InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 4 7/3/13 12:40 PM T  C  R,  CUMBERLAND LANCASTER BEDFORD YORK Su CHESTER sq PENNSYLVANIA u e h GLOUCESTER a n n HARFORD a CECIL Delaware R. R SALEM FREDERICK . Havre de Grace Frenchtown NEW BERKELEY MARYLAND NEW JERSEY HAMPSHIRE Frederick BALTIMORE CASTLE CUMBERLAND Baltimore Georgetown KENT FREDERICK Chestertown D ANNE ARUNDEL e l Winchester KENT a Poto Kent QUEEN w LOUDOUN ma Island ANNES a c R r . e B Annapolis a y

Washington, D.C. CAROLINE TALBOT DUNMORE FAIRFAX PRINCE GEORGE'S FAUQUIER Alexandria DELAWARE PRINCE WILLIAM P a

t u CALVERT VIRGINIA x e SUSSEX CHARLES n Benedict t

CULPEPER R STAFFORD . C DORCHESTER Rappahann h ock e R. s Chaptico a SOMERSET p KING Fredericksburg ST. e GEORGE MARY'S CO. a T k ORANGE SPOTSYLVANIA e WORCESTER M N a WESTMORELAND B N tt a a p Nomini Ferry o y O n i

Charlottesville LOUISA Kinsale CAROLINE R M . RICHMOND Tappahannock E

NORTHUMBERLAND R ALBEMARLE D ESSEX

P O amu LANCASTER E nk Tangier ACCOMACK e H y R KING AND Island I HANOVER . S QUEEN GOOCHLAND KING Chesconessex Cr. P WILLIAM BUCKINGHAM James River Corotoman NPungoteague Creek R MIDDLESEX CUMBERLAND York R. Gwynn E E R. E T tox Richmond HENRICO NEW KENT Island at S m MATHEWS H o H p A p JAMES GLOUCESTER A CHESTERFIELD CHARLES CITY E NORTHAMPTON CO. T T CITY Williamsburg New Point PRINCE AMELIA PRINCE GEORGE Yorktown Comfort EDWARD Petersburg YORK NEWPORT DINWIDDIE SURRY NEWS HAMPTON Hampton LUNENBURG ISLE OF SUSSEX WIGHT Norfolk Lynnhaven Bay PRINCESS BRUNSWICK ANNE CO. SUFFOLK NORFOLK MECKLENBURG SOUTHAMPTON Atlantic DISMAL SWAMP Ocean CURRITUCK PASQUOTANK CAMDEN NORTHAMPTON GATES GRANVILLE WARREN NORTH CAROLINA © 2013 Je rey L. Ward HALIFAX HERTFORD

Yorktown Town or city GLOUCESTER County name 0 Miles 50 e Fall Line County boundary 0 Kilometers 50

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 16 7/3/13 12:41 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 12 7/3/13 12:41 PM View of Norfolk from Town Point, 1798. In this watercolor, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, a British vis- itor and artist, depicts Virginia’s leading port busy with shipping. (Courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society)

Rippon Lodge, Prince William County, 1796. Latrobe here depicts the home of Colonel Thomas Black- burn, a prosperous planter. (Courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society)

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 16 7/3/13 12:41 PM “But I did not want to go and I jumped out of the Window.” In this engraving, Jesse Torrey, a critic of slavery, depicted a December 19, 1815, episode in Washington, D.C. Imprisoned in a garret by slave traders, the mother sought to escape by jumping out the window, but she su ered paralysis from her wounds. Rendered worthless to the traders, she remained behind, but they took away two of her children for sale to the Deep South. From A Portraiture of Domestic Slavery (1817). (Courtesy of the American Antiquarian Society)

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 50 7/3/13 12:41 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 54 7/3/13 12:41 PM An Overseer Doing His Duty, Sketched from Life near Fredericksburg, 1798. In this watercolor, Benjamin Henry Latrobe wryly contrasts the hard-working enslaved women supervised by a cigar-smoking overseer on a stump. (Courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society).

addition to an annual salary of $200 to $300, the overseer received a share of the harvested crop: at least a tenth and up to a fourth. Obliged to work long hours, closely supervising often restive slaves, the overseer had to be strong, resolute, and handy with a club and cowhide whip.17 A leading improver, John Hartwell Cocke, owned Bremo, a 3,100- acre plantation in Fluvanna County (in the Piedmont). Although Cocke professed antislavery principles, he ran a very strict planta- tion, codifying his management principles in his “Standing Rules for the Government of Slaves on a Virginia Plantation.” Cocke instructed his overseers: “It is the duty of a faithful, active & indus- trious agent to be the rst on the ground in the morning & the last to leave it at night. . . . You are bound not only to give orders, but

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 63 7/3/13 12:41 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 84 7/3/13 12:41 PM B LOOD 93

Extraordinary Appearances in the Heavens and on Earth. In this 1797 watercolor, Ben- jamin Henry Latrobe presents a “most perfect and singular” rainbow seen on his approach to Richmond. In the foreground he depicted black teamsters struggling with a troublesome horse. (Courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society)

tions of which so much has been said in Virginia . . . originate in the minds of the worst of men for the worst of purposes, namely that of arresting the gentle army of humanity . . . outstretched for the relief of the slaves and with a design of procuring a repeal of the laws authorizing their manumission.” In the wake of an alarm, hardliners blamed free blacks despite the scant evidence connecting any of them to the plots.20 Rarely can we tell how much re lay behind the dense smoke of slave alarms. The tainted evidence cautions against the credibility of the full-blown, massive, and extensive plots to massacre whites. But it is just as hasty to regard the murky evidence as proof that slave plots were never more than repressive conspiracies by white men

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 93 7/3/13 12:41 PM A Private of the 5th West India Regiment, 1814. Aquatint by I. J. C. Stadler after Charles Hamilton Smith.(Courtesy of the Council of the National Army Museum, London).

While allowing the old plantations with slaves to persist on the island, the British ofcials sought to develop a new farming sector with free black settlers. By West Indian standards, Trinidad already had an unusually large proportion of “free coloureds”: 20 percent of the population in 1810. The antislavery imperialists sought to

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 119 7/3/13 12:41 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 144 7/3/13 12:41 PM I NVASION 147

Governor James Barbour of Virginia. (Courtesy of the Library of Virginia)

1812, replacing George William Smith, who had died in the Rich- mond Theater re. Despite modest origins and a limited education, Barbour had thrived as a lawyer and politician, thanks to support from his Orange County neighbor, James Madison, and the Rich- mond power broker, Thomas Ritchie. Conventional on issues of race, he lamented slavery as an evil but did nothing to free his slaves or anyone else’s.5 Leading Virginians did not know whether to mock Barbour’s vainglory or applaud his zeal. Campbell eventually warmed to Bar- bour as far more decisive than the dithering state legislators: “Bar-

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 147 7/3/13 12:41 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 174 7/3/13 12:41 PM The Conspiracy Against Baltimore, or the War Dance at Montgomery Court House. Crafted in 1812 by an unknown Maryland Republican, the cartoon lampoons the state’s Federalists including the newspaper editor and publisher Alexander Contee Hanson, Jr. depicted with the devil’s horns at center. He looms over Robert Goodloe Harper shown playing a harp, as a pun. In the group to the left, the dancing man with a distinctive hat, a military chapeau de bras, is General Henry Lee, a former governor of Virginia, who suf- fered crippling wounds in the Baltimore riot. (Courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society).

revolution’s brutal suppression of the Loyalists, Thomas Jefferson boasted that Republican mobs would silence the Federalists. In Nor- folk, a mob fullled Jefferson’s prophecy by tarring and feathering a Federalist before dumping him in a creek.29 The partisan fury peaked in Baltimore, a booming seaport of 41,000 people, most of them Republicans. In late June, Republican mobs tore down the Federalist newspaper ofce of Alexander Con- tee Hanson Jr., dismantled ships suspected of trading with the enemy, and destroyed the homes of free blacks accused of British sympa- thies. A deant Hanson fortied a new ofce with armed guards, including the former revolutionary war generals James Lingan and Henry Lee (also a past governor of Virginia). In late July, the Fed- eralists red into an attacking mob of enraged Republicans, killing

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 187 7/3/13 12:41 PM Admiral Cockburn Burning & Plundering Havre de Grace on the 1st of June 1813; done from a Sketch taken on the spot at the time. At the right of center Cockburn leans on his sword while his marines and sailors loot the village. Note the British barges in the background. (Courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society)

plundering (and some burning) of homes as well as stores. Cockburn explained that he sought to bring the people “to understand and feel what they were liable to bring upon themselves by building Batteries and acting towards us with so much useless Rancor.”37 Turning east, Cockburn attacked Fredericktown and George- town, along the Sassafras River of Maryland’s Eastern Shore. On May 6, Cockburn warned that if the inhabitants “offered any useless or irritating opposition, they must expect the same fate as that which had befallen Havre [de Grace] and Frenchtown; but if they yielded, private property would be respected, the vessels and public property alone seized, and that whatever supplies might be required would be punctually paid for.” The local magistrates wanted to submit, but a

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 191 7/3/13 12:41 PM Vice Admiral Sir Alexander F. I. Cochrane, an oil portrait by Sir William Beechey. (Cour- tesy of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, England)

the Spaniel and require the same treatment—must be drubbed into good manners.” Humbling American pride remained a top priority.89 A hyperactive schemer, Cochrane suggested bribing some Americans to kidnap Republican congressmen: “A little money well applied will attain almost any object amongst such a corrupt

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 210 7/3/13 12:41 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 214 7/3/13 12:41 PM 216 T HE INTERNAL ENEMY

Joseph Carrington Cabell, from Alexander Brown, The Cabells and Their Kin (1895). (Courtesy of the Virginia Historical Society)

into Chesapeake Bay and barges to Carter’s Creek and weakened the resistance by the local militia. But Carter made his own decision, which came in response to what his wife and children had already chosen. Their choices derived from the more intimate history of one plantation, which induced many, but not all, of the resident slaves to risk their lives and futures on escaping to the British. Located in Lancaster County on the north shore of the Rappahannock River at its juncture with Chesapeake Bay, Corotoman was an especially

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British Boats Landing at the Mouth of Lake Borne, 1815, pen and ink drawing by Rear Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm. Although an image from the Gulf Coast at the end of the war, this drawing represents the sort of boats and temporary encampments that the British also deployed in the Chesapeake. (Courtesy of the William L. Clements Library, Univer- sity of Michigan)

rebuked the British captain: “It is improper, sir, to take slaves; and to put arms in their hands is more so.” The captain pointedly replied, “Who began the war?”16

Kin

The British incursion enabled many Tidewater slaves to reconsti- tute families that had been divided by sale, inheritance, and rental. In July 1813 a twenty-one-year-old slave named Benjamin escaped from his master in Calvert County. A few days later the runaway guided a British attachment to a different farm, to retrieve his wife,

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 252 7/3/13 12:41 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 274 7/3/13 12:41 PM Tangier Island, with a plan of the Barracks, &c erected upon it by the 3d. Battalion of Regular & Colonial Marines, 1814. From the papers of Vice Admiral Sir Alexander F. I. Cochrane. (Courtesy of the National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh)

Colonial Marines Drilling at Tangier Island in 1814, a modern painting of Gerry Embleton origi- nally published in Ralph E. Eshelman and Burton K. Kummerow, In Full Glory Reected: Dis- covering the War of 1812 in the Chesapeake (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society Press, 2012). (Courtesy of Gerry Embleton, Ralph Eshelman, and Burton Kummerow)

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 278 7/3/13 12:41 PM T  C  C, 

S LANCASTER YORK u CHESTER CUMBERLAND sq u PENNSYLVANIA e h a Wilmington n n GLOUCESTER a

HARFORD R Charlestown Delaware R. . CECIL Elkton SALEM FREDERICK Principio Iron Works Havre de Grace Frenchtown NEW MARYLAND NEW JERSEY CASTLE Frederick BALTIMORE Fredericktown CUMBERLAND Baltimore Georgetown KENT F  MH Patapsco R. Chester R. D Rock Hill e l ANNE ARUNDEL QUEEN KENT a Poto ANNES w ma Severn R. a c R Centerville r LOUDOUN . e Kent Is. Queenstown B a Annapolis y Bladensburg PRINCE CAROLINE Washington, D.C. GEORGE'S TALBOT FAIRFAX Upper Marlboro St. Michaels Alexandria Easton FAUQUIER F. W  C DELAWARE PRINCE h CALVERT e WILLIAM P Nottingham s a a t p u CHARLES x e e a SUSSEX n k Cambridge Port Tobacco t e Benedict R B Tobacco R. . a STAFFORD y DORCHESTER Rappaha nnock Wicomico R. R. Leonardtown SOMERSET Fredericksburg KING ST. GEORGE MARY'S

WORCESTER SPOTSYLVANIA St. Marys M T a tt a p o N WESTMORELAND n i

R Kinsale O LOUISA CAROLINE . Yeocomico R. Tappahannock Smith Island M RICHMOND NORTHUMBERLAND ACCOMACK VIRGINIA ESSEX D P amu nk Tangier Is. E e y R LANCASTER . KING AND I HANOVER QUEEN KING Irvington Chesconessex Cr. P WILLIAM James River Corotoman Plantation Pungoteague Creek

MIDDLESEX E York R. Atlantic Richmond Gwynn Is. H HENRICO NEW KENT H Ocean MATHEWS NORTHAMPTON CO.

T T CHESTERFIELD JAMES GLOUCESTER CHARLES CITY CITY App oma tto x R New Point AMELIA . PRINCE GEORGE Comfort Petersburg YORK SURRY NEWPORT DINWIDDIE NEWS HAMPTON Cape Charles Norfolk Town or city Hampton Cape Henry F  B  Fort ISLE OF SUSSEX WIGHT GLOUCESTER County name Norfolk County boundary BRUNSWICK SOUTHAMPTON Shoreraids SUFFOLK NORFOLK Shipping attacked PRINCESS ANNE CO. 0 Miles 30 CURRITUCK PASQUOTANK CAMDEN NORTHAMPTON GATES HALIFAX 0 Kilometers 30 NORTH CAROLINA © 2013 Je rey L. Ward HERTFORD

The Chesapeake Campaign, 1813. Map by Je rey L. Ward after an original by Rob- ert Pratt, published in Ralph Eshelman and Burton K. Kummerow, In Full Glory Reected: Discovering the War of 1812 in the Chesapeake (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society Press, 2012). Note the broad distribution of raids throughout Chesa- peake Bay and the priority given to attacks on American shipping by the British during their rst campaign.

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 288 7/3/13 12:41 PM T  C  C, 

S LANCASTER YORK u CHESTER CUMBERLAND sq u PENNSYLVANIA e h a Wilmington n n GLOUCESTER a CECIL R Delaware R. HARFORD . FREDERICK Charlestown Elkton SALEM Havre de Grace Frenchtown NEW MARYLAND NEW JERSEY Spesutie Is. CASTLE Frederick BALTIMORE Fredericktown CUMBERLAND Georgetown ANNE ARUNDEL Baltimore KENT F  MH Patapsco R. Caulks Field D Chester R. e l North Pt. QUEEN KENT a Poto w ma Severn R. ANNES a c R r LOUDOUN . Centerville e Kent Is. B Queenstown a Bladensburg Annapolis y

PRINCE CAROLINE Washington, D.C. GEORGE'S TALBOT FAIRFAX Upper Marlboro St. Michaels PRINCE Alexandria Easton FAUQUIER WILLIAM F. W  Lower Marlboro DELAWARE

Choptank R. SUSSEX CHARLES Cambridge Port Tobacco Benedict P CALVERT Tobacco R. a STAFFORD tu DORCHESTER ap x R pahanno Wicomico R. e ck R ST. nt SOMERSET . MARY'S R. Sotterley Plantation Nanticoke R. Fredericksburg KING GEORGE Leonardtown SPOTSYLVANIA St. Marys WORCESTER M T a tt WESTMORELAND a p Nomini Cr. o N n i Kinsale R O Smith Is. LOUISA CAROLINE . Yeocomico R. Coan R. Tappahannock RICHMOND M NORTHUMBERLAND ACCOMACK VIRGINIA ESSEX D P Farnham Tangier Is. amu nk Church E e y R LANCASTER . KING AND I HANOVER I QUEEN Chesconessex Cr. KING

Irvington y P WILLIAM a

James River B

Corotoman Plantation Pungoteague Cr.

e

MIDDLESEX k

a E York R. Atlantic e Richmond Gwynn Is. p NEW KENT a H HENRICO H s Ocean MATHEWS e NORTHAMPTON CO. GLOUCESTER h

T T CHESTERFIELD JAMES C CHARLES CITY CITY Mobjack Bay App oma tto x R New Point Cape Charles AMELIA . PRINCE GEORGE Comfort Petersburg YORK SURRY NEWPORT DINWIDDIE NEWS Cape Charles Norfolk Town or city HAMPTON F  MH Fort ISLE OF Cape Henry SUSSEX Norfolk GLOUCESTER WIGHT County name County boundary BRUNSWICK Lynnhaven SOUTHAMPTON Bay Shoreraids SUFFOLK NORFOLK Shipping attacked PRINCESS ANNE CO. 0 Miles 30 CAMDEN CURRITUCK PASQUOTANK NORTHAMPTON GATES 0 Kilometers 30 HALIFAX NORTH CAROLINA © 2013 Je rey L. Ward HERTFORD

The Chesapeake Campaign, 1814. Map by Je rey L. Ward after an original map by Robert Pratt, published in Ralph Eshelman and Burton K. Kummerow, In Full Glory Reected: Discovering the War of 1812 in the Chesapeake (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society Press, 2012). Note the greater number of shore raids and their con- centration along the Potomac and Patuxent Rivers in northern Virginia and southern Maryland, in comparison to the previous year. This new pattern reected the greater aggressiveness of the British and the priority given to preparations for an attack on Washington, D.C.

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 289 7/3/13 12:41 PM First View of the Battle of Patapsco Neck, 1814. In this 1814 engraving, Andrew Duluc represents the British attack on North Point, near Baltimore on September 12. At the top cen- ter, indicated by the letter O, Major General Ross dies. At M, to the right, British light infan- trymen, who included the Colonial Marines, ush out the American riemen who shot Ross. The main body of British troops appears at L. (Courtesy of the Maryland Historical Society).

This surprising militia victory thrilled the Americans and served as a dark omen for the impending British attack on Baltimore.74 The British ofcers hated Baltimore as a Republican hotbed notorious for riots against Federalists and for sending privateers to prey on British commerce. Admiral Codrington assured his wife, “I do not like to contemplate scenes of blood & destruction, but my heart is deeply interested in the coercion of these Baltimore heroes, who are perhaps the most inveterate against us of all the Yankees and I hope they will be chastised even until they excite my pity.” This time Cochrane wanted no selective burning, seeking instead the city’s total destruction.75

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 307 7/3/13 12:41 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 316 7/3/13 12:41 PM A View of the Town of St. George, Bermuda, an 1815 aquatint by I. J. C. Stadler. The capital of the colony of Bermuda was crowded with soldiers and sailors and the harbor lled with ships. Note the two black women in the right foreground. (Courtesy of the New York Public Library)

marines, so Nicolls entrusted the fort and its armament to the blacks, who continued to y the Union Jack. The British government sub- sequently disavowed the major’s actions as driven by an “ill-judged zeal.” Meanwhile, Georgians denounced the “Negro Fort” as a great menace, which continued to attract runaways and send out raid- ing parties. Spalding warned that the Negro Fort would “become a nucleus around which a dangerous Population will concenter.”62 On August 27, 1816, American gunboats ascended the river and opened re on the Negro Fort. A cannon shot penetrated the main powder magazine, which erupted in a massive explosion, destroy- ing the fort and killing most of the defenders. The American com- mander, Colonel Duncan Clinch, credited God for “chastising the blood-thirsty and murderous wretches that defended the fort.” Some

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 341 7/3/13 12:41 PM Philanthropie Moderne. By a French pro-slavery artist, this cartoon was widely reproduced in the United States. It depicts a British abolitionist and Royal Navy ocer seducing brut- ish blacks from their duty and employing them to burn Washington, D.C. Note the farm tools smoldering in the foreground. (Courtesy of the American Antiquarian Society)

transfer would bolster the American propaganda that the British had mistreated the runaways, which would then dampen the enthusiasm of American slaves for the British as potential liberators. Cockburn cherished that enthusiasm as a valuable military resource for the future. Apparently impressed by that argument, the imperial gov- ernment postponed the transfer.68 About 450 Colonial Marines remained at Ireland Island (part of Bermuda) in June 1816, when John Patterson of Mathews County, Virginia, sailed to Bermuda on the Maid of the Isles, a schooner with a cargo of corn. Most of his sailors were enslaved: a common phe- nomenon in Tidewater Virginia as well as Bermuda. On arrival, Pat- terson recognized at least fteen Colonial Marines as former slaves from Mathews. They included one of his own, named Hull, who had

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 344 7/3/13 12:41 PM 60˚ 45˚ 30˚ 15˚ 1,500 15˚ 15˚

hine R.

R 1,000

1,500

E

C

N Paris Ghent A AFRICA R 500 0˚ F 0˚ ENGLAND

London I N A Miles P Kilometers

S 0 0 SCOTLAND Lisbon 15˚ 15˚ IRELAND PORTUGAL Canary Is. Madeira Is. Madeira 30˚ 30˚ Azores GREENLAND 45˚ 45˚ Ocean Atlantic NEWFOUNDLAND Barbados Trinidad NOVA SCOTIA NOVA 60˚ 60˚ Halifax T  N A,  A, N T 

The North Atlantic, 1815, a map by Je rey L. Ward. Je rey L. a map by 1815, Atlantic, The North Bermuda

A WEST INDIES WEST

SOUTH AMERICA SOUTH D

Boston

A

s

S a N

E m

A Ne w York

Philadelphia a

T h C

A a

Norfolk 75˚

B 75˚ T

Quebec S Caribbean Sea

Cumberland Island Cumberland D

E Charleston

FLORIDA

T

I Cuba

Jamaica N U

Negro Fort

p i

p

R

i

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90˚ i 90˚ s s M i New Orleans New Gulf of Mexico © 2013 Je rey L. Ward © 2013 Je rey MEXICO 105˚ 105˚ Pacic Ocean Pacic 60˚ 45˚ 30˚ 15˚

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 356 7/3/13 12:42 PM Halifax, from Dartmouth Point, an 1817 aquatint by G. I. Parkyns. (Courtesy of the Archives of Nova Scotia)

None of the special agents retrieved a single refugee, which led all three to decline as futile the additional missions to the West Indies proposed by Monroe. Some Georgia planters did enlist a Halifax mercantile rm to help them woo the refugees to return, but the Nova Scotian merchants reported “that they can nd none that wish to return except some old ones that are not worth sending.” Any ref- ugees who disliked Nova Scotia had a better alternative than return- ing to slavery: moving on to Boston and New York to nd paying work “remote from their former Masters,” as Neale put it. Soon Monroe lost interest in further missions that could only discredit the consoling ctions he wanted to believe as a slaveholder.32

Refugees

As the chief naval base for the North American squadron, Halifax was the easiest place for the Royal Navy to send hundreds of run- aways. And the government of Nova Scotia would take them in—

InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 365 7/3/13 12:42 PM InternalEnemy_7pp.indd 388 7/3/13 12:42 PM 414 T HE INTERNAL ENEMY

The Noble Virginians Going to Battle. In this crude engraving from 1820, a New England antislavery writer, William Hillhouse, mocks the Virginians as boastful cowards who forced their slaves to ght for them during the recent war. Produced during the peak of the Missouri crisis, the image conveys the New England Federalist attack on Virginia as weakened by slavery—a criticism that especially enraged Virginians. From Pocahontas: A Proclamation (1820). (Courtesy of the American Antiquarian Society)

placed armed centinels out with orders to shoot down any white man who should approach within 15 yards of them. . . . This is only one of several cases that have taken place.” Seeking new arms from the state, Joynes implied that the runaways were better armed than the local militia, which suggests the destination for some of the lost, stolen, and sold guns from the last war.58

Nat Turner

In 1829, Oliver Cross had warned that a bloody slave revolt would come “sooner or later.” It came sooner, on the night of August 21–22, 1831, in Southampton County. A messianic preacher, Nat Turner,

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