MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY of EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO FACULTY OF EDUCATION Department of English Language and Literature

Chinese Loans in English

Bachelor thesis

Brno 2012

Author: Helena Juřicová Supervisor: Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D.

Declaration I proclaim that this bachelor thesis was done by my own and I used only the materials that are stated in the bibliography. I agree with the placing of this thesis in Masaryk University Brno in the library of the Department of English Language and Literature and with the access for studying purposes.

In Brno Helena Juřicová

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Prohlášení „Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou bakalářskou práci vypracoval samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro studenty Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy univerzity a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.“

V Brně dne Helena Juřicová

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Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor Mgr. Radek Vogel, Ph.D., for his valuable advice, time and encouragement that he provided me with during work on this thesis. I would also like to express great thanks to my husband and children for their loving support and help during my studies.

Helena Juřicová

Abstract This bachelor thesis aims to examine words in English originated in Chinese. Firstly, the theoretical part deals with the process of borrowing in general, introduces terminology and terms. Both languages, English and Chinese, are described on the levels of typology, lexis and other characteristic relating to borrowing. Secondly, the practical part analyzes loanwords assorted from two test corpora: Oxford English Dictionary Online and The Economist. Loanwords are commented with regard to their orthography, forms, grammar, source and transmission languages and semantic fields. Finally, the outcomes are evaluated from the perspective of linguistic as well as social and cultural phenomena.

Key words Borrowing, loanword, loan translation, donor language, recipient language, lexicon, pinyin, text corpus.

Anotace Tato bakalářská práce se zabývá čínskými výpůjčkami v angličtině. Teoretická část popisuje proces přejímání obecně a uvádí do příslušné terminologie. Dále klasifikuje angličtinu a čínštinu z hlediska typologického, stručně popisuje jejich slovní zásobu a její rozšiřování a další charakteristiky týkající se přejímání. Praktická část analyzuje přejatá slova obsažená ve dvou jazykových korpusech. První korpus představují nové čínské výpůjčky v Oxfordském slovníku přístupném na internetu. Druhý korpus obsahuje slova čínského původu, která byla použita v textech časopisu The Economist. V závěru jsou slova přejatá z čínštiny zhodnocena z hlediska jazykovědného, jakož i sociálního a kulturního. .

Klíčová slova Přejaté slovo, výpůjčka, transliterace, zdrojový jazyk, cílový jazyk, slovní zásoba, pinyin, textový korpus.

Content

1. Introduction …1 2. Terminology of borrowing; characteristics of English and Chinese in relation to borrowing process …3 2.1 Loans and borrowings…3 2.2 English…13 2.2.1 Typology…14 2.2.2 Writing system …15 2.2.3 Vocabulary and its enlargement…15 2.2.4 Characteristics related to the borrowing process…18 2.3 Chinese…20 2.3.1 Typology…20 2.3.2 Dialects…21 2.3.3 Writing, Romanization and transcription…22 2.3.4 Characteristics related to the borrowing process…24 2.3.5 Vocabulary and its enlargement…25

3. Practical Part…28 3.1 OED Online index of Chinese loans…25 3.1.1 New OED Corpus development…28 3.1.2 Analysis of the New OED Corpus…32 3.1.3 Summary…37 3.2 The Economist Corpus…38 3.2.1 The Economist Corpus Development…38 3.2.2 Analysis of the Economist Corpus…39 3.2.3 Summary …48 4. Conclusion…50 References Appendices

Motto:

吾生也有涯，而知也无涯 Life is finite, while knowledge is infinite. Wu sheng ye you ya, er zhi ye wu ya.

Zhuang Zi

1. Introduction

English language is not only the lingua franca of today, but has become an integral part of our globalized lives. On the contrary, Chinese is the language of the greatest number of native speakers and has been progressively gaining its world-wide importance as well.

Every language is a lively and living substance and as such it is inevitably being transformed; developing and reflecting internal and external changes. One of the leading processes causing the changes is evident where two languages interfere with each other on the level of vocabulary.

The existence of human beings almost entirely depends on communication. Thus, language and namely words are the crucial means of it. The way we express ourselves and employ particular words identifies us. Therefore, mapping a territory of certain lexis may be found interesting, useful and even a thrilling pleasure, especially by those linguistically engaged. This is even truer when the intersections between languages are explored. In that case, even other elements of contribution are present, such as academics in terms of linguistics and intercultural mixing. The study of words´ origins enables scholars to make an insight into former times of contacts among language territories, and hence, contributes to other sources such as history and anthropology. The language, and its described changing forms, is not only “a means” to register information, but is the source for study in itself.

This thesis is an attempt to study this particular portion of lexicon from the academic viewpoint of linguistics; to compile, classify and describe properties of this stock of words. It will comprise loanwords, loan translations and eventually any other subcategories belonging to the process of borrowing.

Firstly, the general processes leading to loans and borrowing will be dealt with.

Secondly, both languages, English and Chinese, will be introduced on the levels of typology, lexis and some other specifics which can later elucidate the morphological and other structures of the studied lexis.

The core of the thesis will be the practical part divided into two sections. The first one contains a revised and commented index of Chinese loanwords presently comprised in the Oxford English Dictionary Online. This “yin” must be completed with its “yang”, which is the corpus of Chinese loanwords and words of Chinese origin assorted from The Economist weekly in 2011. Morphological, grammatical and semantic properties of the words will be examined.

This thesis aims to provide an outline of words in English that originate from Chinese and to detail facts of their linguistic background. It should also demonstrate the process of language intercourse and consequently “physical penetrating” of one into the other. Additionally, it will try to evaluate cultural and social phenomena related to the topic.

Figure 1. World Language Map

Note: Map of world languages according to the number of speakers.

2. Terminology of borrowing; characteristics of English and Chinese in relation to borrowing process

2.1 Loans and borrowings

Whenever and wherever there are contacts of any sort between the speakers of different languages, speakers will make use of words from other languages to refer to things, processes, and the ways of behaviour, organization, or thinking for which words or phrases were not available or convenient in their own language hitherto. (Robins, 2000, p. 354)

Before the principal terms of this work, a loanword/a borrowing, will be dealt with, its “predecessor” should first be mentioned here. Renowned linguist Einar Haugen in his famous “The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing” introduces a rather metaphorical term “mixture” (p. 210) used by the linguists of older generations, namely Hermann Paul, William Dwight Whitney and Hugo Schuchardt. In Haugen´s view “mixture implies the creation of an entirely new entity,” (p. 211) which is the reason why the term was soon abandoned and a “borrowing” and took its place.

What is a loanword/ a borrowing The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English provides a concise definition of a loanword, “a word taken into one language from another.” (www.ldoceonline.com) This definition is simple and clear, but raises questions whether the form of a borrowed word must be changed or may remain the same and whether the whole lexical item is to enter the process of borrowing or only some of its components – a written form, a phonetic shape or a meaning. The Collins English Dictionary definition says more on the topic “a word adopted, often with some modification of its form, from one language into another.” To consult, The Oxford Dictionary of English states, “loanword is a word adopted from a foreign language with little or no modification”. The latter two definitions cover both possibilities; words modified as well as unchanged. According to The Oxford Dictionary of English a borrowing is “a word or an idea taken from another language, person, or source and used in one’s own language or work”.

This would suggest that not only entire words, but also their semantic meaning can be transferred between the languages; e.g. semantic loans. To compare and complete the definitions, Haugen’s interpretation of a borrowing states, “the attempted reproduction in one language of patterns previously found in another.” (p. 212) The terms “attempted” and “reproduction” may signal that loanwords rather tend to go through modification than remain unchanged. Other linguistic terms for the loanword are “adaption” or “lexical borrowing”. The latter points out to the process itself – borrowing – in which a recipient language ´borrows´ a word or an expression from a donor language and this ´borrowing´ is consequently adapted and naturalized in its ´host´ language. Obviously, in most of the cases the borrowings are never returned back 1 , which might be viewed as semantically misleading. According to Haugen, the process can be called “an adaptation” and concerning borrowing he goes as far as to call it a sort of “stealing”, although analogously the “owner” does not miss any of his property. He also suggests another term for the process, which is “diffusion”, usually related to the spread of non-cultural items, so in this context “linguistic diffusion” may suit. However, diffusion would imply more the spread of the language itself than its elements. (p. 211) Although “a borrowing” and “a loanword” have been widely acknowledged by linguists, still occasionally new suggestions appear discussing their appropriateness. For example Martin Haspelmath and Uri Tadmor use also the terms “copying” and “transfer(ence)” alongside with the two. (2009) “A loanword is a word that was copied from another language, either by adoption or by retention, at some point in the history of the language. Even if a loanword is fully integrated, it is still a loanword, and a loanword never ceases to be a loanword.” (Haspelmath, 2008) The crucial term connected with a loanword/a borrowing is also “a source word” or “a model” labelling the original word that was copied from the “source language” or the “model language” to the “borrowing language”, eventually “replica language”. It should be stated here, that this thesis will use both terms, “a loanword” and “a borrowing”, equally and interchangeably as is the common practice nowadays. To conclude with, this process induced by linguistic interaction is natural and rather frequent.

1 So called reborrowed words occur, e.g. Czech “píšťala” was borrowed by West European languages and then it came back into Czech language as “pistole”.

Language contact Primary condition for the borrowing process is the close contact of two languages and their cultures. This situation is linguistically labelled “language contact” and usually results in influence between the two languages and eventually into change of at least one language. Such changes, which are the outcomes of language contact, can have a wide variety of final forms, from only a few words borrowed to whole new languages developing. Common and easily observable changes often happen on the level of vocabulary through borrowing. Sapir claims, that the simplest kind of influence, that one language may exert on another, is the borrowing of words. (2001) The intercourse of two languages through their speakers can be direct or indirect. In terms of their cultures, languages can be equal or sometimes one is dominant or even controlling while the other is subordinate. For example, the English borrowed a great many words from the French of the Norman Invaders in the second half of the 14th century. Particular spheres of contact happen through business or trade and also through forms of spiritual culture such as religion, art and science. “Each cultural wave brought to the language a new deposit of loan-words” (Sapir, p. 165), therefore, profound study of the loanwords may serve as an information source of history and culture of a society and even provide insight into the history of the whole world. In this context, Edward Sapir refers to just five languages having had principle role as culture carriers: classical Chinese, Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek and Latin. Culturally important languages as Hebrew and French occupy only secondary position. As for English, it has been spreading mostly through colonization, but lexically it did not permeate significantly into other languages. Considering the fact Sapir´s book was published in 1921, it can be presumed now in 2010 the situation is rather different and most probably English quite easily enters lexicon of many other languages. At the same time, English lexicon is a vivid record of extensive borrowing. Nowadays economy and politics tend to be most significant forces to change. Two languages in contact could influence each other equally, however, history proves that the process is rather asymmetric and often flows in one direction. As an example, China has been looked upon as a center of culture for many centuries, “Chinese has flooded the vocabularies of Korean, Japanese and Annamite for centuries, but has received nothing in return.” (Sapir, p. 164) Language contact is inevitable: there can hardly be found a completely isolated language. Convergence of languages can even bring about important cultural and social changes.

Bilingualism, code-mixing, code-switching, nonce borrowing Within the framework of this subject-matter, another linguistic issue, “bilingualism”, should be mentioned. Bilingual speakers “use or are able to use two languages, especially with equal or nearly equal fluency”. (The Free Dictionary) Haugen presumes this bilingual mastery is a prediction of any large-scale borrowing. (1950, p. 210) The relevant point to be made here, however, is that according to Martinet, borrowing is one type of language interference or language contact. (1964, p. 162) This is characterised by integrating a new lexical item by a monolingual interlocutor into their idiolect, while other closely related types, “code-mixing” and “code-switching”, are phenomena of bi- or multilinguals. To give a clear idea about the difference between the terms, David Crystal’s explains “code-switching” as a process in which people rely simultaneously on two or more languages (eventually dialects of one language) to communicate with each other. (2003, p. 164). “Code-switching” emphasizes movement from one language to another, the switching between two linguistic systems in the same discourse, while “code-mixing” implies hybridization, the creating of a new lexical item by combining elements from etymologically different languages. Both “code-mixing” and “code-switching”, to a greater extent, make use of borrowings; therefore it would be useful to define the difference between them. According to Haspelmath & Tadmor there is a sharp difference between “code-switching” and “borrowing” because of the fact that “code-switching” is not a kind of contact-induced language change, but rather a kind of contact-induced speech behaviour. (2009) And hereinafter the clear criterion distinguishing “loanwords” from “single-word switches” is stated: “From the point of view of the entire language (not that of a single speaker), a loanword is a word that can conventionally be used as part of the language. … in speech of monolinguals.” (2009, p. 40) Those single-word switches are called nonce borrowing – since used “for the nonce” – as opposed to established, conventionalized borrowings that entered a mental lexicon of a speaker. (Haspelmath, 2008, p. 41) It should also be stated that this thesis aims to study loanwords and borrowings that appear in British Standard English and became a permanent part of the English lexicon. It is not intended for other varieties of English which are called by David Crystal “New Englishes” (Crystal, 2003), which he defines as non-native varieties spoken in former English colonies, multilingual countries or international communities. These “Englishes”, e.g. “New English in Hong Kong or Singapore”, are also specifically enriched by Chinese loans. That is why the sources for the corpora texts for this work are taken from The Oxford English Dictionary and The Economist.

Figure 2. New Englishes

Note: Classification of New English varieties by David Crystal

From a foreign word to a loanword Susanne Kemmer describes in her paper the process of borrowing in detail:

The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant words. They adopt them when speaking the borrowing language. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example,

English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers. (2011)

At this initial stage the new word is at first used between the borrowing side and the source language side whereas both sides know the word. After this initial use, the borrowers will likely use the word with somebody that does not known the loan, and hence, these other speakers will perceive the word to be foreign. This is the point when the word is called “a foreign word”, since the majority of speakers consider the word to be from another language. Foreign words and phrases are rather common in English, e.g. bon vivant (French), mutatis mutandis (Latin) or Fahrvergnügen (German). With the course of time more and more interlocutors become familiar with the new foreign word. When this word reaches the point where it can be understood and used by peole who do not know the source language, the novel word becomes conventionalized and is called “a borrowing” or “a loanword”. Of course, not all foreign words do reach the loanword stage; some may fall out of use before they are widespread. Consequently the loanword goes through the process of conventionalization in which it is advancing into the lexicon by becoming more and more familiar to speakers. This process also usually involves gradual changes of sound and other features of the borrowing language. After such substantial adaptation, speaker of the borrowing language cease to perceive it as a loanword at all. In general, the longer time a loanword has been received in the language and the more frequently it is used, the more the word resembles the native words of the recipient language. This exhausting description of the process introduces in particular detail how “a foreign word” becomes a conventionalized “loanword” and explains the difference between the two. It points to the fact that the process is rather slow and gradual. Undoubtedly, there are many factors affecting it, however, their study would go beyond the scope of this work.

Functions of loanwords Josef Vachek (1999) introduced two main functions of borrowings. First, when an entirely new concept from one language is entering the other language and there is no naming unit with the appropriate meaning (so called “semantic gap” or “lacuna”), it is to be

filled up with a “borrowed” loan. This function is distinguished as the “economic” because it maintains stability of the language system. The other one is “stylistic”, which contributes to building the speaker’s identity, showing one’s prestige and expressing “markedness” 2 of language communication or eventually euphemism.

Types of loanwords Basic dichotomy distinguishes two kinds of borrowings: 1. “cultural borrowings” designate objects or concepts that are unknown and new to the borrowing language, sometimes also called “loanwords by necessity” 2. “core borrowings” either duplicate or replace already existing native words; primary motivation for this change is prestige of the donor language (Haspelmath & Tadmor, 2009)

Borrowings can be also classified according to the perception of recipient language speaker: 1. “quotational words” are not organic parts of mother tongue and are felt extrinsic to the language, 2. “foreign words” are taken for organic parts of the language, but their foreign etymology is still being reflected, 3. “adapted words” have also foreign genealogy, but interlocutors do not perceive it. (Lotko, 2005, Karlík, 2002)

As it is often the case, various linguists and researchers use different and more or less modified terms for classification and taxonomies. This work will apply the taxonomy of renowned Norwegian linguist Einar Haugen (1950), who divided borrowings into these categories: 1. “loanwords” - both the morphemes and the meaning of the source word are copied completely, e.g “café” in English borrowed from French. As this term is nowadays widely used in its broadest sense for any kind of borrowing (and in this thesis as well), it will be specified here as “fully imported loanwords”

2 „A marked unit has a feature, or the positive value of a feature, as opposed to lacking it or having the negative value, …eg. horse is more general, unmarked term, while mare is marked for femaleness.“ (Hladký, p. 52) 9

2. “loanblends” - part of the word is copied and part comes from the source language, e.g. Saturday from Latin Saturni dies 3. “loanshifts” - only meaning is transferred, morphemes are either substituted or not transferred - have two subtypes: a) “loan translations” or “calques” translates each morpheme-item e.g. “world view” from German Welt-anschauung b) “semantic borrowing” (also called “semantic loan” or “semantic extension”) transport a borrowed meaning onto already existing word in the recipient language, e.g. Easter denoted pagan goddess festival and under Christian influence took over present meaning.

Myers-Scotton (2002) introduces categorization according the origin: 1. “cultural borrowings” are words for new objects (e.g. espresso) or concepts (e.g. zeitgeist) and they usually emerge suddenly when influential groups use them. 2. “core borrowings”, on the contrary, duplicate already existing words (OK in German replacing gut etc.) They “usually begin life in the recipient language when bilinguals introduce them as singly occurring code-switching forms in the mixed constituents of their code-switching.” (Myers-Scotton, 2002, p. 239)

Another important classification distinguishes by the way of entering into the recipient language between: 1. “direct borrowing”: is taken over into the recipient language directly from the donor one 2. “indirect borrowing”: before it attains the recipient language passes through the ´mediating´ language (or more) that is called “transmission language”. Most usually each transmission language imprints distinctive phonological, morphological or orthographical changes. Even the meaning may alter, when a word go through more transmission languages.

Integration of loanwords Every language is a sophisticated system with its own inherent rules and features. So it is logical and natural that the borrowed words with their properties “foreign” to the recipient 10

language more or less “struggle” to survive in the new environment. In this case, they are usually force to assimilate rather than pose the threat of contaminating the system of the borrowing language. In contrast to that, however, there exists loanwords that kept some of there qualities incompatible with the “host language”. Thus loanwords can undergo changes at the phonological, morphological and semantic level. 1) Phonological adaptation Changes in pronunciation are frequent, especially when the“coming sound/sound pattern is very different, unusual or simply does not occur in the recipient language (RL). Foreign words are modified to adjust according to native pronunciation patterns. (E.g. French loanword “garage” is getting another variant of pronunciation [ˈgærɑ ˈʒ -rɪ dʒ ], which is more natural for an English speaker.) 2) Morphological adaptation A borrowed word is to integrate within the grammar of the RL, so it also takes morphological modification. Loaned words are under obvious pressure to adapt the orthography of the RP, so their spelling change too. (E.g. It is acknowledged that verbs after borrowed tend to function as noun in the RL.) 3) Semantic adaptation This kind of change is rather rare, but there exist loanwords imported with different meaning than the model word. (E.g. Originally English word “handy” in German now has the meaning “mobile phone”.)

The integrating process of borrowings is influenced by various factors: - whether a loan was introduced by bilinguals - whether interchanging languages are related - “age” of a loan - intensity of contact

Borrowing hierarchy Martin Haspelmath, supported by citing other linguistic researches, claims that “it is widely acknowledged that lexical items are more likely to be borrowed than grammatical items and that words are more likely to be borrowed than bound morphemes.” In other words, open-class content items like nouns are more easily borrowed than closed class function words. Explaining it, he cites Myers-Scotton: “because they (nouns) receive, not assign,

thematic roles, their insertion in another language is less disruptive of predicate-argument structure”. (2008) This assumption was confirmed by the results of The Loanword Typology Project, “roughly two-to-one ratio between the borrowing rates of nouns and verb.” (Haspelmath & Tadmor, 2009, p. 61) Haspelmath also mentions another area more resistant to borrowing which is called “basic vocabulary” (or “core vocabulary”) referring to basic human activities and needs such as eat, sleep, moon, rain, do, have, be. He suggests that “basic vocabulary” consists of high- frequency items and so that may be why they resist borrowing analogously as they resist other language changing. Differential borrowing is strongly influenced by the obvious factor often called “intensity of contact”. Thomason and Kaufman (1988) use a five-point scale: 1. causal contact 2. slightly more intense contact 3. more intense contact 4. strong cultural pressure 5. very strong cultural pressure Other factors Haspelmath (2008) takes into account are “structural incompatibility”, “genealogical relatedness” (related languages are supposed to borrow from each other more easily) and “language purism”, that may contribute to “resistance to borrowing”. “Cultural resistance to loanwords is called purism.” (Haspelmath, 2009, p. 47) Purism of the educated elites used to be manifested through national academies in central and eastern countries in 18th and 19th century. “It is generally assumed that the nature and extent of borrowing depend entirely on the historical facts of culture relation.… It seems very probable that the psychological attitude of the borrowing language itself towards linguistic material has much to do with its receptivity to foreign words. .” (Sapir, 1921, p. 166) Words can be clustered into “semantic fields” according to their common semantic property. Widely used for linguistic researches is the list of Carl Darling Buck. The following one is based on Buck´s and two last categories are added for the purposes of World Loanword Database (WOLD).3, which belongs to the project of Loanwords in the World´s Llanguages.

3 This database is a scientific publication providing vocabularies of 41 languages with comprehensive information about the loanword status of each word. http://wold.livingsources.org/

1. The physical world 13. Quantity 2. Kinship 14. Time 3. Animals 15. Sense perception 4. The body 16. Emotions and values 5. Food and drink 17. Cognition 6. Clothing and grooming 18. Speech and language 7. The house 19. Social and political relations 8. Agriculture and vegetation 20. Warfare and hunting 9. Basic actions and technology 21. Law 10. Motion 22. Religion and belief 11. Possession 23. Modern world 12. Spatial relations 24. Miscellaneous function words

Some linguists assumed that there should be differences in borrowing tendency among the semantic fields. Project of Loanwords in the world´s languages (LWL) led by Martin Haspelmath (2009) from Max Planck Institute in Leipzig studied 41 different languages (as diverse as possible, genealogically, geographically and sociolinguistically) and apart from other outcomes brought the scale of borrowed score for each individual semantic field from the list above. The score expresses which semantic domains are entering into borrowing most often. The highest scored were: 1. Modern world, 2. Social and political relations, 3.Agriculture and vegetation. And the lowest ones: 1. Spatial relations, 2. The body and 3. Sense perception.

2.2 English

In order to examine the language contact between English and Chinese with relation loanwords which flow from Chinese to English, it is first necessary to introduce the typological properties, lexicons and the methods of vocabulary enlarging of the two languages. The purpose is to put the two languages into contrast to see whether they share any particular qualities or rather stand in opposition and subsequently to see how it may affect the process of borrowing.

2.2.1 Typology

Within genealogical classification, English belongs to the Anglo-Frisian sub-group of the West Germanic branch of the Germanic family, a member of the Indo-European languages. Unlike genealogical classification, typological classification distinguishes from the synchronic perspective on the basis of characteristic features of present structure. (Erhart, 1984) It was during the Anglo-Saxon era (550-1066) that English developed into a separate language. The language from the aforementioned era is called Old English and is assessed as synthetic languages in which inflection expresses grammatical functions. On the contrary, the grammatical system of Modern English (1650 AD-present) is primarily analytic. Klégr and Zima (1989) point out that the transfer to the analytic type was heavily influenced by the Normans, who spoke the analytic language French, and their conquest of 1066 of the British Isles. A typical analytic feature of English is fixed word order as an indicator of the case function and the word class category. Another option to express syntactic relations is use of grammar words. Words in analytical languages do not change their form unlike inflectional. The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language describes linguistic typology based on morphological criteria; the way grammatical units, called morphemes, are combined within words. And hence, it classifies languages according to two different features: 1. The degree to which morphemes are fused together On the scale isolating-agglutinating-fusional 4 – English has a tendency towards isolation. 2. According to the number of morphemes within a word On the scale analytic-inflected-polysynthetic 5 English, with an estimated 1,68 morphemes per word, is at the low end as a mildly analytical language. (To compare for example, Inuit/Eskymo as a strongly polysynthetic language has 3,72 morphemes per word.)

4 In Isolating language each word consists typically of a single morpheme. Agglutinating language has mostly polymorphemic words; each morpheme has a single lexical meaning. Fusional languages can express several grammatical meaning in one morpheme and morphemes are not clearly distinguishable from the root. 5 Inflected languages express grammatical categories with explicitly stated affixes or internal modification of a root. Polysynthetic languages have even higher number of morphemes per word, where one word can express the meaning of a sentence.

2.2.2 Writing system

The English language was first written in the form of the Anglo-Saxon runes dating from the 5th century AD.Around the 9th century AD the runic alphabet was replaced with the Latin script, introduced by Christian missionaries, and has been in use untill now. Thus, the English alphabet is a Latin alphabet consisting of 26 letters.

The alphabetic writing system is “based on the principle of representing spoken sound segments, specifically those at the level of consonants and vowels, by written characters, ideally one for each sound segment.” (Susanne Kemmer, 2010) This is in contrast to other kinds of writing systems are based on written representation of other linguistic units such as syllables, words, or some mix of these.

Durign writing, 26 letters which are either consonants or vowels, are organized into syllables and these constitute words. Considering all possible combination, this hierarchy produce very high number of syllables when polysyllabic words are being the norm.

2.2.3 Vocabulary and its enlargement

Searching for the size of English lexicon will reveal some figures, but usually only in approximate numbers. Crystal states that “according to some estimates the English vocabulary ranges from half a million to over 2 million.” At the same time he acknowledges it is not possible to provide a satisfactory total. (1988, p. 32)

A distinctive feature of English is great flexibility to borrowing. Jackson and Zé Amvela claim that “English may be considered as an insatiable borrower, in the sense that, while other languages take special measures to exclude foreign words from their lexicons, English seems to have welcomed such words throughout its history, especially from the Middle English period onwards. It is estimated that over 120 languages from all over the world have been sources of present day English vocabulary.” (2000, p. 39)

The vocabulary of English language is very broad and diverse and is closely related to the history of England. As Crystal explains “the history of English is one of repeated invasions, with newcomers to the islands bringing their own language with them, and leaving a fair amount of its vocabulary behind when they left or were assimilated” (Crystal, 1988, p. 156). In later times, when England became a colonial power, the expansion of English resulted in new enriching of its word-stock. As its currently so hugely widespread, learnt and

internationally required, English language is subject to multitide of influences throughout the world. This influence is so extensive that there are some prediction that it will become “an international possession” or “global language”, or may even transform into a multitude of “World Englishes”6

Figure 3. English Vocabulary

Note: The pies shows which langauges contributed mostly to English vocabulary.

A brief introduction of the main influences on the English vocabulary follows:

The oldest layer of the English lexicon dates back to the Celtic speakers, the inhabitants of British Isles between 600 BC and 50 AD, although, only very few Celtic borrowings survived: binn, carr, colleen, leprechaun, loch, sloga). However, place and river names are numerous: Avon, Carlisle, Devon, Dover, Cornwall, Thames etc.

6 The term was created by American scholar Braj Kachru. (Schneider, 2010)

Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain during the 5th and 6th centuries AD and replaced the Celts. The Anglo-Saxon lexicon forms only a minor part of the modern English vocabulary. Although these Germanic words are usually short, denoting rather basic concepts, they are the most frequently used: be, have, can, must, do, go, help, good, long, earth, house, fish, year.

The Romans occupies and controlled England as their imperial province from 43 BC until 410 AD. Latin strongly influenced English in the tree distinct phases:

1. The pre-Christian/early Anglo-Saxon period brought lexical items of plants, animals, food and drink: plant, plum, cheese, mint, street, cook, milk, kitchen.

2. The period of conversion to Christianity (after St. Augustine arrival in 597 AD)

Terminology of Church, military, law and loans from spoken Latin enlarged

the English lexicon: minster, monk, bishop, priest, legal, prosecute, custody, candle, place, giant, master, moon etc.

3. During the Renaissance from the 14th century and with the revival of classical

scholarship Latin, hand in hand with Greek (sometimes transmitted through Latin), terminologies of biology, botany and chemistry were accepted.

Latin: abdomen, anatomy, dexterity, excavate,insane, orbit, peninsula etc.

Greek: atmosphere, climax, data, history, parasite, pneumonia, tonic etc. )

Second major influence is due to the Scandinavian languages änd is a result of the Vikings settlement and later colonization during the 200 zears following 787 AD. Words of Scandinavian origin are difficult to distinguish from Anglo-Saxon since both English and Scandinavian people were Germanic and therfore were culturally and linguistically related. Additionally, both groups were forced to be subordinate to the Normans. These borrowings refer to everyday topics and ordinary life: sister, window, sky, knife, skin, bag, cake, egg, wrong, low, loose, flat, get, give, call, want, smile etc.

The last substantial impact on the English lexicon was that of French /Normans. As a result of the Norman Conquest in 1066 AD, French took over as the language of the court, administration and culture. Many terms related to government, law, nobility, advanced military terms, and also religion and cooking or fashion, entered the Anglo-Saxon word stock: council, court, accuse, bail, crime mayor, tax, treaty, count, prince, duke, army, battle,

captain, abbey, divine, saint, beef, cream, mustard, pork, diamond, dress, garment, pearl, satin etc.

During the period of Modern English, 1650-present, words from all over the world started to influx into English: Italian, Dutch, Icelandic, Afrikaans, Russian, Czech, Japanese and many others. Among others, vocabulary of the country with the highest populations of native English speakers, the USA (English there is called a national variety) contributed with Native American, African American and Mexican (Spanish and native languages of Mexico) borrowings.

Native American: chipmunks, canoe, hurricane, moccasin, potato, squash etc.

African American: banjo, goober, gorilla, gumbo, jazz, voodoo, zombie etc.

Mexican: adobe, canyon, chocolate, coyote, hacienda, poncho, rodeo, tomato etc.

There are also special English varieties inflenced by Chinese:

Chinglish is English used by Chinese speakers or in a bilingual Chinese and English conext, typically incorporating some Chinese vocabulary or constructions, or English terms specific to a Chinese context. (OED online)

China English is based on a standard English having Chinese characteristics in lexis, sentence structure and discourse. (Li Wenzhong, 1993)

Li proposes the fundamental distinction between the two: the former is not commonly used and causes misunderstanding in communication; the latter is considered as an accepted variety enriching the English languae. (1993)

2.2.4 Characteristics related to the borrowing process

Various languages behave differently in the process of borrowing depending on their adaptability and receptivity of borrowed words. This can be examined by their position on two language scales: the Scale of Adaptability and the Scale of Receptivity described by Hoffer. (2005)

The Scale of Adaptability assesses three characteristics of a language:

1. Phonemic inventory of consonants and vowels

“Language borrowing can be more difficult for a language that has few consonants and vowels in its phonological inventory.” (Hoffer, 2005, p. 61)

2. Syllabic structure Very simple syllabic structure also means worse predispositions to borrowing.

3. Intonation, Pitch, Stress Very different intonational system between the two compared languages may result in difficulties in borrowing.

Based on the above criteria, English:

1. generally uses 24 phonemic consonants and 11 phonemic vowels which form rather complex consonant and vowel inventory (compared to other languages)

2. has a very high number of possible syllables

3. uses four significant pitch levels and four significant stress levels, so the pitch/stress variations enable English to adapt to most pitch/stress and terrace-tone7 borrowings and to some extent to loanwords from tonal languages.

That is why English is placed high on the Scale of Adaptability.

The Scale of Receptivity assesses two aspects:

1. The history of vocabulary as a product of time

“Wide range of borrowing during most historical periods puts a language high on the scale.” (Hoffer, 2005. p. 65)

2. The official attitude of the country to borrowing

In both aspects English ranks high on the Scale of Receptivity, as it was illustrated in the Chapter 2.2.3 Vocabulary and its enlargement.

According to the outcomes of the aforementioned the World Loanword Database, English attained has the percentage of loanwords 42%, which is very high. Only four other languages had higher number.

To summarize, English is a language with very suitable properties and characteristics to assist the borrowing process

7 „A terrace tone language uses two or three significant tone levels in its words and sentences. (Hoffer, 2005, p. 64)

2.3 Chinese

With more than 1,3 billion people China is the most populous country in the world. It is a multilingual and multinational state. 56 ethnic nationalities speak more than 80 languages. (Dai, Dong, 1999) These languages belong to five different language families: Sino-Tibetan, Altaic, Malayo-Polynesian, Austro-Asiatic and Indo-European. Chinese is the native language of the most populous Han nationality, which constitutes 91.59% of China´s total population. (Zhonghua Renmin 2000) Other 55 nationalities are often referred to as “ethnic minorities”.

The Chinese language (Han4yu3 汉语 or Zhong1wen2中文 in Chinese) is the world´s most widely spoken language and is the official language of the People´s Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of China (ROC known as Taiwan) and one of the four official languages of Singapore.

Standard Chinese or Modern standard Chinese (Pu3tong1hua4 普通话 meaning literally “common speech” or Guo2yu3 国语 meaning „national language“) is a standardized form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin Chinese referred to as

Guan1hua4 官话 (literally “official speech”). Basically all the aforementioned terms are interchangeable and denote the same language variety – Standard Chinese. The term Mandarin may imply the contrast between the Standard Chinese other dialects.

2.3.1 Typology

Genealogically Chinese belongs to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.

Classical Chinese (700 BC – 200 AD), a predecessor of Modern Chinese, is an example of clearly isolating language type, in which words have mostly only one syllable, their form do not change and syntactic relations are expressed by the position in the word order or by grammatical words. (Klégr and Zima, 1989) On the contrary, Modern Chinese (1919 – present) is classified as an analytical language (common features see in 2.2.2), although there is a strong tendency to two-syllable (and even poly-syllable) words to differentiate numerous homophonic meanings due to the limited number of syllables. (See 2.3.3) Of course, the number of one syllable words is still considerable.

Chinese as a tonal language has four tones that carry meanings and each syllable has a tone realization.

In general it can be stated that the basic unit in Chinese is a syllable, which overlaps with a morpheme (the smallest unit of meaning).

2.3.2 Dialects

As a consequence of historical development and extremely huge area, Chinese is a language of very high internal diversity, although all dialects of Chinese are monosyllabic in origin, analytical with little inflection and tonal. Seven major dialect groups are distinguished:

Mandarin (Guan1 官)

Wu2 吴

Xiang1 湘

Gan4 贛

Min3 闽

Ke4jia1 客家 (Hakka)

Yue4 粤 (Cantonese) (DeFrancis, 1984)

Figure 4. The Sinitic Languages

Note: The map show the Sinitic languages with the largest population

Mandarin is often referred to as the Northern Dialect, while the six non-Mandarin dialects are the Southern Dialects. The six non-Mandarin dialects are not mutually intelligible either with Mandarin or among themselves. However, Mandarin also constitutes the whole group of Mandarin dialects and even within the group there exist two mutually unintelligible dialects. Nevertheless, the Chinese dialects use the same set of characters enabling mutual understanding through the written form.

Chinese dialects are sometimes called Chinese languages, eventually regional languages or varieties depending on various conceptions and definitions of what “a dialect” or “a language is. Some linguists from “outside” of China would use “languages”, while the Chinese themselves perceive rather “dialects” in contrast to the Standard Chinese. The fact is that some dialects, namely Cantonese of Shanghainese (belonging to Wu dialect), enojoy prestigious status to a great extent and “diglossia” (two or more dialects or languages are used by a single language community) is a commonplace in general.

Cantonese dialect has the second largest population and is spoken in Guandong and Guanxi provinces in southern China and an official language in Hong Kong and Macau. Moreover, it is the most widely spoken non-Mandarin Sinitic language in the world. After

Mandarin, Cantonese is also the source language of loanwords expressing Chinese concepts. Although Mandarin and Cantonese share large portion of vocabulary, different pronunciation (Cantonese has nine basic tones and two changed tones) and grammar make them mutually unintelligible. Cantonese has also different romanization systems; the major ones are Barnett- Chao, Meyer-Wempe, Yale (common in the west), Sidney Lau (created in Hong Kong and widely used) and Jyutping.

2.3.3 Writing, Romanization and transcriptions

Chinese is a logographic language, where “the graphemes (smallest written unit of the language) represent words. Chinese writing derived from the ideographic script (where each grapheme has an abstract or pictorial link with the meaning of the word) with several ictographic elements. Logographs in oriental languages are referred to as characters. (Crystal, 1987) Most Chinese characters contain phonetic components and semantic radicals. Currently two systems of characters are in use: traditional in Taiwan and Hong Kong (traditional or classical characters) in contrast to simplified characters developed by the PRC in 1945 to promote mass literacy (complex traditional characters were simplified to fewer strokes). It is estimated that the complete writing system contains from 40,000 – 70,000 characters, but a common educated Chinese reader recognizes around 5,000-7,000 characters. The government of the PRC defines basic literacy as knowledge of 2,000 characters. Another characteristic feature of Chinese is the tonal character. As Mandarin has only limited number of monosyllables (400), there are many homophones that must be ditinquished by the four tones (and sometimes only by the character). The first tone is high and level; the second rising, the third falling- rising and the fourth is falling. (So called “neutral” tone is flat without emphasis and is not usually counted as a tone.) Figure 5. The four tones inChinese

“Romanization” is the process of transcribing a language into the Latin script. Chinese never had a native phonetic transcription. First, who converted characters into Latin alphabet were Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century. “Transcription” is the conversion of either utterance or text in another writing system into written form.

The most common transcription for the Standard Chinese is Han1yu3 Pin1yin1 汉语

拼音 (literally „Han language“ and „spelled sound“), often known as pinyin. It was developed by the government comitee in the PRC and officially introduced in 1958. In 1982 the International Organization for Standardization adopted it as the international standard. (“ISO 7098:1982,“ n.d). Pinyin became a useful and inevitable tool not only for foreigners learning Chinese, rendering of Chinese names in public and citing Chinese language by non-Chinese speakers, but it is also actively used as an instrument for teaching pronunciation of Mandarin in Chinese schools. Pinyin also marks the four tones diacritically. When macron and caron diacritics is not available, the tones are represented by placing a tone number at the end of a syllable.

First tone Second tone Third tone Fourth tone mā má mǎ mà. ma1 ma2 ma ma4

Tones are essential for correct pronunciation, but in European contexts are often left out, since it is irrelevant for non-speaking Chinese. Pinyin replace the second most common transcription, the Wade-Giles, invented in in the end of 19th century by academics in the USA. Unlike pinyin, this system is an

Anglicization since it approximates the phonology of Mandarin into English consonants and vowels. See Attachment No. 3 (Pinyin and Wade-Giles transcriptions) The Wade-Giles has been used in Taiwan as the standard for decades and even in the Mainland China presently at special cases it has been maintained in use, when the original transcripted forms originated before pinyin and became internatinally known. (For details of pinyin see Appendix 3) The third transcription to be mentioned is Zhùyīn Zìmǔ 注音字母 (literally „sound- annotating letters"), often called bopomofo (derived from the first four characters: ㄅㄆㄇㄈ)

It was released in 1913 as the first official phonetic system for transcribing Mandarin. It consists of 37 characters and four tone marks based on shorthand script. This system was completedly superseded by the pinyin, but together with Wade-Giles are retained in use in Taiwan.

2.3.4 Characteristics related to the borrowing process

In 2.2.4 the two scales expressing adaptability and receptivity were described. Chinese with its special characteristics will be placed:

1. Fairly low position on the Scale of adaptability. It uses 23 phonemic consonants and 6 basic vowels and the number of potential syllables is rather low. The level of complexity of the consonants inventory, vowel inventory and syllable structure is rather low too. Chinese tones system in not very flexible in handling pitch/stress language from or tarrace tone language. (Hoffer, 2005)

2. On the Scale of receptivity quite low postion with regard to a very small percentage of its vocabulary from other languages; on the lowest part with regard to the resistency and even ´hostile´ attitude to loanwords. (Norman, 1988)

To support the above characteristics, according to the outcomes of the World Loanword Database, (see 2.2.4), the percentage of loanwords of Chinese was absolutely lowest (out of 41 languages) 2%. (The average percentage was 24.2%; the highest 63%) (“World loanword database,” n.d.)

2.3.5 Vocabulary and its enlargement

The 12-volumed Hànyǔ Dà Cídiǎn 汉语大词典 comprises over 23,000 head Chinese characters. (Hanyu Da Cidian, 1995) Presently about 10,000 are in use. Most Chinese words consist of two or more characters; there are many times more Chinese Words. The usual conception was that China has been very resistant to borrowing from other languages. (Norman, 1988) On the contrary, researches on the languages bordering China proves many Chinese loanwords. (Hoffer, 2005, p.60) Especially in the 19th century, when China became politically and culturally strong, Chinese language contributed vocabulary to the neighbouring languages, and the Chinese system of character writing was taken over by e.g. Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese. (Norman, 1988) However, even Chinese language during the long history and interactions with the outside world absorbed some foreign vocabulary. First remarkable wave of borrowing goes back to the period of Han Dynasties (206 BC- 220 AD), when an important trade route known as the Silk Road8 came into existence. This way a large number of mostly material objects were introduced in China, along with their names. (E.g. terms from Ancient Elamite, ancestor of ancient Persia: shi1zi – lion, mu4xu1 – lucerne, pu2tao2 – grape) (Miao, 2005) The following period belonged to the importation of Buddhism and related terms, which culminated under Sui (581-618) and Tang Dynasty (618-907). Buddhist texts were translated from Sanskrit, eventually from Paali. Through the Silk Road Central Asian languages (Persian, Turkic) introduced their terms to China. (E.g. fo2-tuo2 – Buddha, seng1jia1 – monk, chan1 – meditation, se4-se4 – green precious stone, ke3-han2 – Turk king) (Miao, 2005) During the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1616-1911) dynasties, Christian missionaries were coming to China (Jesuit missions are well known) and brought not only religious terms, but also introduced western sciences. (E.g. ye1su1 – Jesus, a1men2 – amen, you2da4 – Judas, ji3he2 – geometry, di4qiu2 – earth) (Miao, 2005) After the defeat in the Sino-British Opium War (1840-1842), China was forced to open coastal trading ports. World powers (Britain, France and Japan) semi-colonized the country, which resulted in a need to learn from the West. English was the main source

8 The Silk Road was the 7000 mile route from China through Central Asia, Northern India and the Parthian to the Roman Empires. It was used by traders between 202 BC and 760 AD. http://library.thinkquest.org/13406/sr/ The Silk Road: Linking Europer and Asia Through Trade

langauge for numerous translations and borrowings. (E.g. de2mo2ke4la1xi1 – democracy, a1si1pi3lin2 – aspirin, mi4si1tuo1 – mister) (Miao, 2005) Originally, Japan borrowed words from Chinese including the writing. After the Sino- Japanese War (1894-1895), when China suffered the defeat, Japan became a modern military country and China started to learn from Japan, including borrowing words. Many Japanse borrowings were “reborrowed loanwords” (See 2.1) or sometimes also called “return loanwords” (Masini, 1993) Due to the same writing system, Japanes loans were borrowed directly through the graphic form and pronounced the Chinese way. (E.g. wen2xue2 – literature, mei3xue2 – art, dian4bao4 – telegraph, lin2ba1- lymph) (Miao, 2005) The 20th century brought two distinct influxis of borrowings. In the 1960s Russia became important political partner and industrial supplier. Most Russian borrowings were loan translations and after worsening the relationship, many of them dissappeared. (E.g. du4ma3 – Russian congress, bu4la1ji2 – dress) Since the late 1970s till present China has been growing economically and opening to the world, thus the proportion of borrowings from various languages (with English as the main source) has been increasing. Foreign loans in Chinese can be classified into four major categories: Phonemic loans adapt foreign words by means of phonemic transliteration, namely combine the pinyin syllables to represent a pronuciation similar to the source word. Alternatively, they can be purely phonemic (nuo4-di2-ka3 – nautica, but literally means promise-enlightment-card) or can have semantic asociation (han4-ma3 – Hummer; literally brave-horse) Semantic loans are words adapted according to the meaning, either through the morpheme-by-morpheme translation (xia4zai4 – down-load) or the holistic translation (wan4- hao2 – Marriot; ten thousand-rich). Graphic loans borrow directly the written form of a word and are predominantly represented by loans from Japanese on the ground of common writing system. (wen2xue2 – literature; the source character is the same in Japanese, only pronuciation is different bungaku, ben3tian2 – Honda)9 Since the 1970s Chinese has started to absorb also graphic loans from the Western languages, namely English, and combines them with characters. (CD – compact disk, BP-ji1 BP 机 – BP machine or beeper)

9 It should be noted that Japanese language keeps traditional Chinese characters, whereas in Mainland China simplified version are in use since the 1950s.

In hybrids combination of different borrowing strategies. The most frequent ones consist of a phonemic part and a semantic part. (ai4zi1bing4 – AIDS; literally love-generate- disease, ba1bi3 wa3wa – Barbie Doll; literally palm-tree-to compare doll) In general, it can be stated that Chinese speakers prefer mostly semantic loans as a result of incompactibility between the complex syllable in Indo-European languages and the Mandarin restricted template. Furthermore, in China greater attention is paid to the meaning than to the sound. And lastly, in Chinese each syllable represents a morpheme and for Chinese speakers a multisyllabic phonemic loanword without a meaning in each indiviual syllable is not natural. (Chan & Kwok, 1985)

3. Practical Part

3.1 OED Online index of Chinese loans

3.1.1 New OED Corpus development

When trying to identify Chinese loanwords, it first appears useful to consult The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) - the world’s most comprehensive single-language dictionary. It contains approximately 600,000 words. Its history started as early as 1857 and also provides the history of individual words. The latest complete print edition, Second

Edition (OED2), was published in 1989 in 20 volumes. Presently, it is been being revised for the third edition (OED3). Since March 2000, OED became available online and its database includes the entire OED2 and is updated quarterly. And this online version (OED Online) is found being competent due to its premier position and helpful due to efficient searching tools for the purpose of this study. Before examining Chinese borrowings in every day use, it might be effective to review which and how many words underwent the standardization through entering OED.

The corpus by Isabel de la Cruz Cabanillas

The subject matter of this thesis has naturally been dealt with by linguists and researchers. A relatively recent survey was carried out by Isabel de la Cruz Cabanillas, a professor at University of Alcala. In her work, “Chinese loanwords in the OED” (2007), she revised the studies of her predecessors: Garland Cannon (1987) and Andrew Moody (1996). One of her aims was to find out whether the data supplied by the OED increased. Her new data was retrieved from OED Online. Total amount of entries was 345 plus 36 loan translations, which she disregarded from her index on the ground of Moody´s argument, saying that, “calques offer little evidence about the source or transmission language.”(1996, p. 406) However, in the list below, calques are also included to get the complex idea about OED records.

Transmission language JAPANESE, 92 entries: Bento (1616), budo (1905), daimio (1839), dairi (1662), furo (1615), gingko (1773), gobang (1886), gyoza (1955), inro (1627), itzebu/itzeboo (1616), judo (1889), ju-jistu (1875), juku (1931), kago (1857), k'ai shu (1876), kanji (1920), karotsi (1988), keiretsu (1965), kirin (1727), kobang (1616), kyudo (1933), maki-e (1616), makunouchi (1898), makuuchi (1957), manga (1951), manyogana (1841), Meiji (1873), meishi (1971), Mikado (1727), mikan (1618), mingei (1955), Minseito (1927), minshuku (1970), mirin (1880), miso (1615), mokume (1884), momme (1727), mon (1878), mondo (1) (1927), mondo (2) (1956), mu (1933), mushin (1934), Nagami (1935), Nanga (1910), nanten (1884), napa (1979), narikin (1918), nashi (1902), Nashiji (1881), natto (1905), nembutsu (1727), Nichiren (1876), nikkei (1) (1969), Nikkei (2) (1974), nikkeijin (1979), ninja (1964), ninjutsu (1950), Nintendo (1987), Nippon (1614), nisei (1939), nogaku (1916), Noh (1871), nunchaku (1969), Obaku (1833), oban (1615), on (1946), onsen (1909), orihon (1882), otaku (1992), oyabun (1948), ramen (1972), reiki (1982), Rinzai (1833), seitan (1974), sennin (1875), seppuku (1871), shaku (1727), shakudo (1860), Shinto (1727), shipo (1875), shiso (1985), soroban (1891), soshi

(1891), soy (1696), temmoku (1880), Tendai (1727), tofu (1880), tycoon (1857), Wagyu (1963), yen (1) (1875), yuzu (1910), Zen (1727).

Transmittion language PIDGIN, 7 entries: Chop-chop (1834), chop-stick (1699), makee (1719), mash (1870), muchee (1723), pidgin (1807), samshoo (1697).

Transmission language FRENCH, 5 entries: Galingale (1000), kalanchoe (1830), kaolin (1727), pampelmoes (1698), tea (1655).

Transmission language KOREAN, 3 entries: Hapkido (1971), ondol (1935), onmun (1882).

Transmission language MALAY, 3 entries: Nonya (1934), popiah (1986), sinseh (1972).

Transmission langauge DUTCH, 2 entries: Mebos (1793), nooi (1850).

Transmission language PORTUGUESE, 2 entries: Japan (1577), macao (1778).

Transmission language MONGOL, 1 entry: Tangut (1598).

Transmisson language SWEDISH, 1 entry: Mandarin (1771).

Transmission language VIETNAMESE, 1 entry: Hao (1948).

Source langugane CANTONESE, 23 entries: Bok choy (1847), campoi (1842), chop-suey (1888), dim sum (1948), fu yung (1917), hoisin (1957), kumquat/cuamquat (1699), kwai-lo (1969), loquat (1820), moo goo gai pan (1902), oopack (1855), pai gow (1906), pakapoo (1886), pak pai (1972), paktong (1775),

Tanka (1839), Wing Chun (1967), wok (1858), won ton (1948), yen (2) (1876), yen (3) (1882), yen-yen (1886), yulo (1878).

Source language AMOY (dialect belonging to the group of Min dialects), 2 entries: Cumshaw (1839), ketchup (1711).

Source language MANDARIN, 2 entries: Cha/chah (1616), hoey (1865).

Source language OTHER VARIETIES of Chinese, 6 entries: Mee (1935), kiasu (1978), kongsi (1839), lah (1972), pekoe (1713), Teochew (1893).

195 items classified by the OED as having CHINESE origin without specification: Bohea (1701), (6) chen shu (1655), cheongsam (1957), chin chin (1795), chow mein (1903), Confucian (1837), congou (1725), erhu (1908), fan tan (1878), fen (1852), feng-shui (1797), fum (1820), Gan (1943), ganbei (1940), ganbu (1956), ginseng (1654), gow (1922), gung ho (1942), Hakka (1867), hien/hsien (1837), ho-ho (1901), hong (1726), hutung (1922), hyson (1740), I Ching (1876), jiao (1949), jiaozi (1978), kang (1770), kaoliang (1904), Kiangsi (1937), Ko (2) (1882), ko (3) (1923), kow-tow/kotow (1804), Kuan/Kwan (1814), kuei (1935), kung-fu (1966), Kuomintang (1912), Kuo-yu (1932), kylin (1857), Langshan (1871), lei (1929), lei-wen (1922), li (1) (1588), li (2) (1771), li (3) (1912), li (4) (1945), liang (1827), likin (1876), ling (1860), ling chih (1904), li shu (1824), litchi (1588), li ring (1958), Lohan (1878), longan (1732), lu (1655), mafoo (1863), mah-jong (1922), Mamenchisaurus (1954), man t'ou (1955), Maoism (1950), Mao-tai (1962), mei ping (1915), Miao (1834), Miaotse (1810), mien (1890), Mien (1873), Min (1902), Ming (2) (1795), ruing (4) (1937), ruing chi (1958), Min Yuen (1951), Mohism (1861), moo shu (1962), mou (1836), moutan (1808), Nanyang (1946), Nei kuan (1959), nien hao (1824), oolong (1845), paiban (1884), pai-hua (1923), pailou (1836), paitung (1736), pan (1874), p'an (1904), pao-chia (1931), pao- tzu (1944), Peking (1776), pela (1754), pelong (1675), pe-tsai (1788), petuntse (1728), (7) pi (1871), Pinyin (1963), pipa (1839), p'o (1850), Pong (1910), pongee (1711), po shan lu (1915), pung (1922), putonghua (1950), qi (1850), qigong (1974), qinghaosu (1977), renminbi (1957), sampan (1620), Sanfan (1956), san hsien (1839), san ts'ai (1901), se (1874), senshaw (1848), Shang (1669), shang (1887), Shanghainese (1964), Shaolin (1974), Shar-Pei (1976), shen (1847), sheng (1) (1795), sheng (2) (1886), shih-tzu (1921), so-na (1908), souchong (1760), suan-pan (1736), Sui (1738), Sung (1673), sycee (1711), Szechuan (1956), Sze Yap (1964), ta chuan (1894), T'ai Chi (1736), taipan (1834), Tai-ping (1853), tan (1) (1886), tan (2) (1911), Tang (1669), tangpu (1941), tao (1736), taotai (1747), t'ao t'ieh (1915), ta tzu-pao (1960), te (1895), tiao (1883), t'ien (1683), ting (1904), t'ing (1853), ti-tzu (1874), tou (1899), tou-ts'ai (1953), ts'ao shu (1876), tsu (1939), tsun (1958), tsung (1904), tuchun (1917), tu-mo (1972), tung (1889), (8) tupan (1925), tutang (1613), Twankay (1840), typhoon (1588), Tz'u Chou (1910), ve-tsin (1958), wampee (1830), wei ch 'i (1871), wen jen (1958), wen li (1887), wen yen (1936), whangee (1790), wonk (1) (1900), Wu (1908), Wufan (1956), wushu (1973), wu ts'ai (1904), wu-wei (1859), yamun/yamen (1747), yang (1671), yang ch'in (1876), yang-ko (1954), Yenan (1949), Yi (1960), yin (1) (1671), Yin (2) (1846), ying ch'ing (1922), yu (1904), Yuan (1) (1673), yuan (2) (1912), yuan (3) (1928), yuan hsiao (1956), Yueh (2)

(1901), Yueh (3) (1954), yueh (4) (1956), yueh ch'in (1839), yulan (1822), Yunnanese (1849), zhuyin zimu (1938).

Loan translations/calques, 36 entries: Acupuncture point (1932), barefoot doctor (1971), dragon (1981), dragon boat (1846), loose face (1876), flowery (Empire, Kingdom, Land, Nation) (1847), functional (1990), gang (1976), martial arts (1920), mat (1) (1613), meridian (1959), Middle (Empire, Kingdom, Land, Nation) (1698), milk name (1836), money tree (1934), moon gate (1924), mud (1852), no can do (1868), paper tiger (1836), paste (1735), pearl tea (1838), pillow book (1906), porcelain tower (1666), potsticker (1968), reform through labour (1957), capitalist road (1966), capitalist roader (1) (1967), running dog (1937), save one's face (1898), semi-proletariat (1951), snakehead (1965), Son of Heaven (1613), splittism (1962), struggle meeting (1966), to ride a tiger (1902), triad society (1821), war-lord (1922).

Finally, an additional detailed search revealed another 17 crucial entries: gung ho (1942), (4) ho-ho (1901), hutung (1922), I Ching (1876), inro (1617), kongsi (1839), kuei (1935), Kuomintang (1912), Kuo-yu (1932), Lohan (1878), qi (1850), Shar-Pei (1976), shih-tzu (1921), Szechuan (1956), wonk (1) (1900), Yin (2) (1846) and Zen (1727).

The corpus of Isabel de la Cruz Cabanillas retrieved from OED Online comprises 362 tokens without those 36 calques. (Total would be then 398.) To compare, a previous study of Chan and Kwok (1985) counted 108 lexical items and Moody´s (1996) tabulated 96.

The New OED corpus 2012

With regard to the fact that OED Online is being updated quarterly, a new search has been made in February 2012 to find out if there is any increase in number. The query was defined to retrieve data with language of origin “Chinese” and with the word “Chinese” contained in their etymology. 521 entries were obtained. After excluding words already covered in the above list of Isabel de la Cruz Cabanillas and other elements not suitable for the purpose of this thesis (e.g. terms of different or uncertain etymological origin), 65 terms in English, borrowed from Chinese, were listed.

3.1.2 Analysis of the New OED Corpus

Table 1.

Chinese loanwords newly added in OED Online between 2008-2012 classified by the source or last source language and semantic fields.

______Mandarin Cantonese Japan Other ______Philosophy and ming kim, ritsu religion roshi

History and Black flag Army, politics princeling, wuxia, yen-yen

Society/Status brainwashing, tong daimio, toju foreing devil, iron bowl, milk name, red button, running dog

Food and drink Pu-erh choy sum, subgum adzuki, kaiseki wood ear towcok ryokan, ryotei

Biota goji reishi, rotenone

Martial arts randori, rikishi

Amusement East Wind, North Wind, hentai, keirin, South Wind, West Wind, Rashomon pung

Material culture mingqi, moon gate dotchin, samfu keitai, raku rouge de fer qin, qipao, tsatlee rouge flambé (French) Language and renga, ronin literature shojo, shonen

Culture&art rikka, ryu, ryugi

Measurement ri, rin, ryo and money

Proper names Qin, Qing Hokkien (Amoy)

Health tui na

Science taikonaut ______

65 new entries of Chinese loanwords during 4 years (2008-2012) might be considered quite a considerable number, especially in comparison with previous outcomes of Cannon (1988), Moody (1996) and even Cabanillas. It could also suggest that the mutual contacts of two rather diverse and remote languages are getting closer and intensive.

Orthography and spelling

From the point of orthography, prevailing part of 28 (43%) tokens is transmitted from Japanese and 22 of them has an appropriate Japanese spelling form: ritsu, roshi, adzuki, kaiseki, ryokan, ryotei, reishi, randori, rikishi, hentai, kerin, keitai, raku, renga, ronin, shojo, shonen, rikka, ryu, ri, rin, ryo. (For details of meanings see Appendix 1). Only 6 words were not found in Japanese dictionaries, so they might have either changed during the borrowing process or their transcription is not accurate (possibly obsolete). Regardless, their structure still indicates a borrowed word from Japanese: kim, daimio, toju, rotenone, ryugi, Roshomon.

The second position is occupied by 14 loan translations in English, all are translated directly from Mandarin.

The third largest group of 8 words (12%) is in pinyin without modification: ming, wuxia, mingqi, qin, qibao, Qin, Qing, tui na.

Another 5 items also have the origin in pinyin, but spelling underwent minor changes: yen-yen from yin1 yan3, Pu-erh from Pu3er3, goji from gou3qi3, pung from peng4, taikonaut is a blend from tai4 kong1= outer space and astronaut.

The last group consists of 7 Cantonese words either in some of the transcriptions for Cantonese (see 2.3.2 Dialects) or with some less distinctive changes allowing still trace Cantonese origin.

2 words are in French and 1 in Amoy transcription.

Japanese: 28… 43% Loan translation in English and French: 16…25% Pinyin: 8 … 12% Adjusted Pinyin: 5…8% Cantonese: 7…10,5% Amoy: 1 …1,5%

In this list of newly entered words into OED Online, apart from the most numerous terms transmitted from Japanese, which will be commented on below, there may appear two tendencies in orthography: either Pinyin is kept (often without changes) or the meaning is translated into the recipient language. This result confirmed Garland Cannon´s claim on the

account of direct borrowings that the loan translations will be prevailing over the loanwords. (Cannon, 1988)

Cantonese confirms its minor but still stable status too.

Forms and grammar

In terms of parts of speech, the largest number usually pertains to nouns. Words from this search are all nouns; only two of them are deverbal noun: brainwashing, pung..

Source and transmission languages

Surprisingly, the largest group of borrowed terms has Japanese spelling and was transplanted from Japanese as the mediator language. This can be easily explained by the rather well-known fact that the two neighbouring cultures, Japanese and Chinese, were quite closely confined in some historical periods and thus considerably influenced each other. The trade of language was not equal though: the flow was much stronger from Chinese to Japanese because the Japanese first writing was entirely based on the Chinese characters imported to Japan with classical literature.

It can be a matter of question whether this largest group still can be regarded as Chinese loanwords, when orthography is Japanese and not only that. Although OED Online confirms their Chinese etymons in each entry, the meanings are mostly associated with Japan and Japanese culture. In this sense they rather reflect the contact between English and Japanese, not Chinese. (See Appenidix 1- the index is complemented with meanings and etymology.) Chinese etymons are merely tools serving in the spread of Japanese notions, and as such, could be taken for Japanese loanwords in English. Henceforth, it is dependant on each individual scholar whether to include or to disregard. This thesis stands somewhere between: it points out the validity of issues from Japanese, but does not exclude them from the list.

On the other hand, the previous studies came across the same or similar results, Garland Cannon (1988), to be named for all. Correspondinly, these findings are essentially in close connection to this. Cannon even postulates possible future development: “…, the evidence suggests that Chinese is not likely to rival Japanese and become a major word supplier in the near future”. (1988, p. 25)

Right after Japanese is Mandarin Chinese as the source language with 27 items. It could be presupposed due to the more open policy of China in recent years and more global interconnections. It should not be neglected that a direct role is played by the increasing number of English learners and speakers in China, as Jian Yang (2009) highlights. The mutual contact between English and Chinese is just more direct.

Japanese - transmitter 28… 43% Mandarin – source l. 27 … 41,6% Cantonese – source l. 7 … 10,8% Others 3 (1 from Amoy10 – source l., 2 from French – transmitter) …4,6%

Semantic fields

It has often been stated that the biggest number of Chinese borrowings belongs to the semantic field of Food and drink. (Jian, 2009) Chan and Kwok (1985) claims that “food is the area of Chinese culture which has had the greatest impact on the life of the English-speaking world” (p. 51). Moody (1996) agrees to that and propounds that Cantonese provided terms of various food as well and suggests that terms from Mandarin are typically related to Chinese “high culture”: philosophy, religion, history, politics, art and literature.

Distribution of 37 items into semantic fields (numbers of the Japanese items are in the brackets):

Material culture: 9 (+2) Society/Status: 7 (+2) Food and drink: 5 (+4) Amusement: 5 (+3) History and politics: 4 Proper names: 3 Philosophy and religion: 1 (+3) Biota: 1(+2) Health: 1

10 Amoy is a Hokkien dialect, also known as Xiamen dialect, a member of the Min dialects group. It is similar to Taiwanese.

Science: 1 Language and literature: (+4) Culture & art: (+3) Measurement and money: (+3) Martial arts: (+2)

If the index reads a word illustrating effectively mutual intercourse nowadays and at the same time has a general acceptance by English speaking communities, then it would surely be taikonaut.11

Firstly, its morphology blends both the donor and recipient language – tai4kong1

太空 – outer space and suffix –naut from Eglish (but originally ancient Greek). The word was coined at the unique occasion of the first Chinese “travel” to space to denote a Chinese space traveller.12

Secondly, in Chinese language there are other two existing expressions:

yu3hang2yuan2 宇航员 (universe, sail, member)

hang2tian1yuan2 航天员 (sail, sky, member)

Chinese state-run newspapers do use hangtianyuan, eventually yuhangyuan. In English- written texts Chinese Xinhua news agency translates the two for an astronaut. However, in

Taiwan and Hong Kong the expression tai4kong1ren2 太空人 (space-man) is used frequently. It is apparent, that a taikonaut is for non-Chinese speakers easier to pronounce and above all easier to remember due to familiar suffix -aut. The word even entered Spanish and Italian, with a little spelling change for relaxed pronunciation, as taikonauta.

Thirdly, on the level of semantics, the word reflects the importance and impact of the event not only on China and English speaking countries, but also on the international political and cultural scene. On the one hand, coinage of the special term for the special event mirrors the position of China as a superpower. While on the other hand, it avoids using the special “label” from outside by the Chinese counterpart which may indicates the patriotic attitude

11 Overseas Chinese Chiew Lee Yih from Malaysia allegedly created the term and used for the first time in 1998 in newsgroup. Source: http://science.bowenwang.com.cn/cosmonaut-astronaut-taikonaut2.htm 12 First Chinese astronaut – taikonaut Yang Liwei was sent into space in 2003 aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.

built on one´s own uniqueness. Nonetheless, what is exceptional about the lexical item, a taikonaut, is the promptness of its spread and, most of all, its immediate acceptance throughout international communities. The main reasons seem to be two: a remarkable event and the power of modern media to enable the rapidity of the borrowing process.

3.1.3 Summary

To sum it up, what are the outcomes of the present review in OED Online? 65 new items were found, which covers the period of 4 years. In this respect, it could be stated that the amount of loanwords is considerable and increasing. However, provided that those 28 Japanese words (related explicitly to Japanese civilization) are deducted, the total decreases almost to a half - 37. This result is still remarkable considering the short time span 2008-2012. 20 terms have pinyin or Cantonese spelling and 16 are loan translation in English. This ratio confirms a rather strong tendency to translate, however, pinyin is still prevalent.

From the point of semantic fields, among 37 issues, the major part belongs to Material culture followed by Society/status, Food and drink, Amusement and History and Politics. This spectrum involves both “high culture” (Society/status, History and politics) and the sphere of Chinese cuisine hand in hand with Material culture.

All the borrowings were received by the English lexicon through entering OED Online. The point is whether these terms are already widely accepted by common English speakers. Taikonaut, brainwashing, rice bowl, princeling, goji, tui na, qibao definitelly integrate into the common English (and through it also international) lexicon.

3.2 The Economist Corpus

3.2.1 The Economist Corpus Development

To examine actual occurrence of Chinese borrowings British the Economist was appointed to serve as the text corpus.

The Economist was established in 1843 and describes itself as “a political, literary and general newspaper”. As for the style of writing, it tends “to be conversational, to put things in

the most direct and picturesque manner, as people would talk to each other in common speech, to remember and use expressive colloquialism.” (The Economist, 2012)

The newspaper is issued weekly and the present circulation is over 1.3 million. More than four-fifths of this outside Britain and the American circulation accounts over half of the total.

Furthermore the Economist belongs to the sources of the OED Online and is among first one thousand most cited ones and occupies even the 63rd position with total of 4384 quotations (corresponding to 0.14% of all OED quotations).

Statistic data

The text corpus was extracted from the whole 2011 volume consisting of 50 issues and 11 special reports. Approximately 210 articles focused on China or topics related to China were searched. Out of them circa 92 (almost half of them) articles were found “empty” – no searched items embodied. Still the list accounts 91 expressions (some of them were used repeatedly). See Appendix 2 for all details.

Most frequent occurrences were:

hukou 17 times and 13 times as a part of two-word expression tycoons 13 times dim sum 3 times and 8 times as a part of two-word expression dipiao 3 times and 4 times as a part of two-word expression shengshi 6 times gaizhi 2 times guanxi 2 times stroll 2 times guo jin min tui 2 times

3.2.2 Analysis of the Economist Corpus

Orthography and spelling

Predictably most numerous items are Mandarin Chinese which means spelling in pinyin:

anmo, cuju, dajiaqiu, dipiao, falang, fangshi, fengshui, gaizhi, gaokao guanggun, guanxi, heishao, hukou, hukouben, jaolong, jiu, ju´e, laowai, luohan, luohou, neibu, qingquyongpin, shengnü, shengshi, taizidang, tianxia, weibo, weiqi, xiaokang, xiushen, yan, yang, yanjiu, yin, zuyu zhongxin, bufangbian, buqingqu, guo jin min tui,

Baidu, Caixin, Chongqing, Dangdang, Guangdong, Han, Huawei, Qaio-ke-li Cheng, Renren, Shanghai Bailian, Sun Tzu, Tiangong, Tsinghua University, Wenzhou, Xinhua, Youku

54 expressions constitute 59% of the total and confirm strengthening position of pinyin.

English orthography is common for loan translations - 20:

capitalist roaders, China model, China price, Chindia price, cultural revolution, going out policy, harmonious socialist society, harmonious world, iron rice bowl, little red book, the People´s Daily, princeling, Red Guards, Sina model, special economic zone, stroll, strolling, Shanghainese dumplings, three cups chicken, warlordism The last bigger group comprises words blended from pinyin and English morphemes or already “domesticated” Chinese loanwords – 11: huaweians, kung-fu (from gong1fu), ping-pong (from ping1pang1), taikonaut (from tai4kong1 and astronaut), tycoon (from da4 gong1), yuanify (from yuan2 and unify), typhoons (from da4 feng1), , Confucius (from Kong3zi3) , Confucianism, Maoist, Wumart (from Wu4mei3) Cantonese spelling is in two words only 2: chop suey, dim sum.

A proper name of the university in Beijing deserves to be commented: Tsinghua University. At first glance it is evident the spelling is not pinyin, although the institution is one of the most famous and renowned ones in Mainland China. Why not pinyin in this case? Established in 1911, the Romanization of the name of the University was done in Wade-Giles transcription as pinyin started to exist much later in 1957. After that date, the State requirement was to use the new standard Hanyu Pinyin. But, Tsinghua University is a bold exception to the rule with the aim to protect the world-class reputation of the brand. Pinyin spelling would be Qinghua University. The exactly same situation applies to another world- known Chinese institution, Peking University, which was founded even earlier in 1898. The Pinyin version would be Beijing University. Also, another proper name from the text

corpus, Sun Tzu, has Wade-Giles spelling. The world-known title by Sun Tzu “The Art of War” was translated into English in 1905, and so Wade-Giles spelling Sun Tzu instead of Sun Zi in pinyin remains unchanged. Essentially, the original Wade-Giles spellings are being preserved not for the Chinese, but for the English-speaking or international communities. On the ground of “the outer” reasons the Chinese pinyin allows this inconsistency by letting the old transcription still exist. Several words of an interesting origin are: Wumart and Sina Weibo. Wumart is the proper name of the Chinese retail company and it alludes to the American Wal-mart. The expression was coined by the Chinese owner but it was not the intention to resemble Wal- mart. (The Telegraph, 2005) The original was entirely Chinese Wu4mei3 物美 meaning good and high quality. Foreigners, however, mispronounced this name as “woman”, so the Latinized version was created as Wumart. The latter term, Sina Weibo, similarly combines non-Chinese word and pinyin. Sina is ascribed to the origin in Latin, Sinae, and again was chosen by the Chinese to denote a Chinese subject. Wei1bo2 微博 means microblog. Still, in

Chinese pure pinyin equivalent it is Xin1lang2 Wei1bo2 新浪微博. Xin1lang2 is Chinese transcription of Sina. Another term emerged that was influenced by Sina Weibo – Sina model referring to the kind of special ownership of Sina Weibo. The interesting point here is that the Chinese were willing to accept a word foreign to them – Sina to name the entirely Chinese subject.

Although pinyin is not easy to pronounce, it is hard to avoid. Its high percentage of the use in the corpora proves that it is internationally accepted. The question is whether these “original” spelling forms would go through changes, provided that some of them are to become generally known and accepted by English speakers to similar extent as, for example, taikonaut. In the case of proper name it is clear that changes are not commonly feasible, but sometime happen (e.g. Confucius).

Forms and grammar

A vast majority of words from the corpus are nouns, which is predictable and usually approved by the text analysis.

Adjectives are present just sporadically. There are only 6 words and two of them, bufangbian and buqingchu, are in the negative form (bu4 is the negative particle). These words also function as verbs, and in Chinese are called stative verbs. In this sense they could fall into the verb category.

Verbs are rare too, as there are only 4. Two of them, dajiaqiu and gaizhi, consist of verb and complement: da3 – play, jia3qiu2- fake ball; gai3 – change, zhi4 – system. Complements are necessary for the meaning of verb (in the text corpus) and the usage of predicate together with complement may alter the category of verbs to the one of nouns – for example, deverbal noun alteration: e.g. “… engaged in gaizhi.” - engaged in playing the rigged game. (The Economist, 3rd September 2011, p.12) This proves that the borrowed words can even categories in the recipient language and become different part of speech.

The verb yuanify is coined by the author of the article. This word denoting Chinese currency yuan2, is combined with Latinate verb suffix –ify. Latinate suffix –ify has “often facetious or pejorative” meaning. (Quirk at at., 1985, p.1557)

Parts of Speech:

Nouns 57

anmo, cuju, dipiao, falang, fangshi, bad fengshui, gaokao, guagngun, guanxi, hei shao, hukou, jaolong, jiu, ju´e, laowai, luohan, qingquyongpin, shengnü, shengshi, taizidang, tianxia, weibo, weiqi, Wenzhou rate, xiaokang society, xiushen, yang, yin, zuyu zhongxin, chop suey, dim sum, capitalist roaders, China model, China price, cultural revolution, going out policy, harmonious world, harmonious socialist society, iron rice bowl, little red book, the People´s Daily, princelings, Red Guards, Sina model, stroll, strolling, Shanghainese dumplings, special economic zone, three cups chicken, warlordism, Huaweians, kung-fu actor, kung-fu propaganda, pingpong, taikonauts, tycoon, typhoon

Adjectives 6

fengshui-compliant, bufangbian, buqingchu, neibu, luohou, Maoist

Verbs 4

yuanify, dajiaqiu, yanjiu, gaizhi

Another morphemes present in the corpus referring to acceptance of the words into English are the plural morpheme –s in tycoons, typhoons, taikonauts and also the noun/adjectival suffix –ans in Huaweians. Noun/adjective suffix –(i)ans is basically relating to human beings, chiefly as a member of a group” (Quirk at al., 1985, p.1552)

The proper name Shanghai analogously takes suffix –ese, in Shanghainese dumplings, to become an adjective. The definite article is used with yin and yang, loanwords fully integrated into English.

Loanwords taking English morphemes 8

tycoons, typhoons, yuanify, taikonauts, the yin, the yang, huaweians, Shanghainese

English as a language with fixed word order expresses some grammatical categories through the position of a word in a sentence. Four pinyin expressions were found integrated into grammatical context.

Use in grammatical context: weiqi: weiqi rules weiqi triumph dipiao: dipiao markets dipiao trading dipiao system hukou: hukou system hukou holders hukou reform dim sum: dim sum bonds dim sum market dim sum debt dim sum issuance All four words are nouns and were used in the position common for nouns – preceding a noun and premodifying it. This usage corresponds fully to the use of English noun.

All grammatical categories are content words, no function word was found among them. Function words are resistant to the borrowing process.

Source and transmission languages

With prevailing pinyin in orthography it is more than clear that the main source language is Mandarin Chinese. It is further supported by the fact that the text corpus is created from the up-to-date and modern source; a journal from the last year dealing mostly with current issues.

Despite of strengthening position of pinyin, still there are two words from Cantonese: chop suey and dim sum.

As for Japanese, the most productive transmission language for the Chinese borrowings. Yet, it is represented only by one word already codified in OED Oonline (and other desk dictionaries as well): tycoon.

Semantic fields and analysis of meanings

The meaning of the title The Economist may evoke the notion of a journal focused predominantly on economy. The range of topics is rather huge, however. Apart from economy and related topics of banking, finance, property, stock exchanges, rates etc., it covers various aspects of our lives: technology (hi-tech, telecommunication), internet (censorship, blogsphere), politics (human and civil rights, one-child policy, jasmine revolution), society (gender topics, sport) and culture with literature as well. Nevertheless, economy and politics are recurring themes.

Table 2.

The Economist corpus categorized according to the semantic fields and the source or last source language.

______Mandarin Cantonese Japan Mixed origin

/adapted spelling ______Economy dipiao, gaizhi, ju´e, dim sum yuanify, Wenzhou rate, Sina model, Huaweians special economic zone, India´s Guangdong, The Chongqing model, China price, guo jin min tui

Philosophy fengshui compliant, Confucianism and religion bad fengshui, luohan, shengshi, tianxia, xiaokang society, xiushen, the yang, the yin, Sun Tzu

History and neibu, taizidang, capitalist roaders, pingpong politics politics China model, cultural revolution, going out policy, harmonious world, harmonious socialist society, little red book, Mao-era, Maoist, princelings, Red Guards, stroll, strolling, warlordism Society/status fangshi, gaokao, guanggun, tycoon guanxi, hukou, jiu, laowai, luohou, qingquyongpin, shengnü, yan, iron rice bowl

Science jiaolong, Tiangong taikonauts

Food and drink three cups chicken, Shanghainese dumplings chop suey

Weather typhoons

Amusement anmo, cuju, dajiaqiu, falang, hei shao, weiqi, zuyu zhongxin, kungfu actor, kungfu propaganda, pingpong

Media weibo

Proper names Baidu, Caixin, Confucius, Dangdang, Han Chinese, Huawei, Qiao-ke-li Cheng, Renren, Shanghai Bailian, Sina Weibo, Tsinghua University, Wumart, Xinhua, Youku, the People´s Daily

Miscellaneous bufangbian, buqingqu, expressions yanjiu

Biota

Martial arts

Material culture

Language and literature

Culture&art

Measurement and money Health ______

Articles and news on China are often specifically related to Chinese issues, which can be traced in the semantic categories.

The largest semantic fields are: History and politics 17 issues Economy 13 issues Society/status 13 issues Philosophy and religion 12 issues Amusement 10 issues (Proper names 15 issues) Minor semantic fields are: Science 3 issues Food and drink 3 issues Miscellaneous 3 issues Media 1 issues

The first wo major semantic fields are: History and politics and Economy. This is in accordance with the scope of the journal and with Moody (1960), confirming his claims that Mandarin Chinese contributes mainly “high-culture” borrowings like philosophy, religion, history, politics, art and literature.

Economy and politics are mutually so interwoven that sometimes it is hard to separate the two. Moreover, the majority of terms from the category Philosophy and religion were used in the economical, political or social context. The fourth category, Amusement includes terms of sport and leisure time.

Food and drink category is a typical contributor of new terms as well, largely due to the world-wide reputation of Chinese cuisine. Here, only 3 expressions represent it. One is a loan translation, Shanghainese dumplings, while two Cantonese, chop suey and dim sum, the latter denoting a kind of deposit, rather than a meal.

The category of Proper names stands aside; although they also have some semantic value, they inevitably must “accompany” other semantic issues and can not be avoided, replaced, and seldom are translated. In this corpus, 8 out of 15 are proper names of media: Baidu, Caixin, Huawei, Renren, Weibo, Xinhua, Youku, the People´s Daily. Hence, they accent the importance of the Media category which first appeared as the last one with only one issue.

All the above major semantic fields have in common the ratio of pinyin to English spelling when pinyin is prevailing: Economy 9:4, Philosophy and religion 10:11, Society/status 13:12, Amusement 10:10 (Proper names 14:15). Only one category – History and politics has the opposite ratio 3: 17. In this semantic field, loan translations are preferred to loanwords.

The Economist corpus contains 11 loanwords that became an integral part of the English lexicon and are codified (at least) in OED Online: chop suey, dim sum, fengshui, kung-fu, pingpong, princeling, taikonaut, tycoon, typhoon, the yang, the yin. The original meanings of these expressions are specifically Chinese and that is why they are used when the topic is centred on China. Althought, tycoon, the yang, the yin are exception because they occurred in the context not concerning China: e.g. Mexican tycoon.

On the other hand, some of them develop even developed extended or figurative meanings within the framework of their host, or rather “step-mother” language, that being English: bad fenghsui – bad situation or prediction dim sum – original meaning in Cantonese is a small appetizer to start with typical for Hong

Kong and southern China, but in the corpus it denotes sort of yuan deposit

measures in Hong Kong

India´s Guangdong- the title was used in the article dealing with analogies between Chinese

Guangdong province and Indian state Gujarat.

pingpong politics – frequent government changes the yin, the yang – express the meaning of “antipode”: “the yin to Zuckerberg´s yang”

(p. 55, The acceptable face of Facebook, Vol. July 23rd – 29th, 2011)

There are 7 loan translations, related to China´s history and its Communist Party, which are commonly noted: capitalist roaders, cultural revolution, little red book, Maoist, Mao-era, Red Guards, warlordism. Another 6 loan translations are rather new and are associated with last decades reflecting China´s more open attitudes towards the outer world: going out policy, harmonious world, harmonious socialist society, iron rice bowl, stroll, special economic zone.

The Economist corpus should also outline the character of contacts between China and English speaking world. Based on the above statistics, most frequent expression was hukou, with a total of 30 usages in about ten articles. Hukou is a special household registration necessary for every single Chinese citizen. It determines their permanent residence and without it a person does not exist, including their descendants. It is basically impossible to move due to the hukou system (urban hukou, rural hukou). This word refers to something entirely Chinese, so this is the reason to keep its pinyin form.

In the opposite position is tycoon, a term for a business man of great wealth and power. Originating in China, it spread as early as in the second half of 19th century in the USA and nowadays has several derivates: tycoonate, tycoonery, tycooness, tycoonish, tycoonism, tycoonship. (OED online) This is a typical example of the borrowing process, as tycoon covers both the meanings, wealth and power, and so it “crossed” the borders of other languages, especially due to its denotation independent of on one particular language milieu.

Dim sum is a kind of local refreshment typical for Hong Kong. Dim sum bonds are bonds issued in Hong Kong denominated in Chinese currency yuan. In the world of economics it was something eagerly expected and this expression occupies the third position of most often cited words in the Economist corpus.

The list of “hot issues” in The Economist of 2011 year, hukou, tycoon, dim sum bond can be completed with following two: dipiao and shengshi. (6 occurrences both). The last two explicitly concern life in China. Dipiao is a land ticket a developer must buy before starting to build and shengshi implies the age of prosperity introduced by the Chinese leaders. Apart

from tycoon, all four are specific Chinese terms related to migration (hukou), economy (dim sum bond), urban development (dipiao) and politics (shengshi). The point is that these rather internal issuesm, China´s economy and politics, are also important to us too since China occupies strong world position and situation,hence, they have the abilitiy to influence the rest of the world. And the rest of the world is affected by their policies. Is it possible that these four expressions will enter the English lexicon similarly to tycoon? It is unlikely, as they have no universal meaning that can be applied outside China. Although, they might enter the professional vocabulary or dictionaries (e.g. focused on economics).

In opposition to most numerous loans stand “nonce borrowings”. These are loanwords used only for the “nonce” and are compared to single-word code switching. In case of the Economist corpus, there are articles introducing specific concepts too unique to enter the host language. Some proper examples are words can be found in the article describing the history of Chinese football: cuju – ancient ball game in China, expression dajiaqiu – playing fake ball and hei shao – black whistle. The article about euphemism cites in Chinese: fangshi – literally room business, here means sex life. Also, Falang – hair salon; anmo – massage; and zuyu zhongxin is a foot massage parlour; all of these double as brothel. These expressions must switch into the original in Chinese since the topic is the language itself. They might be viewed as translations connected to the topic and thus have no perspective to become loanwords.

3.2.3 Summary

The Economist Corpus distributed 91 expressions with Chinese etymology. 38 have pinyin orthography and 2 are in Cantonese. 20 of these expressions were loan translations. 3 words were blended from pinyin and Englishand 2 words have the adapted original transcriptions. As inseparable part of journal articles is proper names, which were also numerous with 19, longer phrases were found 3.

Similarly, as in the OED Online corpus, pinyin is dominant in proportion to loan translations. The OED ratio was 20:16 and the Economist is 38:20. Attention should be drawn to the basic distinction between the corpora: OED Online brings already accepted borrowed words, while the Economist is a lively medium conveying a rather versatile and instantaneous scheme. Though, the Economist is one of the sources of the OED online. Still, in both of the cases pinyin predominates.

Most of the issues fall into 4 semantic fields. The most dominant is History and politics, followed by Economy and Society/ status at an equal prevalence and thirdly, Philosophy and religion with one less term. “High culture” is represented by History and politics as well as Philosophy and religion. Food and drink, however, remains as a minor category.

At this point it appears meaningful to ascertain whether the two corpora overlap. There are two identical items princeling and taikonaut and one expression in two versions: OED Online has rice bowl while the Economist uses an enlarged version including extended meaning iron rice bowl. This is a noticeable congruency since both the idioms are present in OED Online: rice bowl is a single entry and iron rice bowl is consequently a part of the corresponding etymology as well as of one citation.

4. Conlusion

The objective of this thesis was to study what happens when two radically different languages as English and Chinese meet; in what ways Chinese enters into English and what is the impact of this intercourse.

The study attempted to examine whether English accepts words from Chinese, through what processes, and what the resultant amounts and forms are. Furthermore, the results were expected to elucidate wider context of mutual contacts between English and Chinese based on premises set out at the beginning of this work. Namely, if and how borrowed words reflect social and cultural phenomena.

In the theoretical part, English was described as an analytical language with high adaptability and receptivity to borrowing and very high precentage of loans in its lexicon. Chinese is also a type of analytical language, but it has very limited adaptability and receptivity, and consequently one of the lowest rates of borrowed words. There were introduced important factors influencing the borrowing process in mutual contact: the logographic writing system of Chinese as opposed to the Latin alphabet of English and restricted phonemic inventories of Chinese. Such constrastive characteristics may hinder from borrowing.

The practical part of the thesis studied sychronically two text corpora using descriptive methods identifying loanwords through non-native sound segments, morphological structure or borrowed meaning.

The OED Online corpus proved, that the borrowing process from Chinese into English is increasing. English lexicon accepted 37 new items from Chinese in relatively short time period 2008-2012. Some of them are already fully integrated into the register of an average English speaker.

The Economist corpus was to present occurence of Chinese loanword in general use, in this case through a lively medium of a weekly journal. The corpus assorted 91 expressions used in one year volume. It is not possible to assess, whether the number is high, low or appropriate. However, it certainly shows that the mutual contact is active and in continual progress.

It should be remarked, that the corpora were taken from the written form, which is a kind of passive communication and excludes issues concerning pronuciation. Then it has to be pointed out that the text corpora were created in monolingual conditions. While numerous

studies and researches focused on borrowings were carried out in bilingual environment, as it is typical for borrowing to be found there in relevant quantity.

Both corpora reached the same ratio confirming the dominat role of borrowings in pinyin (eventually Cantonese transcription) over loan translations. This may be interpreted, that although pinyin is not easy to accept for non-speakers of Chinese and is felt rather alien, with increasing occurence it may get into general awareness outside China. It could be compared to the historical role of loans in Chinese, that they were rather expanding from China, instead of receiving new words from the outer world. On the contrary, the high ratio of pinyin could affirm widely acknowledged flexibility of English in borring from other languages.

In some respect a surprising outcome of this study is the fact, that the two corpora met in three expressions. In relation to what has been stated above, it is not possible to evaluate the number, but it might be viewed as a proof of the active exchange and mutual contact between English and Chinese in spite of their genealogical and structural incompatibility.

From the sociolinguistic viewpoint, the semantic analysis of the corpora underlines the historical fact, that the contacts between Chinese and English language has always had mostly economic and political motivation. The strenghtening status of pinyin may refer to intensification of mutual contacts and even the fact, that China becomes an important partner and Chinese is on the way to become a more prestigious language. The analysis also reflects the important role of mass media in a globally interlinked world, as was demonstrated in the case of the loanword taikonaut.

To draw general conclusion, languages are bound to change regardless of their structureand qualities and lexical borrowing is a pervasive lingusitic phenomenon mirroring the historical as well as the present course of development on all levels of human life.

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Appendix 1

Index of borrowings entering OED online between 2008-2012

adzuki (1727) – dispute origin, Middle Chinese probably, trans. Japanese black flag Army (1872) - after Chinese Heiqijun brainwashing (1950) - probably after Chinese xi3nao3 choy sum (1939) – a kind of Chinese cabbage, Chinese/Cantonese choi sam daimio (1662) – title of Japanese nobles, from Chinese da4ming2 dotchin (1696) – steelyard used in the south of China, Cantonese origin toh ch´ing

East Wind (1908) – a mah-jong player, from Chinese dong1feng1 (usually with capitals

initials) foreign devil (1820) – foreign invader/outlandish demon yang2gui3zi goji (2002) – goji plant, from Chinese gou3qi3 hentai (1990) – (from hentai-manga) pervert manga from Middle Chinese bian4tai4, trans.

Japanese

Hokkien (1832) – relating to dialect of Southern Min, from Amoy hok kian kaiseki (1920) – style of Japanese cuisine, from Middle Chinese, trans. Japanese keirin (1957) – Japanese bicycle race, from Middle Chinese, trans. Japanese keitai (1998) – a mobile phone (Japanese), from Middle Chinese, trans. Japanese ki (1893) – Japanese spirit, from Middle Chinese base of modern qi4 milk name (1902) – a name given to a Chinese child at one month old, from Chinese

nai3min2 ming (1937) – fate, destiny, from Chinese ming4 – fate ming chi (1958) – tomb furnishing, from Chinese ming2qi4 – underworld+ware moon gate (1962) – a circular gateway in a wall, after Chinese yue4liang men2

North Wind (1969) – a mah-jong player, from Chinese bei3feng1 (usually with capitals

initials) princeling (1992) – a child of a high-ranking official, after Chinese tai4zi3

Pu-erh (1880) – the name of a town in southern China; name of the local tea. Pu3-er3

Pung (1923) – a set of three identical tiles in Mah-jong, from Chinese peng4 – hit, take a

chance

Qin (1790) – a name of a Chinese dynasty, from Qin2

Qing (1790) – a name of a Chinese dynasty (last one), from Qing1 qin (1839) – a Chinese seven-stringed zither, from qin2 qipao (1965) – traditional Chinese dress for women, from qi2pao2 – (banner+gown) raku (1875) – Japanese pottery, from Middle Chinese, trans. Japanese randori (1910) – freestyle training (in Judo/ju-jitsu), from Middle Chinese, trans. Japanese

Rashomon (1961) – designating something resembling of the film Rashomon; literally means

castle wall gate in Kyoto: Rajomon, from Middle Chinese, trans. Japanese red button (1797) – button of a high-ranking Chinese mandarin, after Chinese hong2 ding3zi reishi (1889) – fungus of the genus Ganoderma, from Middle Chinese ling2zhi1, trans.

Japanese renga (1855) – a Japanese form of poetry, from Middle Chinese, trans. Japanese ri (1817) – East Asian unit of length, from Middle Chinese li3, trans. Japanese rice bowl (1828) – job, means of living, from Chinese fan4wan3 (to break a person´s ~) rikishi (1907) – Japanese sumo wrestler, from Middle Chinese riki-ji, trans. Japanese rikka (1889) – a style of flower arranging, from Middle Chinese, trans. Japanese rin (1868) – a Japanese monetary unit, from Middle Chinese li2, trans. Japanese ritsu (1727) – (historically) Buddhism, from Middle Chinese lü4zong1 (law+religion) –

translation of Sanskrit vinaya toju (1822) – a minister of state in Japan, from Middle Chinese

ronin (1958) – a samurai without a master, from Middle Chinese ronin roshi (1909) – a Zen spiritual leader, from Middle Chinese lao3shi1, trans. Japanese rotenone (1904) – poison from derris and similar plant, from Southern Min, trans. Japanese rouge de fer (1872) – an orange-red enamel colour, French expression for Chinese hong2 –

red rouge flambé (1883) – a bright red glaze, French expression for Chinese huo3hong2 - fire red running dog (1831) – servile follower, after Chinese zou3gou3 ryo (1862) – a former Japanese monetary unit, from Middle Chinese liang3, trans. Japanese ryokan (1914) – a traditional Japanese inn, from Middle Chinese (lü3guan3), trans. Japanese ryotei (1953) – a traditional Japanese restaurant, prestigious, from Middle Chinese ryu (1935) – a Japanese art form, from Middle Chinese liu2 ryugi (1875)- Japanese style of art, from Middle Chinese samfu (1955)– a Chinese suit for female, from Cantonese saam-fu subgum (1911)– a dish (mixture of vegetable and sometime meat), from Cantonese sahp gám shojo (1980) – manga for young female audience, from Middle Chinese, shao4nü3- young

woman shonen (1982) – manga for young male audience, from Middle Chinese, shao4nian2 –

teenager

South Wind (1922) - a mah-jong player, from Chinese nan2feng1 (usually with capitals

initials) taikonaut (1998) – a blend of Chinese tai4kong1 and astronaut tong (1883) – secret society of Chinese in the U.S., from Cantonese tohng – hall towcok (1866) – string beans “Cow-pea”, from Cantonese tau-kok tsatlee (1848) – superior kind of silk, from Cantonese, named after a locality of production tui na (1979) – a type of therapeutic massage, from Chinese tui1na2 – pull+grasp

West Wind (1922) - a mah-jong player, from Chinese xi1feng1 (usually with capitals

initials) wood ear (1876) – edible fungi, from Chinese mu4´er3 – wood+ ear wuxia (1936) – itinerant warrior of ancient China, from Chinese wu3xia2 – military+martial

artist yen-yen (1886) – a craving for opium, from Chinese yin1yan3 – opium+craving

Appendix 2 The Economist corpus index - extracted from the weekly journal volume 2011

Pinyin spelling: anmo massage / brothel cuju kick ball (a sport similar to football first mentioned in the 2nd century BC) dajiaqiu playing fake ball dipiao 3x land ticket for developer certifying such an area of farmland (planned to be being built on) has been created elsewhere dipiao markets 2x dipiao system dipiao trading falang hair salon/ brothel fangshi literally „room business“ – euphemism for sex life fengshui compliant bad fengshui bad situation/prediction gaizhi 2x changing the system gaokao college entrance-exam guanggun „bare branches“ – men who will not add to the family tree (unmarried) guanxi 2x connections hei shao black whistle hukou 17x house-hold registration certificate hukou system 6x hukou holders 5x

hukouben hukou book (ben3 本 = book)

hukou reform jiaolong deep-submersible vehicle jiu alcohol ju´e „big crocodiles“ – hedge funds laowai foreigner

luohan enlightened one luohou back ward neibu internal qingquyongpin interesting love products shengnü left-over women (unmarried)

shengshi 6x the age of prosperity (now) sheng1shi4 声势 taizidang party of princelings (of offsprings of senior officials including Mao´s comrade-in-arms tianxia all under heaven (notion the golden age of classical Chinese philosophy –Confucius, Mencius, Laozi) weibo microblog weiqi go, Chinese chess weiqi rules weiqi in the Himalayas quadripartite game of weiqi a weiqi triumph, strategist playing weiqi Wenzhou rate after the most famous city for this sort of finance xiaokang society term from the Confucian “Book of Songs” – a moderately prosperous society that can begin to enjoy the fruits of its labour xiushen self-improvement (basic moral principle of Confucian ethics) yan slang for cigarettes (the) yang male antipode yanjiu research (the) yin female antipode zuyu zhongxin foot massage parlour

Cantonese spelling: chop suey a Chinese dish of meat, rice, onions, etc. fried in sesame-oil dim sum 3x kind of yuan deposit measures in Hong Kong dim-sum bonds 3x dimsum bond 2x

dimsum market dimsum debt dimsum issuance

English spelling: capitalist roaders a Party official alleged to have capitalist tendencies China model developing in a way China does China price mostly cheap Chindia price price which is affordable for Chinese and Indian people cultural revolution from wen2hua4da4ge2ming4 文化大革命 going out policy from zou3chu1qu1zhan4lüe4 走出去战略 – China´s current

strategy to encourage overseas investments harmonious world, from he2xie2 shi4jie4 和谐世界

harmonious socialist society from he2xie2 she4hui4zhu4yi4she4hui4 和谐社会注

意社会

- famous catchphrases of Wen Jiabao and Hu Jintao originating in ancient Chinese philosophy iron rice bowl from tie3fan4wan3 铁饭碗 - cradle to grave socialism little red book from Mao2zhu3xi2yu3lu2 毛主席语录- literally Quotations

from Chairman Mao, but in the West known as The Little Red Book the People´s Daily Communist Party newspaper Ren2min2 Ri4bao4 人民日报 princelings from Chinese tai4zi3 太子 crown prince

Red Guards paramilitary social movement during the Cultural Revolution

Hong2 Wei4bing1 红卫兵

Sina model a company in China with an offshore parent (after Sina Weibo)

special economic zone from jing1ji4 te4qu1 经济特区

stroll 2x euphemism in Chinese for demostration, from san4bu4 散步

strolling same as stroll Shanghainese dumplings food

three cups chicken from san1bei1ji1 三杯鸡 warlordism the practices of a warlord, from jun1fa2 军阀

Mixed/adapted spelling: Huaweians new recruits of the Huawei company kung-fu actor from gong1fu 功夫 - abilities and skills in martial arts kung fu propaganda pingpong from ping1pang1 乒乓 ping-pong politics frequent government changes

taikonauts Chinese astronauts, blend from tai4kong1 太空 - outer space and

astronaut tycoon(s)13x from Japanese taikun – great lord, from Chinese ta4 gong1 大公 –

great prince

typhoon(s) from Chinese da4feng1 大风 – strong wind yuanify opening China´s financial market, from Chinese yuan2 元 –

currency

Proper names: Baidu internet search engine, Chinese “Google” Caixin Chinese news organization

Confucius, Confucianism from Kong3zi3 孔子

The „Chongqing Model“ city with state-led capitalism under Communist Party Secretary Bo Xilai

Dangdang online retailer

Han Chinese most populous ethnic of China – Han4 汉

Huawei Chinese Telecom; has two meaning: China can/splendid act India´s Guangdong article dealing with similarities between Guangdong and Gujarat Maoist, Mao-era Qiao-ke-li Cheng one area of Guangdong - home to African traders), literally means “Chocolate City” Renren Chinese „Facebook“ Shanghai Bailian supermarket chain Sina Weibo microblogging tool, Twitter-like service

Sun Tzu Sun1zi3 孙子- Chinese military strategist, author of “The Art of

War”; Tzu is in Wade-Giles transcription, in pinyin should be Zi3 Tiangong space laboratory Tsinghua University Wade-Giles transcription, in piyin: Qing1hua2Da4xue2

清华大学

Wumart Beijing-based chain Xinhua a government news agency Youku Chinese „Youtube“

Phrases:

bufangbian from bu4fang1bian4 不方便- not convenient

buqingqu bu4qing2chu4 情趣 - “I´m not clear” guo jin min tui 2x guo2jin4min2tui3 国进民退 - state advances, private retreats –

a new economic era in China

Note: Numbers followed by „x“ indicate how many times a particular word occurred. Missing number means one occurrence only.

Appendix 3 Transcription table of pinyin

pinyin Wade-Giles Czech a a a ai ai aj an an an ang ang ang ao ao ao cha ch'a čcha chai ch'ai čchaj chan ch'an čchan chang ch'ang čchang chao ch'ao čchao che ch'e čche chen ch'en čchen cheng ch'eng čcheng qi ch'i čchi qia ch'ia čchia qiang ch'iang čchiang qiao ch'iao čchiao qie ch'ieh čchie qian ch'ien čchien chi ch'ih čch' qin ch'in čchin

qing ch'ing čching qiu ch'iu čchiou qiong ch'iung čchiung chuo ch'o čchuo chou ch'ou čchou chu ch'u čchu qu ch'ü čchü chua ch'ua čchua chuai ch'uai čchuaj chuan ch'uan čchuan quan ch'üan čchüan chuang ch'uang čchuang que ch'üeh čchüe chui ch'ui čchuej chun ch'un čchun qun ch'ün čchün chong ch'ung čchung zha cha ča zhai chai čaj zhan chan čan zhang chang čang zhao chao čao zhe che če zhen chen čen zheng cheng čeng ji chi ťi jia chia ťia jiang chiang ťiang jiao chiao ťiao jie chieh ťie jian chien ťien zhi chih č' jin chin ťin jing ching ťing jiu chiu ťiou jiong chiung ťiung zhuo cho čuo zhou chou čou zhu chu ču ju chü ťü zhua chua čua zhuai chuai čuaj zhuan chuan čuan

juan chüan ťüan zhuang chuang čuang jue chüeh ťüe zhui chui čuej zhun chun čun jun chün ťün zhong chung čung e e e en en en er erh er fa fa fa fan fan fan fang fang fang fei fei fej fen fen fen feng feng feng fo fo fo fou fou fou fu fu fu ha ha cha hai hai chaj han han chan hang hang chang hao hao chao he he che hei hei chej hen hen chen heng heng cheng hou hou chou xi hsi si xia hsia sia xiang hsiang siang xiao hsiao siao xie hsieh sie xian hsien sien xin hsin sin xing hsing sing xiu hsiu siou xiong hsiung siung xu hsü sü xuan hsüan süan xue hsüeh süe xun hsün sün

hu hu chu hua hua chua huai huai chuaj huan huan chuan huang huang chuang hui hui chuej hun hun chun hong hung chung huo huo chuo yi i i ran jan žan rang jang žang rao jao žao re je že ren jen žen reng jeng ženg ri jih ž' rou jou žou ru ju žu ruan juan žuan rui jui žuej run jun žun rong jung žung ruo juo žuo ka k'a kcha kai k'ai kchaj kan k'an kchan kang k'ang kchang kao k'ao kchao ke k'e kche ken k'en kchen keng k'eng kcheng kou k'ou kchou ku k'u kchu kua k'ua kchua kuai k'uai kchuaj kuan k'uan kchuan kuang k'uang kchuang kui k'uei kchuej kun k'un kchun kong k'ung kchung kuo k'uo kchuo ga ka ka

gai kai kaj gan kan kan gang kang kang gao kao kao ge ke ke gei kei kej gen ken ken geng keng keng gou kou kou gu ku ku gua kua kua guai kuai kuaj guan kuan kuan guang kuang kuang gui kuei kuej gun kun kun gong kung kung guo kuo kuo la la la lai lai laj lan lan lan lang lang lang lao lao lao le le le lei lei lej leng leng leng li li li lia lia lia liang liang liang liao liao liao lie lieh lie lian lien lien lin lin lin ling ling ling liu liu liou luo lo luo lou lou lou lu lu lu lü lü lü luan luan luan lüan lüan lüan lüe lüeh lüe lun lun lun

long lung lung ma ma ma mai mai maj man man man mang mang mang mao mao mao mei mei mej men men men meng meng meng mi mi mi miao miao miao mie mieh mie mian mien mien min min min ming ming ming miu miu miou mo mo mo mou mou mou mu mu mu na na na nai nai naj nan nan nan nang nang nang nao nao nao ne ne ne nei nei nej nen nen nen neng neng neng ni ni ni niang niang niang niao niao niao nie nieh nie nian nien nien nin nin nin ning ning ning niu niu niou nuo no nuo nou nou nou nu nu nu nü nü nü nuan nuan nuan nüe nüeh nüe nong nung nung

ou ou ou pa p'a pcha pai p'ai pchaj pan p'an pchan pang p'ang pchang pao p'ao pchao pei p'ei pchej pen p'en pchen peng p'eng pcheng pi p'i pchi piao p'iao pchiao pie p'ieh pchie pian p'ien pchien pin p'in pchin ping p'ing pching po p'o pcho pou p'ou pchou pu p'u pchu ba pa pa bai pai paj ban pan pan bang pang pang bao pao pao bei pei pej ben pen pen beng peng peng bi pi pi biao piao piao bie pieh pie bian pien pien bin pin pin bing ping ping bo po po bu pu pu sa sa sa sai sai saj san san san sang sang sang sao sao sao se se se sen sen sen seng seng seng sha sha ša

shai shai šaj shan shan šan shang shang šang shao shao šao she she še shei shei šej shen shen šen sheng sheng šeng shi shih š' shou shou šou shu shu šu shua shua šua shuai shuai šuaj shuan shuan šuan shuang shuang šuang shui shui šuej shun shun šun shuo shuo šuo suo so suo sou sou sou su su su suan suan suan sui sui suej sun sun sun song sung sung si szu s' ta t'a tcha tai t'ai tchaj tan t'an tchan tang t'ang tchang tao t'ao tchao te t'e tche teng t'eng tcheng ti t'i tchi tiao t'iao tchiao tie t'ieh tchie tian t'ien tchien ting t'ing tching tuo to tchuo tou t'ou tchou tu t'u tchu tuan t'uan tchuan tui t'ui tchuej

tun t'un tchun tong t'ung tchung da ta ta dai tai taj dan tan tan dang tang tang dao tao tao de te te dei tei tej deng teng teng di ti ti diao tiao tiao die tieh tie dian tien tien ding ting ting diu tiu tiou dou tou tou ca ts'a ccha cai ts'ai cchaj can ts'an cchan cang ts'ang cchang cao ts'ao cchao ce ts'e cche cen ts'en cchen ceng ts'eng ccheng cuo ts'o cchuo cou ts'ou cchou cu ts'u cchu cuan ts'uan cchuan cui ts'ui cchuej cun ts'un cchun cong ts'ung cchung za tsa ca zai tsai caj zan tsan can zang tsang cang zao tsao cao ze tse ce zei tsei cej zen tsen cen zeng tseng ceng zuo tso cuo zou tsou cou

zu tsu cu zuan tsuan cuan zui tsui cuej zun tsun cun zong tsung cung du tu tu duan tuan tuan dui tui tuej dun tun tun dong tung tung duo tuo tuo ci tz'u cch' zi tzu c' wa wa wa wai wai waj wan wan wan wang wang wang wei wei wej wen wen wen weng weng weng wo wo wo wu wu wu ya ya ja yai yai jaj yang yang jang yao yao jao ye yeh jie yan yen jen yin yin jin ying ying jing you yu jou yu yü jü yuan yüan jüan yue yüeh jüe yun yün jün yong yung jung