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AUTHOR Hamilton, Robert E., Ed. TITLE Lesson Plans on African History and Geography: A Teaching Resource. INSTITUTION Florida Univ., Gainesville. Center for African Studies. SPONS AGENCY National Endowment for the Humanities (NFAH), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE 92 CONTRACT ES-21479-87 NOTE 92p. AVAILABLE FROM Center for African Studies, University of Florida, 427 Grinter Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611. PUB TYPr; Guides Classroom Use Teaching Guides (For Teacher) (052) Tests/Evaluation Instruments (160)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *African Culture; *African History; Cultural Awareness; Cultute Conflict; Elementary Secondary Education; *Geography Instruction; Global Approach; *History Instruction; Learning Activities; Maps; Multicultural Education; *Non Western Civilization; Studies; Slavery; Social Studies IDENTIFIERS *Africa; Global Education

ABSTRACT This document presents lesson plans for instruction concerning the history and geography of the continent of Africa. Topics include:(1) "The Challenge of Teaching Afrcan History and Culture" (Robert Hamilton); (2) "A Physical Overview of Africa" (Robert Hamilton and Kim Lilly); (3) "A Cultural Overview of Africa" (Robert Hamilton and Kim Lilly); (4) "Early in Egypt and Ethiopia" (Dona J. Stewart);(5) "" (Dona J. Stewart and Robert Hamilton); (6) "The Saharan Caravan Trade" (George Burson); (7) "African Diaspora" (Walter F. Urbanek);(8) "Zimbabwe" (Sylvia C. Udall); (9) "African Runaway Slave Communities: Palmares and Florida" (Linda B. Mager); (10) ": 1500 to the Present" (Robert Hamilton); and (11) "Modern Africa" (George Burson). The document also includes a list of maps, a foreword and preface, acknowledgements, and a discussion of the challenges of teaching African history and culture. The topical chapters include student readings, discussion questions, a sample test consisting of term matching, true or false questions, short answer questions, and essay questions. Each chapter also presents a listing of suggestions for further reading. (SG)

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LU Robert E. Hamilton, Editor

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The Center for African Studies University of Florida 427 Grinter Hall Gainesville, Florida 32611-2037

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Lesson Plans on AfricanHistory and Geography: A Teaching Resource

Robert E. Hamilton, Editor

The Center for African Studies University of Florida 427 Grinter Hall Gainesville, Florida 32611-2037 Political Map:Countries ard Capitals

tr- , Alpitars , Tonle Palm 1 S E 4 OCC. #09' El ()antra (Cairo) El Won ALGERIA \ . LIBYA EGYPT

CAPE IMAGE Nowitc MALI NIGER Marlow . Dakm CHAD -"" Praia SENEGAI. Niamey GAMBIA Bamako SUDA N Ban$0 BURKINA OBboutl Welismone DJIBOUTI GUNIEMNSIAU . FASO OrweellaN1100 Semsu GUINEA Midis Ababa Corwin NIGERIA ETHIOPIA Freetown COTE §agf) GHANA Lagoa SIERRA LEONE DIVOIRE Accra CENTRAL AFRICAN REP. Marrow% Mellen 4° Bawd_ UBERIA CAMEROON Se di *AMINO Yattund !Cr Magelahu LI4r2A SAO TOME and Primo, LIOnwitio KENYA Ale Tam GA WM INDIAN RWAWA NIIKSM tr ZAIRE orsAN BraWytila BURU ATLANTIC Kinshasa 11444AMIOTS TANZANIA 4 Victoria I. Der m Siloam SEYCHELLES Luanda Moroni OCEAN ANGOLA

ZAMBIA Lusaka Hamr Q. NI. porpApet m * (., m O 250 500 750 km NAMIBIA BOTSWANA 0w°. -1 Ciabotonat Pon Louis O 250 SOO 730 riMas WinhorM 5 Pretoria Wool* LUMBAR Abmuihat Equoi-Arsa Proppaon SWAnLANO Gout CP 20RE .3 SOUTH Mosbanr The Dewclaws and nom. on Mit map do not wcwolfIcelonaonorrent or accapionco Dy Wt LESOTrID)el N.,MU M United !Wilms AFRICA 1.Mair I.Milod Manors Map No 304t Ray t Raparno wirmaron KI.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

Source: Africa Today: An Atlas of Reproducible Pages. © 1990 World Eagle, Inc. Revised Edition. Reprinted hsre with permission. Further reprinting is not permitted.

4 Countries, Populations, andCapitals Listed balow are 51 countries, plus Namibia and Western Sahara

Est'd Population Estimated 12ar Country or Region Mid-1989 cakt4.1 Pot:niacin 1 483 000 1987 Algeria 24 900 000 Algiers (El Djazair) 1,100,000 1988 Angola 8 500 000 Luanda 208 258 1982 Benin 4,700,000 Porto-Novo 96,000 1986 Botswana 1,200,000 Gaborone 366 000 1986 Burkina Faso 8,700.000 Ouagadougou 272 000 1986 Burundi 5,500,000 Bujumbura 700 000 1988 Cameroon 10,800,000 Yaounde 1986 Cape Verde 400 000 Praia 50,000 Central African Rep. 2,800.000 Bangui (met.)473,000 1985 511 OCO 1986 Chad 4,900,000 N'djamena (met.) 38,000 1988 Comoros 400 000 Moroni 595,000 1984 Congo Republic 2200.000 Brauaville (met ) (met.) 1,850.000 1985 Cate d'Ivoire 12 100,000 Abidjan 200.000 1982 Djibouti 400,000 Djibmiti (met.) 54,800,000 El Oahira 6 305 000 1988 Egypt (Cairo)

38,000 1989 Equatorial Guinea 400,000 Malabo 1984 Ethiopia 49,800,000 Addis Ababa 1,412,000 352 000 1987 Gabon 1 100 000 Libreville 40 000 1986 Gambia 800 000 Banjul 949 000 1988 Ghana 14 600 000 Acaa

Guinea 7 , 100,000 Conakry 656 000 1983 109 500 Guinea-Bissau 1 000,000 Bissau 1979 Kenya 24 100 000 Nairobi 959,000 1987 1984 1,700,000 Maseru 80250 Liberia 2 500 000 Monrovia 400 000 1987

Libya 4,100.000 Tripoli 820 000 1982 Madagascar 11 600.000 Antananarivo 650 000 1985 8 700 000 Lilongwe 220 000 1987 1986 Mali 8 900 000 Bamako (met.) 800.000 1987 Mauritania 2,000,000 Nouakchott 400 000

Mauntius 1 100 000 Port Louis 155.000 1986 Morocco 25,600.000 Rabat 558 000 1984 Mozambique 15200,003 Maputo 882,000 1986 Namibia 1,800,000 Windhoek 114,500* 1988 Niger 7,400,000 Niarney 350.000 1987

Nigeria 115 300 000 Lagos 1,243,000 « 1988 Rwanda 7,000,000 Kigali 300 000 '989 Sio Tomi and Piincipe 100 000 Sio Tomi 40,000 1988 Senegal 7,200,000 Dakar 1,300,000 1986 Seychelles 100 000 Victoria 23,000 1986

Sierra Leone 4,100.000 Freetown 469 000 1985 Somalia 8,200,000 Mogadishu 700 000 1988 South Africa 38 500,000 Cape Town (met.) 1,900,000 1985 (Legislative) 1983 24,500,000 Khartoum 476.000 Swaziland 800,000 Mbabane 52 000 1986 1986 Tanzania 26 300 000 Dar es Salaam 1 400 000 1985 ,3 400 000 Lomi 300 000 1984 Tunisia 7 900,000 Tunis 1,000,000 1988 Uganda 17,000,000 Kampala 331 000 1982 Western Sahara 200 000 El Asiun .96,784 1985 Zaire 34 900 000 Kinshasa 3 000 000 1987 Zambia 8,100,000 Lusaka 818,000 730 000 1988 Zimbabwe 10,100,000 Harare

Total population for the 51 countries plus Namibia and Western Sahara: 646,000,000 Total does not sum because of internal rounding.

The Statosman's Year-Book, 198849. Population figures for countries from Population Reference *ThekasWort YajLsL.,g_tok 189. Bureau, Inc. 1989 World Population Data Sheet Population + Same estimatm say Lagos has over 4 million population. figures for capitals from The 1990 World Almanac and Book of Facts. Source: Africa Today: An Atlas of Reproducible Pages. © 1990 World Eagle, Inc. Revised Edition. Reprinted here with permission. Further reprinting is notpermitted.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Maps iv Foreword Preface vi The Challenge of Teaching African History and Culture Robert Hamilton 1 A Physical Overview of Africa Robert Hamilton and Kim Lilly 9 A Cultural Overview of Africa Robert Hamilton and Kim Lilly 17 Early and Ethiopia Dona J. Stewart 25 Islam Dona J. Stewart and Robert Hamilton 31 The Saharan Caravan Trade George Burson 37 African Diaspora Walter F. Urbanek 43 Zimbabwe Sylvia C. Udall 53 African Runaway Slave Communities: Palmares and Florida Linda B. Mager 59 Christianity in Africa: 1500 to the Present Robert Hamilton 67 Modern Africa George Burson 79 Acknowledgements 88

iii LIST OF MAPS

Map Title Page Number

Political Map: Countries and Capitals Ecological Area§ of Africa 11 Ethnolinguistic Groups 21 32 West Africa to About 1600 39 European Contacts with West Africa, c. 1450 to c. 1800 40 The Atlantic Slave Trade to 1808 46 Zimbabwe 58 Pernambuco, Brazil 62 Missionary Penetration of West Africa Before 1914 73 Colonialism in 1914 80 Colonialism in 1952 81 South Africa 87

iv FOREWORD

This teaching manual is presented as a follow-up activity associatedwith a 1988 Summer Institute conducted by the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida.The 1988 Summer Institute, funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities as grant ES-21479-87, wasconducted to assist secondary school teachers to better understand and to teach about Africa in the contextof world history and world geography. Professor R. Hunt Davis, Jr., then Director of theCenter for African Studies, was Principal Investigator and Project Director. The Center for African Studies at the University of Florida is one of tenfederally funded Title VI centers. It maintains a lending library of books, resource papers,slides, and films for classroom use. We have an active outreach program which provides African specialistswho conduct in-service workshops for teachers, classroom presentations, and public lectures. School systemsinterested in scheduling an in-service workshop or presentation should contact the Outreach Director of theCenter. Reactions to the effectiveness of this manual are welcomed. The Center forAfrican Studies and its affiliated faculty are committed to improving the effectiveness of teaching aboutAfrica. Suggestions about how that mission can be improved through more pertinent teaching materialsshould be sent to the Center Director.

Peter R. Schmidt Director April 24, 1992

8 PREFACE

During the summer of 1985 and the summer of 1988, the Center for African Studies at the University of Florida conducted month-long workshops for teachers who teach about Africa in the context of world history and world geography. In the autumn of 1989, the teachers from the workshops weie asked to write essays about the importance of African history to world history and world geography as a way of sharing their expertise with teacher colleagues. Initially, the essayists were asked to address "The Challenge of Teaching African History and Culture." We introduced the essays at a social studies conference in Norfolk, Virginia, in March 1990. The response was positive, but teachers--including the essayists--indicated that they could also benefit from lesson plans. lit April 1991, a second panel of teachers presented the lesson plans included here at a social studies conference in Overland Park, Kansas. To the second group, we have added contributions by Walter Urbanek, Dona Stewart (graduate assistant to the outreach program at the Center), and me. Although all particpants in the 1985 and 1988 summer institutes were invited to contribute to the present monograph, many were unable to do so. This monograph is also the result of efforts contributed by Africanist scholars at the University of Florida and the Center's staff. In particular, I wish to thank Center Director Dr. Peter R. Schmidt for supporting the project through all its phases, and Dr. Ali Hersi, of the Center, for providing general advice and counsel regarding the content of the lesson plans. Diane Oyler, a veteran teacher and current Ph.D. candidate in African history at UF, offered insightful comments regarding each of the lesson plans. Professor R. Hunt Davis, Jr.--foriner Director of the Center and Principal Investigator for the NEH- funded 1988 Summer Institute--has generously contributed his time, management comments, sound advice, and moral support to the monograph project since its inception. John Wollinka and Marjorie Niblack, graphic designers at the University of Florida, worked diligently, cheerfully, and quickly to prepare the maps which accompany the various lesson plans. Dr. Azim Nanji contributed his knowledge of Islam worldwide in reviewing the lesson plan devoted to Islam in Africa. Dr. Deidre Crumbley provided valuable commentary and notes relating to independent African churches, and particularly the Aladura movement, based upon her field work in Nigeria and the United States. The monograph has benefited greatly from the formatting expertise and careful proofreading of Ms. Cody Watson. The material included in this monograph is the properiy of the Center for African Studies and the University of Florida. The essay and lesson plans may be duplicated and distributed for public and classroom use provided that the Center's contribution is acknowledged and its letterhead retained. Anyone wishing to include materials from the monograph in a separate publication must receive written permission from the Center for African Studies. Other requests, comments, and suggestions should be sent to the Outreach Director.

Robert E. Hamilton, Editor Outreach Director

vi THE CHALLENGE OF TEACHING students realize the impact which African cultures AFRICAN HISTORY AND CULTURE and resources have on their everyday life," she says."Africa is the ancestral home of many Robert Hamilton Americans, and the African American heritage has greatly enriched our culture. Modern African Teachers are sometimes asked to explainusu- music can be traced to Lraditional rhythms; so can ally within one minutewhy they feel it is impor- the musical forms of reggae, jazz, blues, and tant to study African history and culture. This gospel music." question is frequently followed by a second one: Bryant also draws upon African folktales and How do you teach about African cultures? During proverbs to demonstrate Connections: "You can the past two years I have asked these questions of not show an old gorilla new paths in a forest" several teachers with whom I have made presenta- strikes a responsive chord among her students. tions at social studies conferences and at profes- "As students learn a bit of wisdom each day," she sional development workshops. Their answers are states, "they clearly see the connection between illuminating.Intellectual satisfaction, personal similar values and ethics existing in communities and family interest, practical job interests, and and societies scattered among the continents." travel interests are included as general reasons that She also shows the material connection with Af- teachers give for studying African history and rica by directing students to place pictures of culture and for teaching it to elementary and sec- products originating in Africa on the bulletin board ondary school students. While the following es- and attaching them with string to a map of the say does not provide a defmitive answer to either continent. of the questions above, it does include the reflec- Bryant also believes that Africans have much to tions of some experienced teachers regarding the teach ns about the concept of Community. "A man need to teach African history and culture and the without kin is as good as dead" illustrates Africa's teaching methods and resources they employ. emphasis upon the family, lineage, and other so- cial groups.Africa's experience with political Susanna Bryant: Connections. Change. Commu- systems that include everything from band societ- nity ies of 15 to 40 members to empires as large as Susanna Bryant, who teaches middle school in western Europe provide abundant material for a Chapel Hill, North Carolina, wrote that, "The study of decision-making that is documentable for challenge of teaching about Africa is really a 5,000 years. "Studentsand adultsare fasci- challenge to learn what Africans can teach us nated by the study of human evolution," Bryant abuta ourselves."Bryant states that there are says. "They love talking about big issues and are many practical reasons to study African history delighted when exposed to new information that and culture: links all of us to an original homeland in eastern Africa is part of the world and students and southern Africa. Learning details about hu- should learn about global history and ge- man history and the theories explaining human ography. Students should know how people social and cultural development, of course, re- ha''e adapted to their environments and quires us to start with Africa." created social systems and culture. They "Change is inevitable and dynamic. This con- need to understand, for example, contem- cept is excellent for teaching current events and porary social issues relating to apartheid, Africa's role in the modern world," Bryant says. human rights, and economic development. Students can compare changes within the United Bryant emphasizes the related concepts of "Con- States to those on the African continent, where nections, Community, and Change" to lead stu- imperialism and colonialism struck at but did not dents to an understanding of the direct and indirect destroy African institutions and values. links between the United States and Africa. "Few Yet, as Ali Munn has pointed out in The Afri-

1 0 cans: A Triple Heritage, Africans have also em- that led to twentieth-century colonial control of braced new values, some of which date from the the continent, African students do know some- colonial era and threaten to destroy Africa's con- thing about American history.Forced to learn trol of its own destiny. Bryant uses African writers about Europe and the United States through mainly and poets to help document changes in African French-, Portuguese-, and English-language text- perspectives: Peter Abrahams (Mine Boy), Camara books, African students today know far more Laya (The Dark Child), Chinua Achebe (Things about the United States than U.S. students know Fall Apart; No Longer at Ease; A Man of the about Africa.Thus, African students, political People; Anthills of the Savannah), Mongo Beti leaders, and business representatives have a cer- (Mission to (Cala), Wole Soyinka (T he Interpret- tain edge in dealing with Americans. European ers), Bessie Head (When Rain Clouds Gather; and American television programs and film have Maru; A Question of Power; SeroweVillage of the also provided Africans with visual images of these Rain Wind), Marianna Ba (So Long a Letter), and regions which are much clearer than the American Ngugi wa Thiong'o (Weep Not Child; A Grain of student's mental map or visual image of Africa. Wheat; The River Between; Petals of Blood). European families and students generally know ThroughAfrican Eyes, which originally appeared more about Africa than their American counter- in 1969 and is edited by Leon Clark, has been parts because of the colonial legacy that continues updated and provides an excellent series of ex- to tie Europe to Africa through political and eco- cerpts from African writers addressing a variety of nomic networks more extensive and active than subjects. Likewise, African Short Stories, edited those which link the United States to Africa. by Chinua Achebe and C.L. Innes, features 20 DeLonge, a Fulbright recipient who spent the short stories by some of Africa's best writers. A summer of 1990 in West Africa, notes that most newer anthology, Looking for a Rain God, edited teachers did not study Africa. while undergradu- by Nadezda Obradovic, contains 26 short stories ates. While teachers still tend to teach most about by 26 African writers which have appeared since United States and European history in world his- 1960. tory courses, she is pleased that many new teach- ing resources are available which deal with Afri- Alice DeLonge;Breaking Out of Intellectual can history and culture, even if they are expensive Isolation and difficult for many teachers to locate. Veteran educator Alice DeLonge of Goose Creek, DeLonge stresses that African history courses South Carolina, feels that the study of African should not exclude North Africa, even though that history and culture helps students to break out of part of the continent also has strong ties to the the intellectual isolation which characterizes Muslim world of the Middle East. "I do not agree American education in some school systems. Even with the concept of splitting the continent," she though the United States has been involved in says: European, Asian, African, and Latin American I teach the whole continent, pointing out wars, she says, we have closeted ourselves intel- the major areas and major landmarks. lectually and pretended that we were mentally and However, I then divide the continent into morally superior to other peoples. "Students to- different regions and examine the devel- day," she writes, "can easily be shown that they opment, for example, of East African city will have to know more about the rest of the states, the Interlacustrine states, West Af- worldits languages, history, and cultureif they rican forest kingdoms, and so forth. hope to find and keep jobs. They need a very broad DeLonge also warns that African history should education about all parts of the world, including not be approached as simply a sorry tale of "black- Africa." white" confrontations. "This is one of the first Although the United States did not participate in misconceptions that we as educators need to dispel the European imperialist movement within Africa when we bring African history and geography into

2 1 1 the classroom." Teachers should not include ma- Like Susanna Bryant, Lucas likes to show how terial on Africa that seeks merely to apportion guilt societies are connected and the impact of diffusion or blame, DeLonge says.African history and processes which link Africa historically toother culture are worthy of study without a search for continents. The trans-Atlantic slave trade from devils: "African history does not begin with the 1500 to 1850 illustrates not only the cniel ways in trans-Atlantic trade in slaves.Neither is it the which peoples have been forcibly thrown together, story of backward societies. Indeed, the opposite but the contributions made by Africans to Carib- is more accurate." bean, Latin American, and North American soci- However, DeLonge contends that American eties and economies. For example, African food clichés about Africa must be corrected, but in a crop specialists made significant contributions to professional and orderly way, as can happen in an the agricultural development of the American organized course of study."The teaching of Southeast, she notes. African history," she stresses, Lucas also uses the metaphor of the "global is the teaching of civilizations, some of village" to show contemporary connections and which are ancient and great contributors to interdependence. "A world history course can not the sciences, arts, literature, and govern- be offered without reference to Africa," she con- ment of Europe and Asia. The history of tends. Islam and Christianity are well represented An examination of the distribution of historically within the African continent. Islam demonstrates how cultures blend; The exploration and development of the here Africa's role was crucial. In a more interior of Africa was accomplished by contemporary examination of the world's people indigenous to the continent. Afri- economies, Nigeria's role in OPEC (Oil cans became so skillful at adapting to local Producing and Exporting Countries) is self- environments that eventually the conti- evident, whatever one thinks of the way nent contained thousands of cultures rep- Nigeria used its oil revenues. The strife resenting the full range of political, social, and unrest in South Africa has influenced and economic systems.It was Africa's the politics, economies, and social con- success in inventing, adoptdng, and adapt- sciousness of peoples throughout the world. ing new ideas, technology, and institutions The problems of the sahel regionthe area which enabled its various cultures to sur- bordering the Saharabecome the prob- vive within a spectrum of different cli- lems of the United States, the Soviet Union, mates, terrain, and environment. and other countries. A nation-state can no longer close its doors to the rest of the Shirley Lucas: Infusion and The Global Village "village" and choose not to "play." The "Infusion," according to teacher Shirley Lucas distribution of the world's resources and of Binghamton, New York, enables Africa: the search for stability, prosperity, and to be the vehicle the educator uses to freedom does make it "a small world after introduce and/or reinforce a variety of con- all." cepts found in existing curricula that vary Lucas and other teachers help to establish infu- from district to district. African stories or sion and connection by organizing student Friends folklore can be iced to fulfill both the of Africa clubs, soliciting student help in collect- reading and history requirements. Africa ing newspaper and magazine articles on Africa can also be used to develop and enhance a which are cut and taped onto 8.5 x 11 inch paper student's concept of self and identity. and put into three-ring binders, contacting out- Exploring the significance Africans give reach directors at the federally funded African to personal names will help achieve this studies centers in the United States, and in locating end. local speakers with African experience to address 3 12 world history, literature, and geography classes. difficulty dealing with the stigma of slavery. The popularity of the 1991 PBS series on the Civil War Rick Jorgenson: Pride and a FeelingsfAssociaz reminds Americans that the issues surrounding the Qn War are compelling and riveting. Many African "I think it's safe to say that most mayors of Americans believe they still face the three options Washington, D.C. do not regularly quote Ibn of the nineteenth century: integrate and try to join Battuta," wrote Rick Jorgenson, a world history mainstream America, return to Africa, or confront teacher in Alexandria, Virginia."But, my stu- and attempt to change their own communities and dents benefitted greatly from reading his opinions mainstream America. of West African states in the thirteenth century." Jorgenson asked his students, following their Jorgenson's students, he said, had seen so many study of Africa, to explain to him what they had television news stories and movies about violence learned: why is it important to study African in nearby Washington, D.C., that theycame to history and culture? Their responses showed that believe that African Americans were inherently they identified Africa with positive political,so- violent people. Ibn Banuta helped to correct that cial, cultural, and technological achievements. misconception. "The negroes [the people of Mali]," His African American students indicated that they Ibn Battuta wrote, felt pride in their association with Africa. "They are seldom unjust and have a greater ab- felt that Africans have great integrity, andare horrence of injustice than any other people. similar in many ways to African Americans. They The Sultans show no mercy to anyone were pleased to learn about the important part guilty of the least act of it.There is which Africa has played in matters of government, complete security in their country. Neither politics, religion, trade, diplomacy, science, and traveller nor inhabitant in it has anything to technology." fear from robbers or men of violence. One of Jorgenson's students wrote that she be- The students felt that African Americans were lieved "African history is a big part of us." An- incorrectly described as complacent to live in other African American student said that African "cultures of poverty."African Americans are culture is "our culture." Many students, Jorgenson mainly middle class, the students learned, and stated, "came to the realization that Africa's past census statistics show real growth in per capita achievements and accomplishments have gone income since the passage of the Civil Rights Act. practically unnoticed by the general public." However, African Americans have not increased At the same time, students are impressed by the their income as fast as white wage earners. So, view that "change, whether right orwrong, is the while shunning the over-generalization that Afri- fundamental ingredient in history."Thus, can Americans are not attempting to improve tlz:ir Jorgenson said, status through education and mainstream employ- defining the meaning of African history ment, the students still wanted to explain why depends upon the way in which individual crime statistics indicated such a high ratio of black students evaluate the changes which have violence within U.S. cities, and why sucha high occurred in Africa during its long history. percentage of death-row inmates were and are Some felt that time has producedmore black males.Many students, Jorgenson said, misery than prospeity for Africa. Others believe now that some African Americans have feel that Africans have shown great adapt- turned to crimemainly against one anotherbe- ability, determination, and resilience. cause they see no other way to obtain money. A Many answers may be given and in their cycle of legal progress is succeeded bya period of own way be correct, for each person has backlash. African Americans, many students said, his or her own definition ofsuccess or are still associated with the trans-Atlantic slave failure. But, we all agreed that if the study trade.Both white and black Americans have of Africa only produces "Cultural Aware- 4 13 ness" for African Americans, the effort tance in understanding an African perspective of will have been worth it.Let's bring the major twentieth-century world issues. "Dark Continent" out of the Dark Ages of In addition to her research in Nigeria, Hoffman Ignorance. has also received a National Science Foundation grant at the University of South Florida, and at- Judy Hoffman: Africa and Twentieth-century Big tended a seminar on British Imperial and Foreign Issues:Imperialism. Colonialism. Nationalism, Policy at Oxford in England. These, along with Capitalism. and Socialism her participation in the 1988 summer institute at Judy Hoffman, International Baccalaureate (IB) the University of Florida, as well as her own IB teacher in St. Petersburg, Florida, chose four top- students, have convinced her that African history ics for in-depth study by students in her world and culture provide a new way to examine United history classes:(1) the causes, practices, and States political life and values. effects of war; (2) nationalist and independence movements, decolonization, and the emergence More Teaching Resources and problems of new nations; (3) East-West rela- Drawing upon Africa's long history, African tions since 1945; and (4) the rise of single-party film directors and producers are making important states internationally. contributions to the ways in which we can bring The IB was originally designed for the daughters Africa to the classroom.The current dean of and sons of diplomats who were travelling with African film directors, Ousmane Sembene, is also, their parents but needed a course of study which a novelist who has turned some of his workse.g. met European curriculum standards worldwide. Le Mandat and God' s Bits of Woodinto first-rate IB now includes numerous schools in the U.S. The film. More recently, Camp deThiaroye utilizes, as IB history program focuses upon the twentieth did God' s Bits of Wood, an actual historical event century. in West Africa as the basis of his film. Yeelen, Hoffman uses both a topical and chronological directed by Souleymane Cisse, explores Africa in approach to each topic, all of which require stu- what appears to be a timeless story of conflict dent research.Each of her students selects or between the idealistic and pure values of the young, accepts a nation of specialty, one which has expe- and the corrupt and selfish practices of the older rienced colonialism and will become the student's generatiOn which actually controls African social area of concentrated study.Using a seminar and political institutions.In the same manner, method, the students then bring their research to Wend Kuuni,Tilai, and Saaba examine the social bear upon the four areas of study listed above. role of women and their efforts to liberate them- Hoffman's history IB students also work with selves from male domination. La Vie est Belle other departments, sometimes reading African (Zaire), Mapantsula (South Africa), and ZanBoko novels, for example, to provide more personal (Burkina Faso) are clear examples of how African flavor to the topics under study. Because Hoffman film directors want to expose contemporary injus- developed a personal interest in African history, tice and change the political and social system to and was a Fulbright-Hayes recipient for travel/ produce greater equity. Unlike earlier films, many study in Nigeria, her students examine the Nige- of the current ones are being produced in an rian civil war as a case study of its type, and study indigenous African language and sub-titles added Algeria as an example of violent decolonization. in French or English. All of those described above Hoffman calls upon the Political Handbook ofare available in VHS videocassette format. the World, Basil Davidson's Modern Africa, En- Documentary and serial films also represent a cyclopedia of the Third World, Problems of Af- new teaching resource for educators. Ali Mazrui's rica, (part of Greenhaven's "Opposing View- nine-part series, The Africans: ATriple Heritage, points" series), and Leon Clark's edited work is a controversial commentary by a scholar who Through African Eyes, referred to above, for as sis- has written over 20 books about African history

5 14 and politics. While Mazrui's series is thematic, Yale University (Council on African Basil Davidson's Africa: A Voyage of Discovery Studies; 85 Trumbull Street; Box is an eight-part series which chronologically ex- 13A; New Haven, CT 06520) amines African history. The price of each series, For information on other centers and programs in which are available as VHS videocassettes, has African studies, contact: Tom Hale, chairperson; now been reduced to less than $300. Bill Moyers Association of African Studies Programs (814- has also produced A World of Ideas series which 865-8481). includes 30-minute interviews with African intel- Patricia Kuntz, outreach director of the Univer- lectuals such as Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, sity of Wisconsin African studies program, has Nadine Gordimer, and others. developed an electronic bulletin board (BBS) which Teaching materials about Africaincluding print is accessible to the public 24-hours per day, seven and audio-visual mediaare reviewed in a new days a week. Using a modem, one can access a publication of the Center for African Studies at the wide range of information about teaching resources University of Florida: Irohin: Bringing Africa to and Africa in general by telephoning: 608-263- the Classroom. Teachers and librarians, or media 2171. The Bitnet address is: AFRST@wiscmacc; specialists, can also receive catalogs from various the Internet address is: [email protected]. film distributors in the United States, such as: The Center for African Studies at the University of First Run Icarus Films (1-800-876- Florida is also accessible by electronic mail using 1710); Bitnet: UFAFRIC@NERVM. Teachers can com- Filmakers Library (124 East 40th St.; municate quickly and inexpensively through Bitnet New York, NY 10016; 212-808- and Internet electronic bulletin boards. Teachers, 4980); scholars, and students located in several conti- Weston Woods; ask for "Children's nents now communicate daily, exchanging infor- Literature in the Audiovisual Me- mation and news about Africa which can be printed, dia;" (1-800-243-5020); shared electronically with other individuals or California Newsreel; ask for "Library of groups, and transferred to floppy disks for storage. African Cinema;" 149 Ninth St., School systems which do not have a Bitnet or Suite 420; San Francisco, CA 94103 Internet address and electronic mail capabilities (415-621-6196); should investigate this new and valuable resource. PBS Video (1-800-344-3337); and Another new resource for teachers is Africa Zenger Video (1-800-421-4246). Access, a library and data base devoted exclu- Teachers and others are also advised to contact the sively to books about Africa for children. The federally funded Title VI African studies centers founder and director of Africa Access is Brenda in the United States. In addition to the University Randolph; the address is: 2204 Quinton Road; of Florida, other Title VI outreach programs in- Silver Spring, Maryland 20910; telephone: 301- clude: 587-5686. Africa Access, with the cooperation of Boston University (617-353-7303) outreach directors in the United States, is prepar- University of California-Los Angeles ing an extensive annotated bibliography of (213-825-3686) children's books on Africa, and it is hoped that University of Illinois-Urbana (217-244- tevhers will have electronic access to the data 5457) base which Ms. Randolph is building. Indiana University (812-855-6825); In addition to print and audio materials on Af- Michigan State University (517-353- rica, it is much easier now to incorporate Compact 1700) Disk and audiocassette music of Africa into lesson Stanford University (415-723-0295) plans and presentations. The weekly program University of Wisconsin (608-263- AFROPOP WORLDWIDE, hosted by Georges 2171) Collinet on National Public Radio, includes Afri- 15 can lyrics and rhythms from Africa, the Carib- Africa are inextricably entwined. bean, Latin America, Europe, and the United States. Africa has also experienced a number of prob- Collinet and producer Sean Barlow have also lems which teachers and students may first inter- produced a first-rate brochure which discusses sect through the media: refugees and civil strife; contemporary African-based music and also in- military dictatorships or one-party rule and the cludes a glossary of musical terms, publications subsequent rise of the human rights movement and and suggested reading, a list of African musicians demands for multi-party democratic government; by country, recommended singles and albums drought and famine; the dumping of toxic wastes; (classic and contemporary), music festivals, record elephant poaching and the rise of environmental- companies and distributors, nightclubs featuring ism; religious and ethnic conflicts; and the recog- African music, and AFROPOP' s worldwide radio nition of Africa's contributions to the humanities stations. A video version of AFROPOP WORLD- and world peace efforts illustrated by awards to WIDE seems a likely future possibility.The Bishop Desmond Tutu, Nadine Gordimer, and AFROPOP brochure can be obtaired by writing: 'Mole Soyinka. The new Secretary General of the AFROPOP WORLDWIDE Listener's Guide; United NationsButros Butros Ghaliis from National Public Radio; 2025 M St. NW; Washing- Egypt, and his appointment comes at a time of ton, D.C. 20036. Send a self-addressed, stamped increasing world-wide interest in strengthening envelopebusiness sizewith 87 cents postage. that organization to deal with political, economic, You can also check local stations which carry environmental, and social issues that are interna- AFROPOP through National Public Radio at (202) tional in scope. 822-2323. Thus, the modern inquirerstudent, teacher, ad- ministrator, parentis wise to ask: How could we African History and Culture: The One-Minute not teach African history and culture?Pick a Response subject. and start with Africa, because as the Ro- The one-minute response to the questions posed man historian Livy (Titus Livius of Padua) re- at the beginning of this essay is easy: you must marked: Ex Africa alquidi novi.(There is always consult the students of Bryant, DeLonge, Lucas, something new out of Africa.) Jorgenson, and Hoffman, as well as the lesson plans, submitted by other teachers, which follow. Even the contributions of these students and teach- ers represent only a small portion of the responses one could elicit by conducting a nation-wide or world-wide search. And that is the point. Pick a major issue relating to the twentieth centuryas Hoffman has doneand you will find African roles and perspectives. Decide to investi- gate the origins and development of humans: Africa is the start and principal character of your search. Try to explain the genius of Greek and Roman intellectual achievements and you will quickly note the reliance upon earlier African scientists and philosophers. Imagine the transformations occasioned by fifteenth and sixteenth century mari- time explorers, and Africa's Guinea coast imme- diately suggests itself. The Age of Metals? Again, the innovations of African miners, smiths, and forgers come to mind. Islam, Christianity, and

7 A PHYSICAL OVERVIEW Afrigsthe name of a Berber community OF AFRICA south of Carthage. Another explanation occasionally offered is that the name ap- Robert Hamilton plied to a productive region of what is now and Tunisia and meant Ears of Corn. The word Kim Lilly Ifrigiyah is apparently the Arabic form of Africa. GOALS If we use Greek or Latin words for one part of Africaan area or areas in present-day North Af- The student will be able to: ricato apply by extension to the whole of the 1. describe the physical size of Africa, and continent, are we then contending that the ancient know the number of countries it con- Africans had no word for the =ire continent tains; because they had not explored it, or that the word 2. list the major climatic zones in Africa; has been lost? Some writers note that the people 3. list the major mountains alid lakes of who lived in ancient Egypt referred to the physical Africa and describe ,:he Rift Valley; and extent of their kingdom as "Kemet," or "Kmet." 4. list Africa's six major river basins. Other writers contend that Egyptian navies sailed throughout the Mediterranean Sea and, perhaps, KEY WORDS passed the Straits of Gibraltar. Others have specu- East African Rift System lated that the Egyptians or even fourteenth-cen- indigenous tury Malians crossed the Atlantic Ocean and sahra reached the Americas.If these voyages ever ecology existed and if the Egyptian or Malian sailors re- sahel corded the African coastline or the people of the wadi Americas, these descriptions have been lost. An pluvials examination of Olmec statuary found in the Middle savannah Americas has convinced some investigators that delta Africans sailed to the New World, but most schol- sudd ars remain unconvinced. bilad es sudan New scholarship now seeks to document the impact of peoples who lived in Africa and trav- LESSON TEXT elledas explorers, scholars, traders, craftsmen, or slavesoutside of Africa to Europe, Asia, and, Introduction to the African Continent perhaps, the New World. Viewing Africaand the Nile Valley in particularTas the source of intellec- The Greeks called the continent "Libyar the tual, spiritual, political, scientific, and technologi- Romans called it "Africa." The name may have cal creativity for the Levant and southern Europe, derived from aprica (Latin: sunny; as in "apri- many scholars are developing a new paradigm, or cot") or aphrike (Greek: not cold).The theory, explaining the relationship between Africa Encyclopaedia Britannica informs us that: and the neighboring continents. The name Africa...was chiefly applied to Simultaneously, Africanists are also keenly in- the northern coast of the continent, which terested in the development of societies within the was, in effect, regarded as a southern ex- continent. This includes documenting and analyz- tension of Europe. The Romans, who for ing the impact of ideas and technologies devel- a time ruled the North African coast, are oped within and brought to Africa; and studying also said to have called the area south of the relationship between Africa's physical fea- their settlements Afriga, or the Land of the turesgeography, topography, vegetation, animal

9 1 7 lifeand development and modification of Afri- By comparison, China represents about 25 percent can societies over time. Regarding the impact of of total world population and the United States 5 its physical features upon culture and society, percent.However, Africa's population of 500 Dudley Stamp has pointed out that Africa is million is divided among 50-plus countries, in "unique" among continents. contrast to both the U.S. and China which are each Africa in all its major features stands alone. a country with one political system that governs In the first place it lies fairly and squarely their respective citizens and residents. athwart the equator and projects almost equally into both the northern and south- African Climate and Vegetation ern hemi-spheres.It is very roughly the Africa has been described as having different same distance...from the equator to its types of climate for large regions of the continent northernmost point [in Algeria]...as from and other climates which are more localized. The the equator to its southernmost point in six large climatic regions include: South Africa. [Because] the continent is 1. mountain regions: for example, parts of much broader in the north than in the Ethiopia and East Africa; south, ...two-thirds of its area is situated in 2. desert: the Sahara and Kalahari deserts; the northern hemisphere and only one- 3.sahel; semi-arid region receiving mole third in the southern. rainfall than the desert Of its 11.7 million square miles, over 9 million 4. savannah: characterizes 50 percent of Af- lie within the tropics, Stamp notes, "so that Africa rica; is essentially the world's problem continent where 5. equatorial: tropical and wet-50 inches of development under wopical conditions is con- rain per year; cerned." Africa's tropical nature is apparent in the 6. Mediterranean: winter rains; mean monthly map on page 11. temperatures of 50Q F. One aspect of the "African genius" has been the adjustment of Africans to the thousands of micro- The Mountains environments which exist within the continent. Africa is the second largest continentnext to Africans adapted to and survived within many Asiaand occupies 11,667,159 square miles different ecosystems, utilizing technical and cul- (30,217,894 square kilometers).It is about 3.5 tural means to take advantage of local food sources, times the size of the continental United States. and gradually incorporating newer technologies Africa measures about 5,000 miles (8,000 kilome- and foods to expand Africa's population. Still, by ters) from north to south and 4,600 miles from east the Late Stone Age, Africa was thinly populated, to west.The average elevation of the entire with a continental population of only three to four continent is 2,200 feet above sea level.The million people. highest point is Tanzania's Mt. Kilimanjaro (19,340 The introduction of new foodstuffs brought from feet). Other mountains of this type include: Mt. Southeast Asia and the development of Iron Age Kenya (17,058 feet) in Kenya; Mt. Meru (14,979 technology, beginning as early as the sixth century feet) in Tanzania; and Mt. Elgon (14,178 feet) in B.C., brought change and population increases. Uganda. The lowest point is Lake Assal in Djibouti Africans concentrated upon the exploration and (512 feet below Sea level). utilization of natural resources within the interior The East African Rift System includes The Great of their continent rather than the construction of Rift Valley (west of Lake Victoria) and the East ships which would enable them to sail around it. African Rift Valley (east of Lake Victoria). The By 1900, Africa's population had grown to 120 valleys form a southern border to the Ethiopian million people; by mid-1970 it had grown to 240 highlands (which have elevations up to 15,000 million; and today itis over 500 million-10 feet).Other dramatic highlands include the percent of the total world population of 5 billion. Ruwenzori Range (referred to as the Mountains of

10 18 11 the Moon) which rise, in the case of Mt. Margherita many centuries. Large settlements, markets, and Peak, to almost 17,000 feet; the Drakensberg Moun- cities developed in both areas. tains in South Africa which rise to 10,000 feet; and The extreme dryness of the desert air in the the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and Algeria which Sahara results in daytime and nighttime tempera- range up to 13,000 feet. tures that can range over some 862F. The summer Geographers have sometimes referred to Africa temperatures are very hot.During the winter, as an overturned saucer, with a high plateau in the daytime temperatures are milder but the nights are central areas of the continent.Africa's rivers cold and frost is not unusual. begin in the highland regions, flow across the top Because of the aridity of the Sahara and Kalahari of the "saucer," and fall off dramatically to the (a desert located in southern Africa) virtually no ocean in a series of cataracts or falls. Generally, plant life exists. Water is located underground in the continent also slopes upward from the western wadi. The Sahara continues to expand and is now half to the eastern side. 1,000 to 1,500 miles wide. Until the twentieth Within the interior of the African continent there cent, introduction of automobiles and trucks, it are relatively few mountain ranges.Thus, the required 70 to 90 days by camel to cross one way. peoples of Africa have not faced the same barriers A significant portion of the journey is through the to travel as have peoples living in Europe, Asia, erg, the sand dunes which are constantly being and the Americas. changed by the wind.

The Deserts The Sahel Sahara derives from the Arabic word sahra Sahel is an Arabic word literally meaning"coast," meaning "desert."The Sahara is the world's usually of an ocean or sea. Figuratively the word largest contiguous desert and represents more than is also used to denote the scrub zone between the 25 percent of the total land area of the African desert and tropical climates. Rainfall-5 to 12 continent. The present Sahara began to appear inches per yearis greater in the sahel than in the about 12-15,000 years ago. During the past one desert, but the rainy season is short. Timbuktu, an million years, the vegetation and climate of Africa historically important trading center because of its and the Northern Hemisphere have been greatly location within the sahel, receives its annual rain- affected by four long rainy, colder periods (pluvi- fall within a 26-day period. Because Timbuktu is als), succeeded by warmer, drier periods (inter- located on the Niger River, its residents and trad- pluvials) of several thousand years. Deserts are ers have access to adequate water for household defined as areas which receive less than 5 inches of and cultivation purposes. Some trees and grasses rain annually. grow along rivers and streams in the sahel. Larger Before the current Sahara became a desert, a areas of sparse annual grasses and shrubs can also savannah existed which supported abundant ani- be found. mal life and human communities.At various times there were rivers, lakes, trees, water ani- The Savannah mals, crocodiles, hippopotami, elephants, pan- The most widespread type of vegetation within thers, lions, monkeys, and giraffes living in the Africa is that of the savannah. Two types of area now occupied by the central Sahara. Paint- savannahwooded and grasslandappear in Af- ings found in the Tassili area of the Sahara depict rica, depending upon rainfall and altitude. The the growing of cereal grains. "woodland" or"wooded savannah" exists between As the savannah vegetatdon disappeared, people 10 to 15 degrees north and 10 to 15 degrees south living there moved away from its center towards of the equator. Wooded savannah receives 40 to the rich fertile land which borders the Niger and 55 inches of rain annually. It includes grass, fire- Nile rivers. These areas in West and North Africa resistant shrubs 4 to 6 feet tall, and deciduous fire- probably attracted large numbers of people over resistant trees 30 to 50 feet tall. The trees provide

12 20 material for home construction and repair as well bution of the rain forest in Africa, which hicludes as wood for charcoal used in cooking. a large portion of the Zaire (or Congo) Basin as The wooded grasslands (acacia savannah) pro- well as a strip along the West African coast from vide a gradual transition from the wooded savan- Sierra Leone to the mouth of the Zaire River. In nah to the forest, mountains, or coast.Rainfall eastern Ghana, Togo, and Benin, the forest is declines to 20 to 30 inches per year. The grass- interrupted by savannah. lands include prairies of 2-4 foot tall grass( 7, Rain forests develop in tropical climates wher- similar to those found within the western grass- ever rainfall is above 50 inches per year and at least lands of the United States. It also contains acacia two inches of rain fall each month.Africa's and deciduous trees ( some up to 30 feet high) and tropical rainforests exhibit luxuriant growthex- shrubs. Baobab and acacia trees are a part of the cept in swampy regionsand a wide variety of northern savannah zone, while in the south the silk floral species. The trees may include mahoganies cotton tree, oil palm, palmyra palm, nere, and and other hardwoods. Usually ferns and shrubs Indian butter tree can be found. The savannah grow from six to 10 feet high; trees and palms predominates from Senegal to Ethiopia and within grow from 20 to 60 feet high; and the canopy of the the high plateaus of East and Southern Africa. tallest trees may consist of a crown of limbs, Antelope and wild pig live on the West African orchids, ferns, and mosses which are 150 feet from savannah while giraffe, zebra, lion, cheetah, hy- the ground. ena, jackals, and a great variety of birds, snakes, and insects live on the East-Southern savannah. The Mediterranean Climate Hunters and herdsmen typically burn the savan- Parts of North and South Africa include a Medi- nah to provide ash to fertilize the soil and because terranean climate characterized by hot and dry it requires substantially less labor than plowing the summers and mild and wet winters.Frost and grasses into the soil. These burnings eliminate all snow may be found in the higher inland elevations. trees which are not fire resistant, including those Rainfall may be as high as 25 inches per year in the which could constitute a dry savannah forest. In most agriculturally productive regions in the Burning Grass, the Nigerian writer Cyprian Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia).In Ekwensi describes the savannah environment of Southern Africa, the Mediterranean climate exists the Fulani pasioralists (cattle keepers): along a narrow coastal belt. Rainfall declines to 15 When they begin to burn the grass in North- inches per year inland, and winters at the Cape in ern Nigeria, it is time for the herdsmen to South Africa include cold, wet winds with freez- be moving the cattle southwards to the ing temperatures in the nearby mountains. banks of the great river [probably the Niger]. And the hunters, lurking on the Other Vegetation edge of the flames with dane gun, bow and A. The sudd (Arabic: swamp) is a swampy region arrow, sniff the fumes and train their eyes with floating vegetation such as papyrus and to catch the faintest flicker of beasts has- the Nile cabbage. tening from their hiding places. It is time B.The edaphic valley grasslands include tall too for the harmattan [wind from the desert] grasses growing in large river valleys which to blow dust into eyes and teeth, to wrinkle result from a particular type o' soil rather than the skin: the harmattan that leaves in its being the result of a particular type of climate. wake from Libya to Lagos a shroud of fog Unlike the sudd, the products are edible by that veils the walls and trees like muslin on wild and domestic animals. a sheikh. C. Macchia (foliage hardened to retain water) is found in the Mediterranean climate of North The Equatorial Climate Africa and at the Cape in South Africa.It The equatorial climate corresponds to the distri- includes hardwood trees and shrubs such as

13 21 evergreen oaks) which merge with pine and following a period of great erosion. cedar and may include heaths. The Nile is 4,132 miles long, the longest river in D. Afro-alpine vegetation is found in Ethiopia and the world. It flows from Lake Victoria to Lake East Africa above 10,000 feet where nightly Albert as the "Victoria Nile," from Lake Albert as frosts occur. The grasses and other plants may the "Albert Nile," and farther north it is called the be specific to a particular mountain and the Bahr el-Jebel. After receiving the waters of sev- vegetation dies above 15,000 feet on the East eral tributaries, it is called the White Nile. At African mountains and above 13,500 feet in Khartoum, capital of the Sudan, it is joined by the Ethiopia. Blue Nilewhich originates at Lake Tana (altitude E. Warm-temperate upland is found in the hi ghveld 6,000 feet) in Ethiopiaand becomes the Nile. Six of South Africa. This is similar to but cooler separate cataracts, or waterfalls, punctuate the than the savannah. flow of the river. It is now controlled by a series of dams, the largest being the Aswan High Dam, African River Basins located at the site of the Sixth Cataract. All important African rivers are interrupted by rapids, cataracts, and waterfalls resulting from Niger Basin land movements and causing ridges to appear The Niger basin is the largest in West Africa. across the river beds.Also, there are bands of The Niger River begins in the highlands of Guinea. rocks which have resisted erosive wear which It follows a course of 2,600 miles across the West might otherwise have worn down the land to create African savannah, through the sahel, past the trad- smoother river beds. ing cities of Jenne, Gao, and Timbuktu in Mali, Africa's river deltas are large but are poorly and enters the Atlantic in a broad delta in Nigeria. developed because the coastal plain is restricted Its largest tributary is the Benue River in Nigeria. and the continental shelf is relatively narrow and does not provide sufficient room nor shallow Zaire (Congo) Basin enough water for the deposition of delta-forming The Congo basin is a vast depression 1.3 million material. African rivers also flow into the sea with square miles in extent. The Zaire, or Congo, River relatively great speed, hindering delta formation. is 2,900 miles long and its tributaries include the Ubangi, Kasai, and Lualaba.At one point it Nile Basin broadens to form Stanley Pool, (or Malebo Pool as Two theories attempt to explain the two original it appears on the maps of Zaire), which is 22 miles parts of the Nile.Note that because the Nile long and 14 miles wide. basically flows from the south to the north, Upper Nile refers to that portion located south of the Zambezi Basin Lower Nile. The Zambezi River is about 2,200 miles long Theory 1. The Lower Nile began at 20 degrees and occupies a basin of 514,000 square miles. The latitude and flowed directly into the sea. river contains numerous waterfalls, the most spec- The Upper Nile, beginning atLake Victoria, tacular of which is Victoria Falls at the border flowed to an inland lake that covered the between Zambia and Zimbabwe. The river then sudd in the Sudan (Arabic: bilad es-sudan, descends through a series of gorges to 16-mile- land of the blacks). The lake filled and long Kariba Gorge, site of a new hydropower then flowed at the north end into the Lower project designed to produce electricity for much of Nile. southern Africa. The two main tributaries of the Theory 2. The Upper Nile originally flowed Zambezi are the Kafue and the Luangwa. The into a vast lake in Egypt between Jabal es- river enters the Indian Ocean via a 37-mile-wide Silsilah (near Luxor) and what is now delta. Aswan. The Lower Nile tapped this source 14 22 Orange Basin Africa is mainly covered by equatorial The longest river in South Africa, the Orange, forest and arctic tundra. flows from the eastern highlands westward through The highest mountain in Africa is Mt. the Kalahari to empty into the Atlantic Ocean in Kilimanjaro (19,340 feet). the south. Its major tributary is the Va41. The total The Sahara is the world's largest contigu- length of the Vaal and the Orange is 1,300 miles. ous desert. Africa measures approximately 2 Cbad Basin million square miles. The Chad basin is the largest inland drainage The Great Rift Valley is located in East area in Africa. Lake Chad is 5,000 square miles; Africa. its major tributaries are the Komadugu Yobe, Logone, and Chari rivers. The lake is actually ESSAY diminishing in size because its tributaries are be- 1. Explain the following statement by Dudley ing increasingly drained, due to erosion and natu- Stamp: "...Africa is essentially the world's ral causes, away from Lake Chad. problem continem where development is concerned." DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.What are the major physical features of the LITERATURE African continent and how have they effected and/ Bohannan, Paul and Philip Curtin. Africa and or affected the development of human societies? Africans.Prospect Heights: Waveland 2. Explain, in your opinion, why Africans were Press, Inc., Third Edition, 1988. generally more inclined to explore the inland fron- Brooks, Hugh. Africa: The Land and the tier rather than embark upon long sea voyages? People. Smith Publishing, 1989. Why did zhey become expert frontiersmen rather Brouillette, B., Norman J. Graves, and Geoffrey than sea-faring navigators? How are these two Last. African Geography for Schools: A modes of discovery similar? Handbook for Teachers. London: A Unesco Source Book, published by MATCHING Longman Group Limited, 1974. sahra Clark, J. Desmond. The Prehistoiy of Africa. bilad es sudan New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970. sahel De Blij, Harm and Esmond B. Martin. African aprica, aphrike Perspectives. London: Routledge Cyprian Ekwensi Chapman & Hall, 1981. Nile Ekwensi, Cyprian. Burning Grass. London: Heinemann, 1962. A. Burning Grass Mazrui, Ali. The Africans: A Triple Heritage. B. "desert" Boston: Little, Brown, 1986. C. Africa Pritchard, J.M. Africa: The Geography of a D. longest river in Africa Changing Continent. New York: Africana E. "land of the blacks" Publishing Corporation, 1971. F. "coast," fringe of the desert Stamp, Sir L. Dudley and W.T.W. Morgan. Africa: A Study in Tropical Development. TRUE OR FALSE New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Africa is 3.5 times the size of the United Third Edition, 1972. States. Africa': population is 500 million peopIe and animals. 23 15 A CULTURAL OVERVIEW OF AFRICA power greater than that of the apes but less than that of modern humans); early homi- Robert Hamilton nids include Ramapithecus (10-15 million and years B.P.), Australopithecus Africanus (4 Kim Lilly million years B.P.), Homo habilis (2 mil- GOALS lion years B.P.), Homo erectus (1 million years B.P.); The student will be able to: Homo sapiens ("thinking man" such as the 1. list the five major language families of Neanderthaloids and Rhodesioids; 200,000- Africa plus three others used in educa- 40,000 years B.P.); and tion, commerce, and government; Homo sapiens sapiens (modern humans). 2. explain the Candelabra and Noah's Ark All hominids except Homo sapiens sapiens (what models of human development; and Brian Fagan calls"anatornically modern humans") 3. explain at least two definitions each of are now extinct. "Africa" and "African." Some biologists and anthropologists believe that modern humans date to about 100,000 to 200,000 Key Words years ago. The so-called "Garden of Eden" hy- Homo sapiens sapiens pothesis states that all members of the human Homo erectus species can trace their ancestry to a woman who lineage lived in present-day East Africareferred to as B.P. (Before the Present) "Eve." She passed her DNA and mitochondrial indigenous genes to her daughters and their offspring who phenotype spread throughout Africa and eventually the world. Iron Age Eve's progeny, according to this hypothesis, even- band society tually replacedthrough warfare or intermarriage ethnicity other peoples who preceded them. In The Journey From Eden, Fagan asks whether there actually African Cultural Geography was an Eve, The present physical geography of Africa is the a woman of flesh and blood rather than just product of changes occurring since the beginning a genetic ancestor? In the sense that there of geological time. The present cultural configu- was once a single person one could point to ration of Africa is the product of a human history as the identifiable, single ancestor of Homo which we will begin about 3,000 B.0 (or 5,000 sapiens, the answer is no. Folklore and B.P.Before the Present) with the development of legend can point to single individuals who Egypt. The story of Homo sapiens sapiens in were the first, the originators of lift,. Jr, as Africa, however, is much older than that. in the case of Adam and Eve, the first sinners. The Eve of the [Biblical] Scrip- EYDAllign-SA-tht-thEn-an-apr&-Oi tures is one such person, said to have been From one perspective, all humans are Africans. the only woman alive in her time. She is a The earliest evidence of human ancestors and legendary, primeval female, a symbol of modern humans has been found in Africa: the beginnings of human existence. Scien- humanoids (human-like; members of the tific reality is very different, for genes are Horainoidea Super-family which includes, the products not of a single individual but among others, humans and the great apes, of interacting populations of males and the Pongids; females. There may, indeed, once have hominids (members of the Hominidae Family; been a single Eve, but we can never hope pre-humans; bi-pedal primates with brain to identify her in person. Her identify is 24 17 submerged in those of thousands of other an exact copy of the mitochondria inherited from archaic humans, who were living south of a motherexcept in instances where a genetic the Sahara around 200,000 years ago. The mutation occurs.Biologists believe that they geneticists' Eve is, perforce, an anony- know the rate at which mitochondrial gene muta- mous individual, whose identity survives tions occur and can thus trace these changes in only as an elusive genetic signature. Eve various human populations backwards to a point may have been a representative of ana- of origin. tomically archaic Homo sapiens herself. Dr. Linda Vigilant of the University of Califor- All she contributed was her mitochondrial nia at Berkeley, gathered hair roots from 199 DNA to people who, perhaps many gen- people from Europe, Asia, New Guinea, and seven erations later, evolved intoHomo sapiens ethnic groups in Africa. After analyzing the genes sapiens. of these hair roots, she concluded that all modern Most scientists agree that small-brained homi- people descended from a common ancestorEve nids, known asHomo erectus,arose in Africa 1.5 who lived in Africa 207,000 years ago. Dux ing the to 2 million years ago. These hominids spread course of the following 100,000 years, Homo throughout Africa, Europe, and Southeast Asia sapiens sapiensevolved and spread throughout and lived there for hundreds of thousands of years. the world. The Neanderthals were still extant as Some scientists believe that Eve and her off- late as 30-40,000 years ago, according to J. springtrueHomosapiensreplacedHomo erectus Desmond Clark, and were users of Early and populations. The "Noah's Ark" theory supports Middle Stone Age tool kits that included handaxes the view that Homo sapiens developed in eastern and cutting tools.Over a period of 10-20,000 and southern Africa and migrated from there to years, the interbreeding and hybridization process other continents. Much later, an advanced form of totally replaced or eliminated the Neanderthal and Homo sapiens sapiens developed in Africa and Rhodesioid forms of Homo sapiens by 20,000 eventually replaced the earlier form. B.C. Other scientists strongly disagree with the "Gar- Homo erectuslived in the grasslands and open den of Eden" model of human development. They savannah but Homo sapiens lived in the forest as support the "Candelabra" model, which argues well as in the desert and semi-arid steppe lands of that Homo erectus migrated from Africa to other the Horn and northeast Africa. Specialized tool continents and developed into Homo sapiens in kits appeared throughout Africa and Europe which each of them. Therefore, humans living on the showed adaptation to specific climates and eco- different continents are not only members of the logical niches. Assuming that a "generation" of same species but also differ only superficially in humans is equal to 20 years, the modern form of their physical or morphological features:skin the human species, which appeared about 100,000 tone, hair, facial structure, height, and width. years ago, is now about 5,000 generations old. The "Garden of Eden" theorists pose a more Following either the hypothesis of an evolved revolutionary answer to the questions relating to Homo erectusor that of Eve, we know thatHomo the development of modern humans. They rely sapienswere hunter-gatherers who ate meat, roots, upon evidence from molecular biology to support nuts, and fruit, produced cultures, and adapted to their position. Molecular biology has deciphered a range of climates and altitudes. The migrants genetic information inside mitochondria, the struc- moved throughout the African interior and to the tures within cells which produce energy. Mito- other continents and, over time, acquired the sizes, chondria have their own genes, different from the shapes, and skin tonesowing to the amount of chromosomes, which are blueprints for a human melanin within the epidermiswhich we today being contributed by a mother and father. Mito- associate with "race" and "ethnicity." Because chondrial genes, such as those for hair, are passed our skin can be damaged by receiving too many along only by mothers. Each generation receives ultra violet rays, melanin acts as a sun screen to

18 25 regulate dosage. Humans who survived the in- bership in a family, band, lineage (descendents of tense sunlight of tropical Africa were those who a common ancestor), and, in some instances, to a developed darker skins. Lighter skinned individu- kingdom or state. Herodotus referred 3,000 years als, more prone to develop skin car.cers when ago to the "Ethiopians," people who lived on the exposed to intense sunlight for long periods of continent of Africa who had dark faces or who time, did not survive to perpetuate their line or were "burnt-face men." family. Other adaptations in Africa, according to "Africa" as a modern geographical concept is Jean Hiernaux, were tall, thin statures in the re- the result of European maritime nations borrow- gions of great heat to allow maximum cooling of ing an older term used to describe peoples or the body, and shorter, wider bodies within forest settlements in North Africa (see page 9). V.Y. regions. Mudimbe, a Cameroonian scholar, has argued in Regardless, it is clear that humans have probably The Invention of Africa (1988) that "Africa" is lived on the African continent longer than they philosophically the product of a discourse. An have lived on any other continent. While humans "African" is the result of a debate about identity, are newcomers to the African continent relative to not just someone who currently lives in Africa. its main topographical features, people have lived Looking at the map of African ethnic groups at there long enough to have successfully adapted to the end of the lesson plan, we realize that Africans its climate, ecology, and vegetation by utilizing its today face the question of whether they are, first, natural or indigenous resources as well as new members of their:family; lineage; profession; foods, cultures, and technolnies brought from traditional community; state or kingdom; modern other continents. state (e.g., Ghana, Zambia, Egypt); or of the con- To understand Africa today, one must be aware tinent. They are, in that sense, similar to Ameri- that the history of its cultures is the product of cans, Europeans, and Asians who have multiple significant internal population growth and socio- loyalties and obligationseven if it is only paying cultural adaptation to many different ecological taxes to the government. While some analysts find environments. In general, Africa's peoples sur- it useful to describe the "Asian economies," few vived because they adapted as hunters and gather- contend that people living within that continent ers to the natural environment. In the African Iron share an "Asianness" heritage or that there is an Age, beginning over 2,000 years ago, populations "Asian personality."While, on the one hand, expanded because they developed new technolo- many black African, Asian African, and Euro gies and systems of social and political organiza- African residents of the African continent would tion which enabled them to conquer a large fron- question the basis for an "African personality," tier which is still not completely inhabited. Only some Africans, Afro-Caribbeans, and African 3-4 million people lived within Africa by 10- Americans have defined "Africanness" in such a 12,000 B.C. By 1900 A.D., Africa's population way that it would link the cultures and experiences had grown to 120 million people, an average rate of "black Africans" geographically and over time of increase of 8,000 to 10,000 people per annum. by identifying shared values, socio-poiitical insti- tutions, music, material culture, and historical Africa and Africans experiences. Here we must pause to consider certain distinc- Looking at the cultural and ethnic map of Africa tions which writers make when they talk about over timethrough historyit is easy to recognize "Africa and Africans." We do not know how that its many cultures reflect: (1) internal popula- people 12,000 years ago referred to themselves. tion growth; and (2) migrations to the continent. Certainly we can not prove that they called them- Its religious and philosophical systems reflect: (1) selves "Africans." Those who have lived on the indigenous belief systems; and (2) introduced be- continent have adopted and developed socio-cul- lief systems such as Islam, Christianity, and some tural terms of reference which relate to their mem- Asian philosophies.Africa's political systems

19 26 reflect: (1) traditional kin, lineage, and state struc- Indian Ocean). The major ethnolinguistic groups tures; and (2) colonial and post-colonial nation- within Africa are included in the map located on state, Pan-African, and international structures page 21. and relationships.Along these same lines, the Kenyan scholar Ali Mazrui contends that modern Language Groups Africa is the result of a "triple heritage" that 1. Hamito-Semitic (Afro-Asiatic) Family includes traditional African institutions, Islam, Countries north of the Sahara are populated and Western (European) Christianity, science, tech- primarily by Afro-Asiatic speakers, those the lin- nology, and government. guist Joseph H. Greenberg has designated the To approach the African continent searching for "Hamito-Semitic Family." This Family includes: "the real Africa" or "the real African" is to invite A. Berbers of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. frustration and confusion. The student searching Many Berbers are light-skinned, with dark for "the real America" or "the real American" hair, thin noses, and non-everted lips. might experience the same feelings of frustration Some Berbers have married into Arab and confusion, even though the search itself could families who have arrived in North Africa be equally intellectually and personally reward- in waves beginning in the seventh century ing. The following brief cultural overview, how- following the death of the Muslim prophet ever, may help to identify a starting point for more Muhammad (570-632 A.D.). The Tuareg specific research. of the desert are Berber people. Farther south, the pastoral Fulani represent the Current Location of African Peoples mixture of Berber and black African Africa is a continent and not a country. Today peoples. Africa has 51 continental countries and 58 coun- B. On the East African coast, Arab traders tries if we include off-shore island governments. living in small city states married Bantu- Its average population per country is about 10 speaking women, resulting in Swahili cul- million people, although Nigeria alone has 90 ture. million people, or about 25 percent of the total C.Ethiopia and Somalia contain Cushitic African population. These 51 continental coun- branches of the Hamitic-speaking peoples. tries feature 800 to 1,000 major ethnic groups with Hamites are defined as northern African identifiable languages, history, cuisine, and self- peoples, mainly Muslim, "highly variable definition. in appearance but mainly Caucasoid." Interestingly, about 300 Native American ethnic Semites (Hebrew: shem) are peoples of groups have been identified as living in the United southwest Asia, chiefly represented by States, a country about 30 percent the size of the Jews, , and in ancient times by African continent.The scholar G.P. Murdock Babylonians, Assyrians, Aramaeans, divides the African continent into 55 different Caananites, and Phoenicians. Sabaeans clusters and 11 main groupings, based upon some from the southern Arabian peninsula mi- combination of language, ethnicity, and liveli- grated across the Red Sea into the Horn of hood. Customarily, scholars and writers have also Africa as early as the seventh or eightth used conventional divisions to refer to portions, century B.C.; Semitic-spealdng royals gov- sections, orregions of the continent: North Africa; erned the Aksumite kingdom in Ethiopia West Africa; West-Central Africa; the Horn of by the fourth century A.D. Africa; East Africa; Central Africa; and Southern D. Ancient Egyptian and Chadic languages Africa. Phenotypic groups (those displaying simi- are also included in the Hamito-Semitic lar physical features) include:Bushmanoid; (Afro-Asiatic) Family. Pygmoid; Negroid; Caucasoid; and Mongoloid 2. Igger-Kordofanian Family (people living on the island of Madagascar in the Most black Africans speak one or more of either 20 27 Ethnolinguistic Groups

Kabyles 00 Arab

Arab

es 490/4 Tuareg %Po 7.44, Berber )0,4 Arab Baja Fulani rukwe 0099" me Ted° &WOW! Serer SonInk Zog 4, ler". <9 Oa, Wolof e Tama aive go Be tante *ell,BernbaleaoboGt'.40,1 Fulani Maba For 699 /414 ,,,,Ott f O. IN. Z oo Fons ..aguIrmi. Ate 0,, So , lKabre..Doci a PI Berta Issa \Kiss NUP9 Nuer Amhara Oa° Akan Yoruba Dv, Album Bays-mans:Ma Q golates.con Banda a , Murk,*e \ Baoule Ibb Bamlleke Ben Ibibio AfekaWlite itiChamba mAzendo tpati oru: resoGana all Nge",e_ntangt.ti,eSutko0S°r" Benges woo. 6 sake.* ,40 * Bakomo4o °qp.se 04 KlkuyuAlec 9nflive 41) 0. Mango ruHtsuitf:rundl..ttif/Kamia-wiz' Bakongo Kuba N yam Chagga., Albundu HO:" 45,o, 3 CI191tWe vilIS flgonI OvImbundu t 4,70'. CO. ltr. c.) 0 0 The diversity of ethnic groupings a qt. 0 which bear names sometimes, but by inkritcye to 1r w.:- no means always, similar to the v`,. Tong. languages they speak,isillustrated Herero Ovambo 000 on the map above.This includes a to Be aMerino portion of the names of well-known tS wane,

ethnic-linguistic groups. Their 74,. i4Bstsifkoo inclusion does not necessarily KhoI Kholven,_Tonge reflecttheirrelativeimportance, ors'eo San A/9041 nor is their location on the map, along with relation to national sirazi borders,politicallydefinitive. 0 Zuyu 81suthe Xhosa

Source: Atrica Today: An Atlas of Reproducible Pages. © 1990 World Eagle, Inc. Revised Edition. Reprinted here with permission. Further reprinting is not permitted. 23 NZ COPY Mai the Niger-Congo subfamily of languages or the probably did not occur until late in the Kordofanian subfamily of the Sudan. Black Afri- African Iron Age. cans are defined as those with:brown, dark Bantu-speakers with iron tools and weap- brown, or black skin; tightly curled black hair; ons and large quantities of domesticated broad noses; and everted lips.This Family in- animals were formidable. They bartered, cludes: replaced, conquered, or intermarried with A. Sudanic peoples such as the Malinke, Hausa, other populationspygmies, San, and Songhai, Bornu, Yoruba, Ibo, Asante, or Khoi hunters and gatherersuntil they Temne.These peoples have, in many controlled the agriculturally fertile and instances, embraced Islam or Christianity. habitable portions of the east-central-south- B. Bantu-speaking peoples live in the areas of ern regions of the continent. central, eastern, and southern Africa south It is important to note that the interaction of the equator. Some but not necessarily between the Late Stone Age peoples and all of the Sudanic peoples and the Bantu- the Bantu-speaking peoples was a dynamic speaking peoples probably share distant one.Bantu-speakers did not suddenly common ancestors, sometimes referred to swarm out of the forest and descend upon as "proto-Bantu." Beginning about 4,000 the Khoi or San with deadly force. Coop- years ago, however, the Bantu living in the eration and mutual assistance is an impor- grasslands region between the Niger and tant part of the story. Likewise, pastoralists the Congo (Zaire) rivers, began to expand. and farmers and pastoralists and hunter- Some followed river courses east along the gatherers experienced both conflict and edge of the rain forest. Others travelled cooperation in their respective efforts to south along the west coast of the continent. survive within various ecological niches. The acquisition of Iron Age technology, 3. The Khoisan (click) Family around 2,500 B.P.possibly from their This Family includes the San and Khoikhoi of northern Cushite neighborsenabled them South Africa and the Hadza and Sandawe of north- to expand into the forest regions. The iron west Tanzania. tools enabled them to clear the luxuriant 4. The Nilo-Saharan Family undergrowth and trees and tree-root sys- This Family includes people living in the savan- tems within the tropical rainforest. They nah area south of the Sahara from the Niger to the could then take advantage of root crop Nile River and some Nilotic pastoralists. These agriculture. include: Songhai, Saharan, Maban, Fur, Chari- Other Bantu-speaking peoples moved Nile, and Koman peoples. into the savannah lands of eastern, central, 5. The Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) Fam- and southern Africa, bringing with them ily herds of cattle, goats, and sheep. This Family includes various dialects of Mala- As farmers abandoned used fields for gasy in Madagascar. more fertile ones within the African fron- 6. Others. tier, pastoralists likewise also searched for In addition, Africa currently includes a number new and better sources of food and water of languages widely spoken in various parts of the for their animals and themselves. continent: English, French, Arabic, Swahili, Cre- The expanded use of iron tools and weap- ole (Krio), and Pidgin. These, along with Hausa ons eventually required Bantu-speaking and Fulfulde in West Africa and Fangalo in south- peoples to expand into new areas as they ern Africa are used as trade languages. European depleted the forests necessary for the wood and American visitors to Africa are frequently to make enormous quantities of charcoal surprised to learn that Africans speak a wide used in their furnaces and forges. But this variety of European and African languages in

22 29 order to conduct business and communicate with generally more inclined to explore the inland one another. While most African languages lacked frontier rather than embark upon long sea indigenous scripts and borrowed the Greco-Ro- voyages? Why did they become expert man or Arabic scripts, the Vai (Sierra Leone), frontiersmen rather than sea-faring naviga- Mum (Cameroon), Tuareg and other Berbers, and tors? How are these two modes of discovery the Abyssinians (Ethiopia) developed their own. similar? Clearly, vhile most of Africa is populated by "black Africans"S udanic, Guinea coast, Nilotic, 3. Describe the two hypotheses relating to the and Bantu-speaking peoplesthe continent has development of the Hominid Family and also received a large number of immigrants: specifically the development of Homo A. Arabs in North Africa; sapiens sapiens and its relationship to Homo B. Arabs on the East African coast; erectus. C. Cushitic branch of Hamitic speakers in Ethiopia and Somalia, and Semitic-speak- 4. Discuss the expansion of Bantu-speaking ing Sabaeans in Ethiopia; pastoralists and farmers and the importance D. Dutch in South Africa in the mid-seven- of the African Age of Metals or Iron Age. teenth century; E. Indians in East and South Africa in the MATCHING nineteenth century; Select the best answer for each matching pair. F. English in Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Af- A. East African Rift rica, West Africa, and East Africa in the B. Eve 19th century; C. Africa G. Portuguese in Angola, Mozambique, and D. hominid Guinea-Bissau in the nineteenth century; E. Burning Grass H. Germans in Namibia (formerly South West F. The Invention of Africa Africa), Tanganyika (now Tanzania), and G. true desert Togo in the 19th century; I. Italians in Libya and northern Ethiopia in the "aprica"; "aphrike"; Afrigs twentieth century; and, the erg J. French in North, West, and Central Africa in "Mitochondrial Mother" the nineteenth century. V. Y. Mudimbe The list above does not include otherssuch as lengthy depression the Swiss, Swedish, Russians, Cubans, Japanese, Cyprian Ekwensi Danes, Chinese, and Greekswho have migrated Australopithecus Africanus to the African continent to live, conduct business, participate in military training or warfare, estab- ESSAY lish religious missions, conduct research, or diplo- 1. Explain the following statement by Dudley matically represent their respective governments. Stamp: "...Africa is essentially the world's Again, the notion that Africa has been an isolated problem continent where development is continent is historically incorrect. concerned."

LITERATURE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS Bohannan, Paul and Philip Curtin. Africa and 1. How can so many different people be de- Africans. Prospect Heights: Waveland scribed as "African?" Press, Inc., Third Edition. 1988. Brooks, Hugh. Africa: The Land and the 2. Explain, in your opinion, why Africans were People. Smith Publishing, 1989.

30 Clark, J. Desmond. The Prehistory of Africa. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1970. Fagan, Brian. The Journey From Eden: The Peopling of Our World. London; Thames and Hudson, 1990. Gibbs, James L. (Ed.). Peoples of Africa: Cultures of Africa South of the Sahara. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, Inc., 1988. Hiernaux, Jean. The People of Africa. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1974. Mazrui, Ali. The Africans: A Triple Heritage. Boston: Little, Brown, 1986.

24 31 The Introduction of Christianity in Egypt EARLY CHRISTIANITY IN It is believed that Christianity was first brought EGYPT AND ETHIOPIA to Egypt by Saint Mark or his missionaries, who arrived around 100 A.D. Missionary activities Dona J. Stewart were directed at the Greek population in Alexan- dria, and Greek was used as the language of the GOALS Church at that time in Egypt. Many of the first converts to Christianity were members of the large The student will be able to: Jewish minority. Within half a century, Christian- 1. describe the earliest penetration and devel- ity rapidly spread from Alexandria, the location of opment of Christianity in Africa; St. Mark's ministry, throughout Egypt, gaining 2. recognize the affect of Christianity on the many converts outside the Jewish population. political and spiritual life of Egypt and During this period the Roman Empire interfered Axum. very little with religious life in Egypt but was concerned primarily with collecting taxes and KEY WORDS overseeing the production of grain for the Empire. deity EgyptiansChristians or otherwisedisliked Ro- monophysite man domination and the economic hardships it dogma brought to the lower classes.Such economic monasteries hardship among the lower classes may have en- hieroglyphics couraged their conversion to Christianity because Prester John it offered the hope of a better life. The Christians, Catechetical of course, viewed the Romans as pagans. liturgy martyrdom The Persecution of Christians Trinity During the period 249-251 A.D. under Emperor Coptic Decius, the Romans became more involved with the daily life of Egypt. Fearing that the growing LESSON TEXT Christianity movement might threaten stability, Decius instituted measures to control the growth Coptic Egypt of Christianity. Egyptians were ordered to prac- tice traditional rituals; those who refused to par- Pre-Christian EQypt ticipate were declared Christians and subsequently Before the coming of Christianity to Egypt, most tortured.Many of the new Christian converts of the population held the religious beliefs of the chose death rather than forsake their faith. The Pharaonic period (3200-323 B.C.), or those of the martyrdom of these Christians inspired many oth- Ptolemaic period (323-30 B.C.), when Egypt was ers to convert to the new religion. Under the controlled by Greek rulers. These beliefs included reign of Emperor Diocletian (elected 284 A.D.), ideas similar to Christian ones: the idea of God, a who determined that Christians should be elimi- cosmic order (God's creation of earth and life), nated, the persecution of Christians increased. humility before God, and the concept of asking Thousands of Christians were killed during Rome's God's forgiveness for sinful thoughts and deeds. last attempt to eliminate the Christian community The similarity of these early beliefs with those of in Egypt.In remembrance of this period, the Christianity facilitated the spread of Christianity Coptic calendar, known as the Calendar of Mar- in Egypt. Because Jews had been present in Egypt tyrs, begins on August 29, 284 A.D. The Copts for nearly a century, Egyptians were also familiar were descendents of the ancient Egyptians, most with the scriptural roots of Christianity. of whom became members of the Monophysite

25 32 Church described later. Coptic is an Afro-Asiatic language derived from ancient Egyptian. It is the Coptic Conmibutions to Chnistianity language used by the clergy during religious ser- Many ancient temples were converted to monas- vices within the Monophysite Church. teries and Egyptian Copts became famous for Not all Christians were killed by the Romans; perfecting monastic life.All Christian monasti- many hid their religious beliefs and still others cism has its origins in Egypt. For example, the escaped to the desert or to the extensive catacombs famous monasteries of Saint Basil and Saint along the Nile River.Diocletian's scourge is Benedict followed Egyptian examples. These viewed as the last attempt by Rome to eliminate a monasteries became quite famous and attracted movement which became a permanent feature of many pilgrims. A great number of churches were Egypt. also built. The Coptic Church made significant In 312 A.D. the Roman Emperor Constantine, contributions to the development of Christianity. who reportedly experienced a revelation, con- The Catechetical School of Alexandria, founded verted to Christianity and issued the Edict of Milan in 200 A.D., became the worldwide center of which established religious tolerance in the Ro- Christian scholarship. The biographies of Saint man Empire. The future of Christianity was en- Antony and Saint Paul drew popular attention to sured when Emperor Theodosius, who ruled from them, the School, and aristianity. 375 to 395 A.D., declared Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. After the Roman The Coptic Church Outside Ezypt Empire adopted Christianity and set about assimi- The Coptic Church extended its influence be- lating Christians into the empire, the spheres of yond the borders of Egypt through missionary religious and state life became linked in Egypt as work.Strong Christian communities appeared well as in Rome.In essence, the church was south of Egypt. It is believed that Syrians, who considered a part of the Empire and the political were knowledgeable of the Coptic church, carried leader of the Empire became the spiritual leader of the religion into the kingdoms of Axum and Nubia, the church as well. The Roman emperors increas- which today are Ethiopia and Sudan. A limited ingly contributed to the development of church number of converts were made in Asia. Coptic dogma. missionaries could even be found as far north as It was not until the third century A.D. that the the British Isles. Coptic church developed as a separate entity from the Greek Church in Egypt. At this time, the entire The Division of Christianity New Testament was translated into Coptic, a lan- During the period 200-400 A.D., the Roman, guage which is an adaptation of Egyptian hiero- Coptic, and Greek Orthodox Churches disagreed glyphics into the Greek alphabet. It is from this about the nature of Christ as well as other matters language that the Christian church in Egypt de- of doctri ne, liturgy, and ritual. (Protestant churches rived its name, the Coptic Church. Its followers were not established until the sixteenth century.) are known as Coptic Christians. Before this trans- The central issue was whether or not Jesus had one lation, only the Psalms and a few other writings nature-divine-or two natures-divine and human. had been available to Copts in Coptic. The trans- The EgyptianCopticChristianswere lators of the New Testament also used a more "monophysites;" that is, they believed that Christ colloquial form of Coptic in the translation, thus had one nature, which was wholly divine and that making it available to a great many more Egyp- of God.Monophysites in Egypt and Ethiopia tians.This translation accelerated the fusion of believed that Christ appeared to look human, but the Greek church with the indigenous Coptic. By in reality he was only one divine nature and was 302-305 A.D., the Bishop of Alexandria con- God. The Greek Orthodox and Roman Churches trolled both the extensive Coptic and Greek maintained that Christ was miraculously both hu- churches. man and divine and, therefore, God and Christ

26 3 3 were distinct beings. million people worldwide. Although a minority, In 325 A.D. the Council of Nicea was convened the Copts run a substantial number of schools, to address this issue. Over 318 bishops and del- hospitals and social service centers in Egypt. The egates from Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, Rome, and Coptic language survives only in ritualistic chants; Greece attended.The Egyptian delegate, church services are now held in Arabic. Athanasius, eloquently argued that Jesus and God The most important holiday to Copts is Easter. were indeed the same. Out of this conference the Copts prepare for Easter by fasting for two weeks Nicene Creed was issued which declared that all before Lent and then by observing the Lenten fast. Christian Churches must adhere to the idea that During that time, Copts do not consume meat, God and Jesus are one.However, serious fac- eggs, fish, wine, or coffee, and no food at all is tional disputes continued to occur on this issue and eaten between sunrise and sunset. Coptic Christ- others. mas is observed on January 7. In 451 A.D., the Council of Chalcedon was The Coptic Church does not allow the worship convened to attempt a reunification of the Chris- of saints, but the Virgin Mary and Saint Michael tian world. During this conference, the Nicene are especially revered. Copts are extremely proud Creed was altered slightly to allow room for future of the biblical significance of their counfty. There additions to this creed. Although the change was are many sights within Egypt where the Holy accepted by the Greek Orthodox Church (Eastern FamilyJesus, Mary, and Josephare believed to Roman Church) and the Roman Church, the Coptic have stayed after fleeing Israel. According to the Church refused to accept the change. The Copts Bible, when King Solomon heard of the birth of then established their own separate religious lead- the Messiah, he ordered all male infants to be ership and rules. Since that time the Coptic Church killed. To save Jesus the Holy Family fled to has been an independent church, with its capital Egypt. located, until 1954, in Alexandria. Islam comes to Egypt In 641 A. D., Egypt was conquered by Muslim Pre-Christian Axum Arabs. By 700 A.D., the Arab rulers began to Axum was the name of the capital of a state in the demand tribute from the Coptic monks. Coptic Semien Mountains of present-day EritTea, just Churches were destroyed and religious artifacts north of Ethiopia. Very little is known of the burned. The Coptic population became subject to spiritual beliefs of the inhabitants of Axum prior to increasingly heavy taxes. The Coptic language the coming of Christianity.Most likely, they was outlawed for everyday use by the Arab rulers. beliftved in a spiritual deity of some sort although Over the next few centuries the majority of the the actual deity probably varied from community population slowly converted to Islam. Intermar- to community. The people of Axum were familiar riage by Muslim conquerors with the Egyptians with the religion of the Sabeans, who came from was the primary means of spreading Islam. It was southern Arabia. The Sabeans worshipped a di- not until the twentieth century that the Coptic vine trinity composed of the moon god, the sun population obtained equal rights with . goddess, and the morning star. Greek gods were After remaining loyal to Muslim rulers for centu- also known and some were adopted into the tradi- ries, many Copts now hold posts of honor in the tional religious beliefs. The king was the political, government and are viewed as loyal civil servants. military, and religious leader of the state. He was considered divine in nature and was the link be- The Coptic Church Today tween God and his people. Today, Copts, also called Orthodox Egyptian Christians, number about 7 million people in Egypt. The Introduction of Christianity The Coptic Church has a membership of about 14 Christianity was introduced to the Axum royal

27 34 court around 300 A.D. by two Syrian Christians of Chalcedon, which declared that Christ had two Frumentius and Aedisius. These two men, who natures. may have been shipwrecked, were welcomed heart- ily at Axum. Soon after their arrival, the King of The Impact of Islam Axurn died, leaving his wife to rule until their son Around 580 A.D., the Ethiopian church entered came of age. The Queen, impressed with the into a gradual period of decline. The coming of Syrians' Greek education, asked them to help her Islam in the seventh century further overshad- rule.In this capacity, Frumentius and Aedisius owed the church. Islam flowed into Ethiopia from influenced the young prince and converted him to the east and north. Eventually Ethiopia became an Christianity. When the prince became king, the island of Christianity surrounded by Islam to the Syrians left Axum. Frumentius travelled directly north and east and paganism to the south. As a to Alexandria and was appointed the first Bishop result, Ethiopia essentially isolated itself from the of Ethiopia. rest of the world and turned inward. Little Ethio- pian history was documented from the seventh to Christianity in Ethiopia the tenth centuries. Archaeological evidence strongly suggests that However, knowledge of Ethiopia's Christian Christianity was the official religion of Axum by kingdom can be found in European folklore be- 350 A.D. There appears to have been no royal tween the twelveth and fourteenth centuries. decree that ordered the population to convert; Legend told of a Christian Emperor, Prester John, nevertheless, Christianity spread rapidly through- whose kingdom was in Africa. After the defeat of out Axum. During the fifth and sixth centuries, the Crusades, many hoped that the Christian Em- Axum's Kings promoted missionary activity and peror could be found to help triumph over Islam. popular support of Christianity. Nine monks trained The Portuguese sent expeditions to Ethiopia in in Egypt dispersed throughout the countryside and search of Prester John, thus ending the isolation of converted thousands of pagans to Christianity. Ethiopia. They set up monasteries which became centers of Around 1540 A.D., Ethiopia was invaded by the learning where scripture was translated from Greek Muslim warrior Ahmad ibn Ghazi (1506-1543), or Coptic into Ge'ez (or Ethiopic), the Semitic known as Ahmad Gran (the left-handed). During language of ancient Ethiopia. Eventually the king the invasion many of Ethiopia's intellectuals were granted the Church title to the land where the killed and much of its literary and artistic treasures monasteries were located, thus contributing to the were lost.This period is marked by instability permanence of the new religion. within the church. Soon after the Muslim inva- sion, Portuguese missionaries brought Catholi- Doctrine of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church cism to Ethiopia. The Portuguese succeeded in It is in the examination of the doctrine of the converting many people, including Emperor Ethiopian church that the influence of the Egyp- Susenyos, but the masses remained loyal to the tian Coptic Church is most apparent. It must be Ethiopian Church.Finally, under the rule of remembered that Frumentius, the first Bishop of Emperor Fasilidas (1632-1667), the Ethiopian Ethiopia, was appointed to his post by the church Church again became the religion of the state. in Alexandria. In fact, until 1954 the leader of the From this period until the present day, the Ethio- Church in Ethiopia was always an Egyptian Coptic, pian Church has remained a stable and national who frequently did not speak an Ethiopian lan- institution in Ethiopia, although it came under guage. considerable pressure after 1974 with the replace- Like the Coptic church, the Ethiopian church is ment of the monarchy by a military socialist gov- monophysite. These churches do not accept that ernment headed by Lt.-Col. Mengistu Haile Christ can have two naturesone human and one Marriam, who fled Ethiopia in May 1991. divineand have refused to adhere to the Council 28 35 The Ethiopian Church Today 3. The Nicene Creed established that Today nearly 40 percent of Ethiopia's popula- Christ had one nature. tion of over 50 million people belong to the 4. The Church did not have the support of Ethiopian Church. The doctrine and practices of the King in Axum. the Church have remained unchanged since about 500 A.D. Since 1954, however, the Abuna (head SHORT ANSWER of the Ethiopian Church) has been an Ethiopian 1. The Coptic Calendar is known as the "Calen- rather than an Egyptian or other Coptic appointed dar of " to commemorate by the Coptic Church of Alexandria. No longer an 2. The primary means of spreading Islam in island of Christianity, the Ethiopian Church has Egypt was become an active member of the worldwide Chris- 3. churches, like the Ethiopian tian community and is a member of the World and Coptic, do not accept that Christ can have Council of Churches. Although the socialist mili- two natures. tary government of Ethiopia expropriated much of 4. The leader of a mythical Christian Kingdom its property, the Ethiopian Church remains a vi- was able and widely supported institution. ESSAYS DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What factors helped facilitate the spread of 1. Why did the Romans initially oppose Christi- Christianity in Egypt and Ethiopia? anity and then later adopt it? 2. What was the impact of Islam on Christianity 2. What are the similarities and differences in Ethiopia and Egypt? between the development of Christianity in Ethiopia and Egypt? LITERATURE Atiya, Aziz S. The Copts and Christian Civiliza- SAMPLE TEST tion. Salt Lake City: University of Utah MATCHING Press, 1979. Alexandria Davis, A. J. "Coptic Christianity" in Tarikh, hieroglyphics Vol. 2, No. 1. Nigeria:Historical Society Catechetical School of Alexandria of Nigeria, 1967. Axum Davis, A. J. "Orthodoxy of the Ethiopian Frumentius and Aedisius Church" in Tarikh, Vol. 2, No. 1. Nigeria: St. Basil Historical Society of Nigeria, 1967. A. world center of Christian scholarship Donadoni, S. "Egypt Under Roman Domina- B. Ancient Ethiopian capital tion" in Mokhtar, G. (ed.) General His- C. Sudan tory of Africa II. Paris: UNESCO, 1981. D. letters used in Coptic language Isaac, Ephriam. The Ethiopian Church. Boston: E. center of Coptic Church Henry Sawyer Co., 1968. F. ancient Egyptian script Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. G. brought Christianity to Axum Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, H. practiced monastic life 1987. Kobishanov, Y. M. "Christian Axum" in G. TRUE OR FALSE Mokhtar, (ed.) General History of Africa II. 1. In Pre-Christian Egypt most Egyptians Paris: UNESCO, 1981. were Muslim. Tafla, Bairu. "The Establishment of the Ethio- 2. The use of colloquial Coptic as the pia Church" in Tarikh,Vol. 2., No. 1. language of the Church made it more difficult Nigeria: Historical Society of Nigeria, for common people to convert. 1967.

3 61 29 ISLAM LESSON TEXT

Dona J. Stewart Q6zinasflalam and Worldwide over one billion people are followers Robert E. Hamilton of Islam, a religion whose name in Arabic means "to submit" to the will of "Allah," an Arabic word GOALS meaning God. Islam plays an important role in Africa (population 500 million), where 250 mil- The student will be abie to : lion people are Muslims, the people who practice 1. discuss the origins of the Islamic religion Islam. The Muslim population of Africa is de- and the role of Muhammad in its forma- picted in the map on page 32. tion; Islam began around 610 A.D. in Arabia, which 2. understand the major tenents and prac- today is called Saudi Arabia. At that time Arabia tices of Islam; was populated largely by nomadic herdsmen who 3. identify two major divisions within Islam held traditional religious beliefs. For example, and the reason for these divisions; some groups believed that nature is populated by 4. understand the close relationship between spirits which inhabit its visible (trees, rocks) and Islam and all other facets of life, includ- invisible (wind) parts. Small numbers of Chris- ing political life; tians and Jews also could be found in Saudi Arabia. 5. locate the areas of greatest Islamic The "prophet" of Islam, Muhammad (b. 570 d. penetration in Africa. 632 A.D.), was born in the city of Mecca. Very little is known about his early life. It was not until KEY WORDS he was 40 years old that Muhammad said he began Allah to hear the word of God. Mecca (Makkah) Islam is a monotheistic religion, one which is Shiite characterized by the belief in one all-powerful hadith God. Muslims state that there is no God but God Medina and Muhammad is his messenger. Muslims be- Sunni lieve that God communicated directly to imam* (imaam) Muhammad. The word of God, which was re- monotheism vealed to Muhammad over a 20-year period, be- sura came the Muslim holy book, the Koran (or Qur'an). Islam*(Islaam) Literally translated, "Koran" means recitation. The Koran is composed of 114 chapters, or sup jihad* (jihaad) In addition tothe Koran, the example of Muhammad Muhammad's daily life and sayings (the hadith) Kaaba have been collected and are also important to * Muslims. Learned scholars, ulamaa, who have Koran studied the Koran in depth, advise people on the meaning of the Koran and Muslim traditions * Although Islam has traditionally been spelled (sunnah). "Islam," it is more accurate to spell it "Islaam" When Muhammad first began to preach, he had because it is pronounced with a double long "a." little effect on Meccan society because of the Likewise, "imam" should be pronounced as strength of the traditional .Also, his "imaam," "jihad" as "jihaad," and"Ramadan" message was not perceived as being very different shouldread "Ramadaan." from Christianity and Judaism, which had been practiced for a much longer time. In fact, Muslims 37 31 Islam in Africa (Generalized Boundaries)

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32 38 view the Old Testament and New Testament of the part of zakaah. The final pillar of Islam is the hadj Bible, in their original forms, as the revelations of (also, hajj), a pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca God. Unlike Christianity, however, Islam does at least once, if affordable, during a Muslim's not accept the divine nature ofJesus Christ. Jesus, lifetime. At Mecca, pilgrims circle the Kaaba like Moses and other Biblical prophets, is viewed seven times and perform many other rituals. In as one of a series of God' s messengers. Muhammad addition to these five pillars of faith, Islam encom- is the last of God's prophets and, therefore, as the passes many other moral and spiritual observances. latest messenger of God and God' s will, fulfills previous messages. Muslims refer to him as "the The Spread of Islam seal of the prophets." After Muhammad' s death, Muslim rule spread Although Islam received little notice at first, rapidly through the area which today we call the once Muhammad began to challenge the tradi- Middle East. Islam was spread largely through tional Arab religion of goddesses and spirits, great missionary work and trade. By 750 A.D., the opposition arose. By attacking traditional beliefs, Arabs had conquered much of North Africa, Spain, Muhammad was challenging the political author- Turkey, and Northern India. They ruled an empire ity of the Meccan ruling class and priests. As more then containing over 80 million people. people converted to Islam, the persecution of From the period 750 to 1000 A.D., Islamic Muhammad and his followers grew. Finally, in society grew and developed. Through the use of 622 A.D., Muhammad and his followers migrated military force and a highly efficient bureaucracy, to the city of Yathrib (now called Medina). The the Muslims were able to maintain stability within emigration to Medina was known as the Infra or theirempire. Many scientific and cultural achieve- hegira, and the year 622 A.D. marks the first year mentsincluding noteworthy contributions in of the Muslim calendar. algebra, trigonometry, and geometrywere made. At a time when Europeans believed the earth to be The Practice of Islam flat, Muslim scholars contended that the earth was Islam permeates every aspect of a Mulsim' s life. round and measured 20,000 miles in circumfer- There is no separation between "secular" and ence, only 4,000 miles short of the actual distance. "religious" activities. Five acts, the "five pillars of Arabic medicine was highly sophisticated: measles Islam," are central to the religion. and smallpox were diagnosed and anesthesia was The first pillar of Islam is the statement of faith: developed 1,000 years earlier than in Europe. The there is no God but God, and Muhammad is his great Islamic philosopher al-Farabi made substan- messenger. The second pillar requires all Mus- tial contributions to the role of metaphysics, eth- lims to pray daily. On Fridays, Muslims perform ics, and politics in Islamic society. Ibn Sina and their noon prayer in congregation.Congrega- Ibn Rushd, known in the west as Avicenna and tional and individual prayers are performed in Averroes, made significant contributions to , the places of religious worship and gath- philosphy, medicine, and natural science. ering in Islam.This set of formal prayers is undertaken facing the site of the Kaaba in Mecca. The Spread of Islam to Africa The Kaaba is the most sacred place for Muslims. There were four phases to the penetration of Before Islam, the Kaaba, a huge black cube, was a Islam into Africa. The first phase was the rise of shrine for traditional religious ceremonies. The the Arab Empire in North Africa from 750 to 1000 third pillar of Islam is the fast of Ramadan. This A.D. Second, Islamic expansion became closely fast commemorates the month during which God tied to trade and followed established trade routes. revealed Himself to Muhammad. During this Nomadic herders travelled south and westacross month of self-discipline. Muslims do not eat or the Saharato trade with West African states such drink from dawn to sunset. Zakaah, act of sharing, as Ghana. In states such as Mali, Songhay, and is the fourth pillar of Islam. Charitable giving is Bornu, Islam was adopted largely by the literate 39 33 and bureaucratic classes. Initially considered an past few hundred years, a separation of religious upper-class religion, Islam initially had little im- and secular affairs has evolved in Western states. pact on farmers or pastoralists. Institutions such as parliaments and executive Third, beginning in 1750 A.D., thejihad, or holy offices have been formed to guide Western states war, began to be used extensively in Africa by in the place of religious leaders. In the Islamic militant Islamic leaders who wanted to establish world, many of the nation states are recently theocratic states in which religious leaders would independent and much youngerthan Western states. also control political power and the government. Consequently, there has been little time for insti- Many state leaders in the region called the bilad tutions to develop to replace or augment the reli- es-sudan (land of the blacks) converted their states gious ties which have bound the community to- to Islamic theocracies, based upon the Koran and gether. Currently, the Islamic states are struggling Islamic law, to avoid attack by Arabs.Islam with this issue of how and to what degree Islam ceased to be an upper-class religion and became will be institutionalized in their governments. In the focus of life in the community. Islamic law the absence of stable institutions, strong, charis- (sharia) was also widely adopted. matic leaders, such as Gamal Abdul Nasser, the The colonial period marks the fourth phase of first president of Egypt, have tended to dominate penetration. New trade routes, more effective political and religious life in these countries. communication, and the concentration of people As institutions develop,' the role of Islam in in towns contributed to the spread of Islam. More- society will have to be determined by each coun- over, colonialism caused the breakdown of tradi- try. That role will naturally depend, in part, on the tional African social organizations and beliefs, size of the Muslim population. Within Africa, creating a situation in which Africans were more Egypt, Sudan, Morocco, Senegal, Niger, Algeria, likely to accept a new religion. Libya, and Tunisia are all predominantly Islamic states located on the African continent. Several Groups in Islam other statesMali, Nigeria, Kenya, and Tanzania Among the issues that have caused differences have sizeable Mulsim populations. of opinion among Muslims was the disagreement Also, Muslim states are gyappling with the role over the nature of authority after Muhammad's of Islamic law in society.Islamic law (sharia) death in 632 A.D. The Shiites insisted that the derives from the Koran and expresses, for Mus- leader of Islam must be a descendant of lims, the divine will of Allah. This law dictates the Muhammad. Shiites supported the leadership of ways in which Muslims must act toward one Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali, and his descen- another and toward outsiders, and it describes how dants through Fatima, Muhammad's daughter and various situations should be handled in daily life. Ali's wife. They believe that God has chosen a Much of the sharia has been encoded in civil law series of imatns, or religious leaders, to lead the in Muslim countries. In the more secular Islamic community both spiritually and politically. Shiite states, only parts of sharia may be observed. The Muslims can be found largely in , Iraq, along most extreme union of Islam and the state can be the western bank of the Persian Gulf, and in South seen in Saudia Arabia, where the Koran has been Asia. adopted as the definitive law in that country. Sunni Muslims, however, argued that the leader However, like the Islamic religion, there are many of the Muslim community (ummah) need not be a different schools of Islamic law which offer vary- direct descendant but rather an individual capable ing interpretations of sharia. of upholding Islamic values. CO111QMILQTAZI_Liktalthiika Islamic Law and Society In many ways the development of Islam in There are currently over fifty nation states with Africa has led to the evolution of specifically predominantly Muslim populations. During the African forms of Muslim culture. Many tradi- 34 40 tional African beliefs have been incorporated intoTRUE OR FALSE the practice of Islam, giving Islam a unique, syn- 1. Islam is a much older religion than cretic character within the continent.For ex- Christianity. ample, many African Muslims still honor tradi- 2. Islam is polytheistic with many gods. tional spirits or gods in addition to foliowing 3. Followers of Islam are known as Mus- Allah. Traditional ceremonies that celebrate com- lims. ing of age are often still observed and, in many cases, ancestor reverence, which is not a part ofSHORT ANSWER Islam, is still practiced. Yet, one must be careful 1. On Friday, Muslims pray in a not to generalize about African Muslims. There 2. and are over 250 million Muslims in Africa, and Islam were the most important factors in bringing is observed with many different variations. Islam to Africa. 3. What does the word "Islam" mean in Arabic? DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 4. The two major groups within Islam are 1. How does Islam differ from Christianity and and Judaism? 2. Are there any similarities between the ways ESSAY in which a Muslim worships and the ways in What are the five pillars of Islam? which Christians and Jews do? 3. Why is it important for people in the United LITERATURE States to study and understand Islam? Hiskett, Mervyn. The Development of Islam in West Africa. London: Longman, 1984. SAMPLE TEST Hitti, Philip K. The Arabs: A Short History. MATCHING New York: St. Martin's Press, 1968. A. hadith Kavunedus, Thomas G. and Harold E. B. Koran Hammond. The Middle East. Cambridge: C. zakaah Globe Book Company, 1981. D. Medina Roberts, D.S. _Islam: A Concise Introduction. E. sura San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1981. F. Mecca Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Influence of Islam G. Kaaba Upon Africa. New York: Preaeger Publish- H. sharia ers, 1968. Yates, Kyle M. Jr. (Ed.). The Religious World: holiest Muslim shrine Communities of Faith. New York: city where Muhammad received the Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988. Koran chapter in Muslim holy book Sacred Muslim book the sayings and practices of Muhammad city to where Muhammad fled in 622 A.D. charitable deeds Islamic law

41 35 THE SAHARAN CARAVAN TRADE ment of the railroad, an animal that can carry large George Burson payloads long distances without consuming much water. The camel was the only animal that met that GOALS requirement. It could carry more than 700 pounds of merchandise, people, or goods and travel 7-10 The studeat will be able to : days using the water stored in its hump.Its introduction into the Maghrib late in the first 1. list five items involved in the trans-Sarahan century provided the Berbers with the transporta- trade; tion necessary to conduct the trans-Saharan made. 2. provide significant dates and events which Even with the camel, however, the journey across were a part of the trans-Sarahan trade from the Sahara was expensive and fraught with risks. A the fourth to the sixteenth centuries; sandstorm or a guide' s miscalculation could cause 3. describe the relationship between and among a caravan to lose its way; wells could dry up. Taxes the trans-Saharan trade, the expansion of and tribute had to be paid to the peoples along the Islam, and West African state formation. caravan route and at either end of the journey. Guides, camels, and drivers had to be procured and KEY WORDS paid. Depots had to be set-up at the oases along the Berbers way. Trade goods had to be purchased and sold. kola nuts Since it took from 70 to 90 days to cross the Sahara Sahara by camel, a caravan participant could expect to be caravan gone from home for at least five or six months. Maghrib sahel The Rich Rewards of Trade Islam From the above description, it is obvious that the oases economic moth ation for the risky, difficult, and Sudan expensive trans-Saharan trade had to be signifi- cant, and, indeed, it was. Gold and slaves were the LESSON TEXT motivating factors for the trans-Saharan trade. Other goods (ivory, ostrich plumes, kola nuts, Early European Contact spices) were imported from the area south of the Europe had a long history of contact with Sub- desert, which the Arabs called bilad es sudan, "the Saharan Africa through the trans-Saharan caravan land of the blacks." But these were insignificant trade. The trans-Saharan trade began in the third or when compared to the gold and slave trade. Ivory, fourth century A.D. when the Berbers of the for example, could be procured more efficiently Maghrib (Arabic: West; refers to Tunisia, Algeria, from eastern Africa. and Morocco) began using the Bactrian camel, Until the mid-nineteenth century and the exploi- introduced from Saudi Arabia and bred specifi- tation of the American goldfields, the sudan was cally for the trans-Saharan trade, to transverse the the paramount source of gold both for the Muslim 1,500 miles that separate the two edges of the world and for Europe. Estimates suggest that at desert. Without permanent roads, and because of the peak of the trans-Sahara gold trade, over a ton the shifting nature of the sand itself, the desert of gold reached the Mediterranean annually from crossing required remarkable preparation, skill, West Africa, principally from mines located in the training, and endurance. Bambuk-Buré region of modern Guinea. The Sahara is one of the driest places on earth. Between 650 and 1600 A.D., about two million Crossing it requires a thorough knowledge of the slaves were also exported north across the Sahara. desertone must know where the reliable wells These were individuals who, in some instances, and oases are locatedand, prior to the develop- had been captured during warfare between sudanic 37 42 empires, states, and smaller political units.In trade that began with the rise of European sea- other cases, slaves were political exiles or crimi- borne trade, led to a decline of these trading states. nals who were sold because their labor or special Early West African states and trans-Saharan trade skills they had acquired had market value. routes are shown in the map on page 39. In return for the Sudanese gold and slaves, the Berbers and, later, Arab traders, transported the Trade with Europe goods of the Mediterranean and European world Eiropeans, especially those in the Mediterra- south. Many of the items transported south across nean basin, knew of the West African gold fields the desert were luxuriesbooks, paper, horses, and were eager to exploit them. Portugal was the tea, coffee, sugar, spices, jewelry, perfumes, first nation to take advantage of the explosion in needles, scissors, and guns and ammunition. These European maritime technology. By 1500, the Por- commodities had a high value compared to their tuguese had regular trade relations with the West weight in order to maximize profit. African coast. Other European nations soon fol- lowed. State Formation in West Africa While the south Atlantic trade diminished the The trans-Saharan trade helped lead to the cre- trans-Saharan trade, it did not destroy it. By 1700, ation of West African states (see accompanying Europeans were exporting 1.5 million ounces of map) such as Ghana, Mali, Songhay, and Kanem- gold annually by ship, against 500,000 ounces Bornu. From the eighth to the sixteenth centuries, moving overland by caravan. It was not until the these states progressively moved from the west to twentieth century, with the advent of colonial the east.The power of these states rested on railways, that it became cheaper to reach the sudan controlling the sahel (Arabic: literally, "coast" from the coast rather than across the Sahara. The and refers to the littoral between the sea or ocean early trade between Europe and West Africa by and the mountains or forest; treating the desert sea led to the construction of new markets and the figuratively as an "ocean of sand," the sahel is the coastal forts 'Used in the map on page 40. region between the desert and the savannah or plains). The sahel was the zone of transfer for the Impact of Trade products which originated in the coastal region The geography of Africa made travel and com- and the desert. To control the sahel was to control munication extremely difficult south of the Sa- trade. In addition, controlling this area gave the haran-sahelian trade routes. Thus, general devel- rulers control of the salt-producing areas. Salt was opment varied greatly from region to region. In a valuable commodity and a source of income in East Africa, along the coast, as early as the second its own right. century B.C., trade between India and Africa was The trans-Saharan trade was one reason that taking place. Beginning in the ninth century A.D., most West African leaders converted to Islam. trade with the Middle East took on increasing Conversion gave them numerous economic ad- importance and a rich culture and society based vantages.Prior to the conversion of the black upon this trade developed along the East African leaders, Islamic religious authorities had issued an coast. The Swahili language of today resulted edict that trading with "the land of the Sudan is from the coastal contact of African Bantu-lan- reprehensible." After the conversion, this injunc- guage speakers and Arabic. tion no longer applied. Western African leaders The arrival of the Portuguese at the end of the took other actions to encourage the trans-Saharan fifteenth century destroyed much of this culture. trade. They ensured the safety and security of the In 1652, the Dutch established a "refreshment traders and merchants traveling and living in their station" at the tip of South Africa that would later midst.They guaranteed Muslims freedom of grow into the white-dominated state that exists worship, and, most importantly, they provided today. security and maintenance of the trade routes. The

38 West Africa to About 1600 Key to Map Ghana.lioundaries I 1111 ol cenimyempires mid kingdoms NM, The boundaries marked show the empires and Songhai.Mali. 14th 1(0 mum) crawly MOROCCO Tripoli kingdoms at their greatest extent G GoldTrade deposits routes Gli.ulanws . . S . . DesertSah deposits boundaryropnal raln lortst hmIldaty klar.k7 'TAT Aunia Ewen T.Thafa 60c HOGGAR (aim MurtuA Iltb IF.KRURc..161h c. Aold AIR TOAD° Ildin- TIBESTI %MIMI,I41h EMPIRE c. lAtni.104ts Kunibi Saleh TimbUkt Takedda Kan iaba DARFUR KIM:I/010sNIAN111,ItAMMIKWANI:ARA16Ih or c. ..t --:-...; ;..- ',:.' %. ;:..44.. ',..- ,,, of ',....i-ez ,....,..,.. Source: M. Kwamena-Poh, J. Tosh, R. Waller, and M. Tidy, African History in Maps. I4thBONO c. 14th e. 16thBENIN c. 1 icly ".4;:is,:'..,.f!..;-: l.e,:a-':..k.' iist100 1 200 1 300 1 400km fI .-:,-,;"...; w.71...F..-ri< - 44 Burnt Mill, England: Longman Group UK Limited, 1982. BEST COPY AVAILABLE 45 First European Contacts with West Africa,c. 1450 to c. 1800

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4 6 ;EST COPY AVAILABLE DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What were the major incentives leading to D. the twentieth century when the development of the trans-Saharan trade? the Europeans built railroads from the coast. 2. How did Africa's geography contribute to and work against long-distance trade? SHORT ANSWER 1. To maximize profits traders transported MATCHING goods with a high ratio. 1. Which of the following products was NOT a major product transported in the trans-Sa- 2. The decline of West African trading states is haran caravan trade attributed to the rise of

a. gold 3. The first European nation to have regular b. slaves trade relations with West African states was c. luxury goods d. iron ESSAY 2. Most of the leaders of West African king- Discuss the major factors contributing to the rise doms accepted Islam because and decline of the Saharan caravan trade.

A. it gave them an advantage in LITERATURE trading with North Africa. Ajayi, J. F. Ade and Ian Espie. A Thousand Years of West African History. New B. it gave them an advantage in York: Humanities Press, 1972. trading with ethnic groups to the Curtin, Philip, et. al.African History. New south. York: Little Brown & Co., 1988. Fage, J. D. A History of West Africa. New C. they were profoundly reli- York: Cambridge University Press, gious. 1969.

D. their people demanded Muslim rulers.

3. The Saharan caravan trade remained active until

A. the sixteenth century when European shipping destroyed the economic basis for trade.

B. the seventeenth century when the gold fields of West Africa ran out of gold.

C. the nineteenth century with the abolishment of the slave trade. 4 7 41 AFRICAN DIASPORA LESSON TEXT Walter F. Urbanek African Trade GOALS Slavery has been a part of African life for several thousand years. African slavery was more politi- The student will be able to: cal and social than economic. It was not as cruel I. understand that when fifteenth century and dehumanizing as the system that existed in the European explorers reached the shores New World. The main purpose of African slavery of West Africa, they encountered people was to increase the size of one's group forprestige living in highly developed and complex and military power. Slaveswho may have been civilizations; members of defeated armies, social outcasts, crimi- 2. discuss the long-distance trade systems nals, or political dissidentshad basic rights, could that existed in Africa; earn their freedom, could marry, had their own 3. identify the wealth, power, and achieve- plots of land, could rise to positions of power ments of the sudanic states; within the group, and were generally free from 4. discuss why Africans were the labor punishment. The children of slaves who married choice for the production of sugar in the free African men and women were generally con- New World; sidered free and a full member of society. For 5. discuss the link between the African Rice example, in the kingdom of Asante (located in Coast and the production of rice in South present-day Ghana), one could not talk about Carolina and Georgia; another person' s history. An individual who talked 6. discuss the horrors of the Middle Pas- about another person's ancestors or relatives as sage; and "slaves" could be heavily fined by Asante judges 7. discuss the Gullah and why they were or even the Asantehene (King of Asante), the court able to retain part of their African heri- of last resort. tage. Trade introduced new beliefs, technology, foods, and ideas to Africa.As a result, new wealth, firearms, and Islam created new political relation- KEY WORDS ships which resulted in the formation of new states Sugar Revolution and empires. By the middle of the eighteenth Ghana century, many African nations were drawn into plantation the trade network, as slaves became Africa's lead- Mali ing export, although gold, ivory, palm oil, pepper, labor intensive and hides remained items of trade. As the demand Timbuktu for slaves increased, wars became more frequent. Abu Bakri II Attacking the villages of smaller, different, arid Mansa Musa perhaps distant ethnic groups became the major Bunce Island method Africans used to capture those who be- Ibn Battuta came slaves. War captives, criminals, political Gullah prisoners, debtors, and African slaves were sold or Songhai traded for manufactured goods and rum. Muskets Askia Mohammed and ammunition rapidly became a valuable trade item because African states used them to defeat neighbors, and to defend themselves against in- vaders and other slave raiders. The vicious cycle of guns-slaves-protection reached its zenith in the 1700s. Historians believe that during the eigh- 48 43 teenth century, about 80,000 Africans were sold The Ghanaian empire developed in the western annually as slaves. Sudan about the eightth century and lasted until As the caravans travelled across the Sahara, the the thirteenth century. At its peak, the boundary of traders began carrying cargoes of black workers. the state encompassed parts of modern Mauritania, Since the mid-seventh century, African slaves had Mali, Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea. been sold to the people of southern Europe and the Ghana, the "Land of Gold," reached its peak in Middle East. The Romans purchased Africans to the eleventh century. Rich deposits of gold were row their galleys, just as they and other Mediterra- mined in an area south of Ghana. The miners nean people also purchased slaves from the area of exchanged their gold for goods brought to them by eastern Europe and the Levant (the eastern end of the traders of Ghana. This allowed the Ghanaians the Mediterranean Sea). to export the precious metal to North Africa and There also was a demand for black domestic the Middle East. As trade increased, they estab- servants and mine workers.The demand for lished commercial contacts with Spain and Portu- human labor increased when the Sugar Revolution gal. Because Ghana was located on the edge of the reached the islands of the Mediterranean and south- Sahara, known as the sahel (Arabic: coast; the ern Europe. From the seventh to the end of the land south of the Sahara) they were able to domi- nineteenth century, approximately 7.5 million nate the trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt. The slaves were sold as part of the trans-Saharan sys- government of Ghana accumulated wealth by tax- tem. Millions of additional slaves were captured ing and exacting tolls from the caravans which in the interior and transported to the east coast of traveled through their territory. The wealth was Africa. From eastern ports, these slaves were used to train and equip an army of 200,000 (of shipped to Arabia, India, and islands in the Indian which 40,000 were bowmen), maintain a magnifi- Ocean. As the Arab population incmsed in Af- cent court at Kumbi, and for distribution to the rica, its demand for African slaves soared. populace so that it would remain loyal to the divine King. Law and order was maintained by cavalry The Sudanic States units which could be dispatched quickly to prob- Long before the Portuguese, Dutch, Danes, Brit- lem areas. ish, and French reached the shores of West Africa, Mali succeeded Ghana and reached its peak Africans had created large, well-organized politi- from 1200 to 1400 A.D. Although not a sahelian cal empires. The power of these states was based state, it was able to control the gold and salt trade on wealth accumulated from world trade. These by controlling the gold fields of Bambuk and empires contained fabulous cities where tall stone Bure' in northern Guinea, and the salt fields of the buildings were centers of trade and education. Gambia Valley, where salt was extracted from sea Dutch traders returning to Amsterdam told tales water. Wealth from agriculture, gold mining, and about the intelligent and hospitable people they trade allowed the Malians to build an efficient encountered, the beauty of the cities, and the skills empire where producers and traders could conduct and wealth of the African people. Craftsmen and business safely and freely. artisans in cities like Timbuktu, Jenne, Gao, Lagos, The rise of the Malian Empire played a major and Kilwa produced artifacts that one can observe role in the southward expansion of Islam. In the in museums throughout Europe today.People eleventh century, the rulers of Mali were con- from Asia and Europe were attracted to these cities verted to Islam.The Moroccan traveller and to study at such institutions of higher learning as geographer Ibn Battuta described Mali as a typical the University of Sankore in Timbuktu. At Sankore, Muslim nation where justice and security were students studied medicine, law, agriculture, and highly valued by traders and citizens. military science. When the Europeans arrived, The administrative center of the Malian empire they met Africans who were membors of highly was Timbuktu. It became one of the richest cities dev:loped, complex, and skilled societies. of Africa, renowned for trade, religion, and schol- 44 4° arship. The city, known as the "meeting point of measures was developed to regulate business; and the caravan and the canoe," was located at the a network of schools was constructed throughout junction of the trade routes on the southern edge of the empire. the Sahara north of the Niger River. Here, people These, then, were some of the sahelian, savan- from the desert, savanna, and rain forest met to nah, and desert states which existed in Africa from trade figs, salt, gold, copper, ivory, cloth, kola about the eighth century until the defeat of Songhai nuts, and slaves. As the city's wealth increased, by a Moroccan army in 1591. Other states emerged more people were attracted to Mali. Europeans in the African savannah and forest areas prior to and Asians travelled to Timbuktu to enjoy its the beginning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. luxuries and trade, or to attend the university Some African states and societies were severely where scholars studied history, law, or Islam. affected by the development of the slave-trade, Timbuktu became an important place for Islamic while some states and leaders participated in it to scholarship. obtain the items offered by European trading part- Two kings, or mansas, illustrate the achieve- ners. ments and wealth of the Malian Empire. Long before the Europeans reached the shores of Africa, The Sugar Revolution Abu Bakri II ordered the construction of a large The main reason for the massive movement of fleet that was to sail and explore the unknown slaves to the Americas was the Sugar Revolution. world. Captains were ordered to sail until they Sugar was introduced to Europe during the Cru- reached the end of the ocean or ran out of food. sades when warriors brought the food back to their These earl:Jyages of exploration were possible homes. When the Christians were driven from the because the mariners from Mali had ship-building Holy Land, they lost control of the areas where and navigation skills. sugar was grown. To satisfy the demand for sugar, Mansa Musa, brother of Abu Bakri II, was the Europeans began building plantations on Cyprus, most famous ruler of Mali.His pilgrimage to Crete, Sicily, and in southern Spain and Portugal. Mecca in 1324 illustrates the vast wealth of Mali. When these areas could not produce a sufficient Mansa Musa led a group of 60,000 government supply, the Europeans expanded production to the officials, soldiers, secretaries, and servants, ac- Canary Islands, Madeira, and Sao Tome. companied by 500 slaves carrying gold staffs. The During the sixteenth century, the Spanish moved king travelled across the Sahara and North Africa from the Canary Islands to the islands in the to Cairo and to Mecca, the holiest of Muslim cities. Caribbean, while the Portuguese moved from According to one report, 24,000 pounds of gold Madeira and Sao Tome to Brazil. As the produc- were loaded on the camel trains. Mansa Musa tion of sugar increased, the demand for labor distributed this gold as gifts and alms for the poor. followed the same path. This increased demand Word of his generosity spread all over the world. gave rise to the South Atlantic System. Some When Mansa Musa returned to Timbuktu, he scholars estimate that as many as 30 million Afri- brought many businessmen and scholars with him cans may have been exported from the continent in and initiated a new era of learning, business, and the trans-Saharan and trans-Atlantic slave trade architecture. from 1500 to 1850. Earlier studies estimated that When the Maiian Empire declined, it was suc- approximately 10-15 million Africans were stolen ceeded by Songhai. Under the leadership of Askia from their homes and transported to the western Mohammed, the empire prospered and expanded hemisphere where they formed the basis for all to control an area larger than western Europe. The economic activity. The majority of the Africans vast wealth was responsible for Songhai attaining went to the Caribbean islands and Brazil, while a a high level of civilization. A system of banking small number were transported to and sold in the and credit was established to encourage and ex- southern United States. Assuming the more con- pand trade; a system of standardized weights and servative estimate of approximately 10 million 45 50 The Atlantic Slave Trade to 1808 BRITAIN FRANCKNantes Tobacco NOVA SCOTIA Borth:auk M?,cilcs southUSA13 in01 English 1776 Plnladelphia SIM: rolomes plantations became Ch (lesion Santo Domingo: from A/IIft 0 c reinanierl Spanish I 680 western half lu rest Manufactures JAMAICCIJBA'... , x. 1.0Ser Antilles, English cloth,(guns, beads. metalware, ruin I SpainEnglaLin" a IIItaken 04.5 by in and Frenchplantation sugar r ulonics basSugar d on plantations Slave 1634Dulth from Slaves Sao 'fume (Pori I labour Irian e. 1010 handsolPortuguese Brant 1610-00 1in colony Dutch Slaves lie) to Map Rio de lame ofPortuguese Angola 1.11011).lin Dutch -30° 0411. Alrican espous (slascsi ...N. Other Altman exports Exports front the Americans: Gold, Ivory, Wm hands I6-1 I -Pt tsmid EuropeanPortuguese exports Manufactures: columns Guns,Tobaxco. Metalware. Rum, Cloth, Sugar. Beads. Colton Rum 0 400 800 1200 1600 km Source: M. Kwamena-Poh, J. Tosh, R. Waller, and M. Tidy, African History Burntin Maps. Mill, England: Longman Group UK Limited, 1982. BEST COPY AVAILABLE African slaves, the following figures have been possibility of bringing children to a world where provided by one scholar: they would be abused and cruelly treated. Later, -Caribbean, 43% or 4.3 million people; when the price of slaves increased significantly, -Brazil, 38% or 3.8 million; slave owners responded by increasing the demand -United States, 4.5% or 450,000 people; for a higher proportion of females and by granting -other 14.5%, 1.45 million people. pregnancy and post-natal leave to enhance the The higher figure of 30 million African slaves possibility that children would develop and ma- exported from the continent would, of course, ture into adult slaves. result in figures of three times the size of those Europeans did not build sugar plantations in represented above.In the case of the United West Africa close to the labor supply because States, for example, that would mean that approxi- Africa was not considered an ideal site. African mately 1.5 million Africans entered the country, a coastal lands were more populous than the lands of population that has increased to date to 30 million the New World and Africans jealously protected African Americans, or 12 percent of the total U.S. their control of lands and roads within the conti- population of 250 million in 1990. As early as nent.An African slave population working in 1503, Africans were being transported to Santo Africa would be much more likely to escape into Domingo in the Caribbean, but only began to familiar surroundings. Europeans working in the arrive in North America in 1619 (see the map on Caribbean, Latin America, or Africa experienced page 46). very high mortality rates, thus excluding the pos- The plantation system required a constant stream sibility that European slaves would be profitable of black African labor. Some plantation owners in or productive working on tropical plantations. the Caribbean and Latin America believed that it The boundaries of the slave network in West was cheaper to work a slave to death than to Africa were the Senegal and Congo rivers of the provide pregnancy and post-natal leave for slave Guinea Coast. Between these waterways were women to care for themselves and their children. approximately forty slave forts where Europeans Additional numbers were needed as slave labor stationed garrisons to protect their purchases. The was expanded to mine gold and silver and grow African rulers retained sovereignty by restricting coffee. Adolescent or adult African slaves, unlike foreign activity to the coast. For monetary fees, the populations of the Mediterranean or Eastern the Europeans were allowed to construct forts; Europe, were more likely to have developed a they had complete autonomy within the fortifica- childhood immunity to tropical disease, and thus tion, but their authority ended at the walls. Euro- to have a greater probability of surviving in the peans paid fees for rights to anchor ships and for tropical climates and working conditions which water, food, and wood. They also offered gifts and existed in the Caribbean, southeastern United tribute to local leaders to influence them. Other States, and Latin America. Europeans sailed along the coast, stopping where Finally, the slave population outside of the U.S. they thought slaves might be purchased. Compe- was not stable. A declining Latin American and tition for slaves was great: it sometimes took from Caribbean slave population existed because the four to six months to acquire a full cargo of slaves. number of deaths was higher than the birth rate. Some African states, such as Dahomey, controlled The slave population in these areas did not repro- the slave trade to produce revenue for the state duce itself and required, from an economic per- treasury. Much of the money was used to purchase spective, constant replenishment.Some slave firearms. On occasion, African leaders became owners in those regions imported more males than upset and expressed strong feelings about trading females; a high infant mortality rate existed; preg- practices or the amount of rent they were receiv- nant slave women frequently miscarried because ing.King Afonso of the Kongo, for example, of difficult working conditions, sought abortions, wrote a letter to the King of Portugal protesting or practiced birth control in order to avoid the several practices of the slave trade. 53 47 exposing bare bones. The Middle Passage Slaves were brought up on deck twice a day to be After a cargo of slaves had been assembled, the fed. Their meals usually consisted of boiled grains captives were transported to the western hemi- such as rice, millet, and corn meal or yams and sphere. The journey across the Atlantic was called manioc. A slave who refused to eat was force fed. the Middle Passage. The 4,000-mile voyage from Crew nl'embers held a hot coal to his or her lips to West Africa took from six to 10 weeks; the trip compel the opening of the mouth so that food from East Africa could last up to four months. The could be forced into it. journey was dominated by human pain and suffer- Each captive was also given a half pint of water ing. after eating. Security was tight when the slaves When the shackled slaves were brought aboard were on deck because of the possibility of mutiny the ship, they were forced into the foul hold below or suicide (by jumping into the ocean). After the deck where there was little fresh air, intolerable early meal, the slaves were "danced," which was heat, and obnoxious filth.There were two ap- a form of exercise. Members of the ship's crew proaches to storing a cargo of slaves."Loose flogged captives who did not vigorously dance. packing," more prevalent prior to 1807, meant Sometimes sea water was thrown on them to rinse that slaves were shipped on their backs, allowed off the filth accumulated in the cargo hold. Obvi- greater time and room in which to exercise, and ously, the salt water baths produced extraordinary received relatively better rations and food than pain for slaves suffering already from open sores during the nineteenth century. and wounds. The slaves were then returned to the When, in 1807, the British outlawed the interna- horrible cargo hold. tional slave tradeas opposed to slavery itself When the ship arrived at its destination, the "tight packing" was introduced by ship owners slaves were unloaded and sold individually or in because of the increased costs associated with the groups at an auction. The death rate continued to risk that British ships would intercept and seize soar as an additional 4 percent died on arrival and slave ships, and free the human cargo. Slaves were 33 percent died during the first year of "season- positioned within the ship on their side so that they ing."These figures are important because for required less room and more slaves could be every two slaves exported from Africa, the slave stowed in the hold. The pain and suffering of the population in the Americas increased by only one. slaves was of little importance to the ship owner The total death rate among slaves was about 50 compared to the potential profit that could result at percent-13 percent during the Middle Passage, 4 the end of the voyage. percent upon arrival, and 33 percent during the Each adult male occupied a space six feet long, "seasoning period." 18 inches wide, and 30 inches high. The stench was loathsome because perspiring slaves were The Rice Link forced to lie in their own vomit and excrement. Although slave owners made concerted efforts The filth contributed to the outbreak of numerous to depersonalize and dehumanize the African slave diseases. The mortality rate among slaves was who came to the New World, aspects of African about 13 perce, while approximately 25 percent culture continued to survive and contribute to the of the crew died. The major diseases responsible culture of those who enslaved them. The Gullah for the high death rates were "the bloody flux" people, for instance, illustrate a link between the (dysentery) and small pox. Rice Coast of West Africa and areas in South Below deck, the passengers were shackled in Carolina and Georgia. The Gullah were brought to place on unplaned wooden shelves or on the slimy, the U.S. in the eighteenth century because they had slippery deck. During severe weather, they were developed successful rice-growing techniques in rolled back and forth so often that the friction wore West Africa.Because they worked in a semi- the skin off their elbows and shoulder blades, tropical, maleria-infested environment in Africa, 48 5 4 4a... their skills were valued by plantation owners in the the skill the producers wanted. Plantation owners Southeast. Slave owners in the region stipulated paid higher prices for slaves from the Rice Coast. that they wanted slaves from the Rice Coast South Carolina, whose population included an which extended from Senegal to Liberiaand slave African slave majority by the nineteenth century, traders responded. prospered as a result of the skill and energy of the Once they arrived, the slaves from the Rice slaves brought there from West Africa. Coast were minimally supervised because mem- As rice production expanded in South Carolina bers of the slavocracy left the plantations during and Georgia, the demand for African agricultural the "summer sickness" and lived in areas that were skills increased. A network was established in less humid and hot. Overseers remained behind to West Africa to provide slaves for the Charleston supervise the plantations. Hoping to avoid illness, market. A major part of the system was Bunce many foremen stayed away from the rice paddy Island, a slave-trading fort located about 20 miles areas. With limited supervision, the Gullah were upriver from Freetown in Sierra Leone. During able to retain part of their heritage from Africa, the second half of the 18th century, approximately including their language, crafts, and cuisine. 20,000 slaves were marched across the jetty and Some Rice Coast slaves escaped to the Georgia transported to Charleston. Each ship carried a and South Carolina coastal islands, where they cargo containing between 250 and 300 slaves. could hide and were difficult to recap:ure.Still others escaped to Spanish Florida where they The Impact of Slavery upon Africa, established communities, intermarried with na- The slave trade lasted for 350 years and de- tive Americans, and fought against the United stroyed the lives, families, and hopes of millions of States in the Seminole Wars. The Gullah are Africans. The human and physical losses had a important, too, because they are the closest to what devastating impact upon the continent. Historians is African in the United States. Like all African- and economists note that Africa gave up millions Americans, the Gullah have never totally forgot- of productive, talented individuals in return for ten nor have they fully retained their traditions goods which were perishable and had no ability to from the past. transform African economies. Frequently, those Rice production probably began by mistake in paid in tribute to slave-trading African states, or South Carolina. In 1694, a ship, loaded with seed captured by African slave raiders, were the stron- rice and sailing from Madagascar to Liverpool, gest, most educated, and the most talented musi- was heavily damaged by a storm and blown off cians and craftsmen. Their skills were lost in an course to Charleston, South Carolina. Following early death or to a different continent or region. repairs, the ship's captain presented the Governor The loss in population, it is argued by some, of the colony with a bag of seed rice, which he weakened African political systems and econo- distributed to local farmers. The farmers began mies, which, in West and Central Africa, de- experimenting with rice when they found they pended heavily upon a trade that ended without could not grow tobacco or cotton in the wet coastal providing an obvious and immediate substitute. lowlands. Rice production flourished. Some historians have also looked for a connection The successful and profitable harvests prompted between the debilitating effects of the export of farmers to begin large-scale rice cultivation. By millions of Africans and the defeat of African 1720, the economy of the colony was based upon armies and resistance efforts in the late nineteenth rice production. By 1760, South Carolina was and early twentieth centuries by European impe- exporting 30 million pounds of cleaned rice a year rial armies. to England. Because of the hostile climate and the Certainly, the destructive raids of the sixteenth- colonists' general ignorance of rice agriculture, nineteenth centuries disrupted internal African they depended upon African agricultural tech- trade and produced a ripple effect in many parts of niques and labor. Slaves from the Rice Coast had the continent as larger societies preyed upon smaller 49 55 ones. But, the European Industrial Revolution and demand for slaves, and how did it change wars on that continent also resulted in the develop- the nature of slavery? ment of military technology that was far superior 2. Compare and contrast slavery in Africa and to the weapons traded to African chiefs and slave the Americas. raiders prior to the mid-1800s. Thus, it is certainly 3. What role did the Africans play in the slave possible that the invasion of the African continent trade network? and the colonization of its societies might have 4. Why were the Sudanic states able to accumu- occurred anyway. What is certainly true, how- late so much wealth, and how was it used? ever, is that it was the contribution of African labor 5. Who are the Gullah and why were they able and intellectual skiils which helped to develop the to retain part of their African heritage? mercantilist economies of Europe in the sixteenth- 6. What impact did the slave trade have on nineteenth centuries and the wealth which pro- Africa? vided investment capital and government treasur- ies necessary to finance both industrial develop- MULTIPLE CHOICE ment and imperialism. 1. Was last great empire of the Sudan. Africa lost millions of farmers, blacksmiths, (a) Kush (b) Ghana (c) Songhai intellectuals, consumers, traders, and other spe- (d) Mali cialists whose skills were extremely important to 2. European plantations in the Canary its pre-industrial societies. Its population remained Islands, Madeira, and Sao Tome in- relatively small, given the size of the continent, creased the demand for: (a) sugar, until the mid-twentieth century, when better health (b) ivory, (c) spices, and/or (d) slaves facilities began to reduce the infant mortality rate 3. Which body of water borders Africa on and increase the average life span of the indi- the West? (a) Mediterranean Sea. (b) vidual. One can only speculate whether African Indian Ocean (c) Red Sea (d) Atlantic economies would be significantly stronger and Ocean different today had the continent been spared the 4. Which area in the western hemisphere effects of the trans-Atlantic slave trade.Con- had the greatest demand and imported versely, though, no historian has argued that the largest number of African slaves? Africa's political, economic, and cultural systems (a) Caribbean Islands (b) southern experienced long-term benefits as a result of United States (c) Brazil (d) Mexico and Africa's willing and unwilling participation in the Central America slave trade. 5. Approximately how many slaves were The beneficiaries of the trans-Atlantic slave stolen from their homes and shipped to trade were the cultures and economies of the the Americas? (a) 6 million (b) 8 million Caribbean, South America, and North America (c) 10 million (d) up to 30 million which received those who were enslaved and forced to work on the farms and plantations and in MATCHING the mines. The American colonies which eventu- Leader of Mali famous for his pilgrimage ally became the United States received perhaps to Mecca. 1.5 million Africans whose labor, technological The voyage of slaves from West Africa skills, food, music, and other talents first trans- to the Americas formed the economy of the South and eventually Europeans discovered this food during contributed to the economy, culture, and politics the Crusades. of the nation. The cultivation of this crop made South Carolina one of the richest colonies. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS This city was the capital of Mali. 1. Why did the Sugar Revolution increase the

50 A. Abu Bakri II Curtin, Philip. The Atlantic Slave Trade: A B. Middle Passage Census. Madison: University of Wisconsin C. Timbuktu Press, 1969. D. rice Curtin, Philip, Steven Feierman, Leonard E. sugar Thompson, arid Jan Vansina. African F. Mansa Musa History. New York: Longman Inc., 1987. Manrix, D.P. and M. Cowley. Black Cargoes: TRUE OR FALSE A History of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 15 18- 1. The Europeans were able to move freely 1865.New York: Longman Inc., 1963. throughout Africa to purchase slaves. Martin, Phyllis M. and Patrick O'Meara. 2. The Spanish were the first Europeans to Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University reach the coast of West Africa. Press, 1986. 3. The Rice Coast covered the area from Thompson, Vincent Bakpetu. The Making of modern Senegal to Liberia. the African Diaspora in the Americas 1441- 4. Ghana was the largest and most powerful 1900. New York: Longman, 1987. of the sudanic states. 5. Slaves in Africa had rights and could earn their freedom.

SHORT ANSWER 1. Brazil was a colony of this European na- tion. 2. The two rivers that were the boundaries of the slave trade were the and the 3. Which Sudanic empire had an area larger than western Europe?

4. Approximately how long did the Middle Passage take from the coast of West Africa to the Americas? months 5. Identify one part of our culture where you can find an African influence.

ESSAY 1. Discuss the role of the Europeans and Afri- cans in the slave trade. 2. Discuss the Sugar Revolution and its impact on Africa. 3. Discuss the feelings of a slave during the Middle Passage.

LITERATURE Bohannan, Paul and Philip Curtin. Africa and Africans. Prospect Heights: Wave land Press, 1971. 57 51 ZIMBABWE the tenth through the eighteenth centuries. The buildings were made from oblong slabs of granite. Sylvia C. Udall They had walls 10 feet thick and 30 feet high. These elaborately patterned walls were not held GOALS together by mortar. Instead, the rocks had been shaped to fit together exactly. The student will be able to: 1. understand the history and characteristics Lads" aLin 22 wg of ancient Zimbabwe; The builders ()f ancient Zimbabwe were de- 2. analyze the impact of European coloniza- scended from the iron-working peoples of the tion on Africa, particularly Zimbabwe; Bantu expansion. Historians believe that the Bantu 3. discuss the two independence movements probably originated in the Congo forest and mi- taken by the whites in 1965 and the grated from there. By the eleventh century, the blacks in 1980; Shona had crossed the Zambezi River and pushed 4. identify the problems faced by Zimbabwe back or conquered any hunting and gathering after independence in 1980; peoples that lived there. 5. appreciate the accomplishments of The Shona people found gold deposits near Zimbabwe despite its ongoing Zimbab .They mined the gold and traded it with problems; and the Swahili city-states. They imported such Asian 6. locate Zimbabwe on an African map. goods as cotton, brass, and porcelain. By the 1400s, Zimbabwe was a strong state with a large KEY WORDS population, much wealth, and a centralized gov- ernment. Zimbabwe The Portuguese never saw Zimbabwe itself. But Lobengula in the sixteenth century, they recorded conversa- Rhodesia Front tions with the descendants of the Shona people. Bantu From these Portuguese records and from archaeo- Rhodesia logical studies of the stone ruins, historians have Ian Smith learned what Zimbabwe was like at its height in Shona the 1400s. "winds of change" Zimbabwe was ruled by a king who was be- Tribal Trust Lands lieved to be semi-divine. His health was important Ndebele for the welfare of the kingdom. If he became ill, he ZANU was supposed to commit suicide so that a healthy Charles Rudd king could take his place and keep the country Cecil Rhodes strong. The king made the necessary decisions, ZAPU but only his closest advisors were allowed to see him. One of the major stone buildings at Zimbabwe is LESSON TEXT thought to have been the palace where the king lived with his royal wives, advisors, and officers. In 1868, a European hunter stumbled across the About 1,000 people lived in the palace at one time. massive stone ruins of a group of palaces, for- Cooks, servants, farmers, and soldiers lived with tresses, and houses in the interior of southeast their families in smaller stone buildings of this Africa near the Zambezi River. The impressive type which have been found not only at the capital stone buildings of Zimbabwe, which means "royal but all over the region. The larger sites were dwelling," had been built by expert masons from probably the homes of provincial chiefs.

53 58 Many of the common people were involved in He never did give Lobengula the money and gold mining. The mines were pits dug into the merchandise that was promised. The kingdom earth; some were as much as 50 feet deep. Both eventually became the British colony known as men and women worked in the gold mines and Rhodesia. In 1965, Northern Rhodesia became along the streams, where even more gold washed the independent state of Zambia, and in 1980 out of the ground. Southern Rhodesia became the nation of Zimba- In the early 1500s, the Portuguese tried to gain bwe. control of the gold regions, but the rulers of Zim- By 1914, most of Africa had been taken over by babwe prevented them from reaching even the European powers.Only Liberia and Ethiopia capital.The Zimbabwe kings dictated to the remained independent. The coming of the Europe- Portuguese all rules concerning trade and taxes. ans produced mixed results in Africa. On the one Gradually, Zimbabwe's trade with the East Afri- hand, European governments outlawed slavery can coast dropped off as a result of the destructive and tribal warfare in some areas. European help Portuguese actions there. Internal quarrels among was also important in fighting disease and illit- brothers who all wanted to be king further weak- eracy and in building cities, roads, and industries. ened Zimbabwe. However, the kingdom survived On the other hand, Europeans used the Africans until 1830.Then, it was attacked by Ndebele cruelly. Many were uprooted from their tribes and peoples from the south who were seeking land on villages. Often their lands were taken over. They which to settle. The great stone buildings were were made to pay heavy taxes and to supply forced abandoned and large hordes of gold were left to be labor. The European overseers handed out brutal found and carried off by European prospectors in punishments in order to increase production. Ex- the later nineteenth century. ecution, whipping, and torture were common. Conditions slowly improved in the twentieth European Colonization century. A small Westernized class of Africans In most cases, Europeans gained control of their appeared. These Africans made up one part of the African colonies by signing treaties with local nationalist movements that gathered strength after chiefs. Seldom, however, did the chiefs under- World War II. stand what they were signing. As a result, the Europeans were able to take more than the Afri- Civil War and Independence cans thought they were giving. Over the years, Rhodesia remained a colony of Such tactics were used by Cecil Rhodes, the Britain, but the racial policy of its white minority nineteenth-century British imperialist who made a was similar in many ways to its neighbor, South fortune from African diamonds. In 1888, Rhodes Africa. A small group of whites, outnumbered by sent one of his agents, Charles D. Rudd, to south- blacks 20 to 1, ruled the land and enforced a system ern Africa to negotiate a treaty with King Lobengula of segregation.But the Rhodesian whites re- of Matabeleland. Rudd, under Rhodes' instruc- mained uneasy. In the 1950s and 1960s, they saw tions, offered to give Lobengula 1,000 rifles, the "winds of change" sweeping over Africa to the 100,000 rounds of ammunition, and a monthly north, and they feared the introduction of a black payment of 100 British pounds, and to sell him a government in their country. In 1965, the whites gunboat for 5,000 pounds. In exchange, Rhodes took matters into their hands and declared them- would receive "complete and exclusive charge selves independent of Britain. Since Britain re- over all metals and minerals situated and con- fused to accept this action, a prolonged dispute tained in the Kingdom." began. Britain argued that majority rule would Lobengula signed this treaty, thinking that he have to come to Rhodesia eventually. Britain was was simply providing Rhodes with "a piece of supported in this view by the United Nations and ground to dig."Rhodes interpreted the treaty by the United States. differently and took control of the entire kingdom. The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) 54 53 and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) perous and self-sufficient economy which could launched a war of national liberation against the not simply be destroyed without great national minority government, and for more than a decade loss. Zimbabwe was the most industrialized na- attempted to bring it down through guerrilla war- tion between Egypt and South Africa. The Mugabe fare. Over the years, the combination of interna- government has been anxious to prevent white tional economic sanctions, political pressure, and disaffection from negatively affecting the African military action caused a deterioration of economy. white Rhodesian solidarity, until Robert Mugabe Private property is legally enshrined in Zimba- became the first Prime Minister of the independent bwe and cannot be confiscated without generous state of Zimbabwe in 1980. A map of Ind= compensation. Socialism certainly remains the Zimbabwe is located on page 58. government's long-term goal, but there is no over- all plan to attain such a transformation. Change Problems Faced After Independence has been r".cemeal, and it has been limited to the The political, economic, and social problems social and economic, as opposed to the political, inherited by the Mugabe regime were, and still are, spheres.Thus, Zimbabwe remains a capitalist formidable. Until independence, there were really country with a Socialist-inclined government. One- "two nations" in Rhodesia: one black and one fifth of the seats in Parliament are retained by the white. Segregation in most areas of life, such as small white minority that votes on a separate roll housing and the state school system,was the and continues to function as a significant political norm. African facilities were vastly inferior to force. white facilities. Approximately half the national Another serious problem has been the split be- territory was reserved for whites only. On "white" tween Mugabe's ZANU (Zimbabwe African Na- land, a prosperous capitalist agriculture flour- tional Union) and ZAPU (Zimbabwe African ished, which included corn and tobacco, grown for People's Union). Although both parties want to export, and a diversified mix of crops produced for function on a national basis, the 1980 election domestic consumption. revealed that ZAPU strength had become limited The work force for these plantations, together largely to the southwestern portion of the country with the large number of domestic servants, con- and to the Ndebele-speaking minority of the popu- stituted a particularly impoverished and oppressed lation. ZAPU has insistently rejected demands for portion of the population.The black African a merger that could turn Zimbabwe into a one- Tribal Trust Lands were poor and dry; there were party state, as Mugabe desires, while ZANU de- few roads or communication facilities. Most of the nounces ZAPU as disloyal. adult population had to work in the "white" part of the country much of the time. Skilled Africans Zimbabwe's Accomplishments found few job opportunities until the manpower The difficulties Zimbabwe faces should not over- shortage of the 1970s when war overwhelmed the shadow its significant accomplishments. First, the country. The white government did everything to success of the war created an unprecedented sense encourage white immigration. Indeed, the major- of public confidence in the possibility of develop- ity of white residents in 1980 were the products of ing a democracy. Second, in a short time, Zimba- post-World War II immigration from the United bwe has succeeded in providing a minimum of Kingdom and South Africa, a large minority com- welfare benefitsnotably in health and education ing after the Unilateral Declaration of Indepen- to the majority of its people. Finally, Zimbabwe dence (UDI). has so far been able to offer to its racially mixed The new government could not entirely dis- population a peaceful solution to the bitter conflict mantle the privileged settler world, partly because between the "two nations." The majority of white after the UDI, whites led by Ian Smith, had created citizens remain in the country, although their num- what was, by African standards, a relatively pros- bers diminished after independence. Some who 60 55 fled to South Africa returned as the crisis there B. Ian Smith deepened. A large minority of former Rhodesia C. Cecil Rhodes Front supporters in Parliament deserted the ranks and reclassified themselves as independents, with SHORT ANSWER one white parliamentarian joining ZANU in 1986. 1. The builders of Zimbabwe were descended ZANU and Mugabe see the one-party state as the from iron-working -speaking solution for problems ot anity and development. peoples. If a definitive solution to the bitter ZANU-ZAPU 2. The main item of trade in ancient Zimbabwe division can be devised, Zimbabwe can begin was healing the wounds of a devastating war and 3. creating the equitable society promised during the thought he was simply providing Rhodes revolutionary struggle. with "a piece of ground to dig." 4. The two areas of Africa which remained DISCUSSION QUESTIONS independent from European colonization 1. What were the origins of the people of were ancient Zimbabwe? and 2. Why did the king of Zimbabwe commit 5. The two major political parties in Zimbabwe suicide if he were ill? are 3. Describe the palace dwelling at Zimbabwe. and 4. How did Cecil Rhodes gain control of Rho- 6. The current president of Zimbabwe is desia? 5. Do Africans believe that colonialism was 7. remains the beneficial to the continent in any way? government's long-term goal. What were the disadvantages of colonialism in Africa? ESSAY 6. Why did the white settlers in Rhodesia Discuss the distribution and usage of land in declare independence from Britain? Zimbabw. 7. Name the two parties that helped win inde- pendence for the black African population in LITERATURE Rhodesia. "A Decade of Independence and Progress." 8. Compare the "black" land and the "white" African Studies Center, Michigan State land in Zimbabwe. University, 1990. 9. What are the two dominant cultural groups Boyd, Allen R. and John Nickerson. Tropical that live in Zimbabwe? and Southern Africa.Scholastic Inc., 1968. Clark, Leon E. Through African Eyes: The SAMPLE TEST Past. New York: CITE Books, 1988. Cobb, Charles E. Jr. "After Rhodesia, MATCHING Zimbabwe."National Geographic Magazine. 1. He tricked King Lobengula into giving Vol. 160, No. 5, pp. 616-651. National him control over the present countries of Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., Zambia and Zimbabwe. Nov. 1981. 2. He declared the Unilateral Declaration Duignan, Peter. "Africa in the 1990s." The of Independence. World & I; The Washington Times Corpora- 3. He was sent by Rhodes to negotiate a tion, Aug. 1990. treaty with King Lobengula. Ryan, Margaret W. Cultural Journeys. Learn- ing Publications, Inc., 1989. A. Charles Rudd Sullivan, Jo and Jane Martin. Global Studies: 56 61 Africa. Dushkin Publishing Group, 1987. Wallbank, Walter. History and Life: The World and Its People. Scott, Foresman and Co., 1987.

6 2

57 Zimbabwe

Key to Symbols Major Roads Major Railways IINational/State/Province Capitols

Source: Maps onFile Martin Greenwald Associates, Inc. C)

58 63 REST CM"WM AFRICAN RUNAWAY SLAVE attempts at escape, some of which were very COMMUNITIES: PALMARES successful. The record of African resistance be- AND FLORIDA gins in 1564 when a slave ship under the command ofJohn Hawkins was attacked by Africans. Seven Linda B. Mager crew members were killed and 30 were wounded. Only a small percentage of African slaves were GOALS actually captured by Europeans. There were sev- The student will be able to: eral reasons why European ship owners and cap- 1. recognize and understand that rebellion can tains needed African partners: take many different forms; 1.most African rivers contained falls and 2. understand ways in which African slaves cataracts which prevented penetration of attempted to thwart the slaveocracy; the interior by European sailing ships; 3.discuss two of the most successful ex- 2. Europeans did not have maps of the African amples of slave resistance, The Republic interior and did not know the location of of Palmares, and the Black Seminoles of villages and towns; Florida; 3.the African climate was inhospitable to 4. discuss and understand the experience of Europeans, who had developed no immu- Olaudah Equiano during the Middle Pas- nity to many of the continent's diseases; sage. and, 4.African slave traders jealously guarded KEY WORDS their trade routes, and their role as middle- Bozales men, against intruders. Palmares Europeans learned that the best way to obtain Quilombo slaves was by bargaining and nding with African Maroon middlemen or with those Africans who had actu- passive-aggressive ally conducted slave raids in the interior. Histori- Seminole ans estimate that perhaps as many as 30 million Middle Passage Africans may have been exported from the conti- Pernambuco nent from 1500 to 1850, and that up to 30 million syncretism may also have died during raids, while being Mocambo transported to the African coast, in prison, or during the Middle Passage to the Caribbean, South LESSON TEXT America, or North America. Approximately five percent of those slaves exported from the African African Resistance to Slavery continent landed in the United States; 40 percent It :las frequently been stated that Africans cap- of them entered the country through the port of tured on the continent and subjected to the trans- Charleston, South Carolina. Atlantic qave trade accepted enslavement without Some slave rebellions occurred at sea during the protest and made few, if any, attempts to rebel or Middle Passage. In fact, the ships involved in the escape either their captors or their owners. This slave trade found it necessary to take out insurance misrepresentation has been repeated in many text- because slave revolts became so dangerous. Wil- books while other texts have neglected to address liam Snelgrave, captain of an English slave ship, the subject of slave rebellions. recorded three mutinies which he witnessed, as While some rebellions were conducted in a well as many other revolts which resulted in the passive-aggressive fashion which went unrecog- total loss of the ship, or in the killing or wounding nized by European and American plantation, land, of so many slaves that the trip was a financial and mine owners, there are records of organized disaster.

59 64 Other reliable accounts attest to passive-aggres- stand instructions or carried them out slowly in sive behaviors such as refusing to eat on board the order to be unproductive. It was a form of passive ship, and choosing death by jumping off the ship resistance which was very effective and impos- rather than facing enslavement by the slavers. sible to detect by people whose mindset labelled These forms of rebellion were less threatening to black slaves as little better than animals. the lives of slave traders than the mutinies, but the There were, of course, many open revolts as loss of income was serious, and there are many well. Some of these were staged by the bozales, instances in the literature of forced-feeding through newly imported Africans.Others were led by threats and floggings, and of stringent methods slaves who united after a period of servitude to used to prevent slaves from jumping overboard. oppose harsh masters. There were a number of Olaudah Equiano, for example, was taken as a "maroon" (Spanish; from cimaroon, wild or un- child from the area of Benin, located near the tamed) communities established in both North and present-day country of Nigeria, and shipped to the South America which were isolated from other West Indies as a slave. His fate was not to be that villages or towns.Quilombo and mocambo of an ordinary slave. After many sea voyages, a (Abundu: hide out) were other names given to captain named him Gustavus Vassa, for the six- fugitive slave settlements. All of these terms were teenth century Swedish king, Gustavus I (Gustavus used at various times to describe the Republic of Vasa), and he was eventually baptized with that Palmares. name. He was one of the few slaves who became educated and thus was equipped to write his jour- The Republic of Palmares nal, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of The Republic of Palmares was established near Gustavus VassaThe African. It is a rare autobio- Pernambuco, Brazil, as early as 1603. (See map on graphical account of the life of an eighteenth- page 62.) Although Maroon, Quilombo, and century slave. The work depicts not only Olaudah mocambo had been used to describe earlier slave Equiano's trials and sorrows, but also the miseries communities, Palmares became the epitome of of other Africans who were abducted and en- runaway slave communities in the Americas, a slaved. legend and a source of inspiration for slaves Equiano was convinced that the European crew throughout the Americas. Palmares initially in- aboard the slave ship were "bad spirits" because of cluded several small communities numbering 6,000 their white skins and, in some instances, long red people, and two large communities with an addi- hair. He thought they were cannibals and that the tional 5,000 people by the middle of the seven- large copper furnace used on board the ship would teenth century. Portuguese and Dutch efforts to be used to cook the African captives. Equiano locate and destroy these communities continued describes the horrible smells, shackles, and sick- throughout the century. The larger communities ness of the trip to the New World, as well as the survived many organized attacks, including an floggings which he and other slaves received. The average of one attack every 15 months by the vastness of the ocean produced a terror of its own Portuguese army between 1672 and 1694, when for someone like him who had never sailed before. the communities were finally destroyed. A Dutch expedition of 1645, headed by Lieut. Rebellion and Revolt Jurgens Reijmbach, located one of the two larger Once slaves reached their destinations, rebel- communities of the kingdom but lost most of the lions of various types occurred ranging from mass Indian and Dutch troops because the Palmares suicides to the daily slave pretense of ignorance "knew of the expedition for some time." The one and laziness. Essentially, slaves used the prejudice large community was described by Reijmbach as of the s ave owners to cheat and trick them eco- being: nomically. Slave owners frequently depicted slaves half a mile long, its street six feet wide as lazy or ignorant; slaves pretended not to under- andnning along a large swamp, tall trees 60 alongside.... There are 200 casas, amid Excellence. They address him as Majesty them a church, four smithies and a huge and obey him with reverence. He lives in casa de conselho; all kinds of artifacts are the royal enclave, called Macoco, a name to be seen.... (The) king rules...with iron which was begotten from the death of an justice, without permitting any feticeiros animal on the site. This is the capital of among the inhabitants; when some Ne- Palmares; it is fortified with parapets full groes attempt to flee, he sends crioulos of caltroops, a big danger even when de- after them and once retaken their death is tected. The enclave itself consists of some swift and of the kind to instill fear, espe- 1,500 casas.There are keepers of law cially among the Angolan Negroes; the (and) their office is duplicated elsewhere. king also has another casa, some two miles And although these barbarians have all but away, with its own rich fields.... We asked forgotten their subjugation, they have not the Negroes how many of them live (here) completely lost allegiance to the [Catho- and were told some 500, and from what we lic] Church. There is a capela, to which saw around us as well we presumed that they flock whenever time allows, and there were 1,500 inhabitants all told.... imagens to which they direct their wor- This is the Palmares grandes of which so ship.... One of the most crafty, whom they much is heard in Brazil, with its well-ke,t venerate as paroco, baptizes and marries lands, all kinds of cereals, beautifully irri- them. Baptismals are, however, not iden- gated with streamlets. tical with the form determined by the Despite Portuguese military attempts to elimi- Church and the marriage is singularly close nate the kingdom, it was reported in 1671 that, to laws of nature.... The king has three "Our campaigns have not had the slightest effect (women), a mulata and two crioulas. The on the Negroes of Palmares...who seem invin- first has given him many sons, the other cible." By 1677, Palmares was described as being two none. All the foregoing applies to the perhaps 180 square miles in extent. Its strength lay cidade principal of Palmares and it is the in the ability to provide food and security for the King who rules it directly; other cidades runaway slaves who reached it and became them- are in the charge of potentates and major selves farmers and defenders of the various com- chiefs who govern in his name. The sec- munities comprising the kingdom, which included ond cidade in importance is called at least ten settlements by the 1670s. The residents Subupuira and is ruled by king's brother of these settlements, according to Capt. Fernao (Gana) Zona....It has 800 casas and Carrilho's report of 1676-77, considered them- occupies a site one square league in size selves: [five to sixteen square miles], right along subjects of a king who is called Ganga- the river Cachingi. It is here that Negroes Zumba, which means Great Lord, and he is are trained to fight our assaults (and weap- recognized as such both by those born in ons are forged there). Palmares and by those who join them from The Palmares social and political systems did outside; he has a palatial residence, casas not derive from a single African country or region. for members of his family, and is assisted Rather, as one scholar has written, Palmares by guards and officials who have, by cus- "was...an African political system that came to tom, casas which approach those of roy- govern a plural society and thus give continuity to alty. He is treated with all respect due a what could have been at best a group of scattered Monarch and all the honours due a Lord. hideouts." When the kingdom was attacked, it Those who are in his presence kneel on the may have sent armies to destroy nearby Indian ground and strike palm leaves with their communities and to confiscate food.Certainly hands as a sign of appreciation of His Palmares soldiers conducted raids against Portu-

61 6 6 Pernambuco, Brazil

Source: Mapson File Martin Greenwald Associates, Inc. ©

62 6 7 UST COPY1VIIIIREF guese and Dutch plantations in order to liberate could come to govern not only individuals additional numbers of slaves and incorporate them from a variety of ethnic groups in Africa into one of the ten settlements. These actions, of but also those born in Brazil, pitch black or course, enraged the large land owners who then almost white, latinized or close to pressured the Governor to send troops to protect Amerindian roots; and that it could endure their lands and eliminate the Palmares. Increas- for almost a full century against two Euro- ingly in the seventeenth century, expanding Portu- pean powers, Holland and Portugal. And guese settler communities confronted the Palmares. this is no small tribute to the vitality of the Although Ganga-Zumba, who lived in the capi- traditional African art in governing men. tal city of Macoco, was described as a king, he was an elected and not a hereditary ruler.Thus, the Florida: A Refuge for Slaves political systema centralized kingdomhas From the 1700s until the mid-1800s, Florida was been described as a "republic" by many scholars. a refuge for runaway slaves from the southeastern The KingGanga-Zumbadelegated political United States. Then a Spanish possession, Florida power, mainly to his relatives, during the span of was used primarily as a military and trading poSt five generations of rulers. The king's nephew, and to provide food for Spanish ships traveling Zambi, was head of the army; the king's brother, beyond Florida to South America. The Spanish Ganga-Zona, controlled the stores of military encouraged slaves to come to Florida by offering weapons. them freedom. The Spanish assumed correctly The Ganga-Zumba was overthrown in a palace that the freed slaves would provide guards to coup by Zambi in 1678because it was feared protect Florida from British troops.After the that the king was prepared to sign a peace treaty French and Indian War, Britain obtained posses- with the Portuguese Governor in Pernambuco sion of Florida, and the Spanish encouraged slaves but the political system itself was not altered. A to desert their masters. hierarchical court system continued to dispense justice throughout the Palmares state.Zambi Black Seminoles proclaimed himself king and signed a peace treaty It is difficult to determine the actual number of with the Portuguese in 1680. The treaty did not last slaves who lived with the Seminole Indians in and a long war followed. The Portuguese were Florida. One source states that approximately 400 forced to hire expensive mercenaries to supple- Africans were living with the Indians in 1820; of ment their military forces. From 1692 to 1694, the this number 80 were known to be fugitives. The war was continuous; the final battle occurred on actual number of Black Seminoles may be much February 5-6, 1694. Although many hundreds of higher since Seminoles frequently refused to give palmaristaswere killed or committed suicide, information about escaped slaves to white offi- 500 others were captured and sold in the cials. Pernambuco market. Zambi was captured and The Seminoles viewed the escaped slaves as decapitated by the Portuguese and his head exhib- natural allies and accepted them into their society. ited in public to prove to the African slaves that Fugitive and freed slaves and other negroes often Zambi was not immortal.Nonetheless, Zambi formed villages on Seminole land, adjacent to remained a symbol of resistance and Palmares Seminole villages. Their relationship with Semi- continued to symbolize personal and political free- noles was one of tenant and farmer, where the dom for those still enslaved in North and South newcomers paid a percentage of their crops to the America and the Caribbean. chief in return for use of the land. "The most apparent significance of Palmares to Black Seminoles included: blacks who had been African history," according to R. K. Kent, born free; descendants of fugitives; and runaway is that an African political system could be slaves. Within Seminole society these people held transferred to a different continent; that it a variety of positions including warrior, hunter, or

63 68 even advisor to the chief. They intermarried with Sarasota Bay, south of Tampa, Florida.During the Seminoles, further binding themselves to the the Seminole War of 1812, the British had enlisted community. Some blacks, bilingual in English former slaves and free black men to fight against and Seminole, became interpreters for the Semi- Andrew Jackson's army.In particular, Capt. noles and exerted substantial influence over the Woodbine had over 400 former slaves and Black Seminole leadership. Regardless of the position Seminoles under his command. In 1815, when the or status that blacks held in Seminole society, it British army left Florida, they turned over a fort on was viewed as an improvement over slavery. Gad the Apalachicola River to blacks which became Humphreys, an employee under the Superinten- known as "the Negro Fort." At the same time, dent of Indian Affairs, recorded the condition of Capt. Woodbine led about 80 men south of Tampa the Black Seminoles: to Sarasota Bay where they established a settle- The negroes of the Seminole Indians are ment. wholly independent, or at least regardless The settlement attracted many other runaways of the authority of their masters, and are and when the "Negro Fort" fell to Jackson's army, slaves but in name. many of these people came to Sarasota as well. The Seminoles protected runaway slaves and This community, which existed from 1812 to made it extremely difficult for slave owners to 1821, reportedly had more than 400 men, women, secure a return of their slaves. The Seminoles and children. In 1821, a Coweta chief, William required that the slave owner be able to prove McIntosh, led a column of warriors to the black ownership of the slave before turning the slave settlement and destroyed it, capturing most of its over to the owner. The settlement of slave disputes inhabitants. Some historians speculate that those was further hindered because interpreters were captured by McIntosh were marched north and often themselves former slaves and advised the sold at a slave auction. Some have hinted that Indians not to cooperate with the white man. McIntosh, who was assigned the mission of de- Following American Independence, five border struction by Jackson, divided the profits from the wars were fought as the U.S. Army tried to invade sale of the slaves with the future President, who Florida. In 1812 and 1818, the U.S. army, led by then used his share to build his famous homeThe Andrew Jackson, marched into Florida in an at- Hermitagein Tennessee.Some of the slaves tempt to capture and relocate the Indians and managed to escape the raid on their Sarasota Bay blacks. But the Army was once again thwarted settlement and marched south, eventually sailing when the blacks and Indians moved further south to islands in the Caribbean. into more inaccessible territory. In 1835 the army again invaded; this Second CLASSWORK Seminole War lasted seven years. The war cost the Place students in groups of three and provide U.S. $40 million and 2,000 lives. General Jesup, each student with a copy of an excerpt from the the U. S. commander, informed the war depart- life of Olaudah Equiano about his experience ment: "This, you must be assured, is a Negro, and aboard a slave ship. Have the students in each not an Indian war." While many Black Seminoles group discuss the questions at the end of the escaped to Cuba and the Bahamas, those who were reading. Afterwards lead a class discussion on captured were taken to Indian reservations. Black the questions they answered and on the follow- Seminoles who settled in Oklahoma were often ing questions from the lecture. the victims of kidnapping by white slave traders, 1. Why has information concerning slave com- and many left to settle in Mexico. Following the munities been largely ignored in history Civil War, Black Seminoles were invited to return books? to the U.S. 2. What are the similarities between the In addition to joining Seminole communities, Palmares of Brazil and the Seminoles of former slaves formed their own community at Florida?

64 6 9 3. What were some reasons it might have been kill themselves during the Middle Passage easier to establish slave communities in were and South America than in North America? 14. The most famous of all the slave communi- DISCUSSION QUESTIONS ties was 1. How did Equiano react upon encountering a 15. Palmares was a source of pride to slaves racial and cultural group of people different everywhere because it proved that Africans from his own? were capable of 2. Describe the conditions of the slave ship. 3. How were the captured blacks treated? ESSAY 4. How did Equiano view the behavior of these There were many instances of slave rebellion in people toward blacks and whites? the Americas. Discuss the features that made 5. What evidence is there to suggest that many the most famous of these Maroon communities slaves had tried to jump overboard? so important.

SAMPLE TEST LITERATURE MATCHING Chapman, Charles E. "Palmares: The Negro Zambi Numantia," Journal of Negro History; vol. Pernambuco iii; Jan. 1918, pp 29-32. Middle Passage Diggs, Irene. "Zumbi and the Republic of Seminole Palmares." Phylon, The Atlantic University Maroon Review of Race and Culture. First Quarter, Bozales 1953. Equiano, Olaudah. Interesting Narrative of the A. newly imported Africans Life of Gustavus Vassa The African. Ex- B. denotes slave communities cerpts are included in "The Negro in Ameri- C. derives from Indian for "runaway" can History;" Vol. III, Encyclopedia D. King of the Palmares Britannica Series, 1969, pp 401-402. E. voyage from Africa to the Americas Kent, R. K. "Palmares, An African State in F. a city in Brazil Brazil." Journal of African History; vol. vi, G. derives from Abundu for "hideout" no. 2, 1965, pp 161-175. Klein, Herbert S. African Slavery in Latin TRUE OR FALSE America and the Caribbean. New York: 7. Olaudah Equiano was afraid he was Oxford Press, 1986. going to be eaten by the white men. Porter, Dorothy B. "The Negroes in the Brazil- 8. Ganga- Zuma was a Portuguese general. ian Abolition Movement." Journal of Negro 9. Mocaco was the hidden royal city of the History; vol. xxxvii, no. 1, Jan., 1952; pp. Palmares. 54-80. 10 The U.S. Army easily captured the Ramos, Arthur, The Negro in Brazil . Wash- Seminoles of Florida. ington, D.C.: Associated Publisher, Inc., 1939. FILL IN THE BLANK Thompson, Vincent Bakpetu. The Making of 11. The American president who was anxious the African Diaspora in the Americas 1441- to defeat the Seminoles was 1900. New York: Longman, Inc., 1987. 12. When two ideas blend to create something Urbanek, Walter. Paper submitted at the Insti- new, we call it tute of African Studies Summer Seminar, 13. Two of the main ways slaves attempted to 1988.

65 7 0 CHRISTIANITY IN AFRICA:1500 TO more independence from government administra- tors. The Industrial Revolution, which began first THE PRESENT in mid-eighteenth-century Britain before spread- ing to continental Europe, was followed by theo- Robert E. Hamilton ries of free trade which included economic argu- ments against the slave trade. British Christians GOALS played an important role in the abolitionist move- The student will be able to: ment which sought to outlaw slavery and the slave 1. describe the history of Portuguese mission- trade. Slavery was outlawed in Britain in 1772; the ary activity in Africa and African reaction British government outlawed the international trade to Christianity and missionaries in the fif- in slaves in 1806. British Evangelicals argued that teenth-eighteenth centuries; slavery was wrong on the grounds that all peoples 2. describe the development of other European were created equally according to Divine Will; it missionary activities and African reaction was evil for one person to enslave another. to them in the nineteenth and twentieth One of the most outspoken opponents of the centuries; and international slave trade was Olaudah Equiano, 3. list three independent African Christian also known as Gustavus Vassa The African. He churches and movements in the nineteenth was born in present-day Nigeria, kidnapped, and and twentieth centuries. enslaved in the early eighteenth century. He was taken to the Americas, the West Indies, Europe, KEY WORDS and Turkey. After purchasing his freedom, he theogony went to Britain and argued in his autobiography shaman (published in 1789) that the slave trade could be pantheistic replaced by legitimate commerce, agricultural de- evangelical velopment, and Christianity. White Fathers The founding of Liberia, beginning in 1820, was ecumenical missionary also based in part upon the work of Christian Pentecostal groups in the United States who wanted to assist Aladura freed slaves to escape discrimination by establish- charisma ing a new society of their own in Africa. The American Colonization Society, established in LESSON TEXT 1816, was independent of government control and Of Africa's 500 million people, approximately saw Liberia as a place to return African Americans 40 percent indicate that they are members of a to Africa in order to introduce Christianity to an Christian church. Although its impact has been area adjacent to Sierra Leone, a settlement estab- greater in some regions than others, Christianty is lished by the British for former slaves liberated by one of those factors which has affected virtually all the British anti-slavery naval squadron. parts of the continent and has influenced the devel- Despite these earlier anti-slavery efforts, Euro- opment of contemporary African societies. The modern period of Christianity in Africa pean imperialism of the late-nineteenth century made it easy for Africans to assume that mission- includes approximately 500 years of history- 1500 A.D. to the presentand a legacy that has aries, traders, and government representatives from the same European country would naturally sup- produced mixed feelings among both missionar- port one another.In Kenya, for example, one ies and African Christians. The mix of opinion Kikuyu proverb asserts that: Between the Euro- results from the various impacts of Christianity pean settler and the European missionary there is upon African societies during the 500-year period. no difference.Kikuyu land was taken by the Before European governments claimed control of colonial government in the late-nineteenth and Africa, missionary organizations usually enjoyed 71 67 early-twentieth centuries on various pretexts and pean partners.ButAfrican leaders were sold to European settlers. The Kikuyu proverb, reluctant,and in many cases refused to allow mis- therefore, makes no distinction between those sionaries to establish mission stations, build British settlers who purchased land confiscated churches, and preach. This reluctance resulted from Africans and offered for sale to Europeans, from the role of the missionary as the representa- and the European Christian missionaries, who tive of a new spiritual authority. The Biblical were separate from but still closely associated statement "I am the way, the truth, and the light" with the colonial government. has provoked controversy within Africa.The Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu of South missionaries, the church, and the message of Chris- Africa, prominent member of a "European" Chris- tian pre-eminence threatened to divide African tian church, says that the long process of "Chris- communities in order to establish a single author- tianing" Africa has been beneficial in many ity greater than the African political and spiritual ways. But Christianity has also separated many authorities. Africans from an important part of their cultural The Ibo of present-day eastern Nigeria believe, heritage: according to the writer Chinua Achebe, that: The fact is that, until fairly recently, the "Where one thing stands, another may stand also." African Christian has suffered from a form Achebe has explained that this represents the Ibo of religious schizophrenia. With part of attitude that many ideas, even many gods, may himself he has been compelled to pay lip occupy the same space and time. "There is no one service to Christianity as understood, ex- way" to religion that is best for all peoples, Achebe pressed and preached by the white man. has remarked. European missionaries, however, But with an ever greater part of himself, a generally believed that Africans must give up their part he has been often ashamed to ac- own religions in order to become Christians. Many knowledge openly and which he has African Christian ministers have preached the struggled to repress, he has felt that his same message. This led, Achebe concluded, to Africanness was being violated. conflict within African societies and the abandon- Archbishop Tutu refers to the "African Chris- ment of many beliefs and practices which were tian" as a male. His term of reference reminds us valuable to Africans. that the Catholic missionaries of the the sixteenth- Christian communities did develop in Africa, eighteenth centuries directed their appeal towards though, and these were expanded by increased African royal families and towards men. Women Catholic and Protestant missionary activity in the were viewed as a group which would play a nineteenth century. Two types of African churches supporting but not a lt,ading role in the expansion resulted:those w!lich continued to be led and of the church within Africa.During the late administered by church officials located in Europe nineteenth and twentieth centuries, however, Af- or the United States; and those "independent" rican women have emerged as prophets and min- churches led and administered by Africans. In the isters, particularly in the "independent" churches. twentieth century, both types of churches ex- Christianity was initially brought to North Af- panded rapidly in West, Central, East, and South- rica and Ethiopia during the first three centuries ern Africa. However, beginning in the seventh following Christ's death (see the lesson plan on century, most of the people living in North Africa Early Christianity). The Portuguese and, later, and much of West Africa and the East African other European missions were established in West, coast became Muslims. Central, and Southern Africa as a part of commer- As C. G. Baeta surveyed the long history of cial trading ventures of the fifteenth-nineteenth- Christianity in Africa and elsewhere in his Chris- centuries.Many African leaders were willing tianity in Tropical Africa, he remarked that: themselves to use European missionaries to help In India, China, and Japan early Catholic them obtain better conditions of trade with Euro- endeavors deliberately developed the 68 72 policy of adapting Christianity to the in- tures on the western, southern, and eastern coasts digenous religions.In parts of Latin of Africa followed, along with the dispatch of America blends of Christianity and Afri- Catholic priests to minister to Portuguese settlers can religious beliefs have emerged which and Afro-Portuguese families and communities. appear to satisfy deeply the religious needs The Portuguese monopolized sea-borne trade in of those who practise them.In Africa, West Africa for a century before being joined by however, the distinguishing mark of mis- the Dutch, Danes, British, ,-4tdothers. The Portu- sions has been their almost unanimous guese established trading forts along the coast of refusal to incorporate elements of the local West Africa and were interested in slaves, gold, traditional cults in any shape or form within ivory, skins, pepper, and palm oil. In return, they the Christian system of religious thought sold African customers cloth, glassware, kettles and practice. and pans of copper and iron, alcohol, tobacco, The "schizophrenic" behavior noted by Arch- guns, and ammunition. Portugal stated, however, bishop Tutu may be one result of the confrontation that its main interest in Africa was religion. Others between African values and European missonary have said that the Portuguese, as well as later ideology. In some instances, African leaders and European visitors to Africa, were interested in people rejected Christianity even as they wel- "God, Gold, and Glory." comed and were hospitable to European Christian Establishing Catholic missions was a matter of missionaries. self-interest, from Portugal's perspective, but it In other instances, Africans have embraced Chris- was also a requirement of Pope Martin V (1417- tianity exclusively, calling upon church members 1431), who made the Portuguese government re- to completely separate themselves from "tradi- sponsible fcr missionary activities in lands newly tional" religion or what was called "fetish wor- discovered by its explorers in return for a mo- ship" (after the Portuguese word feitico, idol or nopoly over trade. The Portuguese government charm). made a commercial profit and the Portuguese king Finally, many Africans have added African ele- appointed the priests who were sent to the settler ments to Christianity and have continued to honor colonies. and practice traditional cultural or religious ritu- The Portuguese crown had several goals in Af- als. Thus, Africans have responded in a variety of rica.The first was to transform Africa into a ways to both missionaries and Christianity. While Catholic society on the model of Portugal itself. some may believe that this has proven to be spiri- This would make it easier to communicate with tually or behaviorally unhealthy, others view the Africans and therefore to control their societies. African experience with Christianity as beneficial Second, the Portuguese were interested in locating and typical of African intellectual flexibility; people the source of Africa's wealth, particularly the gold became Christians because it was spiritually satis- mines which had funded trade across the Sahara to fying, practical, and/or socially useful. North Africa. Third, Portugal hoped to locate the legendary kingdom of Prester John, a mythical Portuguese Missions in West Africa Christian monarch who might join them in attack- Cautiously working their way around the Vy. st ing Muslims and re-capturing control of the over- African coast in the fifteenth century, the Portu- land and Red Sea-Indian Ocean trade routes to guese leased land in present-day Ghana from a India. Christian Ethiopia was considered by many local African ruler and built fort Sao Jorge da Mina to be the land of Prester John, and the Portuguese (or Elmina, the mine) in 1482. Five years later, contributed substantially to the defeat of the Mus- Portuguese captain Bartolomeu Dias sailed his lim armies of Ahmed Gran in Ethiopia in the ship across the Gulf of Guinea and rounded the fourteenth century. southern tip of Africa.The establishment of Searching for new potential converts, Portu- Portuguese trading stations and commercial ven- guese missionaries sometimes left the coast and 73 69 travelled into the interior. In some instances, they Ngola (present-day Angola). But, religious activ- found kingdoms similar to those in Europe. The ity was minor compared to the slave trade which missionaries attempted to convert the king and annually sent thousands of Angolans by ship to royal family, assuming that others within the soci- Brazil. ety would voluntarily choose or be required to The Portuguese also attacked and destroyed follow the king's example. Generally, however, Muslim trading ports on the East African coast. most African kings and queens who were ap- They established a colony in Mozambique in order proached were curious about Catholic beliefs but to control the gold trade originating within the were never fully converted to that faith. African interior kingdom of Mwene Mutapa. The gold rulers were willing to incorporate Catholic beliefs trade ceased in the early nineteenth century, but into their religion, but they were not willing to Portugal retained control of the country unti11974. reject traditional beliefs or rituals. African rulers To support themselves, Catholic priests sold also wanted firearms and soldiers to assist them to pots and household items and some became in- defeat their enemies and viewed the missionaries volved in the slave trade. Many of the missionar- as potential allies in this effort.The chief of ies were lazy, and many of the Portuguese settlers Biguba, for example, wrote to Philip II of Portu- who married African women and adopted an Af- gal: rican lifestyle rejected the missionaries as incom- I hope Your Majesty will write to the petents and busybodies. Although the missionary priest of the Company ofJesus sent here by involvement in the slave trade was considered a you to receive me into the Church. I hope fundamental weakness of the missionary effort, it also that you will send some troops of was also the unfortunate case that the missionaries which you have so many in order to de- were better able to control uprooted and stateless stroy the forces of this enemy of ours who African refugees than individuals who remained already has caused great damage. solidly rooted within their own families and com- If European interests in Africa were God, Gold, munities. and Glory, African interests in Europeans might be described as "Arms, Ammunition, and Allies." African Religions and Christianity The religious expeditions into the African inte- Africa's religious diversity was established long rior did not result in the establishment of new large before the arrival of European or American mis- Christian communities prior to the colonial era, sionaries. Many African states and societies had although some leaders did become Catholics and complex religious theogonies (religious belief sys- received military aid, trips to Europe, and more tems) which explained the role of a supreme god favorable terms of trade. Affonso I of the Kongo and lesser gods in the creation of the world and the became a Portuguese favorite because he was natural order. Africans were frequently tolerant of baptised as a Catholic and materially supported alien beliefs and could incorporate them into their missionary efforts within the capital. own belief systems. For example an Asante (of The Portuguese were most successful in Africa, present-day Ghana) might believe that Nyame, the however, when they established settler colonies supreme god who created the world, was like on the islands off the African coast: Cape Verde, Jahweh of the Old Testament and could be called Sao Tome, Principe. These islands lacked large by many names. It was irrelevant, anyway, since populations; instances of conflict were few; and the Asante viewed Nyame as a spirit so great and the Portuguese settlers married African women on distant from humans that their words, opinions, or the islands. A religious and trading community even their behavior, did not matter. Metaphori- was thereby established and administered by the cally, humans were tiny infrants created by The Portuguese government. In 1576, the Portuguese Almighty who left their welfare, deeds, and con- moved from Sao Tome and established a settler cerns to lesser spirits and deities. community on the coast at Loanda among the Similarly, Catholics, following the Nicene creed, 70 74 recognized the power of the Trinity (Father, Son, convert Africans, train them in African-based semi- and Holy Ghost) but also prayed to or beseeched a naries, and develop an indigenous African priest- vast array of saints, and recognized a collection of hood.This scheme failed: not enough African exalted spirits which included angels and the souls male converts were won, the seminaries were of the departed. The Pope could speak for all poorly staffed and administered, and women were Catholics worldwide as a result of direct commu- virtually ignored.Pior to the mid-nineteenth- nication with God. Priests possessed the magical century development of quinine as a treatment for power to transform wine into blood, and bread (the malaria, the infectious disease (spread by the bite "host") into the flesh of Jesus Christ. Thus, many of the female anopheles mosquito) claimed the similarities existed between a Catholic ecclesias- lives of many of the clergy. Also, there were few tic (priest) and an African spirit medium (sha- important missionary scholars prior to the nine- man). In one sense, this made it easier for some teenth century and much quarrelling among those Africans to embrace Christianity without feeling who did go out to Africa. African states refused to that it was necessary to abandon their own gods. finance these missions, the exception being that of European missionaries, however, generally did the Kongo, which provided subsidies and food for not view this matter the same way. children who attended the mission school. But, if there were structural similarities between In South Africa, white settlement at Cape Coast, some African religious beliefs and European ones, beginning in 1652, was not a missionary effort. important differences also existed. Africans were White expansion into the interior of southern Af- not evangelical:they did not permit or require rica was a search for new farmland and a desire to their religion to be adopted or accepted by people escape government control, not an evangelical outside of their particular ethnic group. Christian- mission. The mix of Dutch, British, French Hu- ity and Islam, however, were and are universal guenot, and Jewish immigrants complicated rela- rather than particalaristic:believers may and tions with indigenous Africans such as the Khoi should convert non-believers to the faith. This and San, who had lived in the regions for thou- proselytizing attitude is the result of Biblical and sands of years, as well as the Bantu-speaking Koranic injunctions to carry the revealed word of peoples who were later arrivals. British mission- God or Allah to the unconverted throughout the aries such as Robert Moffat became involved in world. the politics of South Africa in the nineteenth Portuguese priests also frequently attacked Afri- century and both European-led and independent can polygamy (having more than one wife), which churches have been established in the past two was quite common in Africa.Yet, in order to centuries. report some type of success, priests also would baptize polygamous households as well as thou- Nineteenth Century Missionary Movement sands of other Africans who never attended Mass As noted above, fifteenth-eighteenth century or practiced Catholicism exclusively. The priests Christian missionary activity was closely linked to were expected to help transform Africa but with- trade and state financing and served European and out much support from their government or the Euro-African commercial settlers and their fami- church. Portugal, with only 1.5 million people, lies. The nineteenth-century Protestant mission- was a poor country which could not afford the ary movement was based not upon its links to state many mission stations it was forced to establish trade and financing but to evangelicalism and the from Brazil to the East Indies to comply with Pope financial support of individual Christians and mis- Martin's requirements. The Portuguese crown sionary organizations. The first mission-related also lacked the money to subsidize efforts on a organization in England was the English Society grand scale and the church lacked the personnel for the Propagation of the Gospel, begun in 1701 necessary to staff the missions. to assist "our loving subjects" to resist and over- The theoretical answer to the problem was to come "atheism, infidelity, popish [i.e. Catholic]

71 75 superstition and idolatry." Later, in England, the kets and government representatives. The mis- Baptist Missionary Society was established in sionaries enjoyed an independence from govern- 1792 with William Carey its first missionary; the ment administrators and frequently criticized their London Missionary Society, a Congregational ef- policies and actions before the colonial era began. fort, was established in 1795; and the Church They spc-sored independent exploration efforts Missionary Society was an evangelical Anglican such as the 1841 Niger Expedition, and defended, organization established in 1799. The British and at times, African values and leaders, although Foreign Bible Society was founded in 1804 and when they did so they usually incurred the anger of the General Missionary Society of the Methodists the government's representatives, fellow mission- was estabished in 1818. The American Board of aries, or European traders. Slowly, the missionar- Commissioners for Foreign Missions (established ies built clinics, mission stations, agricultural plan- in 1810) and the American Baptist Missionary tations, and in some cases became traders and Board (established in 1814) were based in the merchants. They also built schools and taught in United States. Within the European continent, the the European languages, thereby developing a Netherlands Missionary Society (1797) and the new class of literate Africans in the interior who Basel Missionary Society (1815) were important not only spoke African languages but one or more additions to the evangelical movement. The new European languages as well. Christian missionary Protestant missions were relatively ecumenical work in West Africa is shown in the map on page (non-denominational or multi-denominational), 73. and assisted one another. They were financed by thousands of working-class donors within indi- Itaglitignabilmuniaaaigungii vidual parishes and churches. The first West African graduate of a British The new Catholic missions, funded by the French university was Philip Quaque (b. 1741; d. 1816) of Association for the Propagation of the Faith, were the Gold Coast, who obtained a Bachelor of Arts based upon contributions by parishioners in Eu- degree from Oxford.In 1754, Quaque went to rope and America. The missions included the England to study. He was ordained a priest in the Holy Ghost Fathers, Society of African Missions, Church of England and returned to the Gold Coast and Cardinal Lavigerie's White Fathers (estab- in 1766 where he lived until his death. lished in 1878). The Vatican re-established its By 1900 in West Africa, there were 29 missions; official missionary agency, Congregatio de Pro- 518 foreign missionaries; 2,538 African auxilia- paganda Fide (Congregation for Propagating the ries; 2,000 churches and mission stations; and Faith) in 1817; Cardinal Cappelaria (later, Pope approximately 250,000 converts out of a total Gregory XVI: 1830-1846) was appointed the Pre- West African population of 50 million people. fect [Chief Officer] of Propaganda in 1826. Pope Despite the new European evangelical fervor of Gregory played a vigorous role in supporting the nineteenth century, Africans generally did not mission work, and unsuccessfully attempted convert to Christianity; African political and reli- thereby to control the French-based Association. gious leaders opposed the attempt to introduce a In other instances, Propaganda was more success- belief system which undermined their own posi- ful in controlling seminalies and priests among the tions.Experimenting with missionaries to test 50 new Catholic missionary societies. their usefulness, African leaders generallycon- Although Africa's coastal climate remained in- cluded by 1900 that European missionarieswere hospitable to Europeans, new missionaries-in- more loyal to European rather than African politi- cluding larger numbers of women-builtnew mis- cal and religious institutions. African converts, sion stations in the 1850-1900 period. New jour- moreover, were considered dangerous within their nals described their work to their Europeansup- own communities-they undermined the popular porters. New stations were established in the support, loyalty, and taxes required by African African interior-far removed from coastalmar- leaders. Moreover, in addition to polygamy, mis- 72 7G Missionary Penetration of West Africa Before 1914

CHURCH MISSIONARY BASLE MISSION BREMEN MISSION METHODISTS CATHOLICS ATLANTIC SOCIETY (Presbyterian) (Presbyterian)

After its earlywork Made contact Its missionaries Thomas Birch Catholic missions in Sierra Leone with the Asante had to leave Peki Freeman founded were spearheaded 0 0 and Abeokuta. it after the second in 1847 because the Fante mission by ralSocietyof the was exceptionally Anglo-Asante of Malaria at Kumasi in 1847 Sacred Heart OCEAN successful in War. They owed their (hi Fathom of tho lbolan/. new mission at Holy Ghost. Keta in 1853.

Timbuktu Gao St Louis FRENCH SU Lake Dakar Kayes Chad . Segu UPPER Bathurst VOLTA GAMBIA Say

PORTUGUESE FRENCH GUINEA GUINE

Vole Freetown Malaria took a ver heavy toll among A beol:utV..;;;Cliktija (First major CMS Catholic missions 80 missionary centre) on the Ivory Coast

. OLD tCOAST Accra Grand Cape Bassam Castle

Gul fof Guinea

Substantial missionary penetration by 1900

Source: Brian Catchpole and I.A. Akinjogbin, A History of West Africa In Maps andDiagrams. London: Collins Educational, 1984. 77 73 BEST COPY AVAILABLE sionaries opposed the taking of traditional titles, administrators when they chose, but also demanded the killing of twins at birth, secret societies, the protection when they were alarmed or threatened. pouring of libations, African dances and clothing The European missionaries of the nineteenth (or lack of it), and African medical practices. and twentieth centuries have been blamed by some Many African leaders refused to even experi- Africans for assisting their governments' imperial ment with or tolerate the presence of missionaries. and colonial efforts.Other Africans, however, In some parts of Yoruba land, many chiefs and point out that simultaneously missionaries con- people believed that the white skin of missionaries tributed to African nationalism. The missionaries proved they were ghosts or spirits and should be generally relied upon education to achieve their avoided. The Ijebu (of present-day Nigeria) who goal of transforming Africa, and introduced tech- saw one CMS missionary sacrificed goats, sheep, nical, religious, and medical training towards this and chickens to their gods and asked for protection end.In Sierra Leone, the Church Missionary from this "spirit." Some Asante thought that white Society opened Fourah Bay College (now the Europeans had spirits closer to those of animals University of Sierra Leone) in 1829. By 1868, the than humans, the converse of European racist CMS had established 21 elementary schools; and views about Africans. Europeans, in the opinion by 1865 it had established a secondary school each of many Africans, were not truly human. for boys and girls. The missionaries were also in Many African rulers saw missionaries, then, as the forefront of European language study in Af- threats: spies, ghosts, or usurpers. Missionaries rica, so that they could translate all or part of the sought to change African society, to re-mold it. Bible into the vernacular for study by local church They did not ask to become subjects of the African members. And, they published dictionaries, word rulers but rather established a competing institu- lists, and grammars for use in Africa and abroad. tion. Missionaries who found a temporary resi- Even present-day dedicated socialists such as Zim- dence in some states were instructed by African babwe president Robert Mugabe recall the educa- leaders not to teach their European language or the tional assistance they received at mission schools. message of the Bible to their African subjects. The debate over the impact of European mission- Thus, a tension always existed between African ary activity is not likely to end soon. rulers and European missionaries. The egalitarian message of the New Testament was a threat. Twentieth Century African Independent Churches: African converts challenged traditional authority the Aladura Movement and frequently were supported by government The second type of church in Africaone estab- administrators and constabulary.Missionaries lished and controlled by Africanshas been called were considered useful by African leaders when an "indigenous" one and contains two categories. they acted as a means towards realizing African The first type incorporates traditional African be- political and commercial ends: improved trade liefs and practices into Euro-Christian churches. and communications with Europe, and the acqui- The second type of African indigenous church sition of firearms, ammunition, and other con- essentially mirrors the beliefs, practices, and orga- sumer items. nization of the European mission churches. Both Fundamentally, European missionaries did want categories of African indigenous churches have to transform African society. They specifically spread rapidly in the twentieth century. We shall went to Africa in various capacities in order to concentrate here upon the Aladura church of West persuade Africans to adopt a belief in a new god Africa and the Kimbanguist church of Central and his human/divine sonJesus Christ. [Some Africa as representatives of these two categories. Africanswho rejoiced in large numbers of off- The name "Aladura" derives from the Yoruba springscoffed at the power of a god who was word for prayer (adura). This is an independent incapable of producing more than one son.] Mis- African movement based upon the belief that God sionaries wanted to be independent of government answers all prayers. Prayer, therefore, is at the 74 78 center of the worship service, and members of the within the Aladura churches since the1930s,but Aladura movementwhich began in western Ni- the movement continues to grow. Professional geriarejected the use of traditional African and pastors and administrators have emerged to pro- Western medicine, not prayer-based, which are mote the continuance of the churches beyond the used to counteract infections. Today, however, death of a founding prophet or visionary whose the Aladura allow church members to decide upon charisma (magnetic personality) draws support the use of Western medicine, but strictly forbid the from the populace, and results in influence and use of traditional African healing practices. power. The Aladura is an independent African There are many Aladura denominations. Three church which draws selectively upon Euro-Chris- of the major Aladura are:the Christ Apostolic tian traditions such as Kntecostalism and literal Church, the oldest and the least African in belief Biblical interpretation. These are combined with and practice; the Cherubim and Seraphim, which select features of traditional African practice such had many factions but has recently been re-united as religious dance and belief in the divine revela- under its female co-founder, Captain Abiodun; tion of hidden knowledge. and the Church of the Lord and the Celestial Church of Christ, the youngest but fastest grow- The Kimbanguist and Other Independent African ing. There also exists an international Aladura Churches movement, which is similar to Pentecostal churches J. B. Webster noted that Africans established in the United States. separate and independent churches through a pro- The Aladura movement originated during the cess similar to that which resulted in the develop- 1918influenza epidemic in southern Nigeria. J. B. ment of separate Roman Catholic, Greek, Russian, Sadare organized the Precious Stone Society which and Ethiopian Orthodox churches, as well as the rejected medicine and relied solely upon prayer. many varieties of Protestant churches and faiths. Through member David Odubanjo of Lagos, the "Schism," he concludes, "has been endemic in the Society became internationally linked to the Faith Christian tradition." Tabernacle Church in the United States. Within Africa, the Aladura represented only one Revivals during the1930semphasized depen- of many different African Christian churches and dence upon the Bible, prayer, and holy water. The movements in the nineteenth and twentieth centu- minister Joseph Babalola of Faith Tabernacle in ries.Africans trained at European mission sta- Ilesha, Nigeria, was an inspiring preacher who tions within Africa frequently scorn preachers and drew large crowds from other parts of southern members of the independent churches as apostates Nigeria. Prophets such as Daniel Orekoya and or heretics.Nevertheless, many independent Josiah Oshitelu emerged. The Aladura explained churches have risen throughout sub-Saharan Af- the world-wide depression, famine, and epidem- rica. ics of the1930sas God's punishment: One reason for the rise of independent African Many are the hardships which Satan has churches in this century was the fact that European sent to us now, mighty dangers hang over missionaries and the colonial administrators shared the world...all the people of the world certain social and political values which separated suffer from lack of trade, shortage of money them from African converts. Africans discovered and unemployment....The times are chang- that while they might eventually become acolytes ing. ...Famine, Epidemic and Death are (clerical assistants) or ministers within the mis- abundant. In a phrase, the whole world is sion churches, they could not become bishops and upside down. chief administratorspositions reserved for Euro- The Aladuramovement began as areligion of peans. One English missionarycriticized Euro- literate clerks and traders and became one which pean racial attitudes and policy in this way: "God today includes illiterate farming Christian con- wants you all to be Christiansome few of you to verts as well. Splits and factions have emerged be priests; but he only chooses white men as

75 79 bishops." With the exception of a few Africans them members of independent churches. such as Anglican Bishop Samuel Crowther of Kimbangu, a catechist of the British Baptist Nigeria (1864 to 1891), this policy remained true mission and a Bakongo of the Kongo Kingdom, until the nationalist period in Africa after World led a large revival in which he ahKed Africans to War H. destroy traditional religious statues, charms, and While many Africans today praise European amulets (charms to protect one against evil). Thou- missionaries for building schools and health fa- sands of people left their jobs to attend the revival cilities, others resent the social segregation which meetings and to see Kimbangu, who was rumored separated European clerics from African parishio- to have magical healing powers. Kimbangu was ners; the support provided by the missions for arrested, allegedly for preaching that God was colonial governments; and the unwillingness of more powerful than the Belgian state or colonial European missions to appoint educated Africans administration. In June 1921, Kimbangu escaped to positions of authority.Many of the African jail but voluntarily returned in September of that independent churches were established to enable year. In the interim, Europeans armed themselves Africans to control churches in which they pro- for an expected uprising and revolutionary move- vided a majority if not all of the members. The ment. They worried that the favorite hymn of African Orthodox Church in Uganda was estab- Kimbangu's followers was "Onward Christian lished, according to its leaders, "for all right- Soldiers." Kimbangu himself spent the time from thinking Africans, men who wish to be free in their June to September in Congolese .illages, openly own house, not always being thought of as boys." preaching and teaching. Yet Chri3tian communities in Africa continued Although Kimbangu did not advocate political to grow during the colonial period. African gradu- reform, his work was considered a threat to the ates of mission schools were frequently more colonial government. His followers and other successful in securing jobs requiring literacy in Africans were not allowed to buy Bibles because English, French, or German. European dress and the government feared that scripture would be mannerisms became fashionable and were emu- used to justify a revolt.Thus, although the lated or required by business and government Kimbanguist movement began as a purely reli- employers. Purification and revivalist movements gious one, it was perceived by colonial authorities such as the one inspired by Alice Lenshina, who as a political movement and its leader treated, left the Church of Scotland to establish the Lumpa tried, and imprisoned as a traitorous enemy of the Church in present-day Zambia, Tanzania, and state. Malawiadded new African converts and solidi- Within the present-day country of Malawi (for- fied the base of the independent churches. African merly Nyasaland), John Chilembwe founded the churches began to incorporate African languages, Providence Industrial Mission in 1906 in order to instrumentation, liturgy, and ritual into indepen- protest the racial policies of the colonialist govern- dent church services. ment and, later, the recruitment of Africans to fight Although the independent churches generally in World War I. Chilembwa led an uprising in avoided politics, colonial governments were very 1915 which was suppressed and ended with his suspicious of their motives and imprisoned many death. The movement he inspired, however, con- African church leaders. Among the most famous tinued. was Simon Kimbangu, who was jailed in the Another large, religiously based anti-colonial former Belgian Congo (now Zaire) in 1921 and movement in Nyasaland was led by Elliot Kenan died there in 1951. Congo missionaries claimed Kamwana, who established the African Watch- that Kimbangu's followers were nationalists who tower Church in 1908-09. This church was in- wanted to replace the colonial government with spired by the Watchtower organization of one led by Africans. By 1952, there were almost Jehovah's Witnesses of the United States. 4,000 political prisoners in the Congo, most of Kamwana preached that the end of the world was 76 so appoaching, that colonialism would end, and that G. first West African to graduate from a British Africans would enter a new age of material pros- university perity.The Nyasaland government exiled H. Made the Portuguese responsible for mis- Kamwana in 1909 and did not permit him to return sionary activity until 1937. But his church and movement spread from Nyasaland to Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) SHORT ANSWER and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe). 1. Bishop Desmond Tutu says that "until fairly Since 1960 and the emergence of African-con- recently the African Christian has suffered trolled governments on the continent, many mis- from a form of religious sion churches have been forced to admit Africans .ff into positions of authority or risk confrontation 2. The modern period of Christianity in Africa with African-led governments.Independent began about AD. churches have also become more acceptable. 3. The first Portuguese missions in West Africa were located on islands such as: DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Why did the Portuguese want to sail to African ports? Why did they want to sail and south around the tip of the continent? 4. Pope Martin V declared that the Portuguese 2. Why did Catholic and Protestant mission would have societies send priests and ministers to Africa the power to appoint the priests sent to in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries? settler colonies. 3. What were the reactions of African rulers 5. Many missionaries from various countries in and people to missionary activities within Europe and from America began arriving in their societies? Africa in the century. 4. What are African independent churches? 6. Many traditional African rulers Why were they established? missionaries from 5. Why do many Africans have mixed attitudes preaching in their societies. regarding the introduction of Christianity 7. One well-known African independent church into Africa? is the 8. About percent of MATCHING Africa's population of "Where one thing stands, another may million people is Christian. stand also." Pope Martin V (1417-1431) ESSAY Alice Lenshina Simon Kimbangu 1. How have African traditional beliefs been Affonso I affected by the introduction of mission White Fathers Christians or independent churches. Philip Quaque (1741-1816) J. B. Sadare LITERATURE Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New A. Catholic king of the Kongo York: Fawcett Publications, 1959. B. established the Aladura church in Nigeria Baeta, C. G. Christianity in Tropical Africa. C. charismatic Bakongo preacher London: Oxford University Press, 1968. D. Catholic missionaries Courlander, Harold. A Treasury of African E. Ibo proverb Folklore. New York: Crown Publishers, F. founded Lumpa Church of Zambia 1975.

77 8 1 Fashole-Luke, Edward, Richard Gray, Adrian Hastings and Godwin Tasie (eds.). Chris- tianity in Independent Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978. Harris, Marvin. Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches. New York: Random House, 1975. Hastings, Adrian. A History of African Chris- tianity 1950-1975. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979. Hastings, Adrian. African Christianity: An Essay in Interpretation. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1976. Mbiti, John S. Bible and Theology in African Christianity. Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1986. Mbiti, John. African Religions and Philosophy. New York: Doubleday, 1969. Parrinder, Geoffrey. African Traditional Reli- gion. 2nd rev. ed. London: Seraph, Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, 1962. Webster, J.B. (ed.). Tarilch: Christianity in Modern Africa. Vol. 3, No. 1. London: Longmans, Green & Co., Ltd., 1969.

78 82 MODERN AFRICA ethnic groups prior to the European invasion. There were, for example, over 3,000 distinct lan- George Burson guages, 800 to 1,000 major languages, and a corresponding number of distinct cultures and GOALS political systems ranging from band societies of The student will be able to understand: 15 to 40 members to large and powerful kingdoms 1. sub-Saharan Africa from 1900 to 1930; or states with millions of people. 2. the growth of African nationalism; The effects of imperialism varied accordingly. 3. sub-Saharan Africa since independence; Furthermore, the European powers themselves and took rather different approaches to colonial rule, 4. the history of the Republic of South although some historians have concluded that the Africa. effects were the same.The British tended to exercise "indirect rule" through existing chiefs or KEY WORDS ones created or appointed by the colonial govern- imperialism ment. The French believed in "direct rule" by Great Depression appointed officials. The number of white settlers aparthAid varied greatly from colony to colony, depending World War II upon the attractiveness of the colony or protector- nationalism ate for agriculture and trade. The colonial bound- Afrikaans aries established by 1914 can be seen in the map on Bantustans page 80. Compare them with the boundaries of ethnic 1952 depicted in the map on page 81. indirect rule Polikally, the goal of the Europeans was stabil- ity, a condition they attempted to accomplish LESSON TEXT through the maintenance of small armies with white officers and non-commissioned officers Sub-Saharan Africa: 1900-1930 (NC0s), an African police force, and a modern Europe had a long history of contact with sub- bureaucracy capable of taxing and governing the S aharan Africa through the trans-Saharan caravan population. Since the colonies were supposed to trade which began in the third or fourth century pay for themselves, salaries for government work- A.D. European traders had been in constant con- ers normally absorbed nearly all the tax revenues tact with Africa's coastal regions ever since the and very little was spent on basic social services. Age of Discovery, beginning in the fifteenth cen- Economically, the imperialist goal was to draw the tury. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, raw materials of Africa into the rapidly expanding trade in raw materials and slaves increased Euro- world economy. The Europeans often imposed pean influence. After 1880, the largest and most head taxes, payable in money or labor, to compel powerful states in Europe scrambled for territory Africans to work for the colonial government, and pushed into the interior of Africa, using over- traditional chiefs, on plantations, or within the whelming military force to establish firm political mines. Overall, the impact of colonization was a control, despite large-scale African resistance in shifting of African agriculture to cash export crops many parts of the continent. and a decline in both traditional self-sufficient Gradually but relentlessly, this imperial system farming and nomadic herding. transformed Africa. Generally speaking, its effect was to weaken the traditional social order and The Growth of African Nationalism. challenge accepted values. Yet this generalization The Great Depression (1929-1940) was the de- must be qualified.For one thing, Eub-Saharan cisive turning point in the development of African Africa consisted of many different cultures and nationalism. For the first time unemployment was 79 83 r W44:Xra4r; 46.1 .4 !:s 0.400444'. :fee gel):;t:emee ...41.44/:.:::::;:',:,:e..th .4 ;44 wee,,,*.4:4/0:: *:k 4.9?#/#.0.146.

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Source: Africa Today: An Atlas of Reproducible Pages. © 1990 World Eagle, Inc. Revised Edition. Reprinted here with permission. Further reprinting is not permitted.

81

BEST COPYAVAILABLE 8 5 widespread among educated Africans, who con- attack and reduce the black people to sla- tinued to increase in number as job openings in very. Or so the people had been told. But government and the big foreign trading companies that was far away and long ago and only remained stable or even declined. Hostility toward old men and middle-aged men could re- well-paid white officials rose sharply. The Great member it. It was not as big as i.he second Depression also produced extreme economic hard- because then there were no bombs, and ship and profound discontent among the African black people did not go to Egypt and Burma. masses. Most African economies were based on Why should the white men have fought? one or two crops. The Great Depression destroyed Aaa! You could never tell what these people the markets for many of these products. African would do. In spite of the fact that they were peasants and small business people who had been all white, they killed one another with drawn into the world economy now suffered greatly poison, fire, and big bombs that destroyed and they blamed the colonial governments for the land. They had even ealled the [Afri- their predicament. can] people to help them in killing one World War II (also referred to as the Second another. It was puzzling. You could not World War) greatly accelerated the changes be- really understand because although they gun in the 1930s. Mines and plantations strained said they fought Hitler...Hitler too wasa to meet wartime demands. Cities grew rapidly and white man. the resulting social dislocation created discontent. The first movement for independence occurred Africans had such eye-opening experiencesas the in the Gold Coast, which was renamed Ghana in curious spectacle of the British denouncing the March 1957. Rioting ar,d an economic boycott of racism of the Germans. Many African soldiers white business broke out under the leadership of who served in India were very impressed by Indian Kwame Nkrumah, who attended universities in nationalism. England and the United States. In 1951 his party In WeepNotChild, the Kenyan author Ngugiwa the Convention Peoples Party, or CPPwona Thiong'o writes about the period in hiscountry majority in the legislature and he demanded im- following the end of World War II,( referredto by mediate independence. Over the next fewyears his African narrator as the "Big War") and the the British gradually shifted power to the local impression it made on African soldiers who fought Africans. With this short apprenticeship in self- in Europe or Asia. The narratorcomments at one government, it was possible to make the transition point: to full independence without violence in 1957. Who made the road [in the Kenyan high- After Ghana's breakthrough, independence ;or lands]? Rumor had it that it came with the other African colonies followed rapidly.The white men and some said that it was rebuilt main problem was the permanent white settlers. by the Italian prisoners during the Big War Wherever white settlers were at allnumerous, as in that was fought far away from here. People Kenya, Southern Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe), Al- did not know how big the war had been geria, or South Africa, they soughtto preserve because most of them had neverseen a big their privileged position. The African population war fought with plane3, poison, fire and in Kenya had doubled in 25years, creating tre- bombsbombs that would finish a country mendous pressure for expansion into the lands just like that when they were dropped from held exclusively by white farmers. The white the air. It was indeed a big war because it population, instead of recognizing the needs of the made the British worry and pray and those Africans, instituted progressively more strict and black sons of the land who hadgone to severe laws directed against the majority. Some fight said it was a big war. There wasonce Kikuyu in Kenya formed a terrorist organization, another big war. The first one was to drive Mau Mau, to achieve their political and economic away the Germans who had threatened to goals. 82 8G Not only did Mau Mau seek independence, they 1960s. punished and sometimes killed those of their own The restoration of political control, however, people who were servile to the Europeans or who introduced a new set of political actors, not the resisted Mau Mau demands. In 1957 Kenya erupted traditional officials whose political and economic in a total state of civil anarchy. Mau Mau terrorism systems were incorporated into the various colo- had spread into almost every area of the country. nial structures in the late nineteenth century. The Africans suspected of participating in the secret new political parties were frequently opposed to society were shot on the spot by whites. Mau Mau the traditional leaders, who tended to represent was effective, however, in persuading the British rural rather than modern urban constituencies. that it was unprofitable to continue a long struggle Although Africans jubilated over the nationalist against a guerilla organization which was capable victories and new independent political order of of living within the countryside and terrorizing the the 1960s, ethnic rivalries, secessionist tenden- population. Few white people were actually at- cies, sahelian drought in the 1970s and 1980s, tacked or killed, but many black Africans died as extraordinary energy price increases, the decline a result of Mau Mau operations and in the concen- of world market coffee, tea and cocoa prices, and tration camps built by the colonial government. other factors have produced economic decline, the Most of the British farmers departed and in 1963 rise of single-party spcialist and military govern- Kenya became independent. ments, and what Ali Mazrui has referred to as "the Other long wars were fought in Algeria (1954- African condition." 1961), Southern Rhodesia (present-day Zimba- Using a medical metaphor, Mazrui then exam- bwe) and in the Portuguese colonies of Angola, ined the African "patient" and "diagnosed" the Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau.In Southern problem. Mazrui, among others, lamented that Rhodesia whites were numerous enough to prevail Africans grew fond of imported foods, cars, and for a long period.Southern Rhodesian whites luxury items which became increasingly illegally declared independence from Britain in unaffordable in the 1980s. While per capita in- 1965, and fought black nationalists until 1980 come increased annually at 1.8 percent, popula- when the whites and blacks worked out a compro- tion increased at 3.6 percent. The "green revolu- mise wherein the black majority would rule and tion" which made India a net exporter of rice has the whites would be allowed to participate in the not been duplicated in most African countries. government. In 1984 whites still controlled 33 Yellow fever, dysentery, malaria, hookworm, percent of the nation's best farmland and ac- yaws, schistosomiasis, vitamin deficiency, and counted for 80 percent of Zimbabwe's agricultural malnutrition affect parts of the African continent. production. The U.S. Bureau of the Census forecasts that by 2015 A.D., more than 70 million AIDS victims Sub-Saharan Africa Since independence will be African and that it. will be a major cause of It is important to note that African resistance to adult deaths. The societai ramifications are only European imperialism and colonialism was wide- now becoming clear in outline form. Efforts by spread, and that the colonial period was a rela- major research and funding organizations are be- tively short one of approximately 60 to 80 years. ing planned to assist tifiican governments, but Equally important, colonialism was not designed thus far many refuse to acknowledge (or do not to be an exercise in democratic government: Af- know) the extent of the problem. A complemen- ricans were not asked or permitted to elect colonial tary effort is also underway to improve African administrators or representatives. European gov- unive sity research facilities and to encourage ernments, in fact, were not planning to return African intellectuals to return from their resi- political and governmental control to popularly dences in Europe, the Americas, and Asia. elected African leaders until liey were relatively Contemporary African political systems fre- quickly forced to do so in the late 1950s and early quently include military control or only one politi-

83 8 7 cal party. The "Big Man" syndrome has been groups within an African country struggled to analyzed by many political scientists who have guarantee themselves a fair share of the "national studied Africa. Again, it is important to remember cake." In the succeeding decade of the 1970s, that the colonial governments did not view their recession and inflation further reduced the size of role as that of preparing Africans to govern them- the cake itself. selves. Even in the 1950s, many colonial admin- istrators stated that Europeans would continue to The Republic of South Africa control African governments and economies for In 1910, South Africa became basically a self- many decades, until Africans were "prepared" to governing dominion, like Canada and Australia, govern themselves. Having destroyed many of the and in 1931 it became totally independent. De- political, legal, and economic structures which feated on the battlefield in the Boer war, the opposed them in the late nineteenth and early embittered Dutch settlers (Afrikaners), who make twentieth centuries, Eurr,peans characterized Af- up 60 percent of nation's white inhabitants, ricans as incapable of constructing and managing gradually won political power from their English- complex political and economic systems. Thus, speaking sett:er rivals. In 1948 they gained con- publicly they remained skeptical about the ability trol of the government and continue to dominate of African leaders to replace colonial leaders. South African politics. A map of present-day It was also the case that when Africans rapidly South Africa is located on page 87. reclaimed control of their governmentsmainly in South Africa's strategic location enables it to the 1960sthese governments were modeled upon dominate the sea-lanes that carry a large portion of the British or French system of government, not the world's trade.It is widely endowed with ones designed by Africans or ones which had mineral resources (gold, diamonds, manganese, naturally evolved within the African context. zinc, coal). These mineral resources have enabled Having been denied the right to participate in the country to establish substantial heavy industry large-scale politics for 60-75 years, many of the facilities. The country is also a major exporter of new leaders had little experience. Members of the agricultural products. national assembly or parliament were equally new Throughout the twentieth century the goals of to government, though they were experienced Afrikaner nationalism have been consistent: white politicians. supremacy and racial segregation. Today, about Finally, many new African-led governments in 5.25 million whites dominate more than 21 mil- the 1960s inherited treasuries which were impres- lion blacks.Since 1948, successive Afrikaner sive and an economy that annually produced a governments have established policies and laws positive cash flow. Coffee, cocoa, and tea prices based on a totalitarian fabric of racial discrimina- remained high for many years, thus enabling Afri- tion and inequality.This system is officially can governments to fund transportation, educa- known as apartheid, meaning separation or segre- tion, housing, medical, and other social service gation. The population is divided into four legally needs. But the demand for social services quickly unequal racial groupswhites, blacks, Asian, and escalated when Africans assumed the reins of racially mixed Coloreds. Since only whites can government. African politicians had to respond participate in the government, most observers see faster than colonial bureaucrats had done to public apartheid as a way of maintaining the economic sentiment. Their political lives depended upon it. and political privileges of the white minority, who The African military also showed that they had account for only 20 percent of the total population. definite ideas about the way the government should In 1913, the legislature passed the Native Land operate, and how much money should be spent on Act, which limited black ownership of land to "defense," though few African countries were native "homelands," encompassing a mere 13 ever invaded by another African army. Demand percent of the country. Because of government for social services increased as the many ethnic resettlement policies, 52 percent of black South

84 68 Africans live in the ten homelands. Poor, over- In 1973, a wave of strikes by black workers populated, and too small to feed themselves, the spread across South Africa.The government reserves have served as a pool of cheap, temporary reacted severely and decided that all black South black labor for white farms, gold mines, and fac- Africans would be required to live in one of the tories. A black workertypically a young man Bantustans or "homelands." without a familycould leave the reserve only with Events affecting South Africa flowed swiftly in special permission. In the eyes of the law, he was 1975 and 1976. Both Angola and Mozambique only a temporary migrant who could be returned at became independent "socialist" states and were will by his employer or the government. "Pass used as havens by black nationalists opposing the laws" required, until they were abolished in 1984, South African regime. On several occasions South every black South African outside the reserves to African armed forces conducted raids into these carry at all times an up-to-date pass approved by countries to attack guerilla bases.Faced with the white police. Many blacks were arrested for growing opposition to apartheid, South Africa violation of the pass lawsnearly a million blacks quadrupled its defense budget, reorganizing its were jailed every year, most of them on petty forces "for rapid local control of operations to charges. This harassment greatly infuriated many combat insurgencies." In 1976 black school chil- black South Africans. dren in Soweto began street demonstrations to In 1913, when the Indian population of South protest the use of Afrikaans as a language of Africa, clustered mainly around Durban in Natal instruction. Over 360 people, many of them teen- province, was required to carry passes, they re- agers, were killed and thousands were arrested as fused to do so. Led by the young lawyer Mahatma violence spread. This disturbance was followed Gandhi, the Indian residents of South Africa con- by outbreaks in several other areas of the country ducted a campaign of non-violent protest which that have continued sporadically until the present. eventually succeeded in the abolition of pass laws Beginning in the 1980s, South Africa has be- for Asians in 1918. come increasingly isolated from the international About 4 million black South Africans live in community. Its athletes were banned from most white rural areas, working on white farms or in events (including the Olympics). An economic forestry, transportation, or service jobs. Much of boycott seriously hurt its economy. For example, South Africa's farm labor depends on black share- in 1987, exports from South Africa to the United cropping. Several million other black South Afri- States dropped by more than 40 percent. cans live in urban areas in strictly segregated In 1989, F.W. de Klerk became president of townships.The largest of these townships is South Africa and he continued the "reform" ef- Soweto, just outside Johannesburg. Over a mil- forts that his predecessor (P.W. Botha) had begun. lion blacks live there on white owned property. The ANC was afforded legal status and Nelson Beginning in 1960, black South Africans began Mandela was released from prison. A formal to press hard for greater freedom of movement, dialogue between the ANC and the government wages equal to those of white workers, social began. On the other hand, a white backlash has benefits, and participation in government at all developed, with many Afrikaners disagreeing with levels. In March 1960, police panicked and fired the government's "soft" stand on segregation and on unarmed demonstrators in Sharpevilie, killing what supporters of apartheid call "separate de- 67 and wounding nearly 200. The government velopment." In a whites-only referendum held on declared a state of emergency and outlawed the March 18, 1992, a large majority (70 percent) of African National Congress which was leading the the white voters indicated that de Klerk should demonstrations.In 1963 Nelson Mandela and continue negotiating with the ANC and organiz- some other leaders of the ANC were sentenced to ing a constitutional convention. life imprisonment. Mandela was not released until Even though black South Africans comprise 75 January 1991. percent of the population, ethnic, class, religious,

85 8 9 regional, urban-rural, and gender divisions among Which of these statements best explains the them still exist and is reflected in a variety of impact of the West on non-Western people: A. Non-Westerners rejected the ideals and ideologies and political persuasions. As long as institutions of the West. black South Africans remain fragmented, the white B. Non-Westerners accepted the ideals and government utilizes these divisions to seek allies institutions of the West uncritically. for its position. C. Non-Westerners accepted many of the Likewise, the white community in South Africa ideals and institutions of the West but rejected colonialism. is not monolithic. While many white South Afri- D. Non-Westerners accepted many of the cans support the enfranchisement of black and ideals and institutions of the West, but Asian South Africans, there also exists a conserva- rejected those that disrupted traditional tive portion of the community which resists all ways of life. political reform unless it would impose greater The apartheid system of South Africa: restrictions upon black South Africans and strict A. is designed so that black South Africans racial segregation.Although there is pressure will acquire political power and partici- within the United States Congress for the U.S. to pate in the decision-making process of withdraw its support from the South African re- government. gime, South Africa's strategic geographical posi- B. is generally supported by Western gov- ernments. tion, its role as a supplier of strategic military C. is based upon social segregation and materials, and the moderate image of the de Klerk political and legal rights different for administration, insure that the U.S. will continue whites, Asians, blacks, and coloreds. to try and keep on good terms with the present D. has insured peaceful race relations within government, while encouraging it to ameliorate its the country. racist policies. ESSAY Although each of the events above has been What were the economic, social, and political accompanied by unfortunate side effects (e.g., goals of the indigenous Africans who demanded increased ANC-Inkatha confrontation in South independence from the European colonial powers Africa), many analysts are cautiously optimistic which controlled Africa from about 1900 to 1960? Have these goals been achieved since indepen- once again that Africa will overcome the obstacles dence? Provide specific examples to support your to economic modernization and political partici- conclusions. pation and inaugurate a new period of peace and security within the continent.If so, it will be a LITERATURE testimony rri the adaptability, perseverance, and Afigbo, A.E. The Making of Modern Africa. Two patience of peoples who have contributed much to Volumns. New York: Longman, 1986. the social, political, technological, and intellectual Africa South of the Sahara 1991. London: Europa history of the human species. Publications Limited, 1991. Davidson, Basil. Modern Africa: A Social and Political History. New York: Longman, 1989. SAMPLE TEST July, Robert. A History of the African People. Second edition. New York: Scribner, 1974. Circle the letter of the correct answer. Martin, Phyllis M. and Patrick O'Meara. Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986. The diffusion of Western culture has influenced Mazrui, Ali. The Africans: A Triple Heritage. African cultures in all of the following ways Boston: Little Brown, 1986. except;. A. lowered health standards B. the disruption of traditional family values C. promoting the growth of cities D. changing the way many people make their living

86 South Africa

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Source: Maps on Filea Martin Greenwald Associates, Inc. ©

BEST CMMILE 91 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Center would like to thank World Eagle, Inc. for permission to include the following maps which appear in Africa Today: An Atlas of Reproducible Pages (1990; Revised Edition): Political Map: Countries and Capitals; Ethnolinguistic Groups; Ecological Areas of Africa; Islam in Africa; Colonial- ism in 1914; Colonialism in 1952; and the population estimates included in "Countries, Popuiations, and Capitals." None of these may be reprinted without permission of World Eagle, Inc; 64 Washburn Avenue; Wellesley, Massachusetts 02181. The Longman Group UK, Ltd. granted permission to reprint the following maps ft am African History in Maps (1982), authored by M. Kwamena-Poh, J. Tosh, R. Waller, and M. Tidy: The Atlantic Slave Trade to 1808; First European Contacts with West Africa, c. 1450 to c. 1800; and West Africa to About 1600. These maps may not be reproduced without the permission of The Longman Group UK, Ltd.; Longman House; Burnt Mill; Harlow; Essex CM20 2JE; United Kingdom. The maps of Zimbabwe, Pernambuco (Brazil), and South Africa are maps in the public domain, appear in Maps on File, published by Martin Greenwald Associates, Inc., and may be reprinted for non- commercial educational use. An extensive but unsuccessful effort was made to locate the current distributor of A History of West Africa in Maps and Diagrams, authored by Brian Catchpole and I.A. Akinjogbin, to request permission to use the map "Missionary Penetration of West Africa Before 1914," which appears in the lesson plan "Christianity in Africa: 1500 to the Present." A History of West Africa in Maps and Diagramswas first published in London by Collins Educational in 1984.

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