65). her by and neck her under rested and wife and between husband of the two, relationship perhaps sort of wasulate some that there unfortunately though this known certain. be lovers, or cannot for Th man Th (Burial 62). Some burials gravesSome certain some buried were without 2 burials), parts their bodies (Type of burials and some a specifi only of 5), were certain (Type remove bones to revisited had been Th time.the same that appears in the in placed grave a position had been a man together who and a woman Th intimate. As well as preparation of the dead body before burial,As body before well the the dead body was of there of also as preparation treatment Māori observers early of by was noted decay after after of period a burial. bones of Removal researched Māori burial that “dis- practice and noted (1973) Oppenheim customs. death In cleaned re-deposited. and later being posal the body was usually the bones of temporary, nal century 19th disposal after the bodies was soon made of death.” fi cases however, some was that temporary normal disposal allow thisobservers and decay the body to show of for a tree in from a canoe it suspending or leaving a platform by the body on done was often Th 60). 1973: (Oppenheim disturbed been have to found were and skeletons some where Bar, Wairau of Island site damaged the retrieval by theNRD only the skull. at of as cases, was just site, found In some that the skulla few teeth show in remained to been the grave (Duff had once collection of bones (Type 4). Th 4). (Type bones collection of particularly – the body of be often that they would skulls that meant – limb bones long and separated inburial. the burials area, from no because just of removed is unknown, been have they appear to but skulls of buriedthreechildren’s cases however, without were, ere skullsadult Th found. were bodies (Burial Burial Burial and 13, 31 32).

Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 88 Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 89 eir dismem- ese two laid were 65. Burial 61 (left) and and (left) 61 Burial 65. Type a (right), 62 Burial also was that 1 burial burial. a multiple 0 5 10 15 20 25 cm also were ere three secondary burials containing partial people, of a number remains of Th burial two Burials was multiple of men, young e second 7. 5 and Th twoIn burycases rua to used the same been had kopiha individuals occasions separate on Th out to almost mirror each other. Th ey were both Typeburials2 so missing their and limbs, both were ey Th almost to mirror each other. out Th Burial under that lay 7. disarticulated the bone) single for except (shin tibia arranged were their and heads next each that they so placed other to been had torsos bered so far the their grave. necks back of Both of their bent heads were sides opposite on were partly allow their backs, to touched so they probably this were decomposed happen. to Burials and 40, 43; and all 42 39, mixed (Burials together 35, 32, Burials 23; 22 and 28, 31, of largely case one wasere disarticulatedremainsof (Burial set 85, Th 75). and 74 54, 51, buried being 2). with (Burial an person articulated 3) another of 72, Type torso Type time. the same buried at these individuals not Burial were 36); and (Burials 33 17; 15 and an associa- of because buried there was deliberately likely person seems that the second It way, Either the pits. of re-use coincidental just be could it betweention but the two people ngers ngers had esh ere were no esh was not only being cut only cut being was not esh ribs, pelvis neck vertebrae, bone) (foot cult to be sure how much it can it much sure be how cult to ne, sharp, V-sectioned cut marks cut on sharp,ne, V-sectioned ne cut marks cut the ribs ne the backof on ere were groups ﬁ of . Th marks cut ne had clearly with made been a very sharp blade, Figure burnt. and gives66 diagram a thesmall of of patches

e fi was in an that he be may It burnt. lightly only had been body e 16.3 marks cut Dismemberment, and burning burial is also curious a had burning pattern of parts on the skeleton of partsandbody burialsve having signs of dismembered delib- been that showed that the corpse was or re, partially cremated. cranium. His the man’s burning and back of e largest of the top patch covered the limbs of removal for simply was not It is unclear. e purpose the dismemberment of Th body was present all since the man’s of above), Burial was an unusual case 10 (described Māori ‘in among times’ former was common that cremation notes 54-5) Best (1905a: for the removal of limbs. of the removal for erewere fi Th and long bones as the entire lower half of the body was sometimes taken. It could be that this could be that half taken. It lower the as body was the sometimes entire of bones long and locale. another so maintain and to place connection bury another to at was it in order Th body. and lower and mostly articulated, upper separated into had been but parts the body forcing did apart, marks he cut indicate breaks though or to in his vertebrae that almost which his cer- a wound was vertebrae, from of in one hole perforation one have tainly killed him. Th extensively was charred not the bone small of where but and blackened, in a number patches burnt. Th and his fi broken elbows both were with his by the neck but hands bent up elbows were bothon hands off were broken Th burning his skeleton. on accidental fi country in burials open often a party where by be concealed, could not in hostile territory or also reports descrip- had infectious those who disease. for Campbell or (1894) far home, from as having Māori, this among although cremation very the been practice of of tions common century 19th is diffi inthe late it and was published account times. the practice in pre-European the of frequency represent be taken to it indicates that the graves were marked or visible so that they could be reopened for the for that they so reopened be could visible marked that the graves or were indicates it burial.second Table 12. Burials with sharp cut marks on their bones due to dismemberment. due to bones marks on their cut sharp with Burials 12. Table Area Burial Age A 5 Sex adult Young Male Type Completeness marks cut showing Bones 2 75% collarbone, Cranium, jaw, 7 B 27 Adolescent 18 adult Young Male Male? 2 2 85 adult Young Female 2 50% Adolescent 75% Male 75% 3 ribs, metatarsal jaw, Cranium, 25% Ribs, collarbone Collarbone, ribs, pelvis Ribs, pelvis erately removed by being cut off cut being by removed erately the collarbone, pelvis, jaw bone or the back of the ribs or vertebrae, where limbs fl or where the vertebrae, ribsthe collarbone, the or back of or pelvis, bone jaw Th 12). (Table removed been ey generallycleansmooth, edges had ake the sharp or a shell. Th edge of such as an fl obsidian of people these ree was fresh. Th the bone when theand appearance made that they had been their collarbone of remaining, end whichonly had broken one been had (Burialsand18) 7 5, been and cut probably had ese bones still markscut when as and showed well.fresh bone, Th the fi However, the limbs removed. were when broken these burials of that some fl shows of bone jaw or and vertebrae off

Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 90 Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 91 66. Diagram showing showing 66. Diagram of burnt location the skel- on the patches 10. of Burial eton was scattered is bone scattered of fragments of hundreds e particularly is is in Zealand, so New early since eshing burning are in or skeletal evident bone remains, of llof many features underneathit. Th 16.3.1 16.3.1 bone and scattered Fragmented 16.3.2 16.3.2 of cannibalism? evidence there Was was reburied. it before collected during weighed e bone Stage 1 was not the question of cannibalism of the question arises. often Th cannibalism to among references numerous made Māori observersEuropean customs of everyday of representative all not the reports can of be considered the Māori. However, tinged exaggerated and by bias vary, by are and undoubtedly accounts practices. Although that cannibalism practiced note was detailed and not accounts reliable the most fascination, When cutting, de-fl dismembering, by both pre-European activity and historic ploughing. Fragments of bone from all from bone parts of of Fragments activity ploughing. historic and pre-European both by andunderlying features. both in the overlying Small midden of present, thebones were body found fragments were Some very were vertebrae the and fragments hands, of feet common. the exception; marks, were these cut though showed examples few a and burnt been have to dry when broken and the brittle. majority had been Th bone that were collected from the site during Stage 2 of the excavation totalled just over 5 kg totalled over just during the excavation 2 of Stage the site collected from that were bone Th all together. As mentioned above, a large amount of fragmented and scattered bone was dispersed bone scattered and fragmented of a large above, amount As mentioned the fi and the midden throughout e e re be esh, esh, esh for for esh erent body parts,body erent cult to identify conclusively, ll, Th like much scoop. an oven sh and dog remains, which were presumably remains, which presumably and dog were sh erentialmortuary treatment diff of e burial areas also were with dense features resulting from sh, bird, shellfi having been it of evidence no is there was but burnt, bone is esh or burning of bone can be taken as evidence of cannibalism can of be taken as burning evidence bone or esh of suggest resulta thisthat to nothing is ere burning simply was not for in burials evidence good no bone burnt of provide examples ese ngers and elbows), and apart from being separated into upper and lower body, he he body, and lower upper and apart separated into being from ngers and elbows), erently since it remained articulated. remained it since Burialerently a burial was of the 85 only example e cut marks on the Type 2 burials show that fl esh and limbs were removed, though though removed, limbs and were esh burials 2 fl that show marks cut theType e on to in relation is also in consider the midden human to important bone of e presence eshed or butchered. Th butchered. or eshed Burial feature scooped full wasin a round, 33 shell, dark of soil partially and burnt Historical report cannibalised descriptions remains scattered, being traded as curios or Th Evidence of cannibalism of Evidence in the archaeological diffi is record Th the skeletal features remains that could of of are there number the NRD a At site so the removal of limbs was probably related to burial con- to than for related rather practice removal limbs was probably of the removal so marks cut as potentially to buried Pietrusewsky relating bone on refers sumption. 67) (2007: evidence to equate not does bone cut how of example rigor mortis, another of the releasing to potentially and cutting of scraping cation, or cannibalism.of Further handling modifi and could alsobones, occur secondary if they cleaned for were in burial, preparation a practice 64). 1973: Māori (Oppenheim among that was alsonoted withhuman two bone fi in its the large middle of stones however. Not all fl Not of removal however. burial by demanded be as practice, the NRD may it course, burials since of indicate. has items decorative tools and working for into human of bone e use makingused for Th tools. Kohika, at Irwin work- such and archaeologically 2004: (e.g., documented been 160–164) ing can ‘waste’ that also has marks. and cut saw bone may human produce Such bone use of necessarily cannibalism. not indicate does human remains, but of degradation represent with is unknown them was is clear done the body waswhat treated it and of that the rest diffquite marks cut both was and disarticulated.that showed Other burial types exhibited the site at remains diff and sometimes incomplete for food supply, but was a treatment reserved for the corpses of enemies and was and usually enemies the reserved corpses of an for was a treatment but supply, food for insult annihilation and utter degradation, act of (Barber the foe 1992). of interpreted as resulting cannibalisminterpreted from evidence. certainly conclusive but provide did not of in some resulted and cannibalism that some the site was at practiced While possible is it more is it it, features and below wasthat dispersed the midden through bone thescattered likley activity which that this disturbed, of a lengthy period from resulted the site at dam- bone was all very fragmented and in poor condition but there was no sign of it having it been sign was of no there was all but bone very condition in and poor fragmented Th the pieces. any of marks on cut or chop found no were fresh and there when broken burning partially were was light; relatively many bones face, along singed one or blackened highly few were charred.but Th defl Burning cremation. hasof already Burial no to describedwhich been in showed relation 10, having cannibalised. of been evidence a fi other by lightly burnt Burial been could have 10 fl of the marks removal cut any have indicated that did not he hisaround remains, but fl of unlikely removal that seem to in places related be to only broken were his bones meat fi (the remained articulated. Th cannibalism. the Since in the midden. bone cut and burnt of examples cannibalism some were there and was fi largely of midden built up this was a result Perhaps reason. the same for was here be that the human bone may it eaten, cannibalism,of the through the possibility was scattered though that human remains bone is clear burial It were means. that there other the by handling practices thatmidden involved Th human bone. of relocating and activity so the opportunityboth burial- and non-burial-related scattering accidental and for fragmented did exist. fragments was of burning such a large there bone Since amount of cut scoops oven were there since and use, that was in constant site a around scattered bone the breaking could result bone, burning and bone that contained scattered a midden of into breaking then activities, these scattering and ploughing from remains with period historic further.

Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 92 Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 93 ese was ere or property personal be may ey cation of cannibalism at the site. cannibalism of the site. at cation 16.4.1 Rocks 16.4.1 ll or large had rua e frequently rocks within kopiha their fi identifident esh and these activities are more clearly a result of burial these and activities clearlyesh a result of aremore practices. 16.4 16.4 Artefacts and materials other buried with the body Table 13. Burials with grave goods. grave with Burials 13. Table Area Burial Sex A 5 Age 7 Male 10 27 Male Item/s B Male adult Young 33 shell valve Toheroa Male? 52 21 Adolescent Unknown adult Old shell valve Adult Toheroa I adult Unknown Young shell valve Female 59 Toheroa Child abrader, Adze sandstone 81 Female adult Old 3 shell valve, patu handle Toheroa Unknown 2 drilled pendant, needle Pounamu Bone teeth adult Mid Child Female? Drilled tooth Adult pendant Pounamu needle Bone and chil- with all grave of infants.people e goods were Women for except age groups are and not anywhere the site else on found not they were since are notable e toheroa Th in Area only shells found were A, three 2 which with were of males with Type Toheroa Only ten individuals had artefacts that were clearly deliberately buried with them (Table Only individuals ten had artefacts buried with (Table clearly them deliberately that were Grave goods are items placed with placed the in body the grave. Th goods are items Grave dren had bone needles, pendants and drilled needles, pendants dren man had bone One had two tools ornaments. tooth stone the face (Burial of the pelvis in beneath shells front placed 27), malesand other had toheroa (Burial the grave (Burial of the base at 7) or 33). live Toheroa elsewhere. from site on local the Manukau to brought so had been Harbour, the northern the of North west coast on exposedon and are common beaches sandy most Island. burials,with burials found while both were the two in Area pendants Th B. pounamu provisions made in death, either to equip the deceased for the afterlife, the equip for deceased to as gifts, in either made death, asprovisions markersor sex status. such or as the occupation, person, deceased attributes of of 13). Th in a rua this in Area found kopiha was A but point, shhook fi the unique item, pounamu one needles in no bone the burials, were B ere Area while Th in with association a skeleton. not in Area both Area and A found I. were these aged and burnt bone from shallow partiallyfrom or aged bone burnt and is exhumed it burials. although Additionally, the burials, of is unknownsome it from was what removed and was cut being esh clear that fl with thatfl done being can confi there be no Currently burials. some of In the caseLarge, around the skeletons or basalt rocks on placed had been Burial of three 15, very fallen have to appeared One largeover rocks surrounded the body. individual, the largest these, a second Burial of Underneath arm right torso. and her lie on to large A Burial partly In Burial lay was rock the remains found. of of two 10. 33, top on 17, Th smaller within secondary a rua rocks found into were kopiha). cut the grave (a cut burialsall were in rua Th kopiha. ll- ey ey some is ere the of e position akesin general. strewn the site around eld. 16.4.2 Obsidian Obsidian 16.4.2 16.4.3 16.4.3 Kōkōwai (ochre) scarify and sharp or lacerate blades shells to obsidian using e practice of the skin the of Th Reports traditional of Māori be burial cases graves that not in would some practice note Rocks were also found with the shallow oval grave of multiple Burials 28, 31, 32 and 35, 35, and Rocks with 32 also Burials the were shallow found oval multiple 28,grave 31, of of the bones among in the graveakes obsidian sometimes and of usually were ere small fl ing the grave, since there were many smallwere ing the there grave, since fl obsidian in them. obsidian any Only have 20 graves did not several by early descrip- is documented haehae) mourners during practice of burial (the rites what given is of description No 50–51). 43, 1973: (Oppenheim Māori customs death of tions in placed they were is possible it became they tapu, then since but, these items to happened the grave with the dead. Seven burials had a distinct staining red which sometimes in the around the sand skeleton, than ochre rather of graves four also alsopieces Another red. contained stained the bones cases the ochrestaining. In most with associated burials Burial was had a piece red, but 81 yellow ochre thecranium. of by in secondary any Ochre ochre or staining noted was not burials an been have aspect mortuary and may of reserved than corpses rather treatment for dry bones. the skeleton, though it was not clear in accidentally the soil these were was fi included not whether it though the skeleton, sitting on the base, even when they did not have burials have they had didsitting the not base,even when on so the in rocks them, probably rocks these very were of large Some the bodies. and to their relationship functiona beyond the beach. on Th the area, immediate the from only rock is scoria outcropping where not Th would probably have been transported to the site by canoe, perhaps from Maungataketake from 1 canoe, perhaps by transported been have the site to probably would further from also may come have but afikm away, originally probably served as grave markersthe Burial gravesince of been have appears28 to people. other of bones add to reopened Th 1981). (Voykovic enemies by desecration from them marked protect as so to was known, that their position least at the marked NRD that graves or at were evidence site, so that they could be returned partial for to Th bones. add exhumation to or accu- rua quite also kopiha into marked dug been have appears as they subsequently to were it so however, at NRD the of of settlement site archaeological lot evidence is a ere Th rately. living close being to by activities protection that the graves had enough is possible but these were blocks of scoria, probably local stone, that had been shaped into squares. Th into shaped that been had local stone, scoria, blocks probably of these were but

Th e NRD site: Community report 16 How were they buried? 94 Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 95 ected ected. Many of the of ected. Many 67. Examples of the Examples of the 67. are that holes eroded of gout. characteristic are shown The bones those that make up joint. toe big the ected the body during erent ages and sexes in a way that could could that ages sexes in way a and erent ammation as tries the attack body ammation to and 17.1.1 Gout17.1.1 17.1 Disease 17.1 5 cm infl is causes 4 17 17 injury and Disease 3 erent properties mean that by considering both bones and teeth together and teeth together both bones mean considering that by properties erent uence. 2 1 Gout produces distinctive types of eroded holes in the bones of the aff ected joints; these ected joints; distinctive the aff of inthe bones types produces holes Gout eroded of hands, ankles in the feet, gout knees. of Several or had evidence the NRD of skeletons males and females in both burial and Mid-adult areasOld- aff were care and theirect and food exposure their access to disease to injury. and 0 Evidence of disease in the NRD koiwi is described here by disease categories. Evidence of of disease Evidence in of the NRD disease by categories. koiwiEvidence described is here injury disease or is also summarised each individual for in the Appendix. which are uric there high of levels is a disease when in acid the body, that develops Gout crystalscan form Th tissues. in joint digest cartilage the crystals, of can Attacks be the erosion gout to which bone. and leads of diets extremely and high inperiodic by a kind protein painful. on of can be brought Gout was traditionally this it reason associated seafood. and For such as meats red in foods found with wealth and affl are are typically surfaces most Gouty (Figure lesions the joint the edge of at seen 67). such as the wrists, joints anklesect other elbows and also may aff but toe, in the big common knees.and life. Any changes that aff ect dental enamel are permanent, but bone continues to grow, adapt adapt grow, to continues bone but are enamel ect permanent, dental life. Any changes that aff ese diff heal.and Th aff that health, matters from chart degree, some we can, to the history a person’s of is some gives ected their body as Th adults. theirgrowth during childhood those that aff to the individual, the personal experience of the into lives also and environ- and into insight age can sex and give groups us erent Comparing disease between the group. diff of ment diff variation any of between on people information refl Bones and teeth can tell stories about some of the experiences that aff of some teeth and can about tellBones stories individuals with gout were too incomplete for their age and sex for be known. all to of Out individuals incomplete too were with gout 23.5% and females of (2/14) the disease; of 14% evidence had (11/53) 21% the site, at adults males. of (4/17) is is 5 cm is and gout it, from er 4 is gives a chicken–and– rise to 3 ected more often than often Europeans, more ected 2 1 17.1.2 17.1.2 stones Kidney 0 contra- Bar the NRD (Buckley and at also Wairau gout site, at nding et al. of 2010), mm x 15 x 9.9 grave measured 27.5 her from recovered e largest the kidney of stones 68. Kidney stones 68. Kidney stones e fi Gout among Mäori has been a focus of study since the middle of the 20th the middle study of since of Th a focus has century. Mäori been among Gout Th as kidney to that can stones related be a condition gout, Burial also of evidence had 59 ected kidney function likely and aff have would the kidney these two stones women, For are Kidneyonly very stones so in archaeological rarely reportedas found being skeletons, found with Burial 67. Burial with found e presence of the disease at the NRD site was probably due to a combination of genetic genetic of a combination to due the disease the NRD was probably of at site e presence partly due to the fact that modern Mäori have for a long time been reported to have the high- have time reported to been partly a long the for fact have Mäori to that modern due than higher Zealanders. New European much Medical in the world, gout of prevalence est curiousresearchers Mäori are been have aff why as to suff especially did not that Mäori stated voyagers early European since sug- has been It a disease populations. rare be that was traditionally to in indigenous thought genetic of is a combination gout such a high Mäori have of that prevalence thegested reason and lifestyle. with western food modern the disease to coupled predisposition a westernised diet and lifestyle. of until it the free introduction thatdictsMäori were of idea Th a diet and that was rich in certainpredisposition proteins. late Burial be in had kidney her estimated was to a woman stones. the site at 59 women Two 30s. Th Burial was a woman 67 conglomerate. kidney-shaped roughly and wasand a hard, elongated near 40s. the large pelvis be in found her estimated to were kidney and lower Eight stones was mm and also burial; x 21 crouched kidney- her area theback largest of measured 29.4 (Figureshaped 68). impaired kidney can hand, develop kidney function On the other can stones give gout. rise to the increased to uric Th due in acid the blood. patients in gout gout? cause the kidney or kidney stones cause stones did the gout egg question: them- unnoticed been could have the kidney stones but health general problems; caused as in they the kidneys. remained usually is long so selves, It the smaller that kidney stones pain, they can the most be expelled since cause the kidneys from a block- can and cause then at is of an loss to excruciating which can lead the if untreated condition, Th age in the ureter. thatkidney’s function. inter- to referred is unusual. case that is often Another with the stones the site at two women lived who in Mäori woman Kaikouranationally 200 another to is that of 150 about years 1975). 8 cm in diameter that had a massive kidney was (Houghton about She ago. stone

Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 96 Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 97 can bone e caused is had changes in e bone 17.1.4 Arthritis 17.1.4 17.1.3 Anaemia 17.1.3 activity. erent is can be very painful Th mobility. reduces and ected. Arthritisected. in the wrists particularly was often severe; 17.1.5 17.1.5 arthritis) (non-spinal limbs the in Arthritis iron enough was not there Either likely iron. is anaemia a lack most of from resulted had the same years old) e skull 7–11 a child of in grave, thesame Burial (estimated 31 and anaemia the site at of had evidence who the only were people ese two people young Fifteen people had arthritis in the limbs: 13% (2/15) of women, 35% (6/17) of men. men. of (6/17) 35% had arthritis women, Fifteen of people (2/15) in 13% the limbs: Th Th Th ering they the anaemia from died. when kind in disease archaeological disease, of found common skeletal e most remains is joint several cases showed that bone-on-bone contact had polished and carved and had polished the contact into grooves several that bone-on-bone cases showed activity is suggests some that practiced was required that a particular the wrist. of bones Th the wrist, weaving of canoe paddling, or such as tool-making, as motion possible repeated arthritis. of patterns the from activity particular the diagnose couldn’t we though examples Burial man, arthritis had an woman, and Burial an old old 10, 21, only the in the base of the wrist had arthritis of who bones as in the other with site at not others thumb, in the they practiced a diffwrist. Perhaps Arthritis already increases with adult young age, the and fact had arthritis that one inthe Arthritis the the and NRD wrist at site and the people in of many in the limbs was noted aff most knee were the joints Two young people at the site showed evidence of havingof evidence had anaemia. Th showed the site at people young Two the eye sockets. of Burial surface adolescent, was a young thechanges roof the bone 32 of to they died. Onlythe when skull years the – old 10–15 was present been have to estimated Th else (Figure buried been somewhere have must 62). the skeleton of rest their had any chance start eye to sockets had not healing, still so this was probably person suff changes inbone their Burial eye sockets. next that of Only sat to the skull it and was present, healing, had been this the bone started so they child have may recover For however, to 31. they died. before the condition from absorb to be unable to or iron lose to them was causing factor other in their some diet, or other iron, therefore and blood lose to people can parasites cause example, For properly. it sometimes or food, of out iron absorb to being able them diet can stop things in a person’s unknown is It certain levels. whether to iron response kinds reduce disease to is of the body’s as in their a iron diets or lack a anaemia of as result of from a ered these two suff subadults illness. other result of their skulls may in the grave. same in It the manner, same buried were next each to other, circumstances shared and the same each which other led to that theybe relationship a had their anaemia.to Th bones they leave assuch arthritis. degenerate, and wear out When the soft tissues in joint a rubbing Th against each other. In places, surfaces (Figure joint in grooves and its with 69). pits eroded and polished become willthe bone trying by extended respond extra ragged-looking form to producing bone, is It it. of the edge from reaching out bone of ngers’ large or ‘fi the joint, the edge of at bone arthritisnormal for activity physical increase with repetitive hard to or age, though can also onset. its to contribute knownis is rst part of the spine to degenerate, which rst part degenerate, to the spine of in was the neck e fact degeneration that ected. ected. Th 17.2.1 Spondylolysis 17.2.1 17.1.6 17.1.6 spine the in Arthritis 17.2 17.2 Genetic disorders and anomalies ected was the lumbar (lower back) spine, while the thoracic spine while spine spine, the thoracic back) ected was (lower the lumbar 0 1 2 3 4 5 cm ered both more often and from more severe spinal degeneration than spinal severe degeneration more from and often more both ered become eroded, eroded, become rubbing together. together. rubbing 69. An example of 69. ree of the men from Area A also had ‘Schmorl’s Nodes’ in the spine. Th ese are hol- ese are Th Area in from the spine. also A the men Nodes’ ‘Schmorl’s had of ree spinal severe have degeneration part to the spine of common was neck e the most porous, rough and rough porous, brae. The bone has The bone has brae. surfaces have been been have surfaces are two neck verte- two neck are in some places pol- places in some Six people at the NRD site had spondylolysis in the lower back. Th e condition could have could have e condition back. in the Th lower the NRD had spondylolysis at Six site people Th Th arthritis in the spine spine in the arthritis from Burial 10. These These 10. Burial from is was in severe a third two females and over of thirds males. these small of Based on arthritis especially for place popula- is a very develop, e spine in to prehistoric common Burial 40, despite them in age had the individuals of but 27 over are common lesions ese ished where two bone where ished Spondylolysis is the name for a kind break in that is the is partly name a vertebra for of Spondylolysis partly injury, a the front. from separates the vertebra of portion the back this In condition disorder. genetic to strain related has repetitive and been results from that vertebra believed on is that it It also is it the back; believedof that people but heavy labour and movement repetitive vigorous the condition. to predisposition can a genetic have if the place: unless took disability, a further not complication probably discomfort but caused Th dislocated. part forward slips thevertebra becomes and front of de-stabilised wrist, suggests that not only was this a common location to develop arthritis, develop to that it wrist, but location was only this suggests that not a common early was and the activity an practiceddeveloped from it early age. to that contributed Th in populations modern had regular, to compared do people heavy to more work where tions, three Nearly quartersthe western world. females and all of arthritis. the males of some had Th males numbers, suff arthritic severe could have adults young in the spine. females. Even degeneration Next aff(Figure most 69). aff was least the rib cage) to (attached and was in adults, the females even young only had severe evident part where the spine of suggests this that the fi was often degeneration, may indicate hard activity physical indicate may body. involving the upper the intervertebral in which when disks the surfaces arelows the vertebrae caused rupture. of Th men. Burial Burialother – 10 men e older and two 36 – were Th adult. a young being

Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 98 Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 99 da culty. canrst mild is e broken degrees erent common is is quite da occulta. Th ere are diff two to is had happened is is a rare developmental likely have not would too is da in the top neck vertebra. neck inda top the Burial vertebra. neck da occulta the lowest was 77 of 17.2.2 17.2.2 da occulta bifi Spina 17.2.3 17.2.3 spine the in variations Other 17.3 17.3 Injury: and violence accident y or bow-tie when viewed from the front. Th viewed the front. when from bow-tie y or e surfaces the break will of the stain as absorb the soil as just much of the larger of and the was one this have to condition e only female found da is a common developmental defect of the spine in which the back the arches the spine on of defect developmental is a common da ere is a diff erence between bone that has been broken when it is ‘fresh’ it when between that has broken been – stillerence bone alive or is a diff ere y vertebra’ – one of her vertebrae had a depression running in a line, making it across had a depression vertebrae her it of – one y vertebra’ It is possible that the diff erence in spondylolysis between males in the spondylolysis and females among erence that the diff is possible It Two people at the NRD site had the condition in its mildest form. Burial mildest form. in was its a young 71 the NRD had the condition at site people Two Th of the men. of undertaking larger least heavy bodied people, at or more men, to wasNRD related people physical work. Th bifiSpina the close sacrum like or a vertebra not they do normallyof Th would. most robust women at the site. Perhaps she engaged in more heavy work due to her size, her or to due heavy engaged in work more she Perhaps thesite. at women robust most the condition. to large susceptible her body size more leftperhaps her as spondylolisthesis and is much more likely to cause disability. Th likely disability. cause to more is much and as spondylolisthesis of severity of the condition; the mildest and most common is spina bifi is spina the common mildest severity and most of the condition; of Several people had other unusualSeveral spinal had other which are forms, individual mostly people of a matter vari- (Burial woman One called is what has had 15) developed. ‘but- a the bone in the way ation terfl likeshaped a butterfl form would not cause any pain or discomfort. More severe degrees of the condition can be the condition of degrees severe pain any discomfort. cause More or not would form life threatening. bifi male spina had who probably adult, bifi male had spina adult young who another pain any her or caused have archaeologically reported not would and that is seldom defect as separate pieces, their develop vertebrae of the spines of had some Fivedisability. people the main to the vertebra. Th portion of joined being of instead bifi and spina Burial man the young with both spondylolysis 71, any problem. them caused surfaces had it – joint its of wasthat missingone also vertebra one had above) (described be functioning diffi to appeared the vertebra without though developed, not simply extra back. one had Th in his lower vertebra Burial 24, adolescent, young a the site. at this it have though to was the only person generally, in human populations the NRD at seen site. were and violent, accidental both injury the skeleton, of Examples to heal, to misshapen. leaving it has attempted the bone when obvious is most Injury bone to died fi the heal person the chance have because to did and not broken that were Bones also in the skeleton. be detected not long after death, when it still has some elasticity – and bone that is broken when it is is still it after it when when long elasticity death, has thatnot some is broken – and bone fresh will is the it break, edges at when smooth dry have old, broken that is brittle. and Bone will the bone often an surfaces break on angle with having the and outer inner ‘peeled’ away Th each other. from time dry, and some old is it when that has broken Bone surfaces the bone. of the unbroken after will death, edges. Th with crack brittle the straight through bone, rougher and Pierced spine: unhealed weapon injury unhealed weapon spine: Pierced left rib Broken Probable broken left collarbone leg left lower pierced Possible foot left Injured brokenPossible left collarbone Burial of Many 10’s a fatal wounding. this was probably erefore, which by a spike, perhaps a weapon, by made was probably is hole 17.3.1 17.3.1 injury implement/weapon pointed Burial 10: Table 14. Individuals and fragments with skeletal evidence of injury. evidence skeletal with and fragments Individuals 14. Table Area Burial Sex A Age 4 10 Female Description Male Mid adult bone hip right Broken adult Old left ankle Broken below) (see 17 below) Male (see 41 adult Mid Male unhealed injury blade Injury forehead: to B tailbone Injured adult Mid 53 61 left ulna (forearm) Broken 18 Male Female Female 21 adult Mid adult Young adult ribs Young Broken Female Fractured skull below) (see below) 70 (see spine Injured 71 adult Old Unknown Adult the wrist) left ulna broken (at Possible Male adult injury tailbone to Young Possible cranium broken of Fragment Each of the examples of injury found in injury the NRD of the found examples koiwi of Each are listed in the following table a body’s describethat this of marks the removal cut to not does section thatNote related kind some had have appearedto and41 Burials well-healed. thewere injuries 17 of Most running is man had a tapering hole diagonally Whatever vertebra. his through lowest Th was and above, and the front from had entered instrument this had caused hole pointed the of theunderside small a on made exit left. It hole and theback to down and angled during either place life it was so took thisfresh, when pierced been had bone e Th vertebra. shortly afteror Th death. right, the upper from the abdomen hard was of wood, or stuck the bone through front of get this assuming far, was alive he the time,aiming the at point the left. To down to and iliac puncturedartery, have severing rapid would common leading to the his right gut before Th loss. and massive blood also were bones lightly which burnt, is discussed in Section 16.3. surfaces will surfaces,will paler be bone than it because exposed been have the unbroken not as long. the soil for to only on based is Description detail cases are below. described in more some and 14) (Table this taken, though were (X-rays) observing by radiographs seen be – no could what the bone the bone. to has happened what better understand to can help limbs; those are discussed in separately as Section they 16.3 to are believed be related to duringered life. burial injury suff practices, not the complica- malformed. leaving Despite the bone their recovery, infection complicating of three of they but had eventuallytion, accidental, been could have the injuries healed. of Many deserve ese description. a littlemore Th interpersonal to violence. clearly were them related

Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 100 Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 101 e e skull was 70. Burial 18 had been had 18 Burial 70. on the very hard struck head with of the back instrument. a blunt left hole This large a and had skull in the way all the it cracked other the to around of her forehead. side 17.3.4 17.3.4 ammation and infl Infection 17.3.3 17.3.3 head the of back the to blow Burial 18: 17.3.2 17.3.2 skull and fractured forehead cut to Burial 17: is young woman had suff ered a strong blow to the back of her head which had shattered which had shattered head her the back of to blow strong a ered had suff woman is young while was with still hit thebeen had bone great force head fresh. Th is man’s 0 1 2 3 4 5 cm Infection can be caused by bacteria, viruses, can by Infection be caused fungi. and parasites infectious diseases Most to infect, develop ose within,or spread bones that will leave only the soft tissues. Th involve Th the skull, of the back a crack measuring sending and mm across, x 70 leaving 130 a hole all the across forehead the hole around the way the edge of from that spread radiating it from peeled and and smooth, were of bone the edges e skull her of Th (Figure the left front to 70). the the edges of any of on mark could be found weapon fresh. No clearly when were made blunt skull. her from small Considerable the many on broken or that had break fragments in breaking trauma was involved the bone. force Th Th his head. two and of large side the the through forehead right cracks over split up led was fresh, leaving smooth, it when had broken clearly that the bone edges showed broken surfaces,evenly thecoloured surfaces. inner from with of peeling In the centre the outer of one the edge of on bone polished of section at straight, fl was a smooth, there his forehead, the breaksof – this mark, his is a weapon skull where being was cracked weapon a bladed by of remains resthis e cuttingand fracturing his it forehead, down onto Th the bone. brought damaged. not were amma- er infl had people ree 5 cm erent aspects of dental disease that people disease aspects dental that people of erent infections suggest lung that people the is and possible 17.4.1 17.4.1 wear Tooth 17.4 17.4 Dental health 01234

below it. below it. suff may urban who modern just populations not is that it shows is disease the respiratory NRDering a certain at from of site. amount angle, and a large angle, and a large Respiratory disease is usually connected to urban sites and environments with smoky, with smoky, Respiratory disease environments and is usually urban to sites connected At the NRD site infection was most common in theTh ribs tibia. and common the infection NRD wasAt most site the enamel worn off enamel worn the 71. Burial 29’s molars 29’s Burial 71. worn on a very sharp very a on sharp worn them. The canine was was The canine them. and premolars had all and premolars evidence of infection on the inside of the ribs which may have been caused by infection by in the caused ribs been which have of may the infection inside on of evidence that she which shows sinuses her of thelungs. Burial one inside smalla had 15 bone of mesh Th thathad chronic sinus. infection of were suff health tradi- and on commented who doctors European period contact Some air. polluted the diseases of other and conjunctivitis, of tional living Mäori the commonness attributed Clair which traditional lacked chimneys of houses, Mäori the smokiness eyes, to (Wright-St 1969b). Th air. polluted as a result of tions e inabilityof are structures solid Teeth that will Th the skeleton. outlast the of rest often looking peo- at disease. By or use of record its to permanence gives some remodel to enamel the health, health, growth we can dental gain into individuals diet and an of insight ple’s of describes diffnumber is section a Th and groups. gives us a real people Looking prehistoric healthered. of the dental at the NRD suff at site appreciation modern of dentistry. changes that may be recognised, though it is often not possible to know exactly to possible kind what changes not often is be recognised, that may it though them. caused infection of our teeth gradually times time. wear In modern re-grow, down cannot over enamel Since our diets are show generally and highly our and soft teeth not relatively foods do of processed in the past, became teeth extremely often particularly worn, However, a great deal wear. of grind that results used to because in were small food tools if particles in stone the stone of abscess had developed developed had abscess

Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 102 Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 103 erences 72. An example of fern An example of fern 72. root plane (repro- Houghton from duced 7.11). Figure 1980: e sand found in shellfi sh, and in food in in general a in and food sh, in shellfi found e sand 17.4.2 17.4.2 wear “Fern dental root” erence in the diet between the sexes, or that females were more likely to likely to more were females that between or diet in the sexes, the erence brous plant, as dietary Banks a plant, likened which to others Joseph and brous staple, A distinctive pattern of tooth wear in many pre-European Mäori skeletons has been has been skeletons distinctive Mäori A wear tooth in pattern many pre-European of this have to tooth pattern of found been have fern root eat not do who Other populations had this kind wear the people the tooth NRDFemales 70% of at of Approximately site. Heavily worn teeth were very common at the NRD site. Many people were left with were teeth theHeavily NRD Many people at teeth very worn were site. common mean is may that teeth worn severely than of males. proportion had a greater Th Females Early European accounts of the Mäori diet made frequent mention of the importance of fern the importance of of mention the frequent Mäori diet made of EuropeanEarly accounts fi a tough, root, Clair 1969a). taking in the diet (Wright-St bread of the place down,but worn tooth is a is is when time as Th ‘fern some wear. plane’ for root to referred even- tooth a sharp on is worn the whole it angle, and sometimes at fl worn being of instead tually the tongue in leans towards the tooth so that the crown of in the mouth over tips the the through jawbone cheek, towards protruding out lean out the tooth of theand roots (Figure 72). this Mäori although So, particularwear. pre-European in late wear common be pattern may fern necessarily by caused exclusively not is it consumption, with associated and root fern chewing. root teeth wear with of than fern root proportion slightlya had higher males, andArea had A are small people than these and diffof Areaslightly the more numbers B, though be very not meaningful.may that man was an tooth (Burial extreme had one older One 36) down so that worn been had then and side its onto over pushed had been the tooth example: perform some other task that aff As expected, be degree. would greater a theirected teeth to that aff task other some perform unknown of Adults age sex and teeth than worn (i.e., people. young more had people older teeth, worn severely tell) also of to high a had number incomplete too were their skeletons people. which mean that this may older was largely group of up made coastal environment, can also cause considerable wear. Tough fi brous plant matter can matter also plant brous fi Tough wear. can alsocoastal considerable cause environment, weardownif the teeth chewed rapidly regularly.Apart to the using teeth food, as from tools can also objects break or wear down. them hold bite, strip, the gums down to worn the time in their by they 30s were 40s. or Severe wear like this can vulnerable infection becomes to the tooth because health problems other to on lead then altogether the eventually tooth and an in of the jaw abscess of loss to the development and (Figure 71). diff was some there food, whichfood, can be harsh teeth. Th on e is would no doubt – he ey jaw had all his upper from lost been 17.4.3 17.4.3 loss Tooth the bacteria plaque in dental when e acids are produced 17.4.6 17.4.6 Caries (cavities) 17.4.5 17.4.5 – periodontitisammation Infl 17.4.4 17.4.4 jaw the in – abscesses Infection Tooth destruction the surrounding canto of lead It in the bacteria plaque. by caused is is Th root. the tooth of the tip an at abscess in the of jaw the development to is leads One older man (Burial Th alone. had nine jaw older abscesses inOne his lower 36) At the NRD site the older people had frequently lost several they lost died.One had frequently teeth before people the NRDAt the older site ferment carbohydrates in the mouth. High amounts of sugar in the diet cause a lot of tooth tooth of sugar lot a of in diet cause the amounts High in mouth. the carbohydrates ferment Caries usually with increase also age, since contribute. carbohydrates other though decay, the progressive. disease is slowly have been extremely been have painful. Both males and both Areas and females from had this problem ering in abscesses their jaws. from suff were adults young even the and destruction ammation to the the tissues tooth that anchor of is the infl Periodontitis Th bone. when can seen be periodontitis the In skeleton, the eventually tooth. and of bone loss to with often ragged around gaps the teeth. around the teeth and becomes porous, the bone periodontitis had two-thirds this the malesAbout could checkedbe of for (70%, who 7/10) only small were people there the females. Since of of numbers 3/9) (33%, only one-third but between erence the sexes is this, is uncertain could be assessed for who it this whether diff meaningful. tooth the the mineral from of in result the teeth that caries, or are cavities, Dental holes Th acid. by eroded and decayed being If a tooth is broken, eaten away by cavities or heavily worn, it becomes vulnerable infec- becomes to heavily or it cavities worn, by away eaten is broken, If a tooth tion. Th usually leaving infection a hole, will by bone the jaw through generated out pus way make its get very these holes large. Sometimes the Such is serious jaws infection side. the of cheek on an individual leaves the blood. potentiallyand lethal vulnerable it entering bacteria since to probably would have had tooth ache for many years his life ache for of had tooth have would while the teeth died and fellprobably culty chewing his few remaining on upper diffi had great have would died, he he Before out. teeth. Both males their and females from 30s teeth. had lost onwards Tooth loss before death can be related to a variety to can In modern disease death be related dental processes. of before loss Tooth death tooth to that lead times, with sugary our relatively caries often is (cavities) diets, it theheavy tooth wear often to tooth that led was more times while it loss, and in prehistoric loss. his jaw of died, he and the bone teeth before eleven least man, at had lost Burialolder 14, his teeth where had fallenhad healed over Th out. it was just a thin strip of tooth from the tip of the crown the all of the tip a thin was of just from it the tooth end strip down to the of way root. tooth’s

Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 104 Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 105 cantly uenced by Burial by uenced 6, suggests is either that a provide to ese remain the tooth on rst 10 to 11 years life the tooth of when 11 to rst 10 erence was partlyerence infl is diff erence between males of and females who erence the numbers 17.4.7 Calculus (tartar) survive to strong ciently illness of a period in early child- duringered the fi ered more ill-health in childhood more ered than alternatively or men, erence betweenerence the males sexes however: had a signifi 17.4.8 17.4.8 – enamel hypoplasia disruption Growth diseaseers severe malnutrition, their or growth can be halted tempo- diff is a notable ere unknown of sex, Burial was an decay adolescent tooth have 86. to person e youngest Sixteen people had at least one enamel defect somewhere in their dentition. Of these, only in their dentition. somewhere defect enamel one least had at Sixteen people Th with a tendency vary to Polynesia, found been throughout cavities widely have Rates of the NRDWhenthe teeth calculus of on was usually koiwi was it found only in small At the NRD site there were thirteen individuals with caries. Th ey were usually were ey in found thirteen were there the NRD At individuals site with caries. Th tooth from ered burial both from areas people and suff young and Males old females, and ect tooth health, but it is evidence of plaque – which does encourage the development of of – which the encourage development does plaque of is evidence it health,ect tooth but So leftwhich their had teethvulnerable decay. to below) (see hypoplasia eyenamel had the women in this suff group the women likely to more and resilient the girlsmore were but equally, ered thegirlsthat suff boys and survive and live with adulthood to scarred likely teeth the while die of more to boys were illness. crowns were forming. few teeth. a that just Females in more had defects and 86) 81 (Burials people four 49, 15, had nine than hypoplasia enamel times the of prevalence males. Th permanent record of ill of health record suff permanent rarily. When the development of dental enamel is halted during halted is enamel ill dental of health, resumed then and Whenrarily. the development their recovers, teeth (enamel can the enamel person be leftwhen with formed areas poorly of Th colour. altered grooves or with pits, hypoplasia) If an child infant or suff with his unusually cavities. of large number Th suffi this been had although person damage further their teeth, to which to led permanent had caused the ill-health hood, dental theyadolescence. died in late before problems in available pre- were and lower foods sweeter in tropical areas be higher softer, to where European New Zealand. itself Plaque that live micro-organisms in the the many mouth. of a build is up plaque Dental layers of the deepest for is common it the observe, archaeologist remain to but for not does looks is like a hard, next mineralised surface theplaque tooth calculus. to become to into Th pain directly person a or surfaces. cause the tooth on Calculus not does greyconcretion aff cavities. man, teeth believed be a young with had the most to calculus Burial amounts. them on 27, was little there Although diff (14). it of more have to had calculus who tended the men had calculus their teeth somewhere, on this between way erence the areas – Area wasere also a marked diff did. Th than the women teeth with of calculus than proportion A had a greater Area B. higher proportion of teeth with cavities. of Th proportion higher small numbers, with one or two teeth showing decay, but Burial 6, a man of mid-adult age Burial but mid-adult 6,a man of twosmall or with teeth decay, one showing numbers, with cavities in out, twelve be thatstood this may his teeth. of man It had a particularly car- than decay anyone tooth to susceptible was more he reason some for diet or bohydrate-rich the site. else at Th decay. child e of trait. Some a genetic is is simply 17.4.9 17.4.9 teeth Chipped 17.4.11 17.4.11 teeth Unusual heavily more were teeth) front big e central (the incisors 17.4.10 17.4.10 molar) third (the teeth Wisdom Burial 49, estimated to be a woman in her late 20s, late in her be a woman also estimated to Burial had an unusual teeth. pattern49, of ree of her second premolars were missing (both in the upper jaw and one in the lower in the lower one and jaw in the upper (both missing were premolars second her of ree eir canines spaced further than were usual, the front to around as in to if they had moved Whether or not people had the third was molar variable. people Th Whether not or people had none, some had one, two, three or four third molars. Four people had onlyhad a two, people three third one, had four Four or molars. some none, had people at had 37% jaws, enough the koiwi Of small, withsingle third complete misshapen molar. missing third one molar. least had an unusual trait. teeth,patterns people which Th be a genetic of appear to Two the two teeth). of front side either teeth on Burial lateral (the incisors upper have 24 did not Th Th teeth. front as burden take more the lack of wear because than teeth,worn which more suggests that they the received other incisors. lateral of Th jaw). Small chips out of the edges of teeth were also frequently noted. Th ere may have been been have may ere Th also teethSmall were the edges of noted. frequently of chips out as them using tools. by small perhaps or hardrepeated the teeth objects biting to by injuries the is crown down so that there is worn wear once tooth because to can be related Chipping is vulnerable fracturing it to the tooth, of away. the outside around only a ring enamel of

Th e NRD site: Community report 17 Disease and injury 106 Th e NRD site: Community report 18 Summary and discussion 107 is eir edismem- rough them and ability e excavate to erent parts of the body. Th partsthe body. erent of e koiwi e secondary and those who 3 and 4) burials (Types 18.1 Th 18.1.1 Burial practice erence in burial treatment of people according to their according age to in burial people of erence treatment 18 18 Summary and discussion burials both of individual and has provided bones photography and e recording Pukaki reburied at been e koiwi now have marae Th urupa, far the site. from not Ethnographic descriptions of traditional of Māori descriptions burialEthnographic a wide variety practices note of While clear was no there diff Th an incomplete could represent or ese individuals be left this to meant way, been could have a from Māori skeletons e koiwi the NRD from are the pre-European largest of site group e wide variety burials that mortuary of the NRD shows at site an practice was ongo- often had had their limbs removed before burial (Type 2) were burials were part 2) burial that had undergone of before had had their (Type limbs removed wasere of stagean additional also evidence the mortuary buried. they Th were before process in the mortuary after process burial, burials with some body parts returned of removal for to 1). undisturbed and (Type complete were and burials treatment Some had neither 5). (Type Th the mortuarystage of process. 62–68) and that 1981: primary of methods and secondary Voykovic burial the body (cf. of after time, often years, of four amounts erent exhuming take after could place diff bones after 64). two or sometimes only even after (Best one or 1905a: but only a few months that show Bar) Palliser from and Wairau Archaeological Bay Māori reports burial of (e.g., unusual variety a and not have to Māori is not site it burial of pre-European one practices at exhumed. being bones of evidence unusual have to diff burial of treatment erent diff sex, was or often there Th repre- Of the 88 people archaeologically osteologically. and recorded been have to site single due either complete, less were Many skeletons. near complete thirty or sented, complete were burialto disturbed only partial being to activity of or later by during skeletons, occupation an give about better information skeletons While ploughing. the complete historic and by contribute incomplete were that skeletons the disease group, the in of patterns individualor our the understanding varietyto of burial Th of the site. practices at life Th there. pre-European burials into gives an insight people’s these record lived buried who and were at people of the understanding group gainedwe have of some Th this site. if studied information further. give Th more to that has thea large potential data body of Zealand New of has and the people the pre-European into insight will provide to continue Māori of ect a high number the history diseases that still understand of help to aff potential today. Th mortuaryis,than at rather the ritual takingburial single place in a Th this at ing site. process stages. Th of could be a series there event, make distinction a are between the limbs; and there burials 2) burials the torso bered (Type the body; of the the rest from bones usually other of with group a 4), (Type feet hands and of disturbed leaving had skulls, 5) have burials removed, cases limb bones in and some (Type the body; theof rest burials andthree (Burials thechildren’s head and only of were 31 13, 32). exhumation and reburial their stage burial to another has added – in pre-European process is ected peri- erent theirects diet. from give injuries violent cases of ree arthritis e NRD showed population brous plant matter, such as fern root, such as fern root, matter, plant brous 18.1.2 18.1.2 Disease and injury in the wrist, extreme degeneration cases of of e number er some detrimental side-eff ict and are evocative of human suff ering and emotion. ering emotion. and human suff are and ict evocative of are the site at shell midden of next the the amount sea and to location e site’s the consumption with to the related fact been that have kidney is, coupled stones archaeologically documented is often ict through increase in weaponry in the artefacts had rela- have would in the skeletons and anomalies noted conditions e few genetic Since gout can be brought on by the consumption of foods that are rich foods in certain of proteins, the consumption by on can be brought gout Since Th Arthritis is extremely common in both modern and archaeological skeletons, where it is is it where Arthritis archaeological and skeletons, in modern both extremely is common pain- of source the greatest been have would problems dental the site at people most For had broken injuryAccidental can the site be expected at Severalin population. any people Diff the society. into gives as insight it injury interest is of violent of Evidence particular is of and kidney gout stones Māori for the e evidence Modern have interest. times some of them were exhumed were them and reburied as part of times the some burial of the time,practice of exhumed again. they been reburied and have now Th free that Māori of were observers European Early thought inthe world. gout of rates highest the disease so researchers in 20th and the mid century suggested genetically that Māori were that this had lain but until dormant issues), related obesity other (and gout predisposed to in found has been of gout e fact evidence that a European diet and lifestyle. up Māori took Th the NRD andalsopre-European from another Māoriat site skeletons thesepre-European good is is a Th it. free of that that not they were shows Bar (Buckley Wairau et al.site, 2010), diseasea that understand to can help studying how skeletons of diseasea example in ancient today. is still a problem than rather has a disease traditionally a plenty it of wealth to connected and considered been Th poverty. of in the fortunate been position have may these people that although indicates protein, of they lacking did suffnot protein, tively little the living impact on the back prob- whom individual for than other those people and serious the more advanced to two) separatesinto a vertebra (where spondylolysis of lem Th place). part of slips out the vertebra of (where spondylolisthesis of debilitating condition obvious signs of a gritty, sandy seafood diet. Tough, fi a gritty, seafood diet. signs Tough, of sandy obvious like pa. Th sites ed fortifi the appearance of or a site from condition is aggravated by activity, and has been related to weight-bearing and strenuous and strenuous is aggravated weight-bearing to activity, by and has related condition been activity. knee Th in the hip, and spine. encountered often most mostly in the wrist and knee. Th arthritis of suggests heavy spine, with the prominence manual in the upper work coupled aff and women and that was engaged men both in by work body, theinvolving upper adults. young even had who people of hard the as number by do work, is shown had to ful ill-health. Teeth stumps, downteeth worn to heavily the that were were had fallen chipped, or before out died. Th person also the teeth heavy down had worn to they Once became added vulnerable wear. dental to had several largeinfection people many and abscesses in been their which have jaws, would very painful. healthgood of degreeas a injurythey the is withstood indicates healed. that had Th bones two recover; to on individuals the infection that appearsand went even managed overcome to medical direct treatment is no for there Although evidence the injury. from resulted have to suggests an it ability bones, manage to the injury to the injured the broken care and of for allow recovery. history than ods of and types others. violence of evidence exhibit more societies may of Confl direct evidence of confl

Th e NRD site: Community report 18 Summary and discussion 108 Th e NRD site: Community report 18 Summary and discussion 109 e e basalt is particular adze was e adze mid-section t the pattern revealed Oruarangi, at adzes where shhooks, needles and most of the ornaments, are the ornaments, of needles most and shhooks, 18.2 Taonga 18.3 Subsistence within aned status individual of the role community. or e majority of the items (excluding toheroa shells) were found found were shells) toheroa (excluding the items of majority e outward-curving are ere several such as the notched exceptions cult to draw any conclusion about gender or age with or association gender about cult draw to anyconclusion is very ere little known symbolism information with associated about pendant out) they existed, soils gardened (if of evidence ploughed they been is no have ere their ability for tell to part are e artefacts precious this taonga, the from site of excavated ese taonga, particularly the adzes, fi Artefacts burials, from particularly the age the and sex individual where of is known, Th A wide range of artefact types is present, refl ecting a general occupation site. Ear and site. ecting occupation a general artefactA wide range of types refl is present, Th culty in shaping it probably had a ceremonial or symbolic or had a ceremonial use. Th culty probably it in shaping gives information not otherwise obtainable. Th e pounamu pendants in placed this pendants case e pounamu were otherwise Th not obtainable. gives information with a child (Figure female (Figures adult and an older 44 44 also b) who a and 60) had in in these Figure the is shown the grave. left of of 43) two human teeth (one perforated An with placed adze were Burial an abrader (Figure male, adult 10, and a sandstone a) 50 was ensure well he to been have prepared inwhich the afterlife. might Th cement had oyster time as it some for inhad been the Manukau Harbour the foreshore on or have may retrieved, placement and subsequently and its lost been have may It adhering it. to From 13. with with symbolism. resonant burialsbeen found Other taonga are listed in Table the mixed diffi is results it of association stronger a is there small a is it sample although but the classes items, of any of needles. with Th bone women shing gear any from with primary fi surprising of most was the absence burials. Perhaps direct with association a burial. and sites they lived their did what occupation on in the past, people about how story about everyday they and shell turned into and specialhow stone things, material bone, the raw of While and used them. made who which had additional of meaning they the people to some admire to the past, shapes, they areare of the future also taonga of generations taonga for how or for used they were what theymade, were how stylesquestion to andworkmanship, the ancestors. of take in importantly the achievements to used, pride most they and were Māori, horticulture was based on pre-European most (Leach as for the site, at Subsistence Th 1997). is really there very the the occupation, size of and, little for archaeological of in the way there pits particular, In what that gardening. seems of it and are evidence verythere pits few pendant, and a fragment of basalt adze which is probably from an from basalt early adze style and a fragment of adze. which of pendant, is probably Th typical cultural late to the mid of North with Island, in keeping style theradio- the upper of Th the site. for carbon dates in rua the same (Figure as shank the lure found kophia illustrated point pounamu in 36) dif- and pounamu the use of of because and is unique together, placed Figure not a, but 37 fi retrieved in the this Manukau from in belong Harbour assemblage probably not and does Th lived who here. used, the people by and maybe made, not was not thatthe it sense and argillite adzes, mainly small of size, fi after be looked andused, to reduc- available materials continued longer no stone from made smallering to smaller and sizes with damage repair. and the tattoo as does identity, possibly and adornment, indicate toggles bone and pendants breast chisel. Th types, their whether use signifi or Area A had 144 taonga, including those associated with including associated taonga, those Areasix A had 144 burials. Area B, including three ese more closely examinedmuchtwo Areas were than any burials, Th had far 43. at fewer surpris- the koiwi. Not of excavation the 100% to clearance for due strategyothers adopted Areas each from of Areas: E and I. other one from found were items many fewer ingly, e rms this. Forest rms this. Forest and ey are older shhooks recovered show show recovered shhooks cant, component of the diet. Th of component cant, fi of e large number sh species are rather poor in protein, carbohydrates carbohydrates in protein, poor are species rather sh Th -site. sh, which was the main midden component by number and prob- number by whichsh, was the main component midden shellfi Many sh. godwits, for of particularly is is the presence where birds, the case for nearby is extensive Otuataua, the soils at ere evidence are where similarly derived Māori gar- be ideally pre-European to to suited is part considered Mangere is often of supple- was probably It meat. of source important was another dog e kuri domestic or Microfossil evidence indicates that the former forest had been cleared with had been replaced and forest that the former indicates evidence Microfossil Th abundant is there wild gardening, foods, of and plant for the evidence to comparison In the diet to contribution the greatest sh; animal theOf other classes; mammal, fi and bird Th One important conclusion that canthat drawnbe the animal from conclusion important One analysis regards the season readilybeing the advantage have ey are of time-consuming but collect to and process are were not used for large scale storage of produce directly Kumara gardening. large to produce scalefor used related of storage arenot were was brought being or grownduring being occupation consumed and a summer waseither the presence and Kumara winter only is required over storage consumption. onsite for there rule this not out does Areas for B (though A and occupation summer a godwits indicated of we would so, an Even been have issue. not may then, Storage, seasons). in other occupation if areas discoveries this as in and the accidental excavated part pits more expect found have to gardening the Manukau area.of a major had been New of Zealand coun- quailopen proportions e other high and grassopen land. fern and Th confi assemblage try species in bone the bird bird forest to species relative clearance is generally presumed to have been for gardening. Th e maine horticultural crops Th gardening. for clearance been have is generally to presumed would kumara been have would root land fern bracken as and reverted taro, and gardens to as the koiwi the wear important, supports. the teeth from been on have Th dening. houses. and plots garden ne defi that was used to stone of a lot contain but ash volcanic from the Northern that the Runway soils during at shows Our summer excavation experienceof drain not do particularlyDevelopment well, Th optimum. so theyare not than appears gardening that Otuataua. weathered the soils in this It at more partMangere of be. might it as extensive aswas we had thought not of class common most e animals. wild of domestic and Th the exploitation direct for evidence animal remains was shellfi spe- Cockle the predominant eye were weight. by andcat’s meat the most contributed ably Largecies. than shells like important scallop and they actually oyster more appeared were, cantly weight. by signifi they did contribute but numerically, fi from come have would and fats in comparison to other meat sources, particularly sources, meat other to in comparison and fats cockle (Leach et al. 2001: 8–9). Th fishing grounds e rich Th Whitney 1993). Rolfes and available 1977; all (Osborn year round of the Manukau would have been a major attraction to settlement at the NRD attraction at which settlement the Manukau to major a site, been of have would particularly species, Both have may ray. eagle and ray, snapper of the exploitation on focussed off consumption later preservedbeen for small of the large snapper number but shingmethod, an fi important were hooks baited that also Rays, may species, also that netting important. been have other and would indicates found. spear were or heads oats, fl or weights net speared. been No have have may in the midden the rats of many though rat, the kiore, the Polynesian by mented nesting in the midden rats introduced European later be they may scavenging or by there got insignifi not but a minor, Small probably were layer. birds nearby bird habitats consisted of coastal of surrounded beaches wetlands by grass- consisted and open habitats nearby bird espe- the site, at eaten were these birds of Most with nearby. lands little forest but apparent cially rail banded Zealand parts New and appears southern that the meatier quail of it but especially birds, gulls Some the white consumption. later black-backed preserved were for the cloaks chiefs and decorate of which their used to were feathers, valued were for heron, this for purpose. exploited been have may Th occupation. of instance, implies a summer occupation, as these birds migrate to the Northern Hemisphere the Northern Hemisphere migrate as to these birds occupation, a summer instance, implies migration pat- but winter, for shore also Snapper migrate moving seasonally, off winter. for seems the NRD at site occupation are stark summer godwits. A sh than less for fi for terns as well. seasons the in amount other rule this Given occupation though not does out probable,

Th e NRD site: Community report 18 Summary and discussion 110 Th e NRD site: Community report 18 Summary and discussion 111 ree ree c function, the is is on clearly were ere several were ere is is large enough a cooking area – shelter shing, as well as birding, which the harbour, can be erent matter. Th matter. erent alignments stakehole other of e presence erent construction to the other two was and construction the other houses to erent dently be called ‘houses’ were found. Two of these of called be Two dently found. ‘houses’ were 18.4 Houses are ere fewearth in this ovens part Area does of so it B shing and snapper and eagle ray fi ray eagle and shing snapper and y house Prickett lists is 12 x 8´ (4 x 3 m) at Kaipara recorded by Joel Joel by Kaipara at recorded m) 3 x Prickett (4 lists house 12 y is 8´ x the NRD is structure at occupation of period the earliest to recorded dates afternoon and faces north the midday north e house the west and narrow catches porch esmallest chiefl Th House 3 in Area B was outlined by 81 stakeholes and there were several other stakehole several stakehole were there and other 3 in Area stakeholes B wasHouse 81 outlined by century following the 19th and early 20th century 116), is ethnographers, Prickett (1982: House 1 in Area substantialHouse F is the most and certain these structures of (Figure 27). House 2 was certain was in also a less AreaHouse F but found structure. Th cold even late in the year. Food would not be eaten in the tapu interior of a whare but could a whare but of interior in the tapu be eaten not would Food in the year. late even cold – the formality in the porch the large that be eaten of earth 1 indicate next House to ovens a specifi built been for have cooking 1 may and hospitality House important. were a formal dwelling only short-term. used though probably more a wind shelter than a wind a dwelling. shelter Th more probably y dwelling. Small whare used were a chiefl been 1 could have so House around 1831, Pollack house to and visitors activities, accommodate group status, to as of a focus demonstrate to large that senior no whare Given house to 3). family Table junior (Prickett members 1982: formal function likely 1 had some quite withinfamily seems that House it the was found community. off blowing westerlies the south from the house sun and shelters earth ovens within the alignments of postholes, so this may be a cook house, less formal earth and less withinhouse, thisso cook a be ovens thealignments postholes, may of substantial 1. than House alignments alignment forming small, the and same on nearby as the house right-angled a diff quite is of It (Figureclusters 19). windbreaks. alsoTh nearby indicates the structure that seem the wind off keeping not house, was a cook likely is the most function. people for small, dismissive of somewhat temporary dwellings large, to as formal opposed whare: “they 3 House and … could be livedcould be built in quickly carelessly.” ceremony and without 2 may and thatch, and House poles dwelling be a of to seems this of shelter kind, a simple all. at 1 is a diff people House for a shelter been have not very is formala likewhare. It wharethe regularly considered and be to constructed enough Th Figure in Prickett 2). 1982: drawn (reproduced Ruapuke at Barnicoat by these can get as but x 5 m), (3 x 15´ 10 about ethnographically houses, small of recorded side smaller Figure than (Prickett which House is considerably x 1 m) 1982: 4) small (2 as 6 x 3´ 1.Th two phases of construction here, one inside the terrace and one outside. Th outside. the one terrace and inside one constructiontwohere, of phases were in Area F, the other in Area B. In Area A a series of posthole alignments at right angles alignments right in Area at the posthole other In Area B. of A a series in Areawere F, been have may and there truncatedpits storage subsequently by alsomay a house, been have 12 in only Area two F but partial Terrace on alignmentsa house found. posthole were than outlined a rectangular 30 postholes More measuring house with 5 x 4 m a narrow facing north.porch west of Along the walls east and south partial were trenches footing Th ploughing. to prior continuous likely been have seems that these would it and visible would have been major economic activities. economic major been have would Onlythree structures thatcould confi be associ- to seem would the house the east of mm, to x 1910 large earth 2740 to up ovens, Th with it. ated was part as it Phase the occupation same not of or whether say to possible isn’t it though site, 1 in Areas and A B. of activity that went on here an occupation of some months, centred around summer is a is summer around centred months, some of an occupation activity here of on that went Shell-fi better interpretation. rst began farm- eld, pits are not are not pits eld, . are, unfortunately, Area e pits I ey are constructions relatively simple the of sand the into dug features ese were 18.5 Pits at which, though draining which, though at During in table. a well, excavation the water is close to in Area internal I did pits e have drains external to connected drains, as the purpose of Th Although it is evident that a reasonably large population occupied the NRD site at vari- the NRD at large occupied site population that a reasonably is evident it Although construction, soil type. is veryPit then, on dependant Area soils In the heavier of I, or analysis microfossil which for pits a range of the of base taken from were Soil samples in Area B, particularly A and e pits the rectangular the and rua have kopiha, Phase 1 pits draining these features was to get rid of sudden inundations rather than prevent buildup of of buildup than prevent rather inundations drainingsudden get rid of these features was to (2000) similar on found external internal and Foster R11/1930 drains water. site ground at the Tāmaki on river near the Panmure the Pukaki R11/1436, site, the Waipuna At Creek. larger scale, a much was drains, excavated and on but pits a similarbasin intercutting of series occupation, as many of as seven phases possibly were there Here 1998a). and Turner (Clough earlier with phases, to and recutting clear reuse related of evidence which not were of some as well drains pits as of of drains. cutting and other Further across pits afi ous times, resulting in substantial digging of pits and rua kopiha, interment of primary times, resultingous of in substantial rua and and digging interment kopiha, pits of in formal housed been have secondary to seem burials they not do midden, of and buildup of presence the to 1 whichindicate House is substantial is enough e exception structures. Th and a high status or status activity, concept although a relative is site, on a high status person like 1 was large a the not status of wharepuni. House housing by Most the status represented windbreaks, largely of in with the form exposed been have the people would the elements, to all be which might required that is during summer. Th alreadydetail,discussed been in some as this these was necessary of the phasing establish to the burials understand areas in to Area and A. Th beach fl and damp featuresquite the were deeper of some that the of bases dry was noted it summer kumara winter As for a result, storage. the Phase 1 a problem been have must water ground had large externalpits drains, they lacked though internal they drains,were because perhaps dealing than seepage rather surface with water ground runoff are and onlyrecut rarely drains have in the well the Bay western drained of tephras volcanic 2005). Campbell Rather than to drains, dug, roughly often sumps, they have Plenty (e.g., of llpit a infi to easier was probably as it are numerous Pits tephras. lower draininto rainwater than one. rather refurbish digand an one old a new drainageWaipuna, the labour dig- to is necessaryof be preferable and might refurbishment Th tools. in clay gingwith andstone pit a new only wooden if truncated severely say they refurbished. Th too to were alto- destroyed been have pits that some probable seems unlikely. It seems and refurbishment drains as the isolated part ingether, the southern Area of I indicate. analysis use. Microfossil c pit kumara reveal of may starch the presence and identify specifi soils studies canof also identifying environmental by to be used for phytoliths and pollen the fi time At Europeans a picture the environment. past vegetative create of was largely the vegetation manukaing the area indicating fern, in the bracken and 1850s burning repeated Māori by asa landscape land created part management pre-European of with practice(Furey kumara, in all 2007). Starchesconsistent found degraded, were though sam- two the pit of Interestingly, pits. storage presumed from including those not samples in Taro tubers both leaves. and found taro raphides, of high concentrations contained ples harvested has expectedbe stored been been have it not to would so and once keep not does taro in nearest the was disposed of rotten or term short in pits was kept it Perhaps in pits. undamaged, successfully had been If few term it and removed short pit. stored convenient of introduced these both that show resultsdo ese Th behind. remained have would raphides that taro was grown in the is probable the NRD and it at site present were crops Polynesian

Th e NRD site: Community report 18 Summary and discussion 112 Th e NRD site: Community report 18 Summary and discussion 113 levels,erent ll large of layers 18.6 Midden is was recognised by Davidson (1964), and the previous year Ambrose (1963) had andthe year previous (1963) Ambrose is was recognised (1964), Davidson by In the few places where the midden was either not ploughed or was thick enough that a was thick or enough ploughed not was either the midden where In the places few features (Figures 11 and 12). As a result the midden layers, though extensive in places, were extensive As layers,features were though in places, a result the (Figures midden and 12). 11 e variation in Th deposits. homogenous are not however, Middens, deposits. as single treated next each taken right to samples marked from can even quite be middens of thecomposition other. Th also are recognised structures, that middens delib- that is, they of are a series though built up activities a materialerate that leave trace in the archaeological theAmong activities record. thatcan structure cooking, arewaste diggingmidden a dumping, postholes), (earth ovens, all which retainer, can of be summarised as a heat raking shell in ovens of use and as out ese varied equally activitiesfor be carried may out varied Th redeposition. and deposition warmth preservation, food or preparation, food canre for be used purposes, instance, fi for waste disposal. activities these evident. of were substantial survived portion some zone, the plough beneath In particular, was in Area very the both north of A the midden thick, 500 to lay mm, and up the burial substantially been area;outside not had disturbed it did during and it occupation than less Here mm. of 100 depths at up as features showed ploughed been have appear to not the structure vari- at clearer was with much the midden earth the midden into of cut ovens level, a new to build up to the midden these causing of shell burnt raked then levels, out ous numerous the earth new midden the base of At which (Figure cut at point were ovens 17). diff at the midden into cut been became clear have would postholes these and too as wind breaks drying or probably racks with associated the ovens. swampy function margins storage food the the presumed stream. on of Little is shed light though. the pits of resulting in mixing once least at was shallow ploughed had been theand midden of Most and destructionfeatures of the within deposit of and cutting it Also,of it. much though fi during and had settled the upper occupation into re-deposited had been is is ax look to erent to Area B but Area to B but erent is could out- be just imported been ey have buri- ese rua without kopiha ese are toheroa the only four this this valves to connection emphasise e toheroa bres in low numbers does hint at the deliberate burial the deliberate at hint does numbers in low bres ey are only partial bodies so the burial began rite place, in another rm answers to these questions, but we can say that these processes that these we can processes say but rm answers these questions, to 19 19 memory Conclusion: and identity are ere further in rua whale burials bone of Large persons’ kopiha. ‘unbodied pieces of in the persons and places are other us there several, referring to ways of closely related, We can’t really give fi can’t We Other aspects the archaeology of burial and of places. practice other in to Area A refer Several burials also had large stones in the graves. Th e only e largelocal scoriasare stones Several burials also in thegraves. had large Th stones found basalts were burial a dog the non-local in Area B) (curiously, In every one case but Th was rua carefully a dog In another kopiha a were it buried as in the though just base Th erent to any other site reported in New Zealand. in New reported site other any to erent If are there secondary burials partial of they were the bodies before were bodies, where the crania were And are the bodies? where the Andburied the NRD of rest where at site? taken to? removed that were refer to other places – the burial rite begins at another place, continues at the NRD at – the burialplaces site continues other place, to begins rite another at refer part taken,is perhaps, where the buriedis body while of part (or place the remainsother at the NRD from and, part when the site body is removed of and concludes a thirdto place), place. another yet taken to presumably, the dismembered Burial 7, shells 5 and buried with the double them: bodies had toheroa Four secondary secondary burials the dismembered two Burial in of the pit; same men young 27, man; a young and Burial the partial,33, burial (probably) of disturbed burial an of adult of unknown age and sex in the secondary a rua of cut Th kopiha. shells for the entire site. Th site. the entire shells for partwhere remain. the may body Th of other place as this species is not found in the Manukau as this place Th found Harbour. other speciesis not from outside the harbour, from somewhere on the sandy west coast. Th west coast. the sandy on somewhere the from harbour, outside from anywhere be could 20 km in it Northland, canoe, the by or Manukau some away Heads, side further or the Waikato south. local. Again, not basalts were and were the ref- these stones the beach, on but which outcrop exactly say from Basalts be obtained may is clear we can’t where. place another but, to erence throughout are common but only 1 kmas close as Maungataketake away, Mountain) (Ellet’s North beyond. and Island the upper in rua including kopiha, several burials. contain that did not Th this of als is that these this Our rua place. also seem other interpretation be referencing to the burial to is made another contained kopiha type reference body but was there no where a to belonged it the body was when where the place be, or the body may where place other physical body is the buriedeven though here is as a social e person, entity, living Th human. not. the through are in whale rua scattered are small bone of only though found kopiha, pieces hook a notched and point hook rua pounamu a unique In one kopiha midden. overlying the Th level. same at the pit of sides opposite on found were jaw shank a dog from made rocks this the and whale bone, and, was like a deliberate the non-local coincidence surely no burial. whale Finally dog no or burials,person. no rua stone, contained imported one no kopiha ax fi fl possible of the presence but bone, of items made from perishable materials. Other perishable than from made fl burials for items we tested of where for evidence of wrapping in mats, this was the only rua kopiha tested for fl ax fi bres, so they bres, ax fi this wrapping in fl mats, of was the only evidence for rua tested for kopiha than this indicates. example common single more be may inburial these Area are of found A, Most while rite. in Area 2–4,only B burial where Types are stone, two and partial place, burials, dog another with to non-local one refer bodies may in Area on diff is going just A, not erent something diff Clearly found. diff

Th e NRD site: Community report 19 Conclusion: memory and identity 114 Th e NRD site: Community report 19 Conclusion: memory and identity 115 c episode in traditionalc episode e establishment of Te Wai o Hua as a new o Hua Wai Te of e establishment such story Kai of Hua e story is one of Waka 19.1 Identities 19.1 the burials, What of many and either. coincidence is no is Kai particular Hua e story is of of Waka in the context interest exible (Ballara 1998). Th (Ballaraexible 1998). uid and fl growing, together back coming and smaller groups breaking groups of into process up is dynamic a Area at of A. happening political be thecontext In to seems what is is burialpart public inevitably any is of identity of maintenance or creation e negotiation, and was created in fact the site theNRD but at site, predominate appear to dead e Rua kopiha are an important aspect of the archaeology of Area A. Th ese pits have not not have pits ese are anRua kopiha the archaeology aspect Area important of of A. Th Th We can’t relate this relate particular can’t the NRD to We episode unlikely historic burials, seems it but Th Th Th the rua kopiha, seem to be doing is making reference to other places as well as other, absent asthe absent places rua well making is other doing be to to as kopiha, seem other, reference people. memorialise ‘unbodied’or Rua kopiha these absent people. link to with specifi any anarchaeological site possible often not is It in trends general indicate and a context traditional can histories provide However, history. society particular at times. Th as bringing the umbrella under of is recorded the various NRD together Hua of hapu site. gave his he name. Th whom to o Hua, Wai Te been reported from any other site in New Zealand in New in Area site they and are A in other any found the same from reported been restricted as locale the burials. Th identity seems to have been a process of bringing together related groups who originally who groups bringing related of together a process been have to seems identity the (though separate identities established which had since but Oho Ngā from descended are confusing best). versions at various recorded archaeologi- crisis, documented sort has of been some to as a response perhaps date, later a at the North Kaipara within on (Irwin times, and Even Head historic cally Pouto at 1985). stabilise, have to Māori them tribal for identities central government from pressure despite remained fl the establishment of a new tribal identity, that of Te Wai o Hua. Wai Te that of tribal a new of identity, the establishment taking were actions reacting been have would in and his a vacuum. place hapu He that Hua’s him. also would to reacted Other have groups would and others have others, the of actions to mutual strength, for have would or together coming by tryingbeen identities new create to their neighbours. in of the face current identities tried emphasise to Area of A the occupants larger small coalescing ones, were into where groups situation, a had have to seem ey writingwere with in the ground their their burial identity Th rite. particular could think as them ‘the two least (we of referring at places on to other emphasis is likely so it bringing that this of together was place’), a process ‘the and stone place’ toheroa Whether bringing they creating by separate were identity a new people. scattered together some but clear, is not group widely scattered a single of the identity reinforcing or groups, the unusual aspects the archae- unique and for of explanation likesort of this probable seems the site. ology at claim like archaeological at societies. To the in whether cemeteries NRD modern rite, or site nothing special, is special is identity what that the NRD of the creation burials represent the and opportu- people, other and places other of is the detail the them evidence, of about innity tradition. this historical relate recounted to to processes captured built cooked, shed, birds, fi gardened, the living. this by At people place occupied ey also ax generally and lived their lives. Th with carved fl houses, worked bone, and wood really we have they only glimpsed. But a ceremony buried their ceremony, with dead due in the service the of deployed were the dead so in the service do rather, the dead, did not of iwi, or the view whanau, lineage includes hapu living. of the In the head group, Polynesian the NRD At only thesite living also not andthe as but the dead unborn yet (Johansen 1954). the site the livingboth of for and the and occupation by the and dead was created identity fact e that this linked whakapapa.was past by shared Th future and by together generations, directly three one hundred was buried four in no and the or ground identity for observed it years until we dug it up is hardly relevant – it is created by the dead, maintained by the living maintained the dead, by by created is hardly is years it – up relevant until it dug we written carriedand be born, from a memory that stretched in the yet to the ground by on the future,the past into has that always always and there been will gave that the be, and they were. who be live andto to the there NRD the right of occupants site

Th e NRD site: Community report 19 Conclusion: memory and identity 116 Th e NRD site: Community report Glossary 117 llthe of at slab-like pieces of sand- of pieces slab-like at ence against ence the a person mana of les, and fl and les, ed in some way by human beings. by way ined some cores in stone tool production eyare usually as the fi recognisable akes off Glossary natural through lled a feature, delib- or either processes lling. res as a symbol of right of occupation. of asres right a symbol of or group, not for vengeance, but in order to achieve to a balance in and resolve order but vengeance, for not group, or If action. the take of was the taking cause the take, proximate a life or of taking reciprocal the achieved balance through life the then was often of in the context of war, balancing war, of anin the context off stone with wear on one or more surface more with or wear one stone on usually hitting by stone, a core with from of sharpa piece edges, removed pressure. by or hard tool, other or rock with another as if still connected at the joints by the fl soft and tissue. esh the fl by as if still the joints at connected afteror burial the dead. of be in they during would life.the position burials. and hearths, pits A feature storage carries human of evidence activity. the soil that has fi erate backfi discarded bone. shell or of deposits paint, usually yellow. or red arrival Europeans. of Th they thepost contained. is a mixture hole darker. often and through, was dug the soils it of objects. koiwi and other were items other what stratigraphic in, what layer, theyfound were site with them. found obligations; re-balancing of debt, of repayment like-for-like, reciprocity, war party a piece of stone that fl from. akes are removed that fl stone of a piece Ahi kā Artefact burning fi modifi used, made, or any object Flake cut Grave Hammerstone knock used to fl the tool the grave. for dug the hole Articulated Burial practice as theyare be during would in the position life, the skeleton of the bones during rituals the traditions, before, that are practices performed other or Core Disarticulated in longer and no are the joints disconnected at the skeleton of the bones Element Feature femur rib or example – for c bone a specifi Fill posthole, a pit, example part for an archaeologicalof site, a nonmoveable Koiwi Lesion Material culture people of a group by artefacts range of produced the whole Microfossil Midden skeleton human bone, disease injury. that results from or tooth Any change or in the bone animals tiny starch remains of or as such , grains. pollen plants and Mortuary Ochre (kōkōwai) making a richly mineral used for and that can up coloured be ground material that of refuse example, is human activity, from for build-up a burial or death the dead. to of related Prehistoric Pounamu written to history the time prior period Zealand, – in New the to prior Posthole Zealand a New greenstone, variety jade. of Rua kopiha a post, usually the soil for a feature and into slightly deep dug larger than Provenance burial the NRD for at of site, or, storage used for pits small deep, round, artefacts of the context the area faunal what example, of or remains – for Shatter Stakehole Taua Utu manufacture. tool during stone waste produced the post has driven been than where rather the soil in a posthole to dug Abrader Abrader fi elongated oval-sectioned or round cial Yearbook, cial Yearbook, Wairau of e People e archaeology Northland, Omaha Sandspit, nal report. 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Th e NRD site: Community report References 122 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 123 e bones nger bones. Th bones. nger socket hip had the right edge of front e exed that it was almostexed that it certainly wrapped or bound Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex F? est.: Ad Age est.: Sex F est.: MAd Age est.: adult that this e pelvis mid of was indicated a woman Appendix: Individualdescriptions very lay very been the and spine have straight, bound to tightly appeared ey too Area: I Area: I Area: I Area: A a secondary been is appears have to were burial. bones the foot of Only the front the area for of during contouring burial is probably machinery, down by cut been had almost burial is exactly was as positioned thesame Burial was and only2 slightly better is burial was similar Burial to a pelvis, in was which a small scoop sat 1 in that it rounded very were the ankles legs and e the body pulled crossed. tightly been have into to appeared the pelvis also the features were of that crushed but bones e little gave and information, exed burial. of All the fragile were side excavate the right to remains that remained of Burial 1 had been crushed into the hard clay, so unfortunately the hard crushed clay, had been little into could be gained information from an adult. of that theythe bones were beyond them Burial 2 A very the hill where shallow was in found scoop away Area were began slope it I. Within to the very crushed a pelvis,remains and a few fi of part foot a right of 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 6 n/a Stature (cm): est. Th fi rmlyleavingplace, of a in a tightly section cross hard e bones held the clay grape vines. Th fl 50% Completeness: so tightly fl that had been a skeleton Mortuary type: 1 the skull, Little of pulling remained ankle the femur. tightly, against its of up right the top badly dam- were e bones the sea.Th with towards the head laid the body had been out but n/a Stature est. (cm): aged and very little have could be gained, the appeared to fact information that it beyond burial teeth that and that, remained, of judging this the cluster by a complete been person adult. older to was a mid- Burial 3 Th preserved. Th against pressed curvature or a straight graveits bound being edge. by straightened possibly 50% Completeness: Th Mortuary type: 1 Th a middle aged to was probably that this She a woman. been have showed could may be seen 157 Stature est. (cm): needle was found bone wear the teeth. broken A the of degree on judging by woman older body. the upper of the bones among Burial 4 a smooth, fl attened edge, probably due to habitual squatting. Th e pelvis e was fractured and habitual Th to squatting. due probably edge, attened fl smooth, a the frac- punctured edges of depressed and the through ventral iliac the and smooth blade after death, long ture not or and puncture before having made the appearance gave of been was still the bone when fresh. Th two wrist and a single feet Th bone. age. Th 25% Completeness: partially while other and ankle the heel in some present, missing, as were was noted bones Mortuary type: 6 stillarticulated were bones be that those foot the may attached leg to burials It the site. at n/a Stature est. (cm): buried with Th which not these bones. were bones, is was rst rib. Th rst rib. eshing been had is could have been in lay e hand bones was primary is a burial fth lumbar (lower back) back) fth (lower lumbar ey compatible were therefore lled in. Th the lower infection on some of was evidence ere ne, V-sectioned cut marks cut the pelvis,on the back of V-sectioned ne, Sex M est.: YAd Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex M est.: MAd Age est.: Sex M est.: AO Age est.: with marks made cut been ne have a thin, must sharp, A toheroa blade. e fi fi of left groups had is Area: A Area: A in his 40s. died, probably he Th age when man is mid-adult was of man young is shared grave a with of the north Burial man on the lay young side of He 5. e partial mirror to neatly laid had been out two Burials bodies of men, young 5 and 7, through- scattered were bone foot kneecap a single and rib, two of hands, a hyoid, e bones Burial 5 Th burial. in this individuals double Both positions theirhad had arms eachother’s andlegs roughly ovalan placed into oriented was been grave ey had that burial. before Th removed 75% Completeness: Mortuary type: Burial side 2 inbe his the south earlywas 20s.5 to estimated on lay He northwest-southeast. His the grave, the sea (south). his and the with northwest of face towards towards his head n/a Stature (cm): est. with the pelvis laid out been had his and torso removed, been had blades limbs shoulder and twisted the spine face down back but the and neck so that the ribcage face up lay lower and defl some and removed deliberately e had been limbs verybent far back. Th vertebra. A toheroa shell was found under the pelvis man. the young under of shell was found A toheroa vertebra. Burial 8 Th 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 173.9 Stature est. (cm): the fi of 17.2) (Section man and the young leg had spondylolysis shell was with associated the skeleton. Burial 6 Area: A performed. Th performed. and cervical as well spine, as the remaining (neck) (chest) the the ribs, thoracic the back of was the bone when and broken small collar, which splintered the right had been portion of relatively fresh. Th His grave was a large withexed position. oval pit was laid fl he and in in a loosely the ground in his mildwear degeneration showed tear and bone through His base. skeleton a scooped disease. curi- One his such joint free appeared body from back, of and theneck rest though his feature was grave perfectlyous of was the fact that his articulated skeleton with sign no disturbance was displaced,of lying than at other the fact bone) that his left radius (forearm 300 the least his grave, left arm. at the edge of of the rest mm from Th disturbance by caused burrowing by animals. in cavities hishad teeth, mild He calculus on abscesses in his jaws. some ache from tooth of a lot ered teeth suff have and would some Burial 7 Area: A Th and, itself on back His was neck right the also grave, the with southeast. to bent his head as with twisted. Burial than his torso was Burial younger 5, He years, few a by was 5 and 75% Completeness: leg (lower left years tibia One old. around 16-19 probably be in teens, hisestimated to late Mortuary type: 2 e tibia could be taken. estimate Th which a height from his torso underneath was found bone) 170.5 Stature est. (cm): is in thegrave. It were bones leg or foot other no and bones other any to connected wasnot with was compatible development the stage of since assumedBurial thisthat of was the leg 7, Th his body. the of rest of the development loose clusters close to each other. Th e bones represented almost a complete set of right and of set right almost a complete represented e bones Th each close clusters to other. loose Th and matching are sizeleft of hand bones and morphology. individual. was a fi with one the very Sitting from being on the pit of base Th been having or that gave the appearance in of way a slumped pit a rua storage out kopiha was only partially it strewn when the pit down the edge of fi 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature est. (cm):

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 124 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 125 ere rst rst molars nger bone and the patella. bone nger shafts bone skulla and long lack e of . in perfectwere articulation, segments exed. Both Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex M est.: OAd Age est.: cranium wasso wasand part burnt his the man’s of of top e ngers of both hands. On the right hand, the fi both ngers were hand, both hands. the fi On the right ngers of and burnt. Th burnt. and and charred blackened and were in burnt places had been in bones e man’s Area: A Area: B A drilled e man was buried with was abrader. human an tooth adze a sandstone and teeth very were worn, particularly both fi e man’s where jaw, the lower on His upper and lower body had been separated from each other between each separated from other the body had been the base of and lower His upper Th Th ered from bad toothache. Th e man’s body showed wearhe had the tear of showed since body age, and e man’s Th toothache. bad from ered man in his 50s 60s is older or had a curious burial. manner of buried had been in a He articulated years age was found of in a 8-12 pelvic e child girdle about pre-pubertal a of of included with Burial 8, though it is unclear whether it is from the same person as the clus- the person same from with is Burialincluded it unclear is whether it 8, though fi arthritic Minor one bones. hand on tered changes noted were Th large One was rock pits. the rua large, storage of round kopiha one secondary into made cut that note though partiallyplaced and B15, the remains burials (similar 100% of to top on B17 Completeness: Mortuary type: 6 burials). had large no rocks these pits but in them of many 170.7 Stature est. (cm): and the sacrumspine face-down, body lay while been body had and his upper the lower this of with top on the fl legs face up placed Th (thigh sacrum,e femur unfusedof pelvicand the bones the head small dark soil. Th of scoop is unclear this nothing else. It whether was but all found, were buried, that had been bone) 25% Completeness: disturbed. but present been the body had once of more whether or Mortuary type: 6 n/a Stature (cm): est. Burial 9 Area: A a child from 4–6 of bones of A group in the shallow years in a cluster remnants was found the foot of the bones of Some 2276). the rua (Feature of kopiha one into cut that a scoop of lyingwere in articulation otherwise disarticulated but were the bones Bones and jumbled. 25% Completeness: the by only represented were limb bones the long but found the were body throughout from Mortuary type: Unknown that this a shallow seems received person It shafts bone present. were long – no epiphyses n/a Stature (cm): est. similar child a similar another of to age – B52) burial (somewhat a large the edge of pit on disturbed andhad been activities later by in the area. Th they is also were it possible though was buried never here, skeleton could mean the complete smallof e collection thissignnofrom bones childshowed disturbance. later by Th removed illof well teeth were health. Its showing worn, a coarse this diet even at age. young Burial 10 the two when greatly parts been decomposed separated. Th so had not the body were of cutting sacrum marks cut or his no vertebrae indicate on the twowere to was there apart, but which is described above, and in the front from vertebra the lowest piercing a tapering hole Th Section 17.3. ankle and left foot the and fi off broken had been them of the and tips burnt extreme on Like angles. worn molars most second and leaving the premolars lost, been had in have his abcesses would and jaws with very some had the site teeth, he worn at adults suff osteoarthritis severe his left ankle, joint, the in the thumb his of knees, ribs, theleft side had healed it but his ankle point, back. had broken some He at his and neck lower upper well, leaving only slightly the malformed. bones also He had a healed fracture rib and one on mild the infection leftsome humerus. on with was associated clear the burial. it was whether not it in the rua but found kopiha Burial 11 patches of the skeleton. His with arms his by the neck and both elbows bent, hands up the were skeleton. of patches off broken were is is in was used pit later at cutting sign was of forceful removal no ere or ax. It may be that the man’s body was bound or or body was bound ax. be that the man’s may It Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex M est.: MAd Age est.: Sex F est.: MAd Age est.: it though jaw, wear e severe abscesses in the upper to had led lled the grave of Burial 15 and 17, except for the child’s for except skull lled which the grave Burial of 15 and 17, still e fact were that the bones all – a deli- and that the hyoid connected ax, around his skeleton. the void and that created bres found in it that might be fl be might that in it found bres Area: A Area: A Area: B Area: B man arthritis e severe had neck, his both his knees upper his and of left in the left side While the teeth of his lower jaw were reasonably well teeth almostWhile were his worn, reasonably upper were jaw his the teeth lower of Th ered the lower back condition of spondylolysis, which appears to have progressed to the to which progressed have appears to spondylolysis, of backcondition the lower ered in a is was the burial 6 years buried child cross-legged had been a young 4 to who of of a man 40s in his of late was early 50s. buried in or He a square is was theskeleton grave likely was 40s most is woman in her was and tall Th with bones. large robust this e skull, of 4-6 child year and hyoid all neck vertebrae old found, were still articulated, Burial 12 Th Only body had been thesmall child’s remained the body in upper pit. place, lower rounded cutting was dug, this though child’sdisturbed pit burial. later a when Th 75% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 n/a Stature est. (cm): for the grave of Burial 15 and 17. Most of the upper body of the child scattered body of was later the upper of Most Burial the grave of for 17. 15 and fi that soil the through suggest the that to was milk found tooth) (i.e. tooth deciduous Only one found. was never buried been skull e not with childthe either had inskull the grave. Th present been had ever was disturbed. the skeleton when removed had been or Burial 13 Th in a small, sand. Th indistinct brown of scoop 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 6 n/a Stature (cm): est. of the head from the rest of the body, and nowhere nearby were there any remains of the rest any remains there nearby of were and nowhere the body, the of rest from the head of of this individual. Th Th likely was most He body. crouched t his upright, fi to enough deep and largejust enough a cloak, a or – that example created kind a mat wrapped material in for some of – perhaps 100% Completeness: Mortuary type:fallenhad the bones 1 Asapart. aroundhis the decomposed, had body bones. If there void held and slowly ltrated infi have would the sand his around bones, created void no had been 169.8 Stature est. (cm): the was the of base taken from in his in place original A soil sample the bones position. grave, fi and cate little bone on the front of the throat – was also present showed that the head and neck neck and that the head showed – was the throat also of present the front little on cate bone is unknown It stillesh together. the bones held while buried been here the fl had obviously having it the child’s of the rest of the rest body; sign of was to no there happened had what buried withbeen their head. Burial 14 wrapped with fl died,all he with sockets their tooth fully before lost Only three healed extremely over. worn heavier it wearteeth raisesmuch upper than is so lower is that the teeth remained. Th upper and so receiving more being used as teeth tools were much the upper whether of the question wear than teeth. Th the lower had begun them of heal to that aftercould some be seen the teeth had fallen out. also He toe. had mildbig arthritic changes had collar back he in the right In his lower bone. suff also in called his He left foot had gout condition spondylolisthesis. serious more Burial 15 Th 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 169.2 Stature est. (cm): contrast to most of the women at the site, who were considerably smaller and less robust, smaller robust, and less considerably were who the site, at the women of most to contrast still theyalthough often had clear markings muscle which suggest the bones, well on devel-

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 126 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 127 ne ne cut a is is t her body. body. her t can e latter be had particu- e woman ax or wrapping was used for rst molars of her lower jaw had been lost and lost had been jaw lower her rst molars of e fi was very degraded, e lastwas that present vertebra Sex F est.: YAd Age est.: Sex F est.: MAd Age est.: Sex M est.: MAd Age est.: ax fi fl indicate which may bres, ax fi withbres consistent fl Area: B Area: B Area: A Marks Section 5). (see spondylolysis of also is woman back condition had the lower which the head, had cracked to his a blow skullered across the forehead e man had suff Th Th Only the upper body as far as the top of the small of the back was present in the grave. the small body as was the of back farOnly present of as the upper the top is was the burial a small, of gracile 40s be in her estimated body had to woman 50s. to Her 20s late inin an placed her had been oval e partial was probably who a woman of skeleton in his 30s 40s the veryto on was a man probably of base was who body of found e upper esh and limbs had been forcibly removed while the bone was while still the bone had removed fresh. She relatively limbs and forcibly esh had been binding either of the burials of in this either binding pit. was a child illness she that when some malnutrition teeth had halted her showed or in her growing survived had her tall. She growth stopped clearly thishad temporarily. not it and Th sinuses. her of infection and in one jaw abscesses in her from ered suff She in and her toes in big both had gout diseases. respiratory infection or She dental by caused Th y vertebra. ankle.right also She an had called vertebra unusual shaped a butterfl pain. her caused have trait not would and genetic Burial 16 Th fi laid and tightly to in gravea up was that large bundled only just been enough against up left Th hand rested head. Her her 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 was a large there sharp area at side worn had been angles. On the right side the teeth either teeth were upper e teeth. Th the premolar destruction of infection and bone of around one 156.1 Stature est. (cm): teeth. Th had large front and she worn severely abscesses around her pelvis her that can on occur giving form pits birth. had mild to pronounced She larly deep, arthritis back. moderate lower and neck in her Burial 17 oped musculature. She had been buried in one of the rua kopiha. She lay on her back with back her on lay the rua musculature. of She oped kopiha. buried in had been one She ree placedlarge rocks around been had Th chest. arms and her limbs crossed over bent her was ochre. stained by head red When the her the body and rocks soil behind her around her of location the appears that It them. of one underneath was found Burial 17 removed, were there that was still Burial and possible is buried thepit 17 Burial known It whoever to 15. the pit was between an the of base association from in these life. two A soil sample people fi contained so it could not be seen whether there were any cut marks on it that would indicate forceful that indicate marks would any cut were it there on whether be seen could not so it remains heavily was e soil man’s the around Th body. the lower from the upper of separation stained with also were ochre stained his and red. bones described is is and Th his forehead. mark of in the blade centre and lefta straight, smooth, long a that happened had his but collar too, broken had bone He discussed inSection 17.3. in his right degeneration mildhad joint healed.had He the bone and death timebefore and in both wrists.shoulder Burial 18 Th skull, limbs, with her was buriedjust without remains. She her for gravelarge just enough andpart pelvis,torso her which all of were still articulated, and had clearly still held been 75% – fi Completeness: arms off cut buried. had been they Her legs and were when esh with fl together Mortuary type: 2 n/a Stature est. (cm): Th Burial rua the level. same that contained a higher kopiha 15 at 50% Completeness: Mortuary type: 2 was fullyWhat was present articulated. Th 173.8 Stature est. (cm): marks on her right hip, her ribs and the splintered remains of her left collar bone showed that left collar her remains showed of ribs bone and the splintered her hip, marks right her on fl dis-is is e ankles bres con- burial manner e of bula (lower leg bones). Next this to was another bones). leg bula (lower in an up propped together, tightly child’s sat e bones Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex F est.: OAd Age est.: Sex M? est.: YAd Age est.: a been that this have e articulated could indicated once bones leg lled with jumbled, broken bones that were compatible with the being compatible that were bones lled broken with jumbled, ax. ax fi bres, which may support the that the suggestion individual which support may or bres, was bound ax fi Area: B Area: B Area: B disease, growth of likely evidence trauma no e child most and or disruption showed died she before time collarbone long her some broken have appeared to e woman Th was buried in a similar She Burial to sitting way and in an20 bundled upright tightly – Th had marked arthritisShe degeneration knee, in wrist her milder and joint shoulder and ered a severe blow to the back of the head which the with had left head a large the back of to many small hole, blow a severe ered was tiny very appeared and She gracile the site. at delicate. and woman is was the oldest disturbed, years severely been had prob- 18-20 about male of this of adolescent e skeleton very bundled been before have tightly to appeared years 8 child old a about of body e of the children of was the barely larger thigh from than bone some her of those of head e nger was stunted and considerably shorter than the left, but there was no sign of it having it sign was of than no there shorter the left, but was nger stunted considerably and cussed in Section 17.3. Otherwise in with of very were evidence no bones good condition her cussed in Section 17.3. in parts ribs and spine. her very of degeneration some disease mild beyond joint Burial 19 Th between scattered were three the bones since shallow ploughing historic along by scoops ably that was still articu- bone) (thigh was a left femur there the scoops of line. In one a plough 50% Completeness: and fi a tibia remains of withlated broken Mortuary type: Unknown small that was fi scoop same young individual. n/a Th Stature est. (cm): burial. primary 20 Burial Th grave. Th round deep, its into put being burial. appearsto be a good of a bound is illustration Th Th position. crouch upright 100% Completeness: Mortuary soil A binding. by type: together suggesting held they 1 side, been had by side neatly kneesand sat analysis fi microfossil found and the grave for was the of base tested from sample n/a Stature est. (cm): withsistent fl wrapped with fl illness kind Th acute some of died the of that mark skeleton. left on no 71. and Burials 59 21, – notably nearby was similar others some to Burial 21 Th Th the stature short- so her and was estimate legs not long this had relatively she Despite site. 100% Completeness: Mortuary very being arms type: well had small, her legs and of developed Despite the bones 1 the site. at est muscle attachments. 157 Stature est. (cm): was body ochrered stainedher by e area around grave. Th round in a deep position crouched was buried also kind that with then she were seems some bones stained. her It of and some the three ochre, red to binding and a covering in of of artefacts addition a her: that adorned two and neck near her drilled was found – one pendant pounamu found human were molars down in the grave. lower from recovered and another head her of side one below from little right Her left forearm. her healed very had it well. also broken because have She may fi been broken. all had extremely of She teeth, the worn loss which to had led her body. her throughout jaw. lower her from premolars and molars suff a crackhad had caused in blow the right e skull. her cranium into Th her pushed of pieces Th skull all forehead. her her of across and thearound hole leading the way from side

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 128 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 129 bres isindividual gen- were eir bones crossed eir were legs ax. – a shallow rst discovered scoop, ey were probably an older person, a similar are of e bones size the to exed, folded between the and legs. the torso exed, folded is individual, it another but represent e bones Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex Im est.: AO Age est.: is particular but the site, at in others any seen anomaly was not bres, which may support the idea that thethat individual in the the idea was support whichheld may bres, ve. Th e arms also were tightly fl ax fi ve very large abscesses, which no doubt caused a lot of pain. of Th veryve lot a caused largedoubt which abscesses, no exed.Th Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A ill signs of other health no in this were ere individual. appears that teeth, it and was incisor missing two their upper of adolescent is young eir ribs showed a reaction to some kind of infection, probably of the lungs. Th is is was the lungs. Th of kind infection, probably some of to a reaction eir ribs showed folded its forward had slumped and onto position, crouched e body was in an upright all from cranium were of Only bones e fragmented and a few parts pieces the body. of Th Th Th Th teeth for worn that they quite had was in the grave, jaw which showed the upper of Most secondary is burial like fi much appeared Burial when 19 years had full who 12–13 about of dentition adult adolescent a young is was the body of a child in and a small a rib of uncovered blade were pit shoulder bone), e radius (forearm Burial 22 unclear whether they were deliberately buried or whether they had been scattered by prehis- by they scattered had been buried whether or unclear they deliberately were whether activitytoric in and accidentally this included feature. Th years old. 10 be about child was estimated to Burial who of 81, Th burial, thisthat theseturnedthe be only another be to would was but thought out it and in the feature. Th present that were bones 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature est. (cm): defects and individual variations in the lower spine were common. It would not have caused caused have not would It common. were individual and defects spine variations in the lower ected their mobility. painthem aff or was still they it caused when whatever and ongoing the right the left ribs, not on only seen died. Th Burial 25 this was simply a genetic trait. Another genetic trait they possessed was trait. genetic six Another vertebrae a genetic this lumbar was simply the usual of instead fi upright, crouched position by being bound or wrapped with or fl bound being by position crouched upright, and tightly fl tightly and analysis fi microfossil found and the gravefor was tested of the base from soilA sample with consistent fl Th 50% Completeness: Mortuary type: 3 n/a Stature est. (cm): the bones among scattered found disarticulated were of a newborn baby of A number bones severalhip blade, right is included cranialshoulder the right fragments, Burialof 22. Th vertebral a rib. and fragments some femur, right of a fragment bone, 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 3 Burial 24 n/a Stature (cm): est. Th eir sex is unknown. Th puberty. completed body had not whose but 100% Completeness: wasere vividred ochre staining Th bones. Mortuary on the and around type: 1 knees. Th n/a Stature est. (cm): densely packed with haphazardly jumbled, mostly broken bones. Underneath the upper layer layer the upper Underneath packed bones. withdensely haphazardly mostly broken jumbled, 20 mm about by separated then, and bones long whole was of bundle a bone fragmented of were ere fewalso a disar- the grave. the base of Th on lay arm bone) soil, a humerusof (upper (B37). an adult additional to belonging inticulated the grave bones few a and infant bones ey had a very well estimate the the sex individual. to of pelvis enough Th remained – not the arm on attachment – indicating muscularity. muscle Th developed erally Th like the males robust, the many of site. quite at arthritis the severe judging by (especially the hand, knees, wrist in the joints elbows). and fi and thegroup discussedalso infection in in the foot, Section 17.1. had unusual of evidence Burial 23 not esh removal – his lower jaw and ribs and jaw – his lower removal esh at stone slabs. stone at Sex F est.: OAd Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex M? est.: YAd Age est.: and haphaz- was densely concentration the bone of e top ll of the large rua kopiha. Th ey represent at least one new- one least at represent ey ll the large of rua Th kopiha. children e young last, as seeing added been the have may miss- the arms were body but andlower present, were andtorso head e Area: A Area: A Area: A ne V-shaped cut marks. It seems his spine was forcibly separated in the lower back in back in separated the lower was forcibly his spine seems marks. cut It V-shaped ne lled in again with the broken bone that had been dug out of it, resulting in the upper resulting it, in the upper of out lled dug that had been in again bone with the broken female – Burial adult one the to 28. Once mostly belonged bone broken e jumbled, Th cm tall. had very She Burial 170.7 at be the tallest 28 was to estimated the site at woman Numerous cut marks fl cut give his of evidence bones on Numerous is secondary burial bones was broken similar of Burial to jumble was a dense 22 in that it is partial in 20s hisburial late early 30s or of man, a young probably in was one of placed e bones of a newborn were found scattered in a large pit in Area A. Th ese have been been have ese inArea in a large scattered A. pit Th found a newborn were of e bones concentration of broken bone was removed, it could be seen that the skulls could be seen it two of was removed, children bone broken of concentration between placed had been the disarticulated three of babies bones scattered a few and leg the Th woman. limb of bones teeth fewand a bones were ere partially were bones theirbabies’ skulls. of one underneath Th two inof adults the grave, labelled other these were Burial and 40, they rep- 39 were though least at of bones means some were is that there a very by Th small bone. resented of amount individualseight in this grave. pelvis marksdeep her giving that can on be a result of birth. Th individuals other from mixed bones with some within in but – placed adult, one – mostly of distincta shallow oval but grave. Th 75% Completeness: and complete more that were underneath ardly thegrave but packed and largely into broken, Mortuary type: 3 that the secondary buried, an is possible were arranged-looking remains adult of remains. It 170.5 grave, the grave then children of the adult’s to bones Stature some est. (cm): add to the gravethen into was dug wasfi Large some bone. rocks over placed packed, were and jumbled densely fragmented of layer the rocks of and Burial in Some in Burial 10. the remains before – somethingof seen 15/17 fl into shaped this grave deliberately had been bore fi bore off burial broken for had been partpreparation – the lower the last present of vertebra was dry it the bone when when made brittle, and but the was break not after (i.e. death long youthful, the relatively fact that his wear teeth looked his Despite body showed was fresh). in his spine. degeneration severe tearand with some Burial 28 Th therua Th kopiha. 50% Completeness: Mortuary type: 2 173.1 Stature est. (cm): ing. A right lower leg and foot, presumably belonging to this belonging to beside man, presumably placed had been and foot, leg lower A right ing. next with His teeth the head. the had relatively little torso the to foot similar wear, other to the remains around placed deliberately been have Shells appear to the site. at adults young scallop on lay the torso of side hand right and his the face, and leg shell covered – a toheroa shells.and oyster Th probably no was were ere and they clear for them, grave as Burial together grouped 26. Th accidentally disturbed the fi into 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature (cm): est. born. Th is baby’s bones showed some changes that indicate it may have had some of had some have kind it may changes some indicate that showed bones baby’s is born. Th is unknown it systemic disease infection, exactly or but what the disease was. Burial 27 Burial 26

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 130 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 131 ll this of grave was also e bone this of face e person the two of one ey were ecting the upper jaw and the and ecting jaw the upper B32 next and that of to upright it of placement e Sex Im est.: O Age est.: Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex F est.: OAd Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: anaemia. from ered giving infection rise and to health teeth problems, was causing e wear her on – areas e cranium was disarticulated was and incomplete jaw with lower no Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A kind e child infection aff had some of have appeared to a child e rib of child’s in and a fragment of the fi collar found were bone Th She was buried curled up with her arms and legs tightly bent, lying on her left side with left side lying her arms waswith buried bent, on curled tightly up her legs and She rib evidence had One leg. kind lower injury infection right or had had some of her to She Th Th only a cranium jaw. by a lower and was represented person is burial 9 years is cranium with a child multiple was about in Burials of a secondary, of is small, 40s gracile late very teeth be in her were 50s.to appeared or Her woman well Burial 29 very weathered. It appearsvery that the child’s It weathered. body had initially where left been somewhere the skull then and was in exposed was this placed collected and it the elements, grave to Th with partial people. other of skeletons children buried with Young appears deliberate. an woman adult of between bones the long the remains an immediately brings woman of family adult of mind the to question relation- that was the case know here. whether we cannot – though ships suff and the head, of back Burial 32 Th 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 3 n/a Stature est. (cm): around the right temple and the base of the cranium breaks the with missing, of at the base and were old temple the right around in the grave. found Th the not teeth missing and were were of edges. Most Th Th 32. 28 and 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 3 n/a Stature est. (cm): at a higher level. Th is indicates that there was probably already a bit of scattered bone around around bone of scattered bit already a probably was that there is indicates Th level. a higher at the area the time by this was buried. woman Burial 30 secondary buried burial in the multiple people withyoung Burial 28. Th abscesses. and her head her underneath together handswere face down. body nearly Her upper her appeared and skull Her upright the as right. back if to sat and looking right up wasneck bent something; by up otherwise propped or it being bound by in this held been have position to lain have would forwards body. in line her with of the rest begun had infection. Degeneration lung a to related surface, inner its possibly infection on of was of mobility discomfort. she Although or mild of caused loss have may and spine in her small stature particularly had well attachments, muscle she developed people – as did most also She cracked a had in rib been that had bone). (thigh the femur in this on – population died. healing she of when the process Th in her less but Burial teeth to had a similar upper She 21, wearworn. her of on degree teeth. Th lower 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 155.1 Stature est. (cm): parts coccyx the the hands kneecaps, the and feet, breastbone, hyoid, of of Bones (tailbone), two parts in No a small, in and three vertebrae scoop. a jumble of found ribs round were All withsex age one being from or estimate was possible. the remains appeared compatible 25% Completeness: is likely individual It that they an theyperson. were had advanced older since arthritic bone Mortuary type: 4 had a ey fracture canof vertebrae that the one in in the knee the and hands. Th degeneration fracture’. strainresult from called is and ‘clay-shoveller’s a n/a Stature (cm): est. Burial 31 in e bones sign was no ere e man also in his had gout Sex M est.: OAd Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: showing that frag- bones duplicated of a couple were ere disturbed the mul- been to have ey may additions later by a variety came from e bones parts of a tooth the body from of many in this wear to had light and there compared e tooth population Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A in small, a two by cut feature found been that had ey rua were scooped kopiha. teeth down had worn very two to unevenly his having the e man’s teeth left of jaw due of Th his teeth arthritis and of also in cavities some He had milder had He hip. in his right diedwas and buried in he in the base his 50s when was man probably who was is an older is young adolescent also suff anaemia.ered also suff adolescent is young three of partially including the is was bones a small bones, hand of collection articulated disarticulated were a baby secondary of e bones the multiple burial among and scattered of wear medium so may a and ey have amount e three Th teeth are alljaw. the lower from they male female. be said were whether cannot or generally it were large quite e bones but certainly ey were Th adult. ngers. Th the grave were from the upper and lower limbs, shoulder blades, the lower jaw and some some and jaw the lower blades, limbs, shoulder lower and the upper from the grave were of baseat the the mostlyof concentrated this were baby e bones large cranium. sections of Th Th grave, in corner. the northwest unlikely seems vertebral a single it that all grave, – not but was there ever tiple the baby of was present. bone foot or hand or segment Burial 36 Th for- slightly slumped position, crouched in tightly a upright rua a His sat of body kopiha. his wards knees. arthritic was over severely His spine in all parts this and caused have would 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 pain, bone-on- particularly had rubbed together joints the mobile neck where in the upper until highly they bone were polished. 178.5 Stature est. (cm): appears used far that his the were his teeth left It of death. jaw time before fallen some out molars. He his right of an to abscess in one than which be due the may right, more those of mobil- decreasing to was tall a due gracile, relatively that were perhaps man bones with long ity with be the tallest was the site. to estimated age. at He person Th in his elbows, left knee, shoulders. and jaw degeneration joint toe. big right Th Th old. was betweenbaby months e to 12 6 containing Burial Th 32. and 28, 31 50% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature est. (cm): was small and it had a smooth, child-like appearance. However, their empty tooth sockets their tooth empty child-like appearance. However, was small had a smooth, it and years 15 10 betweenold. and probably ey were full Th for developed were dentition. adult Th Burial 33 Th fi 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature (cm): est. Th adult. mid to a young be from Burial 35 of the bones having been cut or chopped. Two large stones were in the middle of this scoop. in this the were middle of large scoop. stones Two having chopped. or the bones cut been of Th Th down to some toes. Th Th degeneration. joint sign of was no B64 mingled with to were – this them adult numbered was then adult a second from ments of one of top featurethe in was e scooped into were they cut distinguish Th B33. from them the rua features, kopiha the which primary contained burial base. its at 36 Burial 34 disarticulated scattered, fragmented, of A group remains found lightly that were burnt were lled with shell dark, and charcoal stained soil. Th feature fi scoop in round a 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 2 n/a Stature est. (cm):

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 132 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 133 ey ere e age ese were nitely not bones ese this e sex of indi- ey also suff ered from arthritis from ered in ey also suff to much was not there though that means is were blades shoulder and torso e arm upper bones, Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex M est.: MAd Age est.: Sex Im est.: Ad Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: in caused e disturbance body was possibly the upper to the fact judging aged by that adult older a middle to probably ey were Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A Area:A teeth no in were the ere grave with that could be matched this Th mandible. He his in joints. many of had degeneration early 40s) is middle aged man (estimated Th ered from arthritis from ered performing from in a the wrist age possibly or to which be due may is burial was partially articulated in a roughly crouched position. Th e lower spine, legs, spine, lower e is burial was partially Th articulated position. crouched in a roughly is was a small mostly in wrist, a small, collection of bones in hand and foot the scoop Burial 37 appeared to be of a younger adult than Th adult a younger wear. Burial tooth and be of to appeared 22, thejoints judging by was tooth a small calculus one two of on build in the enamel on the up teeth defects and of period a through years age they gone had of 4-5 child a they about were of that when showed ill serious of health which had temporarily haltedtheir growth. Burial 38 in the Burial grave of found were adult Several 22. a second and teeth Th of bones 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature (cm): est. not in positionand had been disturbed and redeposited in a jumble of bones on top of the of top on bones of in jumble a disturbed been had redeposited and in positionand not the skull, for except and bone was jaw present the skeleton andpelvis. legs of Most lower is likely It neck vertebrae. that the skull teeth loose some four since buried here, was once Th the bones. among found were retrieving by prehistory the skull the burial from burials thebe case as with appears to other the site. at arthritishad severe in his wrists, highly rub- from were that so severe polished the bones also He against had arthritisbing throughout each other. in hands, his left shoulder, feet, had it but point, some at his left ulna had broken (forearm) He in and hishis left hip. spine also in died. his He toe. he healed left well big had gout before Th pelvis mostly were articulated. and feet Th 75% Completeness: Mortuary type: 5 175.9 Stature est. (cm): represent this person there are bones from the neck down to the toes. Th the toes. down the to neck from are this there bones person represent vidual large defi is unknown as were their person they a reasonably bones were but small and delicate. Th and the Th is well molar rounded. completely teeth away worn have the crowns the front of suff c activity Th involving wrist movement. repetitive, specifi Th car- thyroid teeth, a hyoid, ve loose fi were there feet, the hands and to addition In ground. tilage,kneea part and cap the tail Th of bone. 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature (cm): est. and sex of this sexand be determined. of cannot adult 40 Burial the disarticulated among were adult in Burial yet another Remains bones of 28. Th remains with in the the other grave. any of compatible six teeth not that were permanent of them. of calculuson some build-up worn a slight with moderately ey were Th 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown Burial 41 n/a Stature (cm): est. secondary was burial in the multiple bone An jaw with adult additional 32 Burials 28, 31, Th 35. and 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature (cm): est. the knee. Burial 39 is is baby was ey slightly were larger Th scoop. round ll a shallow, of lling the be a result of may this pit Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Th condition. in poor were e bones in the soil fi eir inclusion smaller were again ese bones a to and are belong estimated to due and very perhaps weathered, condition in poor were e bones which appeared to bones, featurened containing a small broken of number size the same as the newborn Burial measures approximately 83. femur e Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A esh of the foot had caused the bone to react and develop a large bone lump between lump a large bone react develop and to the bone had caused the foot of esh broken. not but injured, been had bone) man e several had (shin His left tibia injuries. Th burial e multiple with Burial While partial 28 contained than baby. more one remains of and more developed than some of the newborns at the site, and probably belonged to a baby a baby to belonged and probably the the newborns site, than at of developed some and more age. of months 3-12 from Burial 45 fi the through sandy was scattered A small bone of collection was a clearly defi individual Despite years one child – an young be from infant old. to between 2-5 the ages of 25% Completeness: to be a secondaryappeared is was mostly in Th the bone very broken, good condition. being Mortuary type: 3 disarticulated of disturbed that was later deposit bones ploughing. by n/a Stature est. (cm): Burial 46 the articulated contain of to blade arm was found right shoulder and pit scooped A shallow, child,a young disarticulated along with some the unfused the bones, of hand and foot ends e of bone child5-6 to be years Comparison is estimated old. Th tooth. and a single bones leg 25% Completeness: smaller the child but was larger indicates 4 yrs) than Burialmeasurements 12 (estimated Mortuary type: 6 Th than Burial years). 9 (4-6 the shallowto grave. n/a Stature est. (cm): baby a young of fragments ed limb bone cranium ribs, vertebrae, of unidentifi and Fragments feature. Th in a pit found were disturbing grave. Th pit the baby’s 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature (cm): est. only shoulder a by in Burial grave, this was 28’s present time represented baby more One with either and skull which compatible were of fragment – none bone) (thigh femur blade, Burial Burialof or 35 42. Th 25% Completeness: newborn. Th Mortuary type: 3 Burial 44 n/a Stature est. (cm): probably between birth to 6 months of age. A fragment of cranium, a humerus (upper arm), arm), between cranium, age. A fragment of of birth a humerus (upper probably 6 months to and two all this ribs were infant. bones) two that represented (shin tibiae Burial 43 Th alsowere in the grave. Th bones smaller a few baby baby, Burialwas an older 35 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 3 n/a Stature est. (cm): It may have been pierced by a sharp object and the wound become infected, causing a large infected, causing become a sharp by the and wound object pierced been have may It injury Another to misshapen. left the shin bone had healed, but It develop. to bone of lump thefl his left foot. of two the bones of Burial 42

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 134 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 135 nger bone nger bone ax. bres were found, which found, were bres ax fi clearly were remains two ere from people. fi ey very teeth. had One front worn Sex F est.: YAd Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Burial of e bones and Burial 50 in a rua were 57 kopiha, sitting ered two episodes of ill two ered of episodes health in childhood (between 3 – 9 years age) of disease the bones. on for evidence is no ere Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A joint degenerative health, and without in good condition generally looked e bones ll the base. above just the the of rest to connected been directions, have and could not ey faced inopposite She was missing some of her premolar teeth, but instead of having fallen out (as was having of fallen instead (as teeth, but out premolar her of was missing some She 20s, is small late that was to free mid signs leaving died from of in woman her a skeleton born.Its newly to in betweenbe utero estimated to months 8 was is verya baby, young articulated part and an foot articu- of right complete, a by individual is was represented Th exed posi- age such as arthritis. of fl tightly Her problems diseasechronic the degenerative or be clasped to hands appeared her and up bound had been legs her least suggested that at tion 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: the wrists. at lying bound was crouched mostly face 1 She with – perhaps torso her together the grave was the of base from A soil sample left side. her to out exed legs fl down her and 155.3 Stature est. (cm): with fl remains. consistent plant Fibres microscopic for tested the that the suggestion individual support wrappedmay with or was fl bound two bones, hyoids, foot and hand of two a group Burials assigned were to numbers 57 and 50 coccyx, two blade, cartilage a complete thyroid shoulder cranium, of fragments and jaw, ribs, two smalllower Th kneecaps other and bones. 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature (cm): est. Th were bones Burial of of the stage baby a similar to A lot were 23. bones size and development a primary been have may this it for baby burialpresent small, whose shallow grave had been 50% Completeness: disturbed. Th Mortuary type: Unknown Burial 49 n/a Stature est. (cm): an unusual genetic – probably absent simply been have they appear to the site) at common suffhad trait.She growththat interrupted teeth. in and left her defects Burial 50 in gout ered Burialsmall mediuma to been have appears 50 sized to individual suff who arthritis and toe the left big in the knee. Th disease, though there was evidence of gout in the right big toe. Th e third molar found among e among found molarthird Th toe. big in the right gout of was evidence there disease, though not but and rounded smoothed become to it for enough the remains in had been use long marks with tab notch bone veryartefact in thegrave One worked a down. – worn was found drilled hole a and the tip around end. in the other Burial 48 body. Th body. Th the disarticulated two remains the ankle of hands, bones), (minus heel and left foot lated were that they up pit againstof the sat edge feet e the ribs. a few and Th a tailbone, a tooth 25% Completeness: in. Th Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature est. (cm): had what appeared to be cut marks across the shaft. One toe bone showed the marks kindsame be cut appeared to showed had what across of the shaft. bone toe One to reaction Burial of bones 22, probably whichunusual were in the disease foot as was found infectious disease. Th some in the fi Burial 47 e is e partly is could that indicate ribsve fusedhad into together e partially articulated and feet e cranium it was and missing relatively ey at been young appear have or to ne bone needle was found among the child’s among bones, needle was found bone ne erent levels dispersed throughout the fi ll. Th the fi dispersed levels throughout erent Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex M? est.: MAd Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: had ill the molars sign of was no ere health. Considering be a burial to is appeared that was originally but complete, inset leaning was the an leftslightly and then awkward to spine e position, cm tall, e man also an At estimated had an 161.7 bone. abscess in hip his right Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A Th in his right. man e arthritis had not but in his joint left thumb Th At some point in his life one of the vertebrae in the middle of his spine appears to have have appears to his in spine the middle the of vertebrae in his of life point one some At erent sets of remains were distinguished stages. remains were Burialof sets – an sizeerent 54 by and development e childon their right lay burial years. 5 Th child a crouched about was is the loosely of of is grave the disturbed contained in 30s burial his late early 40s. to a man probably of A burial: 4 the to in addition a Type for is burial the typical contained elements of selection Th the digging rua the of Later kopiha. one into in a shallow grave overlay that scooped side partiallyhad pit disturbed the child’s burial cranium fragments of andscattered andbones 100% Completeness: Mortuary Th type: the body. of 1 side the right from that shows it wear, two years four for only erupted to showing been considerable and were n/a Stature est. (cm): childrenyoung also had coarse diets. A fi near the hip. Burial 53 Th intact, articulated but rst thing bones encountered, disturbed of the fi were jumble bones Th these. underneath found were 75% Completeness: disturbed Th into, dug broken. and body had been the upper Mortuary type: 5 revisiting the people prehistoric that the disturbance by was caused the torso is possible to 161.7 Stature est. (cm): retrievegrave the to cranium. Burial 51 other disarticulatedother diff at remains were Th ankle or heel articulated present. – no the feet were of bones only the front included feet size medium and was anBurialof adult burials 4 the site. 51 at Type in other seen hasbeen Thverywere in bones e good toe. in leftbig their of gout ey had evidence unknown sex. Th degradation. weathering or signs showing of no condition, Burial 52 activity repetitive a also performed he showed joint with his left hand. His left shoulder one. the right not but degeneration, fi vertebrae ree and Th an crushedby injury. displaced been or Th two ribs a and kneecaps, part both hands were lower the tailbone, the hyoid, left right and of e fully articulated hand and wristnearof a largeright base lay rec- the Th tooth. loose single 25% Completeness: tangular the earliest features of in the area. that was one Th pit Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature (cm): est. one solid unit. Th solid one forward. Th in the the man’s grave among needle was found A bone the man site. was at the shortest he bones. Burial 54 disarticulated were and 75 Burials remains in a grave dug that and jumbled had been 54, 74 Th end. a large the other at of rectangular the corner it into into cut that had Burial pit 51 diff 25% Completeness: unknown two by of adult articulated sex, was represented an feet, articulated left a and hand Mortuary type: 4 Th disarticulatedfew carpals right bones). (wrist n/a Stature est. (cm): least not to have undergone a great deal of wear and tear, since all a great deal wear since free of and tear, were from undergone have the bones to not least degeneration. joint any

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 136 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 137 bula (lower ered from gout gout from ered e collar were bones had an have may e pit fi and e left talus (ankle) Sex F est.: MAd Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex Im est.: AO Age est.: Sex F est.: MAd Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: was unclear It in the bones. was little ere degeneration person. with all one being from e bones appear compatible Burial assigned larger to e hand were bones than 57 those of be younger Burial teeth and to assigned appeared to e bones 57 ey near lay the pelvis, as they if the body were have would the of rest cult to tell whether thiscult tell to whether was originally burial a crouched that was very e partial the disarticulated of articulation some of this of body and placement Area: A Area: B Area: A Area: B Area: B Unfortunately, there were no long bones from which to calculate which was stature. to from her Nor bones long no were there Unfortunately, in the grave, found were kidney stones large, ve conglomerate fi – kidney had stones She 4 burial Burial with Burial for Type 50 individual (see 50 is was second a in the multiple with secondary oval pit a long, through burial. scattered were is was an Bones incomplete of Some scoop. round in shallow, a found were woman partial e mid-adult a of skeleton left unknown an of adult of were incomplete e bones age of and sex the bones and were eir age and sex are unknown. Th Burial 55 Th many parts from bones scattered were ere Th articulated were not. the were bones others but cranium, no teeth. Th a few loose just the body but of 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 6 164.9 Stature est. (cm): highly disturbed was a secondary it whether or burial. Burial 56 leg bone) were articulated were neatly next with each slightly sat andthe feet other to the right bone) leg theleft. Th of top on present. Th diffi makes it bones whether thiswhether was a partialburial secondary that a complete burial, was once it whether or disturbedhad been the bones. in retrieve prehistory of to most Burial 59 the partial, contained pit round A deep disarticulated of a woman of hands and feet torso, ero- child, pitted were one least there at had borne since that she is possible It 35-45. about pelvis in her which strain can by be caused during ligaments sions on childbirth. 50% Completeness: Mortuary type: 3 Th hers. been have that may tooth loose any cranium, one there simply n/a Stature est. (cm): also missing. which disarticulated,were also that thealthough bones shows likely organs most had been also in the grave. She suff be present to these stones for in order buried here with associated lesions pain left hands and this knee,and caused in where have her would in a rectangularA disarticulated was found bones Th of scatter pit. 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature (cm): est. original larger was much than it since purpose these required remains. for pit, as a storage Th hands, and two feet back. right and kneecaps part and the lower from a vertebra of Burial 57 Th Th grave). of a description than Burial those of as 50, their andpart worn less teeth fused were the scapula had not of 25% Completeness: usuallyas it Th in adults. does Mortuary type: 4 Burial 50. n/a Stature (cm): est. Burial 58 Th feature is much larger was thannecessary scat- for the Th base. scooped a and sides straight and cartilage, thyroid Several in teeth, it. hyoid, a loose (breastbone) bones the sternum tered 25% Completeness: the kneecaps were all Th present. Mortuary type: 4 Th n/a Stature (cm): est. e appears ere was how- ere t their two bodies rst. Unfortunately Unfortunately rst. betweenspace with at, them enough is pose appears very though intimate, teeth wear was slightly her e degree of more on fl lay forearms e Sex M est.: YAd Age est.: Sex Im est.: AO Age est.: Sex F est.: YAd Age est.: tting the bodies in the graves is unknown. Th ered from being used on hard materials used on being had small them from ered – many of the sea, tightly their and towards were legs south, pointed eir heads Area: A Area: A Area: A burial of manner is very is similar Burial that of to 66. is was man a young in 20s. his with late little His in teeth good condition were wear, Burial 61 was probably in her early 30s. in her Th was Burial probably 61 ribs had two which partially were She arthritis severe broken of point had one healed. She Th Among her disarticulated her Among drilled was one bones worn have may which humanshe tooth, laid years – had been – estimated between old 14 12 to adolescent a young e forearms of striking the most was probably 62 and burials evocative and burial the at 61 of e double exed. She lay mostly on her back, slightly on her right side, and he lay on his right side with side his right on lay he and side, right back, her her slightly on mostly on lay She exed. ever another indication of closeness between hands, closeness be holding the two: of theyto appeared indication another ever left reached hand man’s e palm their together have hands palm. bound to to Th rather, or arm left hand. Her was twisted withacross his meet the back body to woman’s her behind rest, body to arm the right woman’s under reached Also, be in thisto the man’s position. out arm right stretched lay woman’s e Th shoulder. right her neck and by her palm under up, Th and left hip. stomach with hand resting the area her her on of body, her on and careful deliberate have been to their arrangement of bodies in the grave. is likely It that were ese people two Th in keep this them to position. together bound their been hands had the graveclearly fi the buried time, into same at the man put apparently ploughing historic by possibly Burialthe craniaand Burial broken, both been had of 62 61 their relatively shallowover grave. molars lower Her 20s). late advanced than in Burial woman the young (estimated those of 18 and this worn had given more rise twowere painful, to large, doubt no abscesses. neck. Otherwise her of her was generally of the and rest the spine left side healthy on her cm tall, was the shortest she an At 153.9 estimated degeneration. any free from were joints site. the at person Burial 62 burial. this of man’s description Burial for under See above 61 they suff had although 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 170.8 Stature est. (cm): fl Th his her. and curled around legs hers his close to hips complete and fullycomplete man articulated and a young woman (Burials a young and of skeletons 61 buried were in a rectangular respectively) 62 fi grave to large just enough lying side by side. Th fi to related was more it whether Th loose some and a vertebra in a shallow ribs, rectangularout a hyoid, bones, foot Scattered pit. permanentteeth werealso recovered. Th 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature (cm): est. Th between the relationship a two of individuals. impression gaveTh a strong it since site, 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 153.9 Stature est. (cm): gout were found. Most of the joints that could be observed were free from the normal free observed be that could from degen- were the joints of Most found. were gout degeneration. some showed back lower her wear tear of and but eration as an ornament. Burial 60 as if the rest of the body could have been there once, the unfused end of the humerus (upper the unfused the humerus once, (upper as there of the if been body could have the of end rest was once the skeleton of the that rest is possible It was still thearm elbow. at in place bone) cult imagine to that this could is diffi it retrieved; however was later in the gravethere but disturbing without the so neatly, forearms and hands and leavingbe done archaeological no trace. Th Burial 61

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 138 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 139 e bones ey also had was grindinga ere stone arthritis and gout had person is and disturbed into cut had been Burial by is pit 63. Sex F est.: YAd Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex F est.: MAd Age est.: ey arthritis had in wrists both their ribs. of Th and the head Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: A Area: B She had some very nasty abscesses in her upper jaw, no doubt painful doubt no very and resulting had some nasty jaw, She from upper in abscesses her 20s late early be in 30s, her estimated or to had been a woman who of is was the skeleton two assigned to – parts is was a second a number collarbone bones – of a right and heel of is burial was very forearms and two similar partial Burial to the 60. Two (missing feet was upright buried limbs. in a crouched, She had long who a woman is was the body of Th against rested wall torso the southern grave. Her in of a round upright and buried crouched it. of top cranium face down on her and had slumped the pit 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 had arthritis teeth. Although she young, upper the wear severe her wrist on right in her joint. 158.3 Stature est. (cm): vertebrae. neck her of one on had very degeneration She minor 64 Burial chips out of the edges of the crowns. He also had notable build up of calculus his of build teeth. on up alsothe crowns. He the edges of had notable of chips out which had destabilised and resulted his spine spondylolysis, back condition, had the lower He that likely him caused pain back. had He in the lower (spondylolisthesis) in a complication degeneration. kind joint of other no Burial 63 Th mingled adult with that these two incidental the Burial were is possible bones remains. It 33 ll the burial of buried remains. than rather deliberately in the fi inclusions 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown Burial 65 n/a Stature (cm): est. Burialwas 65 a partial, secondary burial an rib adult of only the and one hands, feet of Th in square a placed pit. been that had 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature est. (cm): It could not be estimated what age sex the person was, though the bones of the feet were were the feet of age the bones estimated sex be was,what though the person could not It particularly large. Th evidence of gout in their wrist gout of evidence and hands. Burial 66 are with all the individual. same from being Th compatible in their feet. hands and Burial 67 Th articulated, as were if and looked theyankle pit a bin lying of bones) and heel the bottom on bones other typically e in found Th there. been had the body as if of the rest in position were 25% Completeness: cartilage, thyroid and 4 burial also were – the hyoid there twoa Type kneecaps, two loose Mortuary type: 4 lling the grave Th the through soil fi scattered these were teeth the and tailbone, but 167 Stature (cm): est. Th thirties late in her or circular probably in a narrow, was a mid-adult, grave.position She disease. Her joint from er had veryearly forties suff and she large did not She kidney stones. 75% Completeness: and bones her of some grave disturbed had been and jumbled and this thetop had broken at Mortuary type: 1 cranium. her fragments of All of and some most removed the hyoid neck vertebrae, probably – suggesting in the the craniumthe of base found that the skull were present been had once 162.7 Stature est. (cm): the cranial surfacesgrave. of One and peeling outer the from inner fragments had some of was still the bone when relatively fresh. Th broken been have may it (hoanga) in the fi ll of the grave, but it was not clearly with associated the bones. was not it ll the grave, but of in the fi (hoanga) is ere rst molars had skull of e fragments ey were probablynot part grave e contained Th cult establish. to Th in very were bones e condition. good an had injury have their tail may to person is Sex M? est.: YAd Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex M est.: MAd Age est.: the cranium only fragments were of were limb ere and most bones skull e retrieved been the grave have suchtime a from may when at Area: A Area: B Area: B Area: B Fragments of the skull of Fragments and two in the three grave teeth found and the top vertebrae were Without the head, pelvis or femur, the sex could not be estimated. be Th the sex could not the pelvis head, femur, or Without body parts is burial of that in lay the grave a number bones and as loose contained if the e partial man a young in his of early 20s, buried remains, were in probably a narrow, e partial a man oval remains face down lay with of in a shallow, grave. bones large, robust condition e poor very were e bones fragile disturbed. had been and degraded and some Th a young adult, judging by the wear on the teeth, which was more advanced than the thewear judging the teeth, by which adult, of any was on young more a very wearis standing some to large, had long abscesses given rise Th the site. at adults young Th jaw. active the lower infection on some and angle. a slight at fuse together to the segments grey had formed becuase bone bone, rough Burial 71 Th grave. deep Th round, which was leg, stillmissing the except left lower articulated – something with seen the foot 75% Completeness: in and the disarticulated 55. and 19 graves 7, of only) tibia (left and 69 in Burials 27, Mortuary type: 3 Th also were missing. 172.1 Stature est. (cm): was still to the bone elastic when and fresh enough relatively broken been have appear to Apart the bone. ‘peeling’ of the skull, from cause the limbs of and part most the sternum of Th the body was present. of the rest (breastbone), it had not decomposed so far as to free it from the top of the neck. of Th the so far top from free as it to decomposed had not it were also parts of both arms on each side of the grave. Th e left arm was complete but only but left e arm was complete also thewere grave. Th parts of arms both each side of on the of Nothing in middle. the sat kneecaps Two right. the for arm was upper the present rib. one for except was present torso of the lower jaw and the hyoid, which were roughly where the neck would have been. Th been. the have neck would where which roughly were and the hyoid, jaw the lower of Th were the bones whether or had been, Whether it point. one at there body had been whole was diffi body, a whole represent to laid out simply 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 5 n/a Stature (cm): est. Th Th appearscult he to estimate his to age but a cranium the diffi pelvis of of it made and absence 75% Completeness: arms between his torso, and pelvis of 30years Most somewhere and 50 been had have old. Mortuary type: 2 disarticulated, been have that his may legs seems articulated it been was buried but he when 174.8 Stature est. (cm): and partially having alongside placed been and foot with leg the his left lower of top on originally may so there found were have bone) (thigh femur his right of Fragments torso. could have was, shallow the bones given it how body in the grave, his but lower of more been disturbance. by remained, showing that jaw his removed fi been His lower fallen out and the rest of his teeth were very worn and he had a number of abscesses. He had abscesses. He hisfallen very of teeth and the of rest were had a number out and he worn arthritis and shoulder his and right in his foot in wrist. his right gout of evidence Burial 70 were disar- e bones A tiny the grave a very degraded remains contained of infant. young Th in the grave.ticulated is unknown and it present the body had ever been the of rest whether disturbance and degradation this to some had been that there was, but that it is possible It 25% Completeness: similar were Burialbones of long to those 83, a baby’s of e the diameters shallow grave. Th Mortuary type: Unknown is likelynewborn infant. It similar that this was a roughly baby age. n/a Stature (cm): est. Burial 69 Burial 68

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 140 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 141 is erent erent mas- e was no ere ere were also hyoid, eir hands, feet, mingled with were eir bones cra- fragments of no were ere e child’s arm left was articulated at only by represented were bones e leg ll of this corner of the pit at diff at ll this the pit of of corner their across lay hand Burial e way 72’s slightly just smaller were eir bones than ey had large, sturdy and teeth. bones Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex Im est.: AO Age est.: Sex Im est.: C Age est.: Sex U est.: MAd Age est.: articulated,the left hand were of bones e the right but da (see Section 5), but these would not have caused them them caused have not would these but 5), Section (see da e cranium mixed showed male and female characteristics – it ne supraorbital margins and a smooth upright forehead. Th forehead. margins upright smooth a and supraorbital ne ulna and e unfused blade the growing (forearm) of shoulder ends Area: B Area: B Area: A Area: A ill signs of no e child health. Th showed years 2-4 with age child intermingled a young were the of about hands of and of e bone Th culty disease sign of no otherwise. and they showed Th years old. 14-16 about of individual is was an adolescent the is grave partial contained two remains of individuals:uncertain of adult mid a sex and e partially articulated in a shallow 9 years a child remains found of oval about were of feet of Burials 54 and 74. Some of the hand and foot bones lay together, loosely articulated, loosely together, lay bones the handandfoot of Some Burials of feet and 74. 54 the through fi scattered were the bones of most but 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature (cm): est. levels. Almost of the vertebrae of the spine were present, except for those from the lower the lower those from for except present, were Almostlevels. the spine of the vertebrae of blades the forearm, part shoulder the right bones, the the hands, hip feet, of of back. Bones (the a of unfusedgrowing bone) ends epiphyses were ere all Th collarand were bones present. shafts, no as was but the the case legs, with of Burial the bones is for Burial 9 and It 73. burial that this disturbed that had been waspossible a complete Burial when and Burial 54 buried were here. 74 hand and other bones were disarticulated. were bones other and Th hand were also found. Two small pieces that may have belonged to this had clearly to been teenager belonged have small that may pieces Two alsowere found. was fresh. Th the bone when broken those of another adult (Burial adult child another anda young those of (Burial 54) Th 75). as standard is in this typetailbone present, kneecaps and were burial. of Th teeth, and 4 ribsloose 4 vertebrae and very small the cranium, fragments of jaw, lower sacrum and sternum. Th Burial 75 Th 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature est. (cm): Th Th grave disturbed that had been cut pit. an by adjacent –from all of bones body – were over restthe e the Th side. by side sat feet and its the elbow 25% Completeness: lling the grave. Th the through soil fi around scattered Mortuary type: 6 – as Th in Burial 9. (epiphyses) the unfused the bones of ends n/a Stature (cm): est. nium. Th years. 10 Burial agedthose of about 81, Burial 74 toid processes were some of the largest at the site however. Th e other bones recovered were were recovered bones other e Th however. the largest of the site at some were processes toid Th generally the site. small at gracile, and similar the women more of many to marks chop or sign cut the partial on of Th skeleton. the arm originally, there of been it thathave the bones would though seem makes it mouth that the disarticulated Th in the grave placed is possible in that position. was hand simply individual heavy had wear their on teeth abscesses. and dental Burial 73 appeared to be a mostly disarticulated secondary burial. Th is individualof the a mostly be disarticulatedappeared to had disorders secondary burial. Th bifi and spina spondylolysis spine: diffi Burial 72 Th male (Burial remained, BurialOf neckandhead anadolescent 85). torso, 72, only the upper but all were in articulation. 50% Th Completeness: had a gracile face, very fi Mortuary type: 2 n/a Stature est. (cm): ere were erent events. Burial had events. 76 erent exed position ina large grave, scooped exed position neck damagethe upper was no to ere rst molars which severely worn on were rst been revisited for the retrieval for the revisited of rst been e grave was an oval containing a hyoid, scoop Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex M est.: YAd Age est.: Sex U est.: Ad Age est.: Sex M est.: YAd Age est.: in and perfect the body was perfectly of e rest complete bones foot some and person, one be from appear to e bones the with hands mostly and feet of were a kneecap and e bones Burial e individual 78 was distinguished having by bones hand little teeth e relatively had this suggesting wear adult, population, young for a distinct less much were than his bones on the attachments e muscle many of Area: B Area: B Area: B Area: B was large arm) and man e particularly had his – (upper humerus bones large, robust Th culty. disarticulated of is was a scatter in a small, bones faintly grey in that the ground patch man is young in 20s his late early 30s to grave. had buried He been had in round a deep secondary burial. is was an incomplete Th gracile years smallerwas much old, and more thanman, many is young 25-35 estimated been dug directly dug this andbeen the digging of one, the top that over grave removed have of may missing from bones are there many more However, Burial of torso 77. and upper the head this individual, could be that the grave so it had fi What in remained the left arm the and upper shoulder. and the leg of cranium, bones long gravewas mixturea arms, pelvis feet, lefthands and lower and articulated of (the bones a (breastbone), sternum vertebrae, kneecaps, neck disarticulated and (the bones spine) lower cartilage of thyroid presence e and Th cartilage). thyroid small and of tooth fragments single his in of the grave. been One once had neck and thehead that gives an tooth a indication this of the top Burial the grave which into of had cut the of base at 76, kneecaps was found grave. degeneration in very his being showed neck the bones signs of well of One showed muscled. man, was cartilage a young his he thyroid though the left. Even not and had side the right on begun which something generally ossify, advances to with the unusual had age. genetic He him caused any have this not would but vertebra, neck the top of da bifi spina anomaly of diffi Burial 78 Th could barely be called a grave. Th in loosely articulation.were Th 25% Completeness: teeth. Th eight Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature est. (cm): teeth, kneecaps a lower rib and vertebral parts. Some bones were duplicates, representing representing ribteeth, and vertebral kneecaps a lower parts. duplicates, were bones Some additionalindividuals. Th ey had arthritis in the knee and wrist. Th larger much than Th were that the others. teeth and two front two well fi worn medium-worn a sharp angle. Burial 79 vertebrae to suggest forced removal of the head and his hyoid was still his and hyoid the His head cranium in place. of removal suggest forced to vertebrae disturbance after and without likelywas most the rest burial to removed and decomposition degeneration. chronicsign disease no of joint or bore His skeleton the skeleton. of Burial 77 Th activity later but originally had disturbed position in an crouched upright been the skeleton activity is later been have may two diff Th incomplete. and left it 75% Completeness: Mortuary type: 5 173.6 Stature est. (cm): Th 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 4 n/a Stature (cm): est. Burial 76 Th Th the site. at males was buriedother and females. fl He in a loosely 75% Completeness: top neck e two similar Burial to Th the fact that his cranium 6, for except removed. been had Mortuary type: 5 missing as were well.vertebrae Th 166.1 Stature est. (cm): articulation so this was clearly a primary burial. Th

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 142 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 143 e baby the teethalso of ree had very were e bones well pre- the andtherefore pre-pubescent eywere size the same as was approximately tibia e teeth adult and only e child its of had most bres, which may indicate that the individual which indicate may bres, ngers and toes remained. It was the most com- was the most It remained. toes and ngers ax fi ill signs of no were health in ere the child than other Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Sex Im est.: C Age est.: similar e child was that buried pendant with to a pounamu ax. bres consistent with fl consistent bres the buried time same at as Burial and Burial not ey were is not so it 61 62 Th condition. very in poor were ey generally were small e bones appeared and gracile. bone the jaw of fragment One Area: A Area: B Area: B Area: B Th years old. was is the burial childa 8-10 of of Th Although these bones lay just above Burialleft arm, above just lay Althoughabout theseby separated they bones 62’s were is was the remains of a baby of about nine months age. Th e base of basee the cranium, spinal age. Th nine months about of was is a baby the remains of old. months 2 and was is in theutero tiny burialbetween estimated baby a months 8 of Th in back a small bent. legs with its its on lay hollow e baby Th arms ribs articulated, left and right and were column, was back lying the and baby its on lower the infant’s disturbance had removed Later the pit pit. to round a deep the base of at 50% Completeness: the cranium of the base cranium and though its was too, missing of most Curiously, body. Mortuary type: 5 of was the e edge grave cut also undisturbedat undisturbed. were torso Th upper and neck n/a Stature est. (cm): cranium the whole was inthis ever the whether placed grave. raising of No end, the question ill signs of the bones. left on health been had Burial 83 Th Th served and all the tiny little such as fi bones 1 Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 was baby e fully leg articulatedright lower its only and disease. Th of evidence no showed n/a Stature (cm): est. plete infant burial at the site. Plant roots had caused some disturbance some infant had caused creating burial Plant by roots a hollow plete the site. at had fallen. the spine of Th the bones of which a lot into torso theunderneath baby’s one milk tooth remained, though at the time of death this death likely the loose time a would milk of been at have though one remained, tooth Th longer. remain to much not tooth, growth of in the defects teeth showing a bout of disruption during early childhooda couple Th years). they 2-5 were (when the grave microscopic the by base of with was from tested Burialfound A soil sample 21. fi found and analysis wrapped with or fl was bound Burial 82 with a small and Burial of found A small infant highly bones were of fragmented 61 cluster bone) (shin tibia and arm) infant cranium, (upper humerus of vertebrae, neck 62. Fragments Th were found. 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 n/a Stature (cm): est. meaning yet developed, thatestimate we sexcharacteristics that had not help the skeleton of thisgirl. a know or whether cannot was Th a boy cavities. Th cavities. broken smoothly edges were fractured been have fresh – its was relatively to thebone when became dry it brittle. and before had broken that the bone showing slightlyand ‘peeled’, Burial 80 the newborn infant in Burial 83. soil. Th 30 mm of 100% Completeness: Mortuary type: 1 n/a Stature est. (cm): known whether there was betweenknown an two these and there association the – the baby baby whether adults burial their an grave to later or unrelated that just addition later deliberate a been have could theirs. of top be on to happened Burial 81 and the third molars had defects in the enamel which show that this person had suff ill ered this that had suff thethirdand which in person show the enamel had defects molars health in childhood that had temporarily their halted growth. Th ese of ends e edges the ne e feature they Th esh. skeleton her ough is is a good example extreme eirteeth showed butchered, not were ends e broken and part of the hyoid of e presence cut several had of groups bone hip right e ve clear, fi ne cut marks on it outer surface, near outer marks cut ne it on fi clear, ve in teenage their late an to adolescent belonged e bones Sex M est.: AO Age est.: Sex F est.: AO Age est.: Sex Im est.: AO Age est.: Sex Im est.: I Age est.: the faced to it and the northwest to pointed head e baby’s they against had rested where up bent were foot right her of e toes ll soil. Th is grave was very the beach, Burial close as to was of that 84. Area: B Area: B Area: A Area: B growing,nished pelvis her the displayed typical female characteristics that develop clavicle disarticulated ribcage, of pelvis, e fragment a some and of section a of vertebrae of section e individual than Burial larger-boned and a younger clearly 72. Th ey from were e disturbed the beach. It to away burial that sloped in the girl sand a teenage was found of disturbed were bones torso by upper the jaws, neck and some remains e fragmented of cult early childhood. two during At their growth, points 2-6 years age, their about of from had been slightly been had disturbed. Th Th southeast. Burial 84 Th in grave the same as Burial found years were old, 72. 17 about male, probably an adolescent Th 25% Completeness: fl by still they were together when held deposited been have to ribsappeared Mortuary type: 3 n/a Stature (cm): est. after puberty. Th e only ill health her skeleton showed was signs of infection on the inside of on inside of the infection signs was onlyshowed e illskeleton health her after Th puberty. disease soft infection tissue within respiratory a or chest. to her related ribs possibly – her Burial 85 Th legs, spine, lower only her was originallyappears but she that position, buried ina crouched cultdefi to disarticulated of a collection and forearms was diffi It ribs remained. 75% Completeness: was the bones the dark around sand but sand, the grave root-disturbed and inof the loose Mortuary type: Unknown clearly grave fi She the body. contain to large just grave, had been indicating her enough that it the edge of 161.4 Stature (cm): est. sex Th could be determined. whom for the site at person was the youngest fi was not the ribs were broken but did not appear to have been damaged when fresh and had probably damaged fresh been and had probably have appear when to did not but the broken ribs were disturbance prehistoric by the grave. to Th broken been fi had the middle ribs (7-9) of one though Th (breastbone). the attached sternum to it where until the koiwi housed reburial. returned were were where the container Th to was a small Th from came measuring x 220 scoop x 220 320 mm deep. marks on its outer surface. One of the vertebrae from the lower back had been broken when when broken back been had surface. the the from lower vertebrae of marksouter One its on was similar fresh, the bone Burial to 27. Burial 86 Th machinery removing Th topsoil. when 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature (cm): est. old 3 months to newborn was that approximately a baby of tiny bones After the excavation, checking when Th found through the thewere site. animal at found that had been bone 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature est. (cm): years, or possibly very early 20s, and of unknown sex. Th is person had had a veryclearly is person dif- veryyears, early 20s, possibly unknown or of and sex. Th fi halt as growth to poor so Th healthenamel. been had the dental of illustrating withpits and grooves the twodefects, deep dental they distinctAlthough events. survive, to enough resilient had been this damage their had left permanent teeth, to which vulnerable then large the teeth were to since cavi- further them wascausing problems dental Th weakened enamel. of the points from ties developing almost all the teeth suggests the remains articulated had been until they disturbed. were Burial 87

Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 144 Th e NRD site: Community report Appendix: Individual descriptions 145 had e bones Sex Im est.: I Age est.: Area: A also until ese were the koiwi housed reburial. returnedwere where the container to was smaller even is baby than Burial be newborn. Th was 87 and estimated to of how very how tiny canof infant missed be those unfamiliar bones by with especially them, when asthe cranium in this are limb absent, or bones case. Burial 88 the amongst animal found tiny were after infant of bones bones group the excava- A second tion.Th Th 25% Completeness: Mortuary type: Unknown n/a Stature (cm): est. been in a round, scooped, midden-ﬁ lled feature. midden-ﬁ scooped, in a round, been