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ZURVANISM AND ITS INFLUENCE ON ‘POST-ISLAMIC’ with AS A CASE STUDY

By

Parisa Pourhosseini

Submitted to the Faculty of Arts, University of Sydney, for the Degree of Masters of Arts by Thesis

Submitted March 2014

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Introduction …………………………………………………………… 1

1 : Concepts and Development

Mesopotamian Legacy of Zurvanism and Zurvan …………………………………………………….. 9 The Historical Background of Zurvanism ……………………………..10 Narratives of the Zurvan Imperfect Origin of the Creation ……………………………………... 23 Infinite Zurvan and Finite Zurvan ….………………………………… 24 Vāyu, Sky, and Finite Zurvan ………………………………………… 26 Zurvan and Destiny …………………………………………………… 27 Spihr and Destiny ……………………………………………………... 36 Zurvanism, Men, and World ………………………………………….. 38 Human and Destiny …………………………………………………… 40 Zurvanism and ………………………………………………. 41 The End of the World …………………………………………………. 46 Types of Zurvanism ………………………………………………….... 48

2 Epistemological Bases for Poems by Firdausi

Introduction …………………………………………………………..... 52 …………………………………………………………….. 53 Dualism in …………………………………………………..... 53 The Collective Origin of and in Firdausi’s Words …………. 54 The Extended Reign of Evil over the World …………………………… 55 in Shahnameh …………………………….………………..56 Pessimism in Shahnameh …………………………………………... 57 Greed ………………………………………………………………...... 58 The battle of and ………………………………...... 59 Evil inside human in Shahnameh and Zurvanite teachings 62 Judgement ……………………………………………………………… 66 Time and Destiny (Zamāneh and Rouzegār) …………………………... 70 Fate and -given Fate (Baxt and Bagu Baxt) ……………………….. 73 Spihr, the Sky, Firmaments, and the Celestial Sphere …………………..77

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The Determined Rule …………………………………………………….78 Allotment and Portion ………………………………………………….. 79 The Impact of Good and Vicious Stars on Life ………………………… 81 God's Willing …………………………………………………………… 83 Failure of Abstinence and in Preventing Destiny ………..... 87 Transient World and the Necessity of ……………………. 89 The Other World ……………………………………………………… 97 Conclusion …………………………………………………………… 103

References …………………………………………………………… 104

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Introduction

The Problematic of the Research Based on the same philosophical dualism inherent in all Iranian , Zurvanist doctrine was the intellectual interpretation of the Zoroastrian spread over ancient , yet aimed to present a materialistic and naturalistic explanation of the universe. Zurvanist believe that Infinite Time is the first Principle of this world and of all the various changes and groupings to which its members and organs are subject as well as of the mutual opposition that exists between them and of their fusion with one another. There is no punishment for ; therefore and do not exist. There is no spiritual existence. is not a specific subject of the doctrine of Zurvanism. Unlike , it is generally accepted that the Zurvan or originated from the west Iranian plateau1. Its basic ideas rest in all likelihood upon the influence of Babylonian astrology, the use of which continued after the Persian conquest of the Babylonian empire (539 BCE). Zurvanism, as an attempt to make sense the universe based on materialistic principles and naturalist concepts, took celestial bodies and the firmament to have considerable effect over the universe. Zurvanism constitutes beliefs of a sect of who considered space-time as the beginning of the world. The sectarians held Zurvan as a father of the reported Zurvanite rivals Ohromasdes of light and Ahrimanius of darkness. The Zurvanite philosophical system of thought affirms the Infinity of Time, according to which all the creatures come into existence through Time and Zurvan or Zamān (Time) in the perpetual inside which the universe comes into birth. Zurvan is not a creator but sets out a passage for emergence and creation. Ohrmazd and Ahriman, responsible for the creation, are even created through Time regardless of Zurvan’s intention and deliberation. Zurvan is only capable of requesting the creation and being eager for it. Based on the capability it prays for the Ohrmazd responsible for the creation of the universe

1Jalili Moqhadam 1384: 24

4 to come into birth, and within its prevenient Iranian mythology, it unwillingly paves way for the creation of Ahriman. This point indicates fatalism as a basic and fundamental element of Zurvanism, one conquering the intentions and decisions made by . The concept Time or Zurvan is closely associated with destiny. Such insights are hardly unfamiliar with any moderns; as Jean-Paul Sartre (1353:132) affirms: ‘Time besides Space is of the two determinants of the existence’. Needless to say, the circulation of night, day, year, and month alongside their natural manifestations, i.e., the sun, moon, stars, and celestial bodies, had led ancient Mesopotamian and Persians to perceive a relation between Time and the and to convictions about the influence the latter exerted over the universe. Zurvanists pile in on this thread, but also the instability of human affairs, evil and cruelty, and the ephemeral quality of life are other concerns of theirs. Moreover, Zurvanism condemns greed and insists on harmony, moderation, contentment, and encourages its followers to honour their vows. It reminds followers that there be an annihilation of the world; the universe finally dissolves back into the eternity of Zurvan. Zurvanism has had a profound and continuing influence on the Iranian sphere of thought. Fatalism though modified with the coming of through the concept resignation or trust in God, never entirely vanished among Persians even up to present era, and keeps on reappearing as a long-lasting effect on beliefs and ideas of the people. Such a durable impression can obviously be traced from Iranian poets and thinkers of the earlier centuries of Persian literature, especially with the Khorasani Style. The naturalistic spirit and of this group of poets derives from an historical intimacy with pre- Islamic Iran, confirming the persistence of Zurvanian influences. It is of great importance to explore religious influences in literature. Our study in this respect is highly relevant to the contemporary situation. Human now live in a dividedly multicultural, technological, and globalized world. In these days, exploring cultural developments and human relationships with religion provides insights into the mystery of other cultures, which in itself opens an inquiry into the philosophical questions concerning life and , love and hate, time, space, history, subject and object. The study of the influences of Zurvanism on post-Islamic Persian literature can be a clue for unveiling how religion as a cultural and historical phenomenon mobilizes itself

5 through time and space and becomes a defining element in a nation’s art and literature philosopher and a critic who argued that literature can represent ideology. This thesis examines the endurance of Zurvani ideas in Persian culture through considering the works of predominant Khorasani poet and more than that, it examines the views of Hakim Abdul-Qasim Firdausi or Ferdowsi. In the extensive amount of Iranian intellectual works, mostly written following the emergence of Islam, literature plays an important role, this author assumes that Khorasani school of Persian literature may be the most suitable mean to recognize the influence of the pre-Islamic mind-, especially Zurvanism.

Goals and Methodology of the Research The General Research Questions asked below apply to more poets than I can discuss in the compass of a Master’s Thesis, but my research is part of and a contribution toward a broader questioning. Above all, I address:

Major questions of the research: • How does underlying fatalism operate in the work and thought of aforementioned Khorasani poets who demonstrated their works from the tenth century to the sixteenth century which named Persian classical ? In addition, what kind of relation does it have with Zurvanism? • What kind of ideas and maxims of what the poets were influenced or were originated from Zurvanism other than the ideas having roots in fatalism? • To what extent has every of these poets been influenced by Zurvanite maxims? • What is/are the /differences in terms of fatalism among these poets?

Hypotheses of the Research • The seen in the works of the Korasani poets is of different from the Islamic version of determinism and originates from a distinct headspring.

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• Fatalism is not the only influence Zurvanism has had over these poets, but also views about the instability of life, the ‘Epicurean’ way of living, contentment, harmony, and life lived independently of thoughts about the must be included. • The poets have not been equally influenced by Zurvanism and the effect varies depending on their mental and social context.

Aims of The Research • To evaluate how much and how deep Firdausi by Zurvanism. • To examine the affiliation of fatalism inherent in the work and thought of the Khorasani poets with pre-Islam and Islamic intellectual cults.

Method of the Research The method applied to this research was analytical-descriptive, and a documentary method was found appropriate for data gathering. Ancient and mediaeval texts have been gathered and detected how earlier ideas in these texts were picked up, modified and/or redeployed in later times. Thus the discipline of the history of ideas, more particularly the history of religious ideas and , has been combined with applications of Le Manian insights about the role of literature as ideology.

Realm of the Research The domain of the research includes a thorough examination of Zurvanite determinism and related concepts such as instability of the world, greed condemnation, ‘Epicurean’ attitudes to life, and attitudes to life lived with prospects of Heaven, Hell and Resurrection. To begin assessing the long-term effects of Zurvanist approaches to life on Khorasani poetry. The epic Shahnameh were entirely studied. It was considered under two parts: 1. From the beginning to the story of Kāmoos Kashāni; and 2. From the reign of Gushtásp to the reign of Bahman.

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Literature Review Very few writings specifically deal with the above research agenda which is a project only fully opened up by this thesis itself. Prior publications most pertinent for my research, however, include: H. Dolatãbãdi, Persian Title in Italics (The Footprint of Zurvan, God of Fortune and Destiny) (1372) The author examines the influence of Zurvanism across different periods of Iranian history. The book explores Zurvanism in Shahnameh to some degree. R.C. Zaehner, Zurvãn: a Zoroastrian Dilemma (1972). In his precious book Zaehner examines Zurvanism very deeply. His focus on the story of Zál, of great relevance to this thesis, shows how Shahnameh had been under the influence of Zurvanism. The in this story ask Zál some questions and his relevant answers all relate to Time, including Zurvanite ideas. Citing this interaction, Zaehner concludes Firdausi and his Shahnameh as a true representation of Zurvanism. It will be explained in what follows, however, that Zurvanism had not been the only source of inspiration for Firdausi but traces of Zoroastrianism and sometimes Ash'arite Kalãm can be found in the epic.

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Chapter One

Zurvanism: Concepts and Development

The human mind has always been fascinated by the ‘natural phenomena’ particularly the sky, i.e., the moon, the sun, and stars, which have been worshipped since ancient times. Relying on this background, including the in solar in Afanasevo culture widespread across upper Yenisei catchment, the fused their own beliefs and mythologies with those of developed cultures of the , including Babylonian astrology. The result was the belief in the influence of celestial bodies and of astronomical forces over human life. In addition, concern over 'good' and 'evil' and of divisive forces (good and bad ones) was another consequence that emerged from familiarity with Mesopotamian civilizations.

The Mesopotamian Legacy of Zurvanism In his helpful work Asian Religions, Mehrdād Bahār has surveyed certain mythological similarities seen between vernacular west Asian cultures and or Indo-Iranian cultures. He has isolated at least three significant motifs, to do with defeating , cosmic duality, and the mediation of the wind deity.

Primal Rebellion and Chaos It can be seen that some sort of primordial chaos was posited in the mythologies of all west Asian cultures, from as we trace them back to the oldest epochs on to more recent pre-Christian era. The powers of disorder have to be dispensed with before the cosmos (as order) can be achieved. Ea, the great god of wisdom in Sumerian civilization, kills Apsu, ancestor of gods and and one of the two perpetual god-demons. , perpetual -, wife of Apsu and mother of the other gods and demons, is killed by . Moreover, Ba'al in Canaanite mythology seizes power after killing Yam (Sea). The same belief is found in Greek, Iranian, and Indian mythologies. , in , kills . Ripping open Zurvan's womb, Ahriman, in , comes into existence. In the ,

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Purusha is described as a primeval giant that is sacrificed in the Indus Valley by the gods and from his body the world is created. The world as status quo has come into existence after a primal chaos and after god’s rebel against their original ‘questionable’ source. Apsu and Tiamat in are the original source from which gods and demons are born. Greek , Persian Zurvan, and the Purusha in Indian mythology seem to play the same generative role.

The Good-Evil Dichotomy within Divinity The world of ‘deity’ conceived in terms of a strong good-evil dichotomy is another common attribute among west Asian myths that was not actually present in Aryan ones before the ‘Indo-Europeans’ took residence among pre- existing ethnicities in the so-called Iranian Plateau and Indus valley. According to archaic Mitannian, , and Vedic texts, a belief in two groups of Asuras and Devas has been popular among Aryan peoples, although we cannot say any of them initially represented 'good' and 'evil' as principles. ''These mythologies lacked a systematic, specific evil force, but there existed disparately different genres of and other vicious entities''. The primary Aryan texts, the , do not show a distinguishable division between gods but “just some points indicating the god of war, storms, and rainfall fighting against Vrtra the terrifying deva of drought.” It was in the late Vedic period, when there gradually appeared an inclination towards treating two groups of gods, Asuras (bad gods) and Devas (good ones) who shared Prajapati as their primal god-father. Iranian mythology a comparable transformation: appear as good gods versus Devas as evil, both originating from Zurvan (god of Time), who is the equivalent of the Greek Kronus in structure but Chronos in name. Another version of the process of thinking concerning the creation of good and evil can be seen in Avestan , poems attributed to Zarathushtra; “ himself categorically declares that two primal Spirits (Mainyu), who reveal themselves in vision as Twins, are the Good and the Bad, in thought and word and action.”( 30.3) These two, co-equal and co-eternal, are Spento-Mainyu (Good Spirit) and Angro-Mainyu (Evil Spirit or Ahriman), whose father, according to Gathas, is Hourmazd.

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Wind Deity as Mediator At this point we should introduce the wind deity as a possible mediator between older and newer deities. Vāyu, according to the most significant part of the Avestan Yaŝt, pursues both the creation of Ohrmazd and that of Ahriman. Already in the Veda, the Zoroastrian Vāyu is regarded as the god of wind. Mazda prays to Vāyu and he manifests himself through powerful forces in supporting creations by both and Ahriman. His personality oscillates between the principle of light and darkness, and becomes a place of mixture between the powers of good and bad. His role as a good Vāyu is to protect the (Ruvan) of the righteous from the harm of evil. From this introduction to the character and attributes of the Vāyu as an important god, we can conclude that cosmologically, he is conceived as an intermediate space between the kingdoms of light and darkness. The god Vāyu in Zoroastrianism has a close relationship with Zurvan in Zurvanite system of belief. In the aforementioned Yasna 30, the two primal spirits are referred to as twins. The doctrine of the two opposite spirits is more remarkable in Yasna 30.34 where Zoroaster says: In the beginning, the two spirits who are the well-endowed twins were known as the one good, and the other evil, in thought, word, and deed. Between them the wise chose the good, not so the fools. In addition, when those spirits met, they established in the beginning life and the absence of life that in the end the evil should meet with the worst existence, but the just with the Best Mind.

The structure of the duality of good and evil god surely witnesses to a west Asian comparability or perhaps mythical influence in Iranian mythology, with the mediating role of the Wind confirming this. But the good/evil duality in Iranian thinking about divinity becomes so dominant that the whole Universe is divided into Ahuric/Ahrimanic spheres. The very act of developing a concept of good and evil that encompasses the whole Universe, both in its material and spiritual existence, is distinctly Iranian ontological trait, quite new and without any background in the sphere of human thought. These beliefs in good and evil deities, originating from a Mesopotamian tradition, finds a specially significant position in Iranian thought, resulting in two dominant and magnificent gods, one of whom, Ahura Mazda, fashions

11 goodness and the other, Ahriman, creates evil; “Ahriman, symbolically presented in Zoroaster’s Gathas as the creator and the headmaster of vicious forces, is a new Iranian conception.” Within its dualistic , Zoroastrianism confirms the independent existence of two dominant divine beings, one good and one evil, engaged in a continuous battle that ends eventually, after the twelve-thousand-year period, with the victory of Ahura Mazda. Matter and material substances such as water and fire are highly respected as are considered to be 'sacred', and life and its endowments are also appreciated as well. And even with Zurvanian, later on, which also accepting the battle between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman, Zurvan - God of gods – this outlook is endorsed and imported into belief in a primal generating God-Father. There was no doubt about these Zoroastrian ideas, though whether they go back to Zoroaster himself is another matter. In the small anonymous Zoroastrian/Mazdaean treatise Pand Namak i Zartusht (The Book of Counsels of Zardusht) (fourth century CE) we read, “I did not come from the spirit, nor was I always from the world. I was created, and have not (always) been, I belong to Ohrmazd, not to Ahriman.” It should be firmly believed that there are two principles, one of which is the Creator and the other is the Destroyer. Zoroastrianism separated its system of beliefs from all other religions in terms of a fundamental issue, i.e., the unity of the Creator of the world. Zoroastrianism is a dualism of two recoiling spiritual and ethical forces of light and darkness, even if not a cosmological dualism of spirit and matter.

Avesta and Zurvan Although the existing Avesta encompasses a set of Zoroastrian doctrines scarcely confirming to Zurvanite perspective, there can be found, nonetheless, some notes on Zurvan. In Yasna 72.10, Zurvan has been praised beside Rāman, Thwāsha, and Vāyu. In Fargard 19 Vandidad, Ahura Mazda wants Zoroaster to admit that Zurvan is perpetual or everlasting. Moreover, in the Little (Khorda) Avesta, both “finite” and “infinite” Zurvan have been appreciated (see below). In addition, two co-eternal spirits, one good and one evil, have been mentioned in Yasna 30.3 who both, yet independently reveal themselves by thought, word, and action. In Arthur Christensen's words, the ''Yasna 30.3 phrases indicate Zoroaster's belief in an uncreated god whom can be regarded

12 as the father of the two. However, there is no distinct source to find out his name. He is the very God-Father whose manifestations are infinite Time and Space.” Zurvan in Zoroastrianism is in no sense a god of light, but Ohrmazd (Ahura Mazda) seems to be the father of light. In the Manichaean system, mixing Zoroastrianism and Christian , Ohrmazd (as Ohrmazd Bay) is not a supreme god but the god-man who could create greatness to be sent to fight evil. In any case, the figure of Zurvan in Zurvanism is very different from the principal subject of Zoroastrian thought. In his representations in Zoroastrian texts we find signals of two different opinions. Zurvan has been mentioned in Yaŝt, Vandidad 19-20, and Khorda Avesta. In Yaŝt, sections 129 and 30, the term Zurvan indicates unknown Time, signifying that Zurvan was under the command of God. In contrast, in the hymns of Farvardin and Zamyad Yaŝts, holding a position highly unusual for the Avesta, Zurvan is time, and in Yasna Zurvan he is depicted as infinite time that must be praised. One needs to do some historical investigation to explain the puzzle of this divergence.

The Historical Background of Zurvanism The Achaemenids The religion of Achaemenid rulers (550-330 BCE), although surveyed across by many researchers, still remains vague. The Achaemenid epigraphs do not clearly confirm their belief in the Zoroastrian religion. It has always been doubtful, too, to regard them as Zurvanites. The latter view is generally based on speculations and interpretations derived from Greek texts. Most researchers, however, have come to some sort of consensus over the influence and popularity of Zurvanism throughout the Achaemenian era. One of the fundamental questions about Zurvanism is the origin of its philosophy. It is accepted by specialists that Zurvan is an ancient Iranian God. Some believe the Zurvanite cult to be older than Zoroastrianism, which has been partly adopted into, and partly obliterated by the orthodox Mazdaism. Some believe that Zurvanism, with the emphasis on time, could be the synthesis of Zoroastrian and the Babylonian ideas. Others believe that the origin of the doctrine came from the second half of the Achaemenid period. According to Daryaee’s “Sassanian Iran: portrait of a late Antique Empire”, the

13 political structure of the Sassanied period, the connection of Zurvanism in the Sassanian Empire with power of empire was appeared. It is accepted, however, that Zurvanism and Mazdaism were formed as two branches of Zoroastrianism rather than two opposing . Shaul Shaked in “The Myth of Zurvan, Cosmogony and ”, mentioned “ it seems that zurvanism evolved probably by Persian Magi, in the fifth century BC”. He expressed that Zurvanism as a heresy can poses no meaning except in relation to itself. But in reviewing the ancient religions in the bizarre land of Iran, we find that few sources regarding Zurvanism are left available. Therefore, with these scattered pieces of information, it is clearly difficult to make statements about Zurvanism. The lack of prominent spiritual figures means that the heresy of Zurvanism remained in relative darkness. Information on the Zurvanite philosophy though, is passed down to the present to some extent. The main sources are Pahlavi sources, and besides Graeco-Roman authors such as Eudemus of Rhodes (c. 370-300 BCE) can be found polemical reports from Armenian and Syrian , especially, Eznik of Piston and acts of martyrs. The first evidence of Zurvanism with the Aristotelian (or Peripatetic) Eudemus of Rhodes whose information dates back to the fourth century BCE, in the late Achaemenid period. He notes that some call “the Whole of that which is intelligible” a unified place, and others call it time, and from this both a good god and evil demon have separated. His description clearly refers to two interpretations of time and space and the separation of good and evil spirits. As for Christian sources, Bishop Theodorus described a prevalence of Zurvanite theological ideas among the Magi in ancient Persia. He lived in Cilicia close to Syrian cultural world where the Zurvanite mythology had been preserved. The concept of Zurvan was also noted in Hellenistic literature and Jewish books. A large group of lived under the and the empire treated different religions with tolerance. Under the Achaemenids there was a certain affinity was accepted between Jewish and , and Jews had no difficulty in learning about the notions of Zoroastrianism and other faiths. The close relationship between Zoroastrians and Jews could have easily been exposed to the religion of the rulers. According to Norman Cohn, was influenced primarily by Zurvanism and an odd version of Zoroastrianism which had become official religion under the Achaemenids

14 since . He explains a wide range of elements common between Zurvanism and Judaism. Zurvanism was a monist religion that was more accepted by the Jewish system of beliefs with one god above all and good. Zurvan in many respects has close affinity with the Jews’ non- anthropomorphic Yahweh. The religious transformations of Achaemenid era was having lots of influence on the original Zoroastrian dualist scheme based on the absolute opposition of good and evil in the Gathas, including the hymns ascribed to Zoroaster, where the twin spirits were earlier identified. The Supreme God, Ohrmazd, was gradually equated with the holy one of the twin spirits. The new Zoroastrian dualist formula is reported by Aristotelians, yet while the Magi believed in the existence of two principles of two spirits, Eudemus of Rhodes claimed he reported, [to reiterate] another form of Magian religion. Still; for him some kind of dualism, he called it “the Whole intelligible and unity of universe space or time.” Considering the Eudemus’s interest, the influence of the and their supposed counterparts in the new Persian heresy [sect] of Zurvanism should be considered. The Greek philosophical systems probably had an important role in forming the doctrine of Zurvanism. Behind Hellenistic philosophy and Zurvanism early and common beliefs about celestial bodies and the face of nature. The Zurvanite cosmogony was partly an adoption of an antecedent Hellenistic philosophy. In fact, it was the who strictly speaking, posed for first time the question of the origin and the nature of evil in philosophical terms. Even in the traditional religion of Hellenic civilisation and its characterisation of gods, it seemed that evil preceded the deity Zeus, who was introduced as the king of the gods and brought good order after the chaos of Kronus. The Indo-European name, Zeus, means “Sky Father” who could bring lightning, hail, and roaring winds as well as kindly light and fertile rains. In Hellenistic mythology, moreover, there is the dual nature of spirit and matter which for a long time was discussed by Greek philosophers. The Ionians in particular and in their special way were interested in defining the origin of the world and its transformations. Denying any real and intrinsic essence of terrestrial objects, Plato, the father of idealist philosophy, argued that evil does not have a real existence at all, but results from lack of perfection and privation. He expressed that the world of Ideas is perfect, wholly real and good, but the phenomenal world cannot adequately reflect the world of ideas.

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Therefore the world is less real, less good, and as a result, more evil; evil was recognized as the lack of vitality and health. It seems that the idea of lack of perfection as the cause of evil was adopted by Zurvanite to comprehend the problem of thinking about evil cosmologically. Hellenistic philosophy and theology influenced thinking about evil in many religions and ‘cults’ as much as mythology continued to do. Theology, with , the deliberate effort to explain the origins of the world and good and evil, became widespread in the Hellenistic period. Most of the Greek philosophers did not establish a clear referable principle of good and evil, which itself caused much confusion. But the religious aspects of Hellenistic philosophy later influenced Jewish and Christian thought, as well as the Zurvanite doctrine, and important developments concerning clearer moral choices resulted. The problem of evil principle had to be solved among philosophers of that time. Philo, eventually, drew heavily upon the Greek philosophers, especially Plato, and succeeded in synthesizing Greek and Jewish doctrines in a mode that was later imitated by the Christian Apologists. The Hebrew deity Yahweh was introduced by Philo in Greek as the Lord of goodness and one who imposes forms upon matter. Matter is unruly, to the extent that it resists the God’s and can be considered evil. Philo assumes that the material world is the source of evil. When Hellenistic philosophers (ca. 400BCE- 100CE) made their effort to explain the mystery of evil, they brought with them negative views of matter. As a result, through philosophical and literally endeavours, Hellenistic philosophy obtained a generalized and ethical view of good and evil. Whether speaking of a high god, the philosophers impersonal deity, or even Philo’s supreme being from the Jewish tradition, God wishes to create a good and orderly cosmos, but he is restricted by the existence of matter. It is usually understood that Greek with this orientation had a great influence on forming a principle of evil in Zurvanism. If the initial popularity of Zurvanism, as Christensen , traces back to Achaemenid era, , Scholar of Middle , believes that its rise happened in the second half of Achaemenid era. And according to Zaehner, a group of magi, who due to illegalization of (-yasna) under Xerxes, had immigrated to Asia Minor and

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Mesopotamia took with them some Babylonian maxims by which they developed a religion which emanated

From Zoroastrian doctrines on one side and on the other. They absorbed the idea of Time, perhaps from Babylonia, who represents a dominant god symbolizing [the whole] celestial body. This is the core maxim of an idea, which we call Zurvanism.

As for the learned , she attributes the popularity of Zurvanism to the inclination of Darius II (423-405 BCE) and his wife to the religion. She also emphasizes the significant role that Ardashir II (383-379 BCE) played in popularizing the doctrine. There are some Greek texts that point to prevalence of Zurvanism during the Achaemenid era. What the Neoplatonist (ca. 458-538 CE ) has quoted from Eudemus of Rhodes (ca. 375-300 BCE) manifests this idea: “The entire contemplative sphere of the is called by the Magi sometimes Time and sometimes Space... It results in a distinction between Ohromasdes of Light and Ahrimanius of Darkness.”

The Parthians There is no original first-hand documentation from Parthian times that admits the prevalence of Zurvanism. Only studying local beliefs in Asia Minor and has led some scholars to this conclusion. There is an epigraph of Antiochus II of Commagene indicating his belief in a religion similar to Iranian cults: Regardless of the names of some Iranian gods noted in the epigraph, Opeiros Chronos has been mentioned so that it takes a position higher than Ohrmazd-Zeus. The Infinite Time, he stated somewhere else, determines the destiny of his people...

Mithraism practised in the Roman Empire also reflects the importance and influence of Zurvanist tendencies. The Supreme God in is called Ion- Chronos who represents Zurvan. The point signifies that contemporaneous with popularity of Mithraism throughout Europe, Iranians used to Zurvan to a great extent; hence Mithraic myths had been under the influence

17 of Zurvanite myths. This idea comes into mind because if Mithraic myths had been influenced by the Mazdean religion, (Ahura Mazda) would have found an upper hand over the gods rather than Ion-Chronos (Zurvan). Another noteworthy point is that “Time in Mithraic epigraphs has been characterized by the epithet 'Devourer', indicating its affiliation with death, which is a Zurvanite belief.”

The Sassanids Historical evidence confirms different religious tendencies throughout the Sassanid Empire. in the western realm of the Empire had extended to Shām (Levant, ) and Mesopotamia. There were some inclinations towards such as , but they were viewed as threats to the religion traditionally supported by the Sassanids. Moreover, there were many religious divisions and cults inside Iranian society at the time. Armenian Christian Eznik of Kolb categorized the major religions of the Sassanid Empire into three categories:

Some believe in two principles: good and bad, some believe in three principles: good, bad, and the just, and there is another group that believes in seven principles…’

Though it may be very difficult to guess the identity of the group believing in seven principles, it is clear that follower of ‘two principles’ were traditional Mazdaists, and followers of ‘three principles’ believed in a good god, Ahura Mazda, an evil one; Ahriman, and a medium god, Zurvan or Mehr, these obviously being Zurvanite. The , a key book of Zoroastrian principles and practices of Sasanian times, has depicted three religious tendencies: “first, Yatukih or witchcraft, a cult that regards the Creator as completely powerless. Second, a pseudo-religion that regards the creator as both kind and ineffective at the same time. The third is Mazdyasn or the religion of Mazda-worshippers who regard the Creator as omnipotent, Gracious, and completely free of evil. The place of Zurvanism in this category is not clear, although perhaps it could be said that Zuirvanism is caricatured in the second case. In his Zurvanite Doctrine, Moghadam studies the rise and fall of Zurvanite ideas under the Sassanids and examines six theories concerning the

18 changing situations, the first theory is from Zaehner, who detects cyclical impulses of Zurvanism under the Sassanids. This religion, Zaehner states, had experienced rises and falls. During some periods it reaches a peak gaining popularity, and in some periods it is pushed aside by the traditional Mazdean religion under which Zurvanism is forced to remain under. The cycle was as follows: Mazdean religion under was renewed through cooperation with . In a period of his life, when Zurvanism was a dominant religion, Ardashir I tended to . Mazdaism under Bahrām I responded and seized power. Under the guidance of , principal Mazdean criteria were ratified, hence making it also the dominant religious order of its time. Thereafter, all other religions were proscribed and their followers were prosecuted. II adopted the same policy and established a council to solve religious disputes. The council approved traditional dualist Mazdaism and re-confirmed it as the official religion of the Empire. Zurvanites under staged a comeback through his Mihr-, said to be a Zurvanite. Under , the traditional religion re-gained popularity, though he later sought reconciliation and somewhat mitigated the hardships that Zurvanism had to endure. After Khosrow I, the general social situation experienced a period of chaos because the main religious tendency of the Empire was in fact not clear to anyone. A second theory that of Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, holds that the Sassanid kings were adherent to traditional Mazdean religion while Zurvanite religion was popular among lower classes. A Third group of researchers, including Anquetil du Perron, Henrik Nyberg, and Christensen, besides Richard Frye and Boyce, refer to Greek texts that consider Zurvanism as the dominant tendency under the Sassanids. Ardashir I declared Zoroastrianism as his religion and commanded all those scattered teachings to be brought to the court. Further, , son of Ardashir, collected those writings scattered throughout , the , and other lands, including the scripts on medicine, astronomy, movement, time, space, substance, creation, , death, and other processes and phenomena. He ordered those teachings to be added to Avesta. This way, he aligned all systems with the Mazdean religion. It seems Shapur I desired to broaden his religion by developing religious ceremonies through the introduction of foreign materials from Greek and India, including works on

19 astronomy, time, space, the process of becoming, decline, and alteration which were reminiscent firstly of and secondly of Zurvanism. All this huge additional body of materials was branded as Zoroastrianism in the Greek speaking world, but in fact it was made up mostly of Zurvanite literature. The terms “Time and Space” indicate that Shapur himself had probably inclined to Zurvanism. He sought to give scriptural authority to the new alien religion. The similarities between Zurvanism and Manichaeism have been noticed, but it may be true that most of the elements in Zurvanism come from Western Christian heretical and Gnostic sources. Another theory discussed by both Zaehner and Boyce concerns the probability of geographical development of religions. Referring to original Manichean works and examining the names of the gods in this religion that differ geographically, Zaehner defines north Parthian religion as traditional Mazdaism and describes Zurvanism as the dominant Persian religion of southwest. Another theory and one not without favour from aforementioned Duchesne-Guillemin, regards the Sassanid kings as Mazdean. Jes Peter Asmussen has also accepted the same theory. Per contra, Henning believes that Zurvanism had flourished in second half of Parthian era and was then suppressed by the Sassanids, eventually to be succeeded by Mazdean dualism. Yet another theory takes Zurvanism merely as a philosophical attitude. In a view partly shared by Asmussen, Frye treats Zurvanism as an intellectual orientation among some engaged in theoretical discussions on ‘evil’ and does not consider it a sect. Zurvanism, but rather, he believes, “nothing else but a set of thoughts and reflections about Time.” As a philosophical and natural explanation of creation of the world, we find that, in the pre-existing tranquillity before the Creation, Zurvan or the Infinite Time creates Ohrmazd and Ahriman through mixing the two elements, water and fire, and then they launch out the Creation. There are, however, many more mystical and symbolic aspects covered by mythological explanation of Creation in Zurvanism.

Quotations from Zurvan Myth There are two different narratives of the Zurvan(ite) myth, first of which has been quoted from Eznik of Kolb, an Armenian Christian priest who promoted

20 the myth to show the presumed weakness of Iranian thoughts in his theological arguments with Zoroastrian priests (420sCE). The second narrative has been quoted from native heresiologist Shahrastani who mentioned Zurvanite beliefs in his Kitāb al–Milal wa al-Nihal (The Book of and Creeds) (1130s), while discussing thoughts of different sects. Like Eznik, he regards the Zurvanite myth a childish story, though it might contain some of what had been imprinted in people’s mind in a symbolic way. A summary of what Eznik and some Christian sources have narrated is as follow:

At a time when there existed nothing, neither sky nor the Earth, the great God Zurvan whose name means fate or fortune existed alone. Zurvan desired having an offspring whose name would be Ohrmazd and would create heaven and hell, and had been making for this through one thousand years. Towards the end of this period, Zurvan began to doubt the efficacy of sacrifice, wondering what the result of his sacrifice would be and whether he would have a child by the name of Ohrmazd or was just making useless efforts. In a moment of this doubt, Ohrmazd and Ahriman were conceived: Ohrmazd for the sacrifice and Ahriman for the doubt. Upon realizing that twins were to be born, Zurvan promised himself: the one who springs to me first, I’ll make him the king. Ohrmazd perceived his paternal decision and revealed it to his brother. Ripping open the womb, then, Ahriman emerged first. Zurvan asked: “Who are you?” “I am your offspring, Ohrmazd,” he answered. Zurvan replied: “My child is bright and fragrant while you are dark and foul.” He then burst into tears. While they were talking to each other, Ohrmazd appeared brightly and fragrantly. Encountering him, Zurvan found out that he is his offspring, Ohrmazd, the one for whom he had sacrificed. Giving Ohrmazd the twigs of “,” Zurvan told him: “Heretofore I’ve been sacrificing for you, and from now on you will do it for me!” Even then, Ahriman got close and said: “Were you not the one who promised to give kingship to the one who would emerge first?” Zurvan conceded: “Oh, malevolent evil! You’ll be given the kingship for nine thousand years, but Ohrmazd will conquer your ultimately. However, after nine thousand years, he would rule and would do everything as his

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benevolent wish.” Ohrmazd created the sky and the Earth and whatever beauteous and right. On the other hand, Ahriman created the and anything bad and untrue. Ohrmazd created wealth (blessing) while Ahriman created poverty (adversity)…

Shahrastani’s account of the Zurvanite myth is slightly different but comparable:

Some have come to an idea that the “Light” created everything from light, all spiritual, bright and deistical; however the greater existent whose name was Zurvan hesitated over one thing amongst creatures, so Ahriman came into birth due to his doubt. Some others believe that Zurvan had been murmuring for 9999 years to conceive a son but he did not. Therefore, he wondered whether his knowledge was not efficient and proper. A [single] grief was brought about by his thought, so Ahriman came into existence due to this grief while Ohrmazd was created from his knowledge, while both were conceived in the same womb. Ohrmazd was more likely to be born first but Ahriman played a trick to rip his mother's womb. So he emerged prior to Ohrmazd and conquered the world…

According to Shahrastani, Zurvan is the greatest singularity of light or simply the creator God. Zurvan sacrificed for a thousand years to have a son whose name was Ohrmazd and should create heaven and the Earth. He wondered whether all his troubles were in vain, and due to his doubt, soon after Ahriman came into birth. Zurvan’s doubt is purely mythological. Zurvan desires the pleasure of love, kindness and bounty to be revealed. However, Ahriman is symbolized by his doubt. This is a result of an imperfection and uncertainty of self in the very deep heart of God. Zurvan promised the kingdom to whichever of the two spirits, Ohrmazd or Ahriman who came out first. When Ahriman was born, he did indeed give him the kingdom, but he made Ohrmazd lord above him. Ohrmazd’s lordship is justified in this respect as “the of the God of Law,” but of course God is the god of law and of justice by definition. The term “doubt” and “reflecting” conceals the essential imperfection of Zurvan, which did not allow the best and basic of nature of divinity come to

22 light. Zurvan’s doubt might be a source of embarrassment in that could be the manifestation of an essential defect in the godhead and it is exteriorized in the existence of Ahriman. Zurvan is the father of good and evil alike. Therefore, he is the source for both light and darkness. As Shahrastani emphasized, Ahriman arose from the single reflection and Ohrmazd arose from his wisdom. There are lots of issues regarding this particular phase of Zurvanite myth. Is Zurvan perfect or is he imperfect? If he is perfect, he must be capable of creating heaven and earth and he should not need a son to create those for him, and if he is in fact imperfect, then there must be an entity superior to him. Shahrastani explained that the reason for this sacrifice is the thought of Zurvan about a son. But a hard issue is this: to whom did Zurvan offer sacrifice? Eznik states that this sacrifice was made to fortune or a hypostasis of him. Thus, according to this restriction of Zurvan as described by Eznik, fate or fortune is what Zurvan made his sacrifice to. The gender of Zurvan is another issue, because a female element certainly needs to be present beside Zurvan. The only conceivable explanation in this matter is that Zurvan is in fact hermaphroditic. In the post-Sassanian Zoroastrian text Ulama i Islam, Zurvan does not give birth to Ohrmazd and Ahriman directly, but he primarily creates fire and water, and when he brings these two ‘elements’ together Ohrmazd comes into existence as the result. The evolution of the world of nature, the material cosmos comes into a finite time from infinite time and space, as a passage from potency to act. In the original Zurvanite myth, Zurvan himself armed the two spirits with their respective weapons. The two moral spirits are both finite, and the of Ohrmazd is also finite. It means perhaps that the prescience of Ohrmazd is bounded by ‘,’ which can be broken by neither side in the cosmic battle. . Both Mazdean and Zurvanite doctrine held “Infinite Time” to be in some way superior to Ohrmazd. But Zurvanites make a mythical figure of time that is superior to Ohrmazd and Ahriman, and controls the inexorable fate of Ohrmazd. However, the issue should be considered as to how Ohrmazd creates

23 a good creative deity from the forcible course of fate which stands beyond him and evil. It is recognized that Zurvanism survived among Iranians through the late Achaemenid period until the Sassanid era. Therefore, in six hundred years, this local religion persisted in the consolidation of its philosophy. It should be considered that the dualism in Sassanid thought was the main factor leading to the formation of Zurvanism. Based on this Persian dualism, Ohrmazd is described in passages of the Avesta and Pahlavi books. He is regarded as the creator of good things and all the good creations are attached to him. The term Ahriman is exclusively discussed in Zoroastrian dualism and is one of the entanglements in Zoroastrian doctrine. Ohrmazd resembles light more than anything else and Ahriman is the symbolism of a negative entity. According to traditions of the Magi, there are few subjects in the history of the study of Zoroastrianism that have been changed as dramatically as Zurvanism. In fact, Zurvanism was recognized as the most important tendency within Zoroastrianism, and as one of the main contributing factors in formation of Gnosticism in general and for Manichaeism in particular. However, the Pahlavi books have frequently referred to Zurvanism as heretical, especially in (Pahlavi-translated) in which, Avesta makes compromise with the Denkard and Ulema-i Islam. All references to Zurvanism refer to the name of Zurvan as unlimited time and space, and Fate over all creations. It is clearly emphasized that Zurvan has his basis in dichotomies such as good and evil, male and female, light and darkness, bliss and misery, order and chaos. In fact, Ohrmazd and Ahriman (Evil) are the two different halves of Zurvan that were separated by the act of generation. Despite a naturalistic explanation of the Creation narrated by Denkard and Ulema-i Islam, Eznik and Shahrastani as the two most famous heresy- hunters, have chosen subjective and metaphysical aspects, especially Shahrastani who focused on the conscientiousness of Zurvan, or perhaps more specifically the unconsciousness of Zurvan and the respective influence these states may have over the creation of Ohrmazd and Ahriman. Both these interpreters, in any case, want to focus on the most important topic regarding divinity in monotheist schools of thought, the nature of God and Gods own omniscience. This issue we will discuss through following sections.

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Imperfect Origin of the Creation The most important issue in Zurvanite myth of the Creation is Zurvan's doubt which could be an implication that imperfection plays a significant role in Zurvanite ontology. Human attitudes towards existence, good and evil, destiny and freedom, greed and contentment vary according to a concept of perfect and imperfect god and this issue needs explanation. Zurvan in pre-existing tranquillity is infinite, regardless of any form of determination. But there is something inherent at work here that causes motion and reflection. This is what mythologists recognize as a tendency to be creative, which automatically leads to a sense of imperfection. Thus, as Shahrastani states it “A group of Zurvanites believe in something wicked appended to Great God, a wicked thought or putrefaction wherein the inhabits.” Energy and mobility comes from somewhere inside Zurvan that must be necessarily imperfect. Energy moves around to compensate for his impotence and the very motion causes reflection. Zurvan comes to understand that in spite of his magnificence and eminence, his qualities are meaningless for there is no audience for his magnificence. He, then, demands Creation. Ohrmazd takes shape through Zurvan's consciousness from whom the terrestrial world emanates. This, however, results in another development: Ahriman. Ahriman himself is a by-product of Creation and at the same time an immediate result of Zurvan's doubt and unawareness, for Zurvan hesitated over the futility of his own demand and desire. “In Zurvanism,” writes Zaehner, “decline and degeneration are not created by humans; it derives from a fault especially at the heart of God himself, i.e. for “not relying on himself.”

Hafez! Though sin be not our choice Strive in the way of manners; and say: “The sin is mine”…’

Infinite Zurvan and Finite Zurvan A Zurvanite thinker is not afraid of attributing a fault to God, since in the Zurvanite school of thought imperfection is basically inherent in the Creation. To make the Creation possible, Zurvan had to waive a part of his infinity and submits it to Ohrmazd and Ahriman as Finite Time – Zurvan i derang-xvatdy, i.e. “*he+ acquiesces in his own imperfection.” On the other hand, the

25 emergence of evil in the world derives from a fault in Zurvan’s essence; therefore, in order to eliminate evil, he has to devote himself. Such devotion is symbolized in myth as one thousand years of sacrificing, yet this does nothing than bringing about a Finite Zurvan. Zurvan mythology talk about a symbolic and determined one-thousand– year period. Limiting some part of him to a countable and determined time, Zurvan provides for material circumstances of the Creation before creating Ohrmazd, who has to undertake population of the world. In other words, Zurvan does so partly by sacrificing himself. One thousand years is simply a symbolic number, representing the state of transition from Infinite Zurvan to Finite Zurvan. According to Zurvanite myths, the emergence of finite time precedes the creation of Ohrmazd and Ahriman, which “appears to have taken place in eternity, for the limitation of Time is coincident with the act of creation. Rather perhaps it should be regarded as occurring in a sort of twilight between eternity and temporality, between ‘being’ and ‘manifestation’.” Some Mazdean-Zoroastrian texts such as and Ulema-i Islam, in contrast, do not support such a theory regarding the existence of Ohrmazd as posterior to Finite Time. According to Bundahishn “by the time Ohrmazd emanated all the creatures, Zurvan i derang-xvatdy was the first who came out because Time was, before amalgamation, entirely infinite from which Ohrmazd emanated Finite Time.” Ulema-i Islam likewise has it that “Ohrmazd emanated Zurvan (Time) i derang-xvatdy, which lasts for twelve thousand years.” Zat-Sp[a]ram, believed to be a Zurvanite text, and the Zoroastrian Denkard, however, both have a Zurvanite idea according to which Zurvan i derang-xvatdy is independent from Ohrmazd and Ahriman:

Auharmazd perceived, through the spirit of wisdom, thus: “Even the blustering of Aharman is capable of performance, if I do not allow disunion (la barininam) during a period of struggle.” And he demanded him a period for friendship, for it was seen by him that Aharman does not rely upon the intervention of any vigorous ones, and the existence of a period is obtaining the benefit of the mutual friendship and just arrangement of both…’

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But here Time merely helps the two Spirits, and is not their creator. But even in Zurvanite theology itself, “time is limited by the very act of Infinite Zurvan determining the limited time for Ahrimanic domination and contending with him at first. Zurvan in Zurvanite doctrine takes a determinant character which is the very limited *beside+ celestial time.” To help and put this in perspective, the maxim of time infinity and its secondary finitude has been mentioned in the Denkard: “Time is originally infinite, then it is confined… *The+ Time formula is a transition from primal infinity which implies movement and transportation.” The very determination and mobility from infinity to finitude causes an inherent imperfection inside Zurvan, hence the second step by which Ahriman, due to Zurvan's unawareness, comes into existence and makes this fault clearer. The Infinite and undetermined Zurvan wanted to make the Creation possible. In doing so he had to waive some parts of himself, which meant in a sense imperfection. The birth of Ahriman and Ohrmazd was a result of this transaction in which each of them undertook his own ‘deistical’ responsibility. On the other hand, the determined Time or Zurvan i derang-xvatdy, which is the terrestrial body of Infinite Time and similar to the Universe (Spihr), therefore had to be treated as a material context inside which Ahriman and Ohrmazd perform their acts. However, for Zurvanists it is more important to concentrate on Infinite Zurvan (Zurvan Akarana) as primary, then the Finite one and the Zurvan- Universe relationship. Infinite Zurvan, in R.C. Zaehner's word can be described as:

Zurvan, as Time and Space, is infinite; and nothing is infinite but him. He is at the same time ‘un-circumscribed in space and boundless in essence: and there is no other place or abode that is devoid of him.’ He is ‘that without which nothing from the first’ is. Nothing can exist without him or separate from him. But so far as he is infinite he cannot be understood. He cannot be comprehended by any intellect; likewise, he cannot be comprehended by the intellect of God. Being infinite, his essence is incomprehensible even to himself; he cannot know himself since it is meaningless to say that he knows his own infinite essence by an infinite intellect... He is undying, without pain, un-corrupting and un-

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decaying, safe from assault, and for ever and ever no one can violate him nor deprive him of his sovereignty in his proper sphere…

Finite Time, however, is the terrestrial manifestation of Infinite Time and the mean and cause of all existence;

Zurvan himself made finite is primarily the material Cosmos, the so- called ‘endless form,’ animated, it is true, by the Spirit of the Power of the Word which proceeds from Ohrmazd and essentially appears as the material macrocosm and manifesting himself through the operation of fate. He is embodied in the Cosmos, but is also the law by which the Cosmos works. This law manifests itself in the treaty which Zurvan makes between Ohrmazd and Ahriman. He gives each of the protagonists his appropriate arm and settles the rules for the combat. His law favours neither good nor evil. The law of Time is simply to proceed from original infinity through limitation involving action, motion and passage, and finally to return to ultimate infinity…

Vāyu, Sky, and Finite Zurvan It was mentioned previously that Zurvan i derang-xvatdy is a law which directs the universal movement to its pre-destined end. But how does the very destination appear? In brief, it is said through Vāyu and Spihr (the Universe or the Sky). Vāy or Vāyu, God of Wind, had been a dominant god of eastern Iran, Zaehner believes. Material embodiment and quality of Vāyu, i.e. space and wind, which moves around in Thwāsha (or the Universe) provides for a setting inside which Ohrmazd and Ahriman collide. The Pahlavi term, Spihr, cognate with the Avestan Thwāsha, is defined as “someone who follows his own law.” Spihr in this sense has been appreciated in the Avesta thus:

We worship the day of Rāman of goodly flocks, of Vāyu who works highly ... of Thwāsha who follows his own law, of the infinite Zurvan and Zurvan who for a long time follows his own law (derang-xvatdy)…

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Spihr is “the seat of the stars and therefore controls the fate of man ... after the limitation, Spihr is strictly the starry firmament and Vāy the space within it. Matter moves in Vāy but is controlled by Spihr.” Space and Place are the embodied representation of Time wherein the stars and terrestrial life function. This is what is called Spihr or the Sky which is in fact the material body of Zurvan i derang-xvatdy.

Most scholars have come to a consensus that Zurvan, Vāyu, and the Sky are the same. Benevenist confirms the unity between Sky and Zurvan. Widengren regards Vāyu and Zurvan as aspects of a unique god as well. Vāy and Thwāsha, according to Nyberg, are existential aspects of Zurvan or synecdochically some of his epithets…

Zurvan and Destiny The relationship between Zurvan and destiny has been confirmed in both Pahlavi and non-Pahlavi texts. “When nothing at all existed,” Eznik states, “neither the heavens nor the earth, there was one, Zurvan by name, which, being interpreted is fate (Baxt) or fortune (Park). As has been mentioned, an epigraph related to Antiochus of Commagene runs “To all the generations whom the Infinite Time has determined to rule this kingdom had been ordered to save it.” The Zurvanite destiny over 30-year-old life of Keyumars (the first man being created) had also been mentioned by the Zurvanite Pahlavi text Zat- Spram:

Ahriman sent Astovihat, demon proper of death, with a thousand manifest maladies to kill him. They failed due to his destiny according to which Zurvan had determined brave heart Keyumars to see 30 winters…

Zurvan in the Zurvanite text Menog-i Xrad is God of Destiny and the cause for emanation;

You must know that destiny, fortune, and pre-destined fate manage and direct everything in the world and Zurvan himself is the absolute leader and derang-xvatdy…

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Regarding the special essence of Zurvan (Time), destiny, even prior to determination and finitude, remember in Zurvanist thought he rules over his own existence yet still causes Ahriman to come into being. This is the condition that even makes even “the *ideal+ kingdom of Jam to appear as vulnerable,” as famously wrote. There is, obviously, a subtle difference between the Zoroastrian-Mazdean narrative of fatalism and the Zurvanite one. Zurvanite destiny has got dominance over the whole celestial and terrestrial aspects of life. Wealth, marriage, children, art, race, birth and even objects show tendency towards good or evil are all ruled or are at least influenced by fate and destiny. Human endeavours and work are even under the dominance of destiny. “To extend the empire of fate into this province is to deprive man of any power over his own spiritual destiny, and apparently this is what Zurvanism did.” Fate in Zurvanite philosophy is presented as a lord or king over all humanity and things. In terms of effort, if it is not favoured by time, it will be fruitless on the earth, though in the spiritual world, time comes to a man’s aid and will redress the balance. It seems that the goal of universe is simply the re- absorption of the finite into the infinite, and hell is only temporary and will come to an end at the termination of the cosmic cycle. Fate rules over good and bad, right and wrong, salvation and damnation, rewards and punishment, neither with moral values, nor with the energy of the soul, that means such an overly powerful force on earth and a fatalist determinism from which none shall escape. The twelve zodiacal signs in Zurvanite fatalist point of view are commanders of Ohrmazd, while the seventh planets, sun, moon, and five known planets are recognized as commanders of Ahriman. Those seven planets oppress the creation and escort them to their death and all kinds of evil. The stress on the twelve is in contradiction to Zoroastrian’s philosophy. The emphasis on astrology and fatalism is the sign of strong influence of Babylonian and Assyrian’s ideas on the Zurvanite philosophy. One of the major scholars claims Zurvanism influenced Zoroastrian religion with impetus from Babylonian and later Greek religions. Babylonia in southern plain and in the north of the modern were ancient kingdoms in Mesopotamia that shared borders with Persia. It is well known that astrology had strong effects on Zurvanism, as the philosophy based on twelve zodiacal symbols had on it,

30 as emerged from Assyrian and Babylonian astronomical lore. The doctrine of the overwhelming power of fate was driven from these cultural completes. The first significant astrological system was organized by the Babylonians in 2000 BC. This creation has been recorded in the written papers which were kept in the library the Assyrian King Assurbanipal in Nineveh (650 BC), a collection containing some 70 tablets of astrological texts in early cuneiform. In addition, there are evidences of an establishing of astrological schools in the neo-Babylonian Empire. Babylonian astronomy was the ground for many astronomical traditions, which were developed later in the Greek, Hellenistic, Sassanid, Syrian, Byzantine, Medieval Islamic and western European astronomies. The twelve zodiacal divisions originated from Babylonian astrology, which is based on the symbolic circle of animals. The five planets were firstly identified with the gods of the Babylonian . Five planets, with the equivalent of Jupiter being Marduk, with the Goddess Ishtar, Saturn Nenurta, Mercury Nabbu, and Mars with Nergal, constitute five important elements which, as well as the movements of the Sun and Moon, were regarded as the manifestation of the activities of the five major deities. Twelve Zodiacal Signs were definitely used in Babylonian astronomy prior to 700 BC, and probably from as early as the days prior to in 2000 BC. The idea of constellations by depicting prominent groups of stars was a Babylonian development and the outlines of images involved were derived from their mythology and religion. Most astrological predictions fell into the category of judicial astrology or mundane astrology to forecast the destiny of the nation or kings. Fate was an idea in ancient Assyrian and Babylonian lore which specially strived to know and sometimes control. Šimtu was the Babylonian word for Fate, that also meant destiny but it seems to indicate a wider concept. It is expressed something similar to purpose. In the Babylonian system of belief, gods gave everything Šimtu, and the primary astrological bodies, including Sun, Moon, and planets and the positions of celestial bodies, are signs of the causes of destiny, , and natural events. Reflecting on the subjects like death, eternity and will was a basic theme of the so-called first epic of the world, that of , faith being taken as a determining force from which no one can escape. Thus, one may conclude that it is the Mesopotamians who first indicated the historical necessity or faith in

31 general. A crucial feature of Mesopotamian religion was the doctrine of numina or spiritual forces behind natural phenomena. It claims that each act of nature is brought into being by some gods with appropriate external appearances and form. Babylonians believed that all areas of life were inseparably linked with numerology, numbers representing the energies of creation. Mesopotamian numerology was always performed in synergy which was based on the sidereal zodiac and the ‘equal house’ system. The sidereal zodiac allowed for predictive methods based on the luminary planets and the sun. According to these methods , numerology, astrology, and medicine were not separated branches of knowledge, but intertwined. They considered all their to be of divine origin. Faith as Šimtu has numerous textual nuances in ancient Mesopotamia in working out what happened between birth and death. It was difficult for ancient Mesopotamia to understand the term Šimtu without having in view the role that gods played in human life and affairs. Faith is looked upon as significant and unavoidable when is attached to events. The gods are privy to the ruling of faith best of all. Death is the exclusive end of humans and gods, to level faith. It is found that the idea of universal power, even though in a disguised form, was developed in an increasing tendency during reflection upon the destinies of human life. It became recognized that the gods themselves are subject to faith and fortune, as much as they cannot even prevent their own destruction. In Babylonian narrative, these are human beings who bear the full weight of Šimtu. According to the ancient Mesopotamian mythology, men were created to serve the gods who are the inferiors to the superior gods. Human life is thus portrayed pessimistically, for this means that the gods create life forms to serve them. Human life is interpreted as a process that emerges from death and destined to return to death. Surly Gilgamesh Epic aimed at teaching life’s absolute and the ultimate limitations as embodied in term Šimtu, and gives the recognition of a cramped condition of the life between birth and death.

Life for the common people in ancient Mesopotamia was precarious. Life’s events were not so much understood to be fixed or ‘naturalistically determined’ as inevitable. More precisely, events were determined by the will

32 of the gods rather than by humans. The gods of Mesopotamia brought about people’s faiths. Therefore, Šimtu can well be used as a metaphor for events beyond men’s control. Representing the deities, the kings of ancient and Mesopotamia conveyed the will of the gods to the people, and with the king being a substitute for the divine in royal he presented a strong impression of being both the influence and concrete expression of Šimtu. It is clearly understood that the existence and control of faith was rooted in the divine realm. Everything in human existence was under the control of the gods—health, happiness, life span, including the ultimate Šimtu, which was named Death. The god of faith in Mesopotamian doctrine, however, is nonetheless a subordinate to the gods who administer the faith of humanity. As it was mentioned, apart from enduring Mesopotamian effects, during the Sassanid period the empire remained open to foreign influences; Indian influence from the east and Greek from the west were the important elements which formed new like Zurvanism. Zurvanite fatalism apparently has influenced by Aristotle’s theology of chance and fortune. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), student of Plato and teacher of the Great, wrote a major work in the history of philosophy about metaphysics, and he could be said to found the discrete subject of metaphysics, but not the term itself. He emphasized that luck plays an important role in the good life. He argued that self-sufficiency brings the good life, but recognized that spontaneity and chance are causes of some things as distinct from others. His general theory of luck and fortune are thought to prepare grounds for Zurvanite fatalist ideas. In Aristotle’s theoretical discussion of luck, good fortune is a subspecies of luck. Aristotle clearly expressed that it is necessary for luck to exist and to be a cause, for to him many morally relevant cases of good fortune are due to luck. Luck in Aristotelian philosophy is an accidental cause, indefinite and unbounded, yet accountable enough by reason. An accidental cause means that luck is relative to a particular description of events. In addition, it is indefinite and unbounded because there may be many appropriate descriptions of a lucky events. Typically descriptions of luck are too close or too far away to relate easily to cause and effect. Aristotle's theological account of luck is tied to his metaphysical theories. He argued that fortunate persons do not succeed by their practical wisdom. He rejected the idea that humans can be fortunate

33 through love of God. He noted that the fortunate are so by nature, although he expressed that nature is a cause of what occurs either always or for the most part as it does, but luck is just the opposite. In this account, Aristotle reiterates the point that luck is not something that works with a high degree of regularity, but it is contrary to ordinary principles of reason. He argued also on the substantial point of luck as a reason of one’s natural constitution rather than good things happening to a person because of his or her natural constitution. Aristotle believed that not only that practical wisdom and bring happiness, but also the fortunate people fare well. He emphasized the importance of luck for happiness, insisting that those persons are fortunate who succeed for the most part without any reason. This is why he concluded that persons could be fortunate by nature. Furthermore, he admits good fortune could be a case of luck for the most part “holding,” but not forever or always. Aristotle's theological account of luck distinguishes two forms of good fortune in conclusion. The one kind is divine. He argued that such a person is one who is likely to be successful in accordance with his impulses. The other kind of person to whom the non-divine fortune applies, is successful through being contrary to his impulses. He believed that all events of human life are in any case determined, by an eternal pre-ordained destiny. Such philosophical idea of luck and fortune was in different terms expressed in Zurvanite fatalism. It should be noted, however, that the philosophical contemplations of Aristotle, in contrast to his teacher Plato, defined and explored the implications of worldly fortune, not the work of a divine being or the role of ideal forms, because, as we know, he dismissed another perfect and ideal world. Zurvanism is different from Aristotelian ‘fortune theory’ for being dividedly theological. Many researchers believed that Zurvanism historically arose from despair and hopelessness. In Zurvanite mythology, Zurvan promised to give the kingdom of the world to whom born earlier. Ohrmazd with his absolute knowledge and wisdom discovered this issue and made his brother Ahriman aware. Therefore, Ahriman tore the womb of his father sooner and the kingdom of the world was given to him for nine thousands years. The triumph of Ahriman means that humankind lives in the world rendered imperfect by evil. This view has prevailed in Iranian culture. It should be taken seriously,

34 though, that Zurvanism apparently resulted from a collapse in the integrity of Zoroastrians doctrinal system which led thinkers to create the bitter theory of the Ahriman’s domination. The positive side to this cosmology is that it involves a different kind of pessimism. Evil has become a totally alien force, it is not to be as simulated but to be destroyed, a point that should be considered more. A religion in which destiny has gained dominance over deities act and the essence of god is basically nothing but destiny, making it inevitable to rate faith and destiny even over the moral sphere of life and over the possibilities of heaven-sent prosperity and adversity. As infinite substance, Zurvan made a mistake because he resigned himself to finitude. The period of Finitude, however, is predestined to pass and even if fault arose it will retrievably join the infinity of the divine essence in the end. The good has to combine with evil eventually and dissolve back to its primary origin, i.e., infinity of time. Hell, Heaven, and the other world in this framework are temporal and all function as a period of transition to infinity. According to Zurvanist philosophy, Zurvan as the long-term dominion (finite time) is represented as a being preceding finite time, which is a fixed term set for the battle between Ahriman and Ohrmazd. During this finite time (Norm Time), no one can change things or make them different. The treaty between Ohrmazd and Ahriman to fight for nine thousands years must lead up to Fraškart (the Promised World), which the power of evil cannot prevent. The progress of creation seems with dissipation of energy. The nine thousand years of the divine time of conflict between Ohrmazd and Ahriman is said to be a “moderated” time (Patmān), on consideration of the close association of Zurvan with order.

It is obvious what a humble and small position a human being possesses in this theoretical framework. It may be regarded as a mere cog in the wheel within the whole context of existence, given to the maxim that everything across the cosmos just reflects the Ahriman-Ahura battle, the end of which had been previously determined. The image of a destiny dominant over human life as portrayed in the important Zurvanist text, titled: Menog-i Xrad is perfectly a disappointing one:

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The asked the spirit of wisdom thus: “is it possible to contend with destiny through wisdom and knowledge, or not?” The spirit of wisdom answered in this way: “Even with the might and powerfulness of wisdom and knowledge, even then it is not possible to contend with destiny. Because, when predestination as to virtue, or as to the reverse, comes forth, the wise becomes wanting in duty and the astute in evil becomes intelligent; the faint-hearted becomes braver, and the braver becomes faint-hearted, the diligent becomes lazy, and the lazy acts diligently. Just as is predestined as to the matter, the cause enters into it and thrusts out everything else…”

And it is mentioned in another passage:

The sage asked the spirit of wisdom thus: “wherefore is it when there are instances when a lazy, ignorant, and bad man attains to eminence and great welfare, and there are instances when a worthy, wise, and good man attains to grievous misery, perplexity, and indigence?” The spirit of wisdom answered thus: “As to him who is a lazy, ignorant, and bad man, when his destiny becomes a helper, that laziness of his then becomes like unto diligence, that ignorance unto knowledge, and that vileness unto goodness. And as to him who is a wise, worthy, and good man, when his destiny is an opponent, that wisdom of his then turns to stupidity and foolishness, and that worthiness to ignorance and his knowledge, skill, and worthiness become manifestly secluded…” An echo of this motif is heard after centuries where Hafez, on behalf of Spirit of Wisdom, answered to the sage:

The reason, ask not why the cherisher of the mean became the sphere, Whose design of giving, pretence without reason is…’

This radical and excessive fatalism is not confirmed by the Mazdeans, who regard the universe as a battlefield inside which good and evil, Ohrmazd and Ahriman, fight and where human who owns a and deliberation is capable of choosing to stand on either side. Destiny controls merely material life, wealth, marriage and children, and has no way to spiritualties;

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The Mazdeans, with their passion for classification, parcelled up the whole of human activity into five categories: faith, action or effort, nature or habit, character, and heredity. Faith is responsible for life, marriage, children, sovereignty, and riches only. Salvation and damnation together with the membership of the three castes are ascribed to effort. Eating, walking, sexuality, sleeping, and excretion are the province of nature; worthiness, friendship, goodness, generosity, and rectitude of character; and intelligence, understanding, body, stature, and appearance of heredity.”

Therefore, destiny may merely influence the extent of one’s wealth, property, and the household but committing a crime or obeying the rules are absolutely matters of human choice and expediency. Admittedly some components, such as characteristic, essence, inheritance, and quality, are controlled by destiny, because people are unequal in terms of such parameters, especially personality and inheritance, which are the two most notably bestowed by destiny. Summarily, Mazdean attitude leaves human faith to the responses of one’s own will. He or she is the only one who can, through his or her acts, directly achieve salvation or misery in this response. Laziness in Mazdaism has been ascribed to Bushāsb, demon of laziness and indolence, which only indicates the importance of effort and hard work to this faith, to the point of regarding laziness as an Ahrimanic epithet. Effort in this view plays a significant role so that Even on the material side, man may acquire what has been allotted to him by faith earlier than the allotted date if he makes efforts towards that end: and what is allotted can be taken away on account of his .

Destiny and ‘human attempt,’ according to the Mazdean School, are the two wings that can carry a person to his or her destination. In Tansar's Letter (third century A.D., the core of this document is a genuine letter written by the Persian high priest under Ardeshir I) these two are like bales of a traveller's baggage on the back of a mule.

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The golden mean between faith and purposeful action must be found; for the man who puts his trust exclusively in faith ‘makes himself contemptible,’ and he who ‘continually exerts himself and makes efforts and denies faith and destiny,’ is a fool and puffed up with pride ... faith and effort are like two bales of a traveller's baggage on the back of a mule. If one of them is heavier than the other, the load falls to the ground, and the back of the mule breaks, and the traveller suffers embarrassment and does not reach his destination…’

Spihr and Destiny Spihr is the material body of Zurvan, the equivalent to Zurvan i derang-xvatdy. The world works out inside Spihr and Spihr through the twelve signs of the Zodiac which regulate this circulation and determine it. Spihr (Place) and Zurvan (Time) are therefore two interwoven concepts which together constitute the backbone of Zurvanite thought. It is mentioned in Menog-i Xrad that the stars and the planets are responsible for the way the universe works. The twelve zodiacal signs together are a beneficial medium through which goodness descends, yet Seven Planets prevent goodness, thus contaminating the world.

Every good and the reverse which happen to mankind, and also the other creatures, happen through the seven planets and the twelve constellations. And those twelve constellations are such as in revelations are the twelve chieftains who are on the side of Auharmazd, and those seven planets are called the seven chieftains who are on the side of Aharman. Those seven planets pervert every creature and creation, and deliver them up to death and every evil. And, as it were, those twelve constellations and seven planets are organizing and managing the world…’

Spihr, in the Bundahishn, is the “material body of Zurvan i derang-xvatdy and deistical destiny.” Spihr is neutral, like Zurvan, in terms of good and evil. It provides simultaneously for Ohrmazd’s agency (through twelve zodiacal signs) and Ahriman’s realm of action (through seven planets).

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Spihr is the one who bestows good and deserves kingdom ... the one who donates more is called benefactor, and the one who donates less is called bad Spihr. The very bestowment is determined by Time…

Each of the twelve zodiacal signs stands for a thousand-year-period of finite time. Hence, the entire twelve-thousand-year period of creation and cosmic antagonism following it, is organized by Spihr. The responsibility which is undertaken by the planets is to mislead the destiny as pre-arranged by the Zodiac and to bring down the evil. Answering to the sage asking why the universal division had come out so wrongly, the spirit of wisdom says:

The treasure of the worldly existence was allotted as truly, in the original creation, as that of the spiritual existence. And the Creator, Ohrmazd, provided happiness of every kind invested in creatures and creation, for the use of the sun and moon and those twelve constellations which are called the twelve chieftains by revelation; and they, too, accepted it in order to allot it truly and deservedly. And, afterwards, Aharman produced those seven planets, such as are called the seven chieftains of Aharman, for dissipating and carrying off that happiness from the creatures of Auharmazd, in opposition to the sun and moon and those twelve constellations. And as to every happiness which those constellations bestow on the creatures of Ohrmazd, those planets take away as much as possible for them (the constellations) to give and give it up to the power of the demons and their friends and the bad…’

The virtually equal position of Spihr to Zurvan and its neutrality in determining good or evil has been interpreted in Persian literature and popular opinion, as perplexity, suspense, unawareness, and often, blind forces at work in Spihr’s sphere. This is not, however, all to be said about Spihr. Like its origin, Zurvan, Spihr is a combination of consciousness and unawareness, sensible and animate, and not fully conscious. Mankind is, too, a mixture of awareness and the unconscious, good and evil making so many impossible actions to be

39 explained reasonably. Similarly, acts of Spihr are sometimes arbitrary and blind, seemingly based on desires which reason fails to explain.

Zurvanism, Humanity, and World Spihr, as the material body of finite Zurvan, was emanated from infinite Zurvan who himself came into existence from a fiery instrument. Though producing endless forms, Spihr’s primal figure has got a human-like face whose different organs have produced the different parts of creation’s existence.

It was first an instrument like a blazing fire from which he brought about the infinite light. Of that, he created the whole of creation then hid it unto the body inside which, it was kept for three thousand years and promoted it and thereafter brought out gradually and one by one. First of all, he introduced the sky from his head and the fire from his thought. Humankind has been created of the mud from which Keyumar (the primal human form) had been created…’

Likewise, the present and latter form of the universe, prior to its dissolution into infinity, and the primal form of the world look like humankind. Another similarity one may draw between human and the universe is that both have the nature of metal. The essence of the sky, according to Menog-i Xrad, is made of metal: “The sky is made from the substance of the blood-stone, such as they also call diamond (Almást).” The Bundahishn confirms that the substantial element of Kyumars’s body is made of metal: “body of Kyumars had been made of metal, and from there, typical humans derived.” The Avesta text Zad-spram, on the other hand, comparing Spihr and the human and great world with little world, has likened seven shelves of the sky to seven layers of human body:

Seven chieftains of the planets have come unto the seven chieftains of the constellations as the planet Mercury (Tir) unto Tistar, the planet Mars (Vahram) unto Haptok-ring, the planet Jupiter (Auharmazd) unto Vanand, the planet Venus (Anahid) unto Sataves, the planet Saturn (Kevan) unto the great one of the middle of the sky, Gokihar and the

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Thievish (Duggun) Muspar provided with tails, unto the Sun and the Moon and stars…’

The apparent similarity between human and the Sky might be explained by a determination which Zurvan exercises over existence at different levels. Zurvan in definite form not only acts as the source of creation from which the Sky and the celestial bodies come into birth, but is also the origin for human creation. A statement from the Muslim , Shahrastani's Kitāb al–Milal wa al-Nihal confirms the idea that “the first human is Kyumars, who is said to be the great Zurvan.” Another document that takes human’s originality back to Zurvan is a phrase by a Christian priest which seems to be a belief among Zoroastrians that Zurvan is the founder of their race. Such an immediate connection between human creation and Zurvan, and a belief in similarity of humans and the Spihr or Zurvan i derang-xvatdy not unexpectedly lead to teaching of moral indifference, according to which there would really be no difference between good and the evil. Or comparably, Spihr’s whose activities entirely are determined by planets and the position of the twelve celestial bodies, then human existence is a combination of two non- homogeneous forces of good and evil. In this light, Ohrmazd and Ahriman represent a portion in each human existence, and Zat-Spram refers to the mixture of two good and evil spirits in human being: The two spirits (Ohrmazd and Ahriman) were mixed together in a whole body who is the first human- Keyumars. One of them, named Ohrmazd, gives vigour and life, and the other, named Ahriman, stimulates destruction and deterioration. This would be the destiny of life true for every human…’

Moreover, Spihr, as determined and definite aspect of Zurvan which is the battlefield inside which Ohrmazd and Ahriman challenge one another, is actually only an immediate emanation from Zurvan, as a sphere for a good-evil war which is predestined like whole of definite existence to fade away eventually into indefinite Zurvan. Hence, if the act of the Spihr is determined by a predestined circulation of heavens satisfying good and evil spirits which all occur on a determined earth, so the acts of humans could be seen as a manifestation of a predestined battle between good and evil forces inside

41 every person. From a Zurvanite perspective, leaning to any of the two spirits is not a deliberate moral act but is predestined and originates from human nature.

The Human and Destiny The determinist nature of the Zurvanite thought has been explained to this point; the major axioms of this school revolve around the concept of destiny. Thus we have tried to clarify all the cosmic conditions of destiny in the Zurvanite : Indefinite Zurvan as the god of Time whose destined move toward consciousness and his desire for creation provides for all that exists; definite Zurvan or Zurvan i derang-xvatdy whose limited sphere sets a battlefield where the incessant war between good and evil occurs and ends; Spihr or Thwāsha which is the body of Zurvan i derang-xvatdy who follows his own rules and manages the world through the celestial bodies he owns; and the human who is an amalgamation of good and evil affected by the power each of the forces poses that would take his or her towards either of the competing sides. On surface appearances, we may say, “in the texts that have introduced Zurvan as omnipotent, human liberty perishes, and destiny rules all. But is it as simple as that?” In one of the Zurvanite perspectives that emerges from the interaction with Mazdean religion, there are claims of man’s self-determination and freedom of while; although, the more strict ideas are also considered. We learn from Mainog-i Khirad that every phenomenon depends on Time and destiny and there remains no escape from the will of Time. But, a more moderate idea can be found in the that text that claims destiny is divided into destiny and divine providence providing for human action and effort.

The sage asked the spirit of wisdom thus: “On account of the begging of favors, and the practice and worthiness of good works, do the sacred beings also grant anything to men otherwise or not?” The spirit of wisdom answered thus: “they grant, for there are such as they call thus: ‘Destiny and divine providence.’ Destiny is that which is ordained from the beginning, and divine providence is that which they also grant otherwise…

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Faith or fortune is the eternal destiny controlled by the heavens from which there is no escape. Zurvan accounts to an irreversible law which shall happen in its accurate time and without a doubt, and a human has got no way out but to accept it. This might be the reason Hafez links faith with the heavens and calls it irreversible:

As for me, out of my head, love for those dark eyed will not go This is the sky decree; and other way, it will not be

Divine providence although, is a form of destiny controlled by the gods, enables human beings to accomplish their tasks through , good deeds, and the rejection of evil.

Zurvanism and Morality Every major religious and ideological system possess a group of speculations associated with the origin of things and human existence and tries to find a practical way of living whereby happiness can be attained in the end. We could look at Zurvanism as a theoretical foundation for life that promotes contentment, tolerance, piety, and abstinence because our world has come into existence through the desire and failure of an indefinite god while thinking about his existence, a god who directs the world according to his pre-arranged rules and before whose omniscience all creation is like a moment which must pass in time’s contingency so that god perceives his own infinity. In such an unworthy world, destined to operate as such, what would most endanger the internal tranquillity that resulted from submission to such destiny? The biggest problem, in the Zurvanists’ view would be greed, and as a contrary to it, we find in Zurvaniite teaching the potential for the human to defend himself from greed by moderation.

Greed It is useful to scrutinize and compare the concept of greed in Mazdaism, Zurvanism, and Manichaeism, for a common trait in all three is the crucial conditioning role of mythological foundations and the outworking of creation.

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Zurvanite greed Greed, in a report narrated by Zat-Sparam, concerning the role it plays in creation, is a weapon granted by Zurvan to Ahriman so that in the last moment of the world it will devour Ahriman himself and all his creatures.

And observantly of the end, he brought forward to Aharman a means out of himself, the property of darkness, with which the extreme limits (Vlrunako) of Time were connected by him, an envelope (Posto) of the black-pated and ashen kind. And in bringing it forward he spoke thus: “Through their weapons the co-operation of the dies away, and this which is thine, indeed thy own daughter, dies through religion; and if at the end of nine thousand years, as it is said and written, is a time of upheaval (madam kar^fano), she is upheaved, not ended…”

The weapon Zurvan has granted Ahriman is made substantially of greed causing pain in all the creatures. Greed manifests itself in three instincts; lust, gluttony, and a will for ownership. Human tendencies to every of the three demands are instances of greed. Sexual desire itself is under the control of another demon – Verna – who makes “what is inside of the human erected by just looking outside and stimulating its desires.” The Zurvanite suggestion of austerity here runs contrary to many Mazdean maxims, advising the adherents to enjoy the donations of nature and to satisfy the body. But in some of the speeches of Zat-Sparam, we can find important reflections on greed and how it can go to extremes; greed, for the author as for Zurvanites’ general view, stands in opposition to moderation, a key concept in their doctrine, which acts as a deterrent against illegitimate and unrighteous activities that would disturb the body and destroy reason.

Mazdean greed Greed in the Avesta has not been subjected to much scrutiny. While in Zurvanism it is the greatest adherent of Ahriman and in Manichaeism is introduced as the king of evil forces, the Avesta only refers to the act of devouring fire by greed and notes it as a product of demonic rule. Yet one can discover trace in Mazdean texts of the dominance of greed. Furthermore,

44 other Mazdean texts such as the Bundahishn and the Denkard treat greed simply as the misusing of legitimate and normal activities. The Denkard derives greed from deprivation of bodily satisfactions which must be handled with a more pragmatic concern:

Greed is the brother of will. It is a limitation barring will and till the demand for wealth and sovereignty is not quenched, greed gets more powerful and the reason fails to protect itself. Man comes into a reasonable moderation when he secures his kingdom and wealth. The very eminency is functional for the people. However, while the will stand higher than moderation and reason, greed gets more powerful and reason would diminish. This is how wisdom becomes instable and would devour man and his glory. Property, wealth, and sovereignty shall definitely endanger him…

As long as the boundaries of will are not violated, earthly satisfaction of the body not only brings stability and balance for human substance, but also protects reason. Greed in its material aspect fights with the natural manifestations and flows of the body while spiritually being the enemy of reason. If the health of the body is not achieved through moderation, the spirit will become unhealthy as well. The very idea is fundamentally in line with that of Zakariya Razi (854-925 CE), The Persian philosopher who recognized pleasure as lack of pain. This is especially interesting that Razi had been attentive to Iranian pre-Islamic wisdom: “He is the only scholar who has confirmed the Old Iranian concept of five eternals, including Ohrmazd (the creator), Time, Space, and Matter.” Razi significantly is a prescriber of true moderation.

Manichaean greed Greed in Manichaeism is represented as lust, avidity, and neglecting one’s metaphysical destiny, the main focus, however, being on lust. Greed, the evil master above all Ahriman's demons, creates a terrestrial body through lust, filth, and abomination of male and female demons, thus imprisoning the spirit as “scattered light” in the body:

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Greed, Ahrimanic mother of all demons, was furious and made a scary scream; then out of a mixture of male demons’ impurity and the ugliness of feminine demons she created this body into which she entered. Using Ohrmazd's weapon, she then created good spirit and imprisoned it inside the body, making it so insane and unaware that it would not recognize its genealogy. She built that body and the very prison within which she imprisoned unconscious spirits. She then tied the spirit inside the very vicious body…

Greed in Manichaeism signifies every phenomenon associated, in any case, with matter. The tendency towards carnal desires in any form indicates greed. The body itself is a product of greed and a matrix for it; hence, every act aiming to reach pleasure helps evil and imprisons Ahuric light in materiality. Sexual desire and productivity is ahead of a process through which spirit would submit to matter, this being the basis for any form of evil. Hence, marriage is rejected so that spirit may escape the very vicious prison of the body. Manichaeism upholds mortification and austerity which stands in contrast to Zoroastrianism that is a religion for life. Zurvanism, however, encourages everyone to seek pleasure rather than pain in life and at the same time points to the instability of life and instructs for moderation, because our life might be just a moment of God's sleep, a god who seeks his own eternity.

“Convention” (Moderation and Judgment) Like greed, “convention” owns a mythological history in Zurvanism, going back to the contract tied between Zurvan and both Ohrmazd and Ahriman. Zurvan, watching the vicious consequence of his doubt and unawareness, embedded in the birth of Ahriman, determined a nine-thousand-year kingdom for the prematurely appearing Ahriman, but also made sure that Ohrmazd will be positioned over Ahriman in the end, “taking the kingdom after nine thousand years as he who is omnipotent to do everything based on his good taste.” Now convention signifies the state of division in the temporal kingdom of this world between the two grand beings. It pertains to the very limited time for the battle that is Zurvan i derang-xvatdy. Every convention refers to a limitation and specifies all borders and limitations. Furthermore, the limitations determined by Zurvan are the ‘action criteria’ which both Ohrmazd and

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Ahriman have to obey within finite Zurvan. Such convention is to be tied directly between Ohrmazd and Ahriman, yet, the world management of things is submitted to Spihr which is the body of finite Zurvan. As Jalali Moghadam writes, “soon after Ohrmazd and Ahriman tied the contract to divide their share including heaven and hell, Spihr was assigned to share whatever there was of health, illness, wealth, and poverty and so on among people.” Spihr (finite Zurvan), therefore, governs convention and functions as a channel to convey the will of both Ahriman and Ohrmazd. Every good and evil must spread via Spihr and transgressing this boundary means breaching the ordained primed covenant. There is a document reported by the monl Eznik that narrates the first war between Ahriman and Ohrmazd and their consequent attempt in search of a judge. “The sons of Ohrmazd were defeated by those of Ahriman and they came to assign a judge, but found nobody, so they created the Sun in order to stand as their judge.” The Sun, however, was created by Ohrmazd in mythology in order to enlighten his creation; thus it seems impossible for a creature of good spirit to judge between the two. Now, Mihr, in Sassanid theology, had been transformed into the Sun, hence, it seems that Eznik has confused Mihr with the Sun. Eznik also uses an Iranian term Dāvar, which has been frequently used in Pahlavi texts to indicate Mihr: “We call for merciful Ohrmazd and appreciate him who created you, the well-doer. Thou Mihr owner of wide plain you are wise and judge fairly for spiritual and terrestrial creatures.” The intercessional function of Mihr has been stated by some scholars: “Mihr () mediates between Ahriman and Ohrmazd, and so is called Mihr by Iranians.” Mihr in a Pahlavi text Bahman Yasn, challenges Ahriman that he has violated his contract:

Sinful evil spirit who calls up for Mihr – owner of wide plains – to administer justice. Mihr – owner of wide plains – who calls up through this 9000-year contract of Ahriman, malicious Dahāk, Afrasyab of Tourān, Roman Alexander, and filthy demons who have ruled for 1000 years more than the agreed term.” The sinful spirit hears the speech and passes out…

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On a cosmologic and mythological scale, ‘convention’ is manifested here as a contract between Ohrmazd and Ahriman, i.e., as Zurvan i derang-xvatdy, which no one can undo. However, from a moral perspective, moderation in life can protect physical health and the functionality of the reason. ‘‘Moderation in the terrestrial order manifests itself as health, but when going to extremes is an illness. Moderation in the spiritual order includes moral whose enemy is extremism.” There is a direct affiliation between moderation and reason in Iranian belief, so that permanent appreciation of reason must have had a relation with a moral tendency to moderation and convention:

Moderation has always been commanded by Iranians while extremism has been condemned. Byzantine philosophers, sages in India and every other land have generally advised people to act wisely, while Iranian wisdom confirms only real sages…’

The End of the World The world, in Zurvanite perspective, is a passage from origin to (the return to) origin. A movement that occurs from a specific moment of divide from Zurvan and in a cyclic route lasts 12000 years until returning only once to its own origin. Time is limited to the body of finite Zurvan, who provided its essence to be constructed for finite existence and for two forms of good and evil, generated in a moment of time, to possess a pre-destined responsibility to create the determined world and direct it. Being tied together, Ahriman and Ohrmazd, as two co-existents, would traverse the finite time shoulder-to- shoulder in a face-to-face battle to an ending moment in which Ahriman, based on his specific nature grounded on ignorance and vulgarity, would be defeated by Ahuric forces. The destruction of Ahriman is pre-destined because he uses greed as his weapon, which eventually in accordance with Zurvanite convention would devour even the whole evil force within itself. The Spirit of Wisdom is involved as the immediate presence of Zurvan in final destruction of Ahriman.

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And when the nine thousand years have become completed, Aharman is quite impotent and Srosh, the righteous, will smite Aeshmm and Mitro and unlimited time and the spirit of justice, who deceives no one in anything, and destiny and divine providence will smite the creatures and creation of Aharman of every kind, and, in the end, even Azo, the demon and every creature and creation of Auharman becomes again as undisturbed as they were created by him in the beginning…

The disappearance of Ahriman implies the ultimate disappearance of Ohrmazd as well. This comes from the fact that Ohrmazd only makes sense in his contrast with Ahriman, as good has no meaning in absence of evil. On the other hand, the whole global trend is toward an Amalgamation back into infinity, with a degree of returns to the primary silence that existed prior to the creation.

A finite god whose influence works merely inside a realm of Zurvan i derang-xvatdy would eventually lose the vital sphere of his action and existence. Thus Ohrmazd would no longer live after destruction of Ahriman, except for a short time that cannot last too long; “The same God who has organized the setting wants to relax. Relaxation time is not so very long but lasts as long as an ordinary nap for a drowsy human.” For Ohrmazd however, this might be an endless sleep that is connected to eternity; but he must definitely submit to the infinity of Zurvan, a trend with no perspective return. The cosmological return in Iranian mythological viewpoint, unlike Indian and Greek cosmologies, is a unique one, with no return manifesting in a U-turn for the human destiny back to the eternal or to the primal origin whence we came. Therefore, resurrection and final everlasting domination over the creatures is a transitive and unstable scenario that occurs for a short period of time prior to eternal silence, when nothing would remain but the imperceptible eternity of time. The very unstable world would satisfy neither human nor gods. The ending episode of human life is clear as far as it links to Zurvanite eternity, although it is apparently not imaginable for humans to know what it would be like because the concept ‘eternity’ is too difficult to be conceptualized by limited human mind.

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Zurvanism does not address humanity’s ignorance of life after death, nor does it about these matters. As a religion, it merely accompanies humans to un-recognised borders, where he is left with no identity regarding neither mortality nor the enduring existence. There is no clear theological route but a blind movement towards a not-yet-known utopia. Human cognition makes sense merely inside a realm of senses and if material form fades away knowledge becomes impossible. The Mazdean perspective of after- death world is really more helpful and promising than the Zurvani perspective. Resurrection, heaven, and hell, however, have been depicted in some semi- Zurvanite reference texts, such as in some part of Zat-Sparam and The Spirit of Wisdom:

Everyone would pass away. If a man is virtuous he would face glory and victory, he is accompanied by beautiful spirits. The angel of prosperity will come in his first-three-nights and recollects soul, fragrance, and spirit which have been scattered by bad Vāyu in order to decorate substance and accident. However, if a man is vicious all these would dissipate…

The Spirit of Wisdom confirms resurrection and the evaluation of human acts:

And as to that which is asked by thee concerning the spiritual and worldly existences, the worldly existence is, in the end, death and disappearance, and of the spiritual existence, in the end that of a soul of the righteous is un-decaying, immortal, and undisturbed, full of glory and full of enjoyment, forever and everlasting, with the angels and archangels and the guardian spirits of the righteous. And the bridge and destruction and punishment of the wicked in hell are forever and everlasting…

Types of Zurvanism Borrowing some Indian-Greek principles such as ex nihilo, besides its belief in Eternity of Time, Zurvanism was apt to extend from a mere moral religious doctrine to a rational philosophical system. Nyberg has suggested there was an original version of Zurvanism, even “lacking any notion concerned with

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Ahriman and Ohrmazd.” There might be questions in some aspects; for example, the Iranian mode of thought had always been concerned with ‘good’ and ‘evil’ symbolized in divine characters, so it is hardly surprising that Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism had the concept of two competing spirits in their cores. Still, there did existed some ‘materialist’ orientations in Iranian thought with no Ohrmazd-Ahriman conception, but with a belief in eternity of Time enshrouding the material world and adopting a notion of a causing as against creative god. Such ideas extended into the Islamic times. Matter, on this ‘materio-determinist’ perspective, is as eternal as God is; hence, any phenomenal change is a change in form and not a creation from nothing. God, as a mere neutral agent, observes and preserves stable natural laws and transformations of substance and accidents. This group, besides Manichaeans, have been noted in Pahlavi texts as “Zendic,” yet as a cult that based its theology on an interpretation of the Avesta than on the Avesta itself. Zendics were contemporaneous with , as the medieval philosopher Masoudi (Abbas al-Majusi, d. ca. 990) claims it. They were a group whom Zoroastrians had so named because of their variant interpretation of the Zoroastrian holy book, the Avesta. Upon entering Iran, the appropriated this term into and labelled some sects Zendic for believing in maxims variant than theirs. Referring to “Eternalists,” for example, Al-Ghazali categorized them as Zendic. For him the Zendics had one of the oldest doctrines denying an omniscient omnipotent creator and manager. They believed that the universe had been perpetual with no creator, and that animals have always been generated from seeds of animals. The mechanism has always been alike and shall be the same. This sect was known as Zanādiqe. People who believed in eternality of Time were named ‘eternalists’ or dahriyyun in Islamic texts, which means a group who believe in dahr (time in Arabic). The question that could be asked is if there are any similarities between eternalists and Zurvanists. According to Al-Ghazli, the cosmos in Zurvanism is caused by a change in the existence of Zurvan and the determinations of Time as well. Aiming to reject the evil resulted from its creation, Time accepted a necessary finitude and accordingly a material form. Materiality is a variant form of Time which returns to its original eternal form after stages of transformation and alteration. Thus matter is as eternal as time. When Al-Ghazali emphasized the

51 eternalist’s denial of an omniscient manager and omnipotent creator, however, we have to be cautious that he is very conservative and did not discuss openly the Zurvanite principles. Zurvan in Zurvanism owns no properties in his infinite form but an infinite existence only. However, as soon as its existence is recognized and infinity changes into finitude, an amalgam of consciousness and unconsciousness occurs. Each of these causes a part of terrestrial creation cycle to proceed. Therefore, although God in Zurvanism is absolute existentially, he or it is also partial in terms of knowledge, a mixture of knowledge and lack of it. Al-Ghazali's insistence is on the denial of an omniscient creator, not on a total denial of the creator. It should not be ignored, of course, that if the creator is stripped of his consciousness the necessity of his existence will be threatened. If God is pending between awareness and unawareness it will be of no use as divinity because such a god is the same as non-being. God in this notion is on equal terms with nature. Insofar as Zurvanism accepts Time as a basis for the world and as the father of good and evil, beside neutral, quasi-conscious existence, this doctrine can be categorized as moral Zurvanism. However, when Time is taken as the mere origin for matter and the universe, we enter or are only in the sphere of philosophy. There is another analogy between eternalize and Zurvani beliefs, connected to the good/evil dichotomy and notions of heaven, hell, and after- death world. There is another sect, distinct from specific group of atheists, who do not obey religious and make no attempt to achieve virtue. They insist more on their endless disputes. They respect Time as the origin of the universe as well as it is the origin for transitions, transformations and plurality. Organs of the very cosmic plurality contradict one another while simultaneously they are seen as mixed together. Moreover they believe that virtue should receive no appraise in return, neither does guilt. There exists neither heaven nor hell, nor does reward-punishment system have a manager. They also see everything materialistically with no spirit. It was mentioned previously that world in Zurvanism is a transitive stage prior to final amalgamation into infinity. The World, in the end, after evil is defeated by good, will not be under control by Ohrmazd or any saviour figures but returns to eternity. Hence any imagined heaven or hell would be unstable and inconsistent with the determinist nature of Zurvanism apparently

52 denying human responsibility. The human being, deprived of his autonomy, does not have a sense of responsibility for his actions. Al-Ghazali’s reference to the non-atheistic sect, then, may well be to continuing Zurvanites. The similarities between Zurvanism and externalism have brought Zaehner closer to the interpretations of Nyberg respecting two Zurvanite orientations; its moral-mythological and rational-philosophical aspects. The first relies on myths. It commences as an attempt to explain and justify what Zoroaster might have meant by referring to good and evil twins. This version of Zurvanism takes infinite time and space as a mere possible absolute existence that emanate from the twins. The origin of good-evil and light-darkness is very much conflicting. In contrast, by borrowing Indian-Greek elements, such as refusal of the principal of ex-nihilo, philosophical Zurvanism tried to bring reason and Avestan maxims close together. There are strong ties between philosophical Zurvanism and eternalist ideas so that it is justifiable to suggest that Zurvanite was the belief of the people whom were sanctioned by Kartir, great Sassanid clerical authority. They were following the Avesta in their own discretion and they must have been truly Zendic (not after Al- Ghazali’s misleading representation of their case).

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Chapter Two

The Zurvani’s -related Epistemological Basis of Poems by Firdausi

Zurvanism had a long-term implication for the history of Persian thought and culture. It is our goal to show this in connection with the great cultural monument and masterpiece of Persian literature, that is, the Shahnameh. It is increasingly important to study religion in literature. Men live in a diverse, multicultural, technological, and globalized world. Nowadays, an intellectual study of culture and its relationship with religion provides access to the mystery of other cultures which may provide answers and to philosophical questions of life and death, and love and hate that characterize the human conditions. A study of the influences of Zurvanism in Shahnameh is a key to know how religion acts as a part of culture in the course of history and become as part of the art, folklore and cultural heritage. Epics, myths, history, and religions transfer from one generation to the next at the heart of cultural practices. This study will give comprehensive and balanced analyses of the Zurvanism religion within the famous Persian epic poem. The Shahnameh, or the Book of Kings, was created by the great Persian poet Firdausi around AD 1000. Firdausi started developing the idea of Shahnameh under Samanid dynasty in Iran in 977 and completed the book around 1010 during the Ghaznavid era. The book is in pure Persian that contains 60,000 verses. Shahnmeh is the epic poem that describes Iranian mythical and historical figures from the creation of the world till the Islamic conquest of Iran in the seventh century by the Arabs. This masterwork of Iranian literature not only describes national myths, history, and cultural values, but also reflects ancient religions and their social status. This book precisely narrates last days of Persian Zoroastrianism and also strong belief system of Zurvanism and its elements. In the Shahnameh Firdausi describes the Zurvanism’s view of human behaviour and its followers’ beliefs in faith and destiny. In the belief system of Zurvanism, Zurvan created Ohrmazd to keep a promise which is a great contractual relation among humans. Firdausi deliberates on the final days of judgment and the conflict to show the eventual victory of light over darkness. As a great epic Shahnameh contains lots of

54 religious beliefs, spiritual and philosophical elements, and myths, and this study is designed to explore the relationship between them. The absence of broad studies in this area is a problem, especially because an intellectual study of the religion of Persian Zurvanism in the Shahnameh generates many questions that could help fostering self-reflection and positive human interactions. This thesis first intended to explore and focus on Zurvani elements and beliefs in great works of Persian literature in a broader aspect, but as it proceeded, the author decided to settle on Firdausi in this chapter as a case study. It illustrates that religion and literature have been closely interrelated. The epic of Shahnameh draws a line between human fundamental desires and aspirations and explores the inner sides of men. This is the highly significant poem that adopts a brilliant approach to study the root of ancient religion. This study will be a journey, a trail, and can help revealing the continuingly influential role of the religion in Persian history.

Shahnameh Shahnameh discusses the , beginning with the creation of the world and the introduction of the human civilization (with the discovery of fire, cooking, metallurgy, and law) and ends with the Arab conquest of Iran. The epic is not exactly chronological, yet it has its own timeline. Some of the heroes live for long time, like some of the characters in the Bible and Qur’an, though most have normal life span. Many kings are introduced who come and go, as well as heroes and villains that appear and disappear in their turn. There are of course many great heroes in Shahnameh, however, the most important one is Rustam, a hero who fights in the service of many impotent , and yet he never envies their power. He is a reluctant hero who performs his duty his job. Besides being an epic, Shahnameh contains many doctrines that are hardly in compliance with mainstream ideologies of its time. Although it is written during the flourish of Islamic era, it seldom glorifies the principles of its time as it ‘mourns’ the time before time. For example, when it comes to wine, we find no recourse to Sharia, or when it comes to the origin of evil, Firdausi does not hesitate linking evil to the Almighty. Yet with all its “heresy,” even to this day we find Shahnameh popular in the Islamic Iran, and in a brief review of

55 the history of Iranian culture we find its stories re-enacted in coffeehouses and public places along with the re-enactment of the epic of Imam Hussein and battle of Karbala. To Iranians, Shahnameh is one of the very few windows to their ancient past; the way they lived, thought, and perceived the world before the introduction of Islam. Zurvanism is definitely a part of the Iranian cultural heritage reflected in that wonderful epic story. The following is a brief description which is the main object of the thesis; that is, to uncover Zurvanist lineaments in Shahnameh. The procedure involves laying the mere through by quoting from relevant passages, sometimes simply listing to the quotations extensively to make sure the job is done effectively, because nobody has ever considered as discussing these points systematic. Considering how dense and complex Shahnameh is and as it is so difficult to unravel for the average reader, one hopes that this exercise could be of use for students of religion and culture. In what follows, key concepts and themes that have been found in reconstructing Zurvanism are re-discussed in an arranged way as could be traced in Shahnameh, which is definitely a text with its key epistemological basis that chose Zurvanite and thus it is text that tries to keep Zurvani lines of philosophical outlook alive.

Dualism in Divinity Zurvan, as mentioned above, is the ultimate deity from whom Ohrmazd and Ahriman emanated. Firdausi’s Shahnameh also contains instances of such concept, the noble characters from whom both good and evil emerge. Farídún is an example of such character; he fathers three sons; Íraj the virtuous, and and Túr who are evil. A careful study of this story reveals that in this story the forces of evil (Salm and Túr) clearly have a far larger domain than that of the good (Íraj). The force of evil is constituted of two figures while the good is unaccompanied and outnumbered, suggesting the prevalence of evil, and it is in fact Farídún himself who divides the kingdom amongst his sons and thus brings doom to the universe. He is the good who creates evil. The same conclusion can be drawn from the story of Zál who fathers both the heroic Rustam and the Ahrimanic Shaghád, and also Rustam himself

56 who fathers Suhráb, who is also divided between good and evil, therefore, it makes balance:

In Shahnameh, those attributed as evil also manifest a behavioural dichotomy, as in the case of Afrásiyáb, who mourns over his defeat and the Iranians’ woes. We also find Asfandiyár, Rustam’s contender, who is split between contempt and wisdom, or in fact lurching back and forth between kingship and religion. He contemplates incorporating the two qualities and states into his essence; although Ahrimanic and Ahuric tendencies cannot both prevail within man’s essence. Asfandiyár’s reverence for Rustam only takes over after he is wounded by him, and it is then that he reverts from kingship and becomes a man of faith; he himself also acknowledges this change of heart, yet ultimately beseachments of Rustam fail to persuade Asfandiyár to reconsider so that evil takes him over and Rustam is forced to put an end to him.

The Collective Origin of Good and Evil in Firdausi’s Words The Zurvanite concept of good and evil as having sprung from the same source can be seen quite clearly in Firdausi’s Shahnameh. Thus:

The then called a veteran scribe who brought His paper and musk-scented ink. The Shah, In pain and grief, with livid cheeks and eyes Fulfilled with tears of blood, wrote from Dara, Son of , son of Bahman, a letter To lion-capturing Sikandar Csesar. He first gave praises to the Omnipotent, The Author of his good and evil fortune…’

And again:

May holy God be gracious unto us, And may the foemen's hearts be filled with smoke. His is all knowledge, and we are His slaves For weal or woe. He is supremely just;

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His kingdom knoweth neither gain nor loss. One that is rich in generosity, Discreet, intelligent, and vigilant, Should lock not fast his treasures, least of all If he is lord of throne and diadem, And if a wealth of words be thine to give, Be lavish, knowledge faileth not. Incline To God in good and ill as thou wilt have Thy good endure. If thou acknowledgest That all thy good and evil are from Him Thy guerdon will be jocund Paradise…’

These lines, inconsistent with Zoroastrianism and prominent belief systems of the time, unmistakably regard God not only as the origin of all that is good, but also evil to the same proportion. Such idea is not in compliance to Zoroastrian School thought, because in Zoroastrianism, good and evil have distinct origins, as Ohrmazd and Ahriman.

The Extended Reign of Evil over the World What is stated above is merely one of the signals of Zurvanite influence in Shahnameh. Even more evidences of this influence is the elongated reign of evil and the upper hand of evil in the epic stories. In the early parts of Shahnameh, for example, we witness the prolonged reign of Zahhák and at the end again we witness the victory of Arabs over Iranians (as another instance of prevalence of evil), which is consistent with the grim future that Rustam predicts for Iranians.

Zahhák sat on the throne a thousand years Obeyed by all the world. Through that long time The customs of the wise were out of vogue, The lusts of madmen flourished everywhere, All virtue was despised, black art esteemed, Right lost to sight, disaster manifest; While diva accomplished their fell purposes And no man spoke of good unless by stealth…

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Throughout Shahnameh the success of evil and its triumph over good is repeated over and over. Íraj is murdered by Salm and Túr, Siyáwush is murdered by Afrásiyáb, Rustam is murdered by Shaghád, and even when Kai Khusrau defeats Afrásiyáb in a way he feels defeated within and so he resigns, good disappears, Iranians begin to divide, and evil returns anew with Luhrásp and Gushtásp. Just like Farídún, Kai Khusrau dichotomizes the singularity into opposing poles; the Zál dynasty and the Luhrásp clan. It can be conceived that Kai Khusrau stands as equivalent to Zurvan, who eliminates the antagonism between Ohrmazd (Iranians) and Ahriman (Túrán) but as time is not right for peace, rivalry again is the case. If is killed it is because he took it upon himself to unite Iran and Túrán, which means to abolish evil, and that cannot be. Siyáwush also makes the same attempt by marrying the daughter of Afrásiyáb and he also fails as the prolonged reign of evil does not permit unity. This primacy of evil resembles the temporary priority of Ahriman to Ohrmazd upon their emergences. But why is it that evil prevails in every turn as Firdausi narrates? If we consider Firdausi to be influenced by Zurvanism, the answer could be found in Zurvani ideas about the lifespan of the cosmos which is considered to be twelve thousand years divided into quadrants, three of which equal to nine thousand years pledged to evil and the last remaining three thousand years dedicated to the eventual prevalence of good.

Fatalism in Shahnameh Another noticeable characteristic of Shahnameh is some form of fatalism, and a way of attributing affairs to destiny, faith, and fortune:

Next came the horoscope of glorious Túr- The Sun ascendant in the Lion's House - A presage brave; but when the Shah observed The horoscope of blest Íraj he found The Moon in Cancer; thus the stars revealed A destiny of strife and woe…

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These lines are cited from the story characters in Shahnameh; nevertheless the following lines from the preface are Firdausi’s own words, revealing his personal despair:

The hail this year like death on me hath come Though death itself were better than the hail, And heaven's lofty far extending dome Hath caused my fuel sheep and wheat to fail…

Firdausi’s terminology; e.g., “faith”, “fortune”, “destiny”, etc. in this regard, whether spoken through his characters or in his own words, suggests a familiarity with Zurvanite doctrine which unlike Zoroastrian doctrine, attributes phenomena and events to Zurvan, undermining human authority. In the Parhlavi/Farsi language, the word for time is Zamān, which unmistakable resembles Zurvan. Just like modern humans, the ancient people were well aware of the significance of time, and could observe that time moves in its continuum constantly, uncontrollably and overpoweringly, affecting all, and posing threats to existence. Such a sense of fatalism, nonetheless, might have been adopted from Babylonian culture, which puts human in the hands of deities in a total surrender of authority, and also there is definitely no shortage of fatalistic ideas in earlier Pahlavi literature, with which Firdausi was certainly acquainted.

Pessimism in Shahnameh One of the subjects that Firdausi points to so often is the unfaithfulness and instability of the universe. He rarely misses an opportunity to draw the grimmest image of the world; whether it is a fallen hero, a troubled king passing the throne to his son just so he can leave and fade away, or even the notion of his own youth slipping away from him:

The rein, my cheeks grew moon-like pale, my beard Lost its black hue and camphor-like appeared, Mine upright stature bent as age came on And all the lustre of mine eyes was gone…

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In Shahnameh we find characters who deliberately subject themselves to isolation and atrocity. Like Kai Khusrau, for instance, we find Íraj unimpressed by the world and earthly possessions;

Íraj made answer in a holier strain: mighty chieftain, lover of renown! Seek peace if thou wouldst have thy heart at ease. I do not want the royal crown or throne, The style of monarch or the Iranian host; I do not want Iran, the West, or Chin, The kingship or the broad expanse of earth. When majesty produceth naught but strife One need must weep o'er such supremacy. Although thou ridest on the heaven above, A brick will be thy pillow in the end...

Such loathing of the world is not infrequent amongst the ‘noble’ characters of Shahnameh.

Greed Among almost all the Iranian scholars of the old ages, greed was a subject of condemnation; such statement can be verified by simply reading the works of the majority Iranian poets. However, Firdausi’s view on the matter, although mainstream in principal, tends to differ with that of the others. In Zurvanite doctrine, greed is considered to be a weapon granted to Ahriman by Zurvan and in order to maintain the equilibrium, while Zurvan also arms Ohrmazd with ‘reason’ as a weapon. The Bundahishn describes Āz (greed and avarice) as a daeva. In Shahnameh we find instances of deevs trying to cloud the judgment of humans,

But Ahriman the wakeful was not pleased thereat, and he pondered how he could once again arouse the ambition of the Shah. So he held counsel with

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his Deevs how they might turn the heart of Kai Kavous from the right path. And one among them said- “Suffer that I go before the Shah, and I will do thy behest.” And Ahriman suffered it. Then the Deev took upon him the form of a youth, and in his hand he held a cluster of roses, and he presented them unto the Shah, and he kissed the ground before his feet. And when Kai Kaous had given him leave to speak he opened his mouth and said- “O Shah, live for ever! though such is thy might and majesty that the vault of heaven alone should be thy throne. All the world is submissive before thee, and I can bethink me but of one thing that is lacking unto thy glory.” Then Kai Kaous questioned him of this one thing, and the Deev said “It is that thou knowest not the nature of the sun and moon, nor wherefore the planets roll, neither the secret causes that set them in motion. Thou art master of all the earth, therefore shouldst thou not make the heavens also obedient to thy will?...”

The Battle of Keyumars and Ahriman There are some differences between Firdausi’s narration of Persian myths and what we find in Pahlavi texts, one of which is the absence of Mashi and Mashyane in the Shahnameh and presenting Keyumars as the first man instead of them. In Pahlavi myths, the first human couple is Mashi (Mahli) and Mashiyane (Mahliyane) whom are created from Keyumars’s semen after his death. When Keyumars passed away, he had some offspring. They were reared by the sunlight. The spirit called Narivsang took one of them and Sepandarmaz took the other (Keymars). They dweled on earth for 40 years and after that, Mahli and Mahliyane grew from the ground. They were so joined together as if they were one. On the other hand, Keyumars is not completely a human; it

62 seems from the stories that he was a prototype and material. His appearance was somehow equilateral, with equal length and width: “On the sixth, he made Keyumars; he was shining like the sun. His length and width were equal.” Therefore, it is mistakenly possible to consider Keyumars as a first man. Firdausi, even, mentions Keyumars to be the first king not the first human:

What saith the rustic bard? Who first designed To gain the crown of power among mankind? Who placed the diadem upon his brow? The record of those days hath perished now Unless one, having borne in memory Tales told by sire to son, declare to thee Who was the first to use the royal style And stood the head of all the mighty file. He who compiled the ancient legendary, And tales of paladins, saith Gaiumart, Invented crown and throne, and was a Shah...

In the story of Khosrow Parviz, Keyumars has been mentioned as the first living thing that God created, and not necessarily the first human. However, Keyumars’s position in the beginning of Shahnameh as the first member of the human generation, and who has a son called , leads to the misconception that Firdausi thinks of him not only as the first king, but also as the first human. There is a similar conception in Altaio-Central-Asian Sami myth, which speaks of Adam not only as the first human, but also as the first prophet. We should not forget that just as Sami people believed in prophets and the importance of obeying God by obeying his prophets, Iranian people believed that they must obey the king who was blessed by the divine splendour. Therefore, as we see in Sami legends that the first human is the first prophet, here we see that the first human is the first king. Another difference between Shahnameh and earlier Pahlavi stories is introducing Siamak as the son of Keyumars. In the Bundahishn, Siamak is not the son of Keyumars: he and Woshag are one of the six couples who were born from Mashi and Mashiyane. “Mashi and Mashyane had six couples of offspring.

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Of these couples, one was Siamak (male) and one was Woshag (female).” In the Avesta there is no sign indicating a father-child relationship between Keyumars and Siamak: “Siamak's lineage is not clear and Avesta does not speak of him as the son Keyumars.” Another noteworthy difference in this regard, is that in Pahlavi stories it is Keyumars who goes on to fight Ahriman, kills his son Arzur and consequently is killed in return. “Keyumars fought the sixth battle.” The spirit of wisdom thought that Keyumars's battle was with Ahriman, and killing his son Arzur was one of his advantages. “Keyumars had such advantages: firstly, killing Arzur and surrendering himself to Ahriman with good intension...” In his book, The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī states that death of Keyumars was the result of him killing Ahriman’s son Khazureh (Arzur): …he (Kharzureh) attacked Keyumars but Keyumars killed him. Ahriman protested to Ohrmazd and asked him to keep his promise and take Arzur’s revenge. Ahriman first showed Keyumars the end of the world and resurrection, making Keymars eager to die and, he (Ahriman) then killed Keymars…

We see that what is mentioned in Pahlavi stories about Keyumars and his battle with Ahriman and his son, is changed to Siamak in Shahnameh. The question remains, where the difference originate? We can assume that perhaps myths change in time. Myths do change through their evolutionary path. In so far as human emotional and intellectual needs change in time:

sometimes it happens that certain rituals and tradition would become abolished. Then the vindicator myth that sometimes used to justify the same rituals and tradition would lose its role and will alter and relocate…

There are so many examples of such alterations and relocations in Iranian myths, including the Shahnameh itself, as a mythology work. Thus: “Zahhák (Azi-Dahák) who is a with three heads and six eyes in Avesta, turns into a foreign king in Shahnameh.” We can also talk about Siyáwush in the Western Asian myths who was a vegetal and martyr god who takes on a human

64 configuration in Iranian myths. Zál and Rustam as well, could be the altered forms of Zurvan and Izad Bahrām. In search for the bases of these mythological relocations, we can cite a narrative by Armenian Eznik of Kolb in the story of Keyumars and Siamak:

Arhmen invited Ormizd to a festival. The latter arrived, but consented to eat only on condition that their sons should first ... they therefore seek a judge to settle their dispute…

Most researchers are unanimous in believing that Eznik's narrative is a Zurvanite one. In Zurvanite teachings, it is Ahriman who lords over the world for nine thousand years. That is the reason why Ahriman’s offspring defeat the Ohrmazd’s offspring. From the pessimistic viewpoint of Zurvanite teachings, the predomination of evil in this world is the result of the agreement and the pact that Zurvan arranged between Ohrmazd and Ahriman. Based on such agreement, the predominance of evil in this world should be recognized for nine thousand years. There is no way to destroy evil forces but to wait for the time to pass so that those nine millennia are over. Theretofore, all the attempts to destroy the evil will be in vain. This notion is not approved by Zoroastrian and Mazdean beliefs. They divide time into four periods, each lasting for three thousand years, however, both believe that only in the third millennium evil smears the world, which finally ends by the victory of good spirit. Thus we can detect how the idea of Ohrmazd is defeated by Ahriman, in their offspring battle, is a Zurvanite belief confronted by the Mazdean viewpoint. In the end, we see as Zoroastrian- Mazadean alteration in the myth according to which Ohrmazd’s son is defeated by the son of Ahriman, and the story is transformed to become of a battle between Keyumars son, Siamak, and Ahriman’s son, Kharvazan, which ends by the death of Siamak. Such relocations in Zurvanite myths and Zoroastrian efforts to dim the Zurvanite teachings can be revealed in so many other examples: R.C. Zaehner has pointed out some of them in his book Zurvan.

Evil inside Human Existence in Shahnameh and Zurvanite teachings

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The basic Gnostic system of thoughts accepts a vertical hierarchy of existence, with the pure on the topmost, and the dark and evil material at the bottom. In this view, all the evil, suffering and calamity have a material base and as long as the man is involved with the material side of things, he will be deprived of happiness and purity. In this religion, the world is established as based on a dichotomy and conflict between materiality and the soul. God Almighty in this attitude is so unattainable. This God did not do the creation of the material world. In this scheme the material world has been created by a lower force, perhaps an Ahriman figure. The filth and dirtiness of matter is an important principle in Gnostic system of thought; due to his material nature, Man inherently has an evil part and his body is the cage of his soul, which imprisons him in the filthy material world. Within such viewpoint that believes the world to be made by a lower God or Ahriman, evil is the foundation of the world. In its cliché form, this Gnostic teaching may be said to have had an important effect Christian teachings accentuate the idea of the first sin and evil nature of Man. It is because of such belief in the filthiness of the world in Zurvanism (and some Christian ) that Ahriman (or Satan) has a physical embodiment and can harm the body as well as the soul. Islam’s ‘notion’ on the good and evil, however, is different. From the Islamic viewpoint, the distinction between body and soul itself is not a value conflict. Superiority belongs to the soul over the body because only the former deals with good and evil forces. This is because any person has the potential and capacity to ascend to the origin of goodness and eternal wisdom. Material life not only was not denied nor humiliated in the Islamic teachings and Prophet Mohammad’s life, but on the contrary, it has been emphasized. Mohammad’s own life is an exemplar of such an amalgamation. In Islamic beliefs, the materialistic order is the context and background for a mental movement that can be good or evil. It is the soul that has to make its way to the good and sublimation. In the Islamic perspective, as mentioned before, the foundation of existence is considered to be ‘God’s knowledge and awareness,’ and such awareness has been spread to the Man’s soul as well, because Man’s soul has a divine nature. Such awareness and knowledge are based on reminding, like Platonic idea of recollection. Knowledge has been given to Man when his soul was being created and it only needs a hint and a reminder in

66 order to become active in him. That is the reason why Qur’an says that the only duty of a prophet is to remind people: “My prophet, remind the people. That is your only task and you do not have sovereignty over them.” Islam accepts a kind of self-consciousness in people who are aware of good and evil. It is in their nature. The only task of a prophet is to awaken the human’s consciousness and remind him of his awareness. Qur. ch. A’araf, 172 mentions a promise between God and Man, in which Man attests in the presence of the God:

…and remember when God asked men, am I not your God? They all replied yes, we all attest that you are our Lord. So, in the final judgment day they will be unable to deny it…

What happens in human life is linked to what has happened in eternity and had influences on human mind and soul. Awareness or ignorance to such eternal knowledge is what determines the human’s interest in good or evil; matter and materiality are merely contexts for the soul. Therefore, Satan’s malfeasance is just in temptation and the task of prophet has a relation to the souls and spirits of people that is all about reminding. Duality of good and evil performs on the contrary a pivotal role in Iranian–Zurvanite thought. Such a duality includes the spirit and soul, matter or materiality. The Universe or the greater world, which in Zurvanite theology is referred to as Spihr or Zurvan, is the infinite body of Zurvan and is the context for the battle of good and evil. Therefore, Zurvan is not entirely in control of one of the two primordial spirits, while both the matter and the soul are combinations of both good and evil forces. Such a paradoxical combination can also be seen in the human existence or the smaller world. “Two spirits (Ohrmazd and Ahriman) came together inside the first man (Keyumars)”, Zat- Sparam asserts. Other narratives concerning the defilement of man by woman also confirm the notion of good-evil combination:

After Ohrmazd gave the women to righteous men, they fled and went to Satan; and when Ohrmazd provided righteous men with peace and happiness, Satan provided women in turn, with happiness…’

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Zat-Sparam tates:

He (Ahriman) joined the demon so that together they try to defile women by which defile men too, so that they deviate from their tasks and duties…’

Defilement of the female by Ahriman paved a path through which evil found a place in human existence, hence he formed a part of human essence. Therefore, human actions depend on the power of each of these two forces. The clearest characteristic of the Zurvanite thought, the belief in determinism, can obviously be seen here. Adversity and prosperity are matters intrinsically depend on Man’s nature, and each person’s tendency to good or evil relates to his distance from good or evil. The story of Zahhák is an example of such approach to the concept of evil. Zahhák was a dragon in Avestan stories, with three heads and six eyes. After Iranian alterations, he turned into a foreign king. Avesta clearly speaks of the evil nature of Zahhák represented by his dragon appearances. His evil deeds in Shahnameh can be explained by a reference to such old background. He is an evil creature with a destructive nature. Analyzing this evil nature, apart from the mythical basis of this character, Firdausi reflects on the human justification and analysis of contexts in which evil forces rise in Zahhák's nature. His analysis is adaptable with the idea of natured evil and the omnipresence of evil and good in human soul. Although Firdausi accepts the role of Ahriman in gravitation of people to Obari and Sastari, he regards it as the natural aptitude of Man to accept the evil. Since Zahhák was naturally evil, he is essentially impressionable to the evil forces.

Yet that abandoned youth respected not His father, but conspired to shed his blood. I heard a sage once say: “Though fierce in strife No son will dare to take his father’s life; If such a crime should seem to be implied, Seek for the reason on the mother's side…

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Zahak’ s filthy nature has a similar but different base in the Bundahishn. This book (Bundahishm) says that Zahhák is Siamak’s relative in his father’s side, and of Ahriman’s progeny on the mother side: “Zahhák, is the son of Arudasb, son of Zingav, son of Asbir Afshang, son of Tāz, son of Faravag, son of Siamak. On his mother side, Zahhák is the son of Odak, son of Bayak, son of Tim Bayak, son of Ovoyakh, son of Pairi Or, son of Vourva Esm, son of Gaduiso, son of Dervaskan, son of Ahriman. The evil nature of Zahhák in Shahnameh is because of an evil act her mother committed, while in the Bundahishn it is because of his relation to Ahriman from his mother’s side of the family. It seems as if a relocation of the myth in Shahnameh is an attempt to rationalize it. Nevertheless, it seems that the essence of Zahhák has been an evil one from the beginning, so he is the evil side of the battle, and a creature submitted to Ahriman. Similar to Zahhák, one who assists Ahriman is naturally a vicious creature. Therefore, the influence that Ahriman exerts encompasses the material life of the man as well. In doing so, he tries to infect the world in order to recruit more followers.

Judgement The creator, according to some verses from Shahnameh, had been called the Judge. Considering the context in which this metaphor functions, one may cautiously read in this an Iranian Zurvanite belief. Whereas the normative evaluating role of God in doomsday applies to orthodox Zoroastrianism, none of the relevant verses that contain the Judge metaphor could be taken as representing final reward, punishment, and evaluation of human deeds.

The veteran dismounted from his horse, Invoking blessing on the warrior-prince, And said : “May day and night be fortunate To thee, thy foemen's hearts be rooted out, Since God hath given to thee worth and birth, With throne and stature, state and Grace divine.

This hoary paladin Is both a wise and understanding prince;

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And know that next to God our Judge and Guide- He was the means of saving us from death. He with his love screened us from injury, And seeketh now for quarter in return; So grant him to us, O thou noble one! For he hath never led the way to ill.”

Bizhan was pained because his sire was wroth, And swore an oath before the Almighty Judge: “I will not take the saddle oft' my steed Until I have avenged Zarasp or perished.”

For I have sworn a great oath by the moon, The world's Judge, and the Shah's own diadem, That if I am not slain I will not ride Back from the mountain but avenge Zarasp.

“I swear by God the Judge Omnipotent, By white day and by azure night that till I shall avenge my head shall see No covering save a Human helm.”

And thus he spake to God: “O righteous Judge! Thou gavest to me fortune, throne, and prowess, But now I shame before Thee.

If our good star prove helpful it will give us Our will upon our foes, while if the Judge Of heaven shall end us with the scimitar, No more or less can hap than His decree, So measure not your breaths in your dismay.”

The man of old, supposing that , The lion-taking chieftain, and Ruhham, His offspring both, had perished in the fight,

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Cried in his anguish to the righteous Judge.

Dāvar (Judge) in these verses is by no means associated with the evaluation of deeds, and thus another source must be found for this metaphor in the Shahnameh. The World, in Zurvanite teachings, circulates by justice and also Zurvan's law destined in the beginning of creation and embodied in Zurvan i derang-xvatdy and the material body of Spihr. There has been a pact, in primal time, between Ahriman and Ohrmazd that neither of them can violate. This pact is the limited time that, from one side, is a ground for two spirits to fulfil their will and desire, and from the other side, controls the rules and limits of the battle between good and evil forces. Zurvan i derang-xvatdy, in Zurvanite tradition, carries the meaning of pact, for he is the time and space for the battle of two spirits. Zurvan is both the law and the judge. Spihr, astrological signs, stars and planets enforce Law of Zurvan. It should hardly seem weird, then, to see a relationship between God and celestial bodies in the Shahnameh in such high frequency.

Who gave to us to compass good and ill, And ruleth o'er the circling sun and moon…’

The Lord of Venus, Mars, and Sol, who made Both ant and elephant…

The Lord of peace and war, the Lord of Mars, Of Saturn, and the moon, of good and ill, Of Grace and throne. The turning heavens obey His hest, and everywhere His love extendeth…

The Lord of Mars, of Saturn, and the Sun, The Lord of Grace, the Lord of puissance…

First blessing be on Him, Who is the Lord of serpent, ant and sun, Of Venus, Mars and Sol and heaven above…

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The Lord of Saturn, Mars, and Sol, from Whom Our gospel are, our hopes, and dread of doom…

Tiir, who enjoyed both fortune and high state, Swore by the Ruler of the universe; And that great king Zadsham, thy grandsire, swore By Him that ruleth Saturn, Mars, and Sun…

Thou wouldst then break my bonds and break with me, Because I swore by throne, crown, Mars, and Venus, And sun and moon: “Gurgin shall see but ill From me unless Bizhan be freed from bondage…”

Suhráb replied: “O fair of face! I swear By crown and throne and sun and moon to raze These ramparts to the ground and capture thee, Thou minx…”

I swore a mighty oath by moon and crown, And by the great Shah's throne…

Spihr is a mixture of good and evil. It leans to neither Ohrmazd nor Ahriman, so in terms of this neutrality it is fair and honest. Although its procedure may seem unfair to humankind, cosmologically it follows fair principles. This is why Spihr judges between good and evil. Its moderate manner leads to the end when there appears the victory of good over evil and by destiny they both integrate in the infinity of time. There exist some verses in the Shahnameh concerning connectivity between Spihr, celestial bodies and the Judgment:

And first he praised the Maker and the Judge, The Source of joy and might, the Lord of Venus, Of Sol and Mars, of being and not being…

Such is the outcome destined by the sky.

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On Giv the Judge hath rightly lavished love…

One the other side, Zurvanite myths have recognized God of Mihr as the Judge. After their sons challenging one another, Ohrmazd and Ahriman according to Eznik's report, would assign judgment to the Sun. In their Persian Religion (1929) and Zurvan (1972), Benveniste and Zaehner respectively suggest that Eznik may have mistaken Mihr for the Sun due to a very close association between the two. Yet Pahlavi texts would confirm the link because judgement in Pahlavi literature is assigned to Mihr; “we praise and invoke the creator, Ohrmazd ... in that he fashioned thee forth, O right dealing Mihr () of wide pastures, for thou art a just person.” The judging role of the Sun in the Shahnameh has been mentioned in the story of Asfandiyár who, after his victory over wolves and cleansing his body, turned his face toward Sun and praised God. The companionship of sun and the trait of Dāvar (the Judge) can lead us to the conclusion that the Iranian teaching of Mehr or judge (judgement by the Sun) has been alluded to in the Shahnameh, alongside many other implicating signs of the belief in force of astronomical beings. In Rustam and Asfandiyár story, in the second task of Rustam, on the second day of battle, when Asfandiyár sees that all Rustam’s wounds are healed, thinks of it as a result of a magic done by Zál and the praise of the Sun.

But thy father Zál is a sorcerer, And he by charm and spell, Has cured all the wounds of the warrior, And now he is safe and well. For the wounds I gave could never be Closed up, excepting by sorcery. Yes, the wounds I gave thee in every part, Could never be cured but by magic art…

Time and Destiny (Zamāneh and Rouzegār) Faith and destiny, we have already established, are the foundation of Zurvanite view. Zamān (time) is the principle of the world’s existence and has its own limitations. No one can cross the limits of time. Every event depends on time.

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Time is the dominant force of the whole existence from which no one can escape. It is time that arranges the affairs, it can find and control everything, it is the most conscious, and so you can leave the judgment upon the time. It is time that destroys. If something is destined to happen, everything can be destroyed in its own time. No mortal can escape from it, not even if he flies up to the sky or hides in the depth of a well or in the cold waters of a spring. Then what is the relation between time and Rouzegār? Time, though is not dependent on man’s measurement, and exists independently from human understanding, appears in the passing of day and night. Man feels the passing of the time through the movement of the astronomical objects and the emergence of night and day that Rouzegār represents it the best. According to the Ulema-i Islam, time is an abstract concept independent of passing day and night.

If someone claims that time is equal to the passing of day and night, we should answer, on the contrary, that for so long there has been time but no night and day…

However, the time has correlated with the passing of day and night for so long that it seems hard for people to separate them from one another. Time and destiny relate, as well, since they both are transient. Everything in this world has its own moment and it is time’s passing that gets us to the events. All the occurrences through time had been pre-destined in eternity and we only need time to get to the events. Just like the final domination of good over evil in the ending of the world. This notion of time and its determinant nature can be seen, repeatedly, in the Shahnameh. Thus, for stronger cases:

not foolishly that thou shalt find Balm in a place that faith hath filled with bane, And if Creation be not to thy mind…

And thus addressed them: “It hath been my lot To see no desert but that made by war…”

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“Would I had died, or never had been born, Since I am faithd to endure such bale And taste of every poison in the world…”

“My lot is throwing walnuts on a dome! I do but spend my soul in vain, ‘tis like A bended bow; Khusrau hath not been born At all, or faith hath flung him to the winds…”

His shrewd heart showed him The ills that faith would bring upon Kaus…’

From moon to pit, such is another's faith! One hath a throne, one is to fishes hurled In wisdom not caprice, Lord of the world! Thou art the height and depth thereof, I trow Not what Thou art Thyself …

A faith not of thy choice is written now, And what He causeth will be in the end …

“ is the test 'twixt man and man. Take we each other by the leathern belt, That we may know which one the will of faith Dismisseth worsted from the battlefield.”

Though faith hath come upon one luckless chief, And by thy hand, hold not the rest in scorn …

My mother called me by this name “Thy death! Faith made me for the hammer of thy helm…”

And let not bravery thy thoughts elate, For stretched above thee is the hand of Faith.

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With all thy might incline to virtue’s ways …

Now shalt thou behold thy faith, For never shalt thou seek to fight henceforth …

Then thou art Faridun the Shah and wilt Abolish necromancy and black art, For thou art faithd to destroy …

So when new bonds were added to the old, And faith had not another ill in store, The glory of Zahhak became like dust…

Iraj had loved her, And faith decreed that she should bear him fruit…

Thus was it written down for us by faith And by decree of faith the sequel came…

Such is faith’s fostering! I have no portion of the rose but thorns And must submit …

If thou hast wealth to purchase life bestow it, And know thou that this night is big with faith…

Now hath faith put thy head within my reach. Well hadst thou held aloof, for time itself Would have thy life…

Faith and God-given Faith (Baxt and Bagu Baxt) It should be reiterated that everything in the Zurvanist world, in this perspective, goes forward based on a pre-destined fortune, Zamān, and destiny. Fortune is the content, text and rule of destiny; i.e., Zurvan i derang-

76 xvatdy. It is because limited Zurvan is concurrently a matrix for creature’s actions and a container inside which life goes on and owns rules and principles of the life exercised via Spihr (body of Zurvan) circulation. Fortune and Spihr are different in terms that the first is content (text) and the latter is the agent. This is why Spihr in the Shahnameh is active and alive with many activities while fortune is generally regarded as passive and silent.

They tied their steeds while faith malignantly Revolved overhead, and when dark faith is wroth Flint rocks become like wax…

Then I preferred war to inglorious feasts, So I might shun the Crocodile's embrace…

And sighing lips, while Siyawush in tears, Regarding him with wonder, called to mind His own sad faith that heaven's love should cease, And that though young his life was well nigh sped…

For three days Siyáwush wept bitterly, By reason of this treacherous turn of faith…’

They turned their faces from the battlefield, Abandoning the wounded to their faith…

All night men raised their stricken friends, bound up and stitched their wounds, left strangers to their faith, and burned the slain…

Though faith hath come upon one luckless chief, And by thy hand, hold not the rest in scorn…

Go not to meet thy faith or recklessly Advance against our foes but tarry thou With Kawa's standard at the army's centre, And blue steel sword in hand…

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His shrewd heart showed him the ills that faith would bring upon Kaus…

A faith not of thy choice is written now, And what He causeth will be in the end…

Console my mother for my God-sent faith, And say to her: ' Set not thy heart upon me, And be not always mourning for my death…

In part through confidence, in part through faith, In part no doubt through magnanimity, Suhrab let Rustam go, turned toward the plain…

They tied their steeds while faith malignantly Revolved overhead, and when dark faith is wroth Flint rocks become like wax…

Alp-Arselan determined not to survive defeat. He made a display of pious resignation to his faith, ... by clothing himself in a white robe, or shroud, perfumed with musk…

When I sew up the eye of faith with treasures It well may be that heaven will grant me peace…

A glorious dame devoted to her child, Perceived her husband s evil faith she fled…

Yet faith hath laid the grave's grip on them both, And in the end both lie alike in dust…

May not be thwarted by a slanderer's words, And evil faith, my blameless head will suffer…

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Faith giveth thee for travail rest and ease; Be as my sire, but say not anything To any one, and note what time will bring…

Much time rolled on, while faith reserved its secrets, Till wise shah Faridun was worn with age And strewed with dust the Garden of his Spring…

Considering faith as inevitable, Firdausi indicates some aspect of destiny called God-given faith or bagu baxt in Pahlavi texts. Fortune (faith) is what had been destined from the beginning while God-given faith (bagu baxt) is what had been determined a posteriori. It is possible that divinely-given faith or bagu baxt, according to Spirit of Wisdom, might be reduced or augmented by demand and good deed. God has a role in descending it to the creatures.

May faith keep ill for any foe that cometh to attack thee; May he betray himself both soul and body…

Make but one trial of ways of faith…

This Tale of kings, if tis thy faith To tell it, to the great king dedicate…

Bagu baxt may be changed by worship and good deeds. Firdausi, too, believes that faith shall answer if man needs something and demands it. Faith as a God- given virtue has been accentuated in the -Esfandyar tale.

Spihr, the Sky, Firmaments, and the Celestial Sphere We recall from our discussion of Zurvanism that Spihr is the “body of Zurvan i derang-xvatdy” and is a “divine destiny” through which the world, after creation, works. It transmits and exercises the will of Zurvan. For reflections of this point the Shahnameh, considers:

Let us be patient till the turning sky,

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Shall make its aspects known…

He drank and bathed, then prayed to God for strength And victory, not knowing what the sun And moon decreed, or how the turning sky Would rob him of the Crown upon his head…

As for myself I seek the Dragon's breath In sorrow, doubtful what the turning sky Intendeth for me whether hate or love…

Ohrmazd and Ahriman impose their will on creatures through Spihr as well. Every good or evil, in term, passes the same route. Sky takes a neutral position towards the two sprits; it descends both tranquillity and sorrow.

The process of the turning sky Hath been fraught ever thus with hate and love It lifteth one to heaven on high, another It maketh vile, sad, and calamitous, Him specially that seeketh warriors' hurt…

Such is the process of this ancient sky! Turn as it may there is no remedy, And still it turneth o'er us loving none, But treating friend and enemy as one, Well may it be a cause of dread to all Whose fortune's head is bending to a fall…

Such is the manner of the circling sky Whiles strife and poison, and whiles sweets and love: We die by nature or by violence…

The workings of Spihr, though acting neutrally in endowing benefit or otherwise, cannot be predicted. Sometimes it gives happiness and sometimes

80 pain, sometimes rewards and sometimes punishes. Spihr holds a secret in perpetuity.

And after that I know not what may chance; None wotteth of the secrets of high heaven…

God's word must be fulfilled; none can withstand Heaven's secret purpose…

But know that heaven revealed not their secret, Nor is this wonder of the earth…

Wherefore weep? What will it profit, To slay thyself? What was to be hath been…

If ill through this child hath been written for me No caution will avert it; 'tis God's doing…

The Determined Rule The celestial Spihr, however, is not working randomly. Everything is pre- determined, yet Spihr works based on certain pre-destined rules. Destiny is not a mere concurrence of the events but owns a formed and perennial structure. Spihr's secret is the creatures’ faith; i.e. the determined rule. This very Zurvanist insight reappears in the Shahnameh:

A faith not of thy choice is written now, And what He causeth will be in the end…

Nor was Farud slain innocent. ‘Twas written thus, and what hath been hath been…

That hath been which was to 'be. How will it profit thee, To take my head?…

Allotment and Portion

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In Zurvani thought, all humans, whether good or bad, own a portion of the destiny that descends through Spihr. It is not possible to add or subtract perpetual allotment to it nor can anyone manipulate it by thought or virtue. Thus in the Shahnameh:

Thou wilt not see a faulty part in him Except this blemish that his hair is white. So heaven willed, O seeker after glory!…

Day darkened to , he lost the Grace That lighteneth the world, and though with tears Of blood he sought for pardon Grace was not, And dread of coming evil was his lot…

This is the common lot of all mankind Man’s strength is weakness when he growth old…

Yet fortune in one stay abideth not, Now honey and now gall make up Man’s lot…

Then bare him quickly off to Mount Alburz, Where were her nest and young, for them to tear Regardless of his cries; but God, who giveth All good, had ruth on him, his lot was other…

All of us are born to die; it is our lot whereto We yield our necks…

To meet with trials is the lot of all, And he that mounteth must expect a fall…

Thy father once gave up his place to thee, And thou must give up thine. Such is our lot…

It hath been my lot

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To see no desert but that made by war, And many great ones of the Iranians Have perished by my hand upon the field …

Through this peace my lot is one of war: Thine are the sweets, the pang and poison mine, Yet will I keep my covenant with thee Albeit I shall lose the throne of might…

If thou shouldst make a lion's whelp thy pet, And foster it however tenderly, Still, when its teeth and claws are grown, regret Will be thy lot. The brute will turn on thee…

But this is certain whatso'er thy lot May be in this world it abideth not…

Now while my comrades are engaged in war, And while my friends are sitting at the feast, These seeking pleasure, those in quest of fame, My lot is throwing walnuts on a dome!…

The Impact of Good and Vicious Stars on Life It has been said about Zurvanite views that everything depends on time, Spihr, and firmaments. However, Spihr itself contains astronomical objects that include good and evil forces. Good stars or the twelfth firmaments are of the Ohrmazd army to benefit men while on the other side, while vicious stars or the seventh firmaments are of the Ahrimanic army attempted to fulfil the will of evil spirits.

Anything that happens to people and other creatures come from the Seven and the Twelve. These twelve stars are, religiously, like twelve guardians from Ohrmazd while seven stars are of Ahriman. All creatures are defeated by the Seven and shall eventually die. The seven stars, on

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the one side, and the other twelve, on the other side, determine the faith of the world…’

There is detailed explanation of good stars and vicious stars in the Zoroastrian Bundahishn:

In beginning, when Ahriman was marching, the darkened sun and moon could not commit a sin. Seven chieftains of the planets have come unto the seven chieftains of the constellations, as the planet Mercury (Tir) unto Tistar, the planet Mars (Vahram) unto Haptok-ring, the planet Jupiter (Auharmazd) unto Vanand, the planet Venus (Anahid?) unto Sataves, the planet Saturn (Kevan) unto the great one of the middle of the sky, Go^ihar :i and the thievish (Du^gun) Mtopar, provided with tails, unto the sun and moon and stars. The sun has attached Mas-par to its own radiance by mutual agreement, so that he may be less able to do harm (Vinas)…

For in the beginning it was so appointed that the star Jupiter (Auharmazd) was life towards the creatures, not through its own nature, but on account of its being within the control (band) of the luminaries; and Saturn (Kevan) was death towards the creatures. Both were in their supremacy (b a list) at the beginning of the creatures, as Jupiter was in Cancer on rising, that which is also called Ivan ('living'), for it is the place in which life is bestowed upon it; and Saturn was in Libra, in the great subterranean, so that its own venom and deadliness became more evident and more dominant thereby…

In the Shahnameh, too, the stars are to determine the overall destiny, life and death , rather than only pain and comfort.

They feared their star would sink and Sat together in anxious thought…

Their stars dispose them to delight in ill; Besides their troughs are in two provinces,

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Whose fruit is savagery…

Years passed, no ill befell him from the stars; Meanwhile the famous monarch taught the child All those accomplishments that kings require…

But if the Lord and my good star shall aid me Our country and our throne will we restore, And this our royal Tree shall fruit once more…

If the stars vouchsafe to thee a son Bind round his arm this token of his father…

The stars Decreed that I should perish by thy hand…

Saw that the stars were hostile to the boy, And grieved because they saw his fortune sleeping…

Be it yours to go with health and favouring stars, And come back triumphing and glad…

The enterprise is well within my reach: Haunt not the portal of an evil star …

The conquering Lord of earth is mine ally, The star of fortune lieth on my breast…

The blood of Siyáwush, thy life, Shah! The Grace, and by the favouring stars divine, That thou wilt never turn aside to ill…

Awake from slumber, my son! The stars Are bringing down disaster on our heads!…

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Doth this ill come upon me from the stars That my renown may go down to the dust?…

God's Willing Besides a belief in a determination exerted by Spihr, stars, faith, and time in Shahnameh, divine will, too, plays a role in determining destiny. Destiny, according to Zurvanite maxims, depends on Time or Zurvan. In this way, the determined occurrence of the events gradually through passing of finite time comes manifested.

They told me son of Sam Though he was on a throne, I in a nest, Since God ordinate and made this way for me. None scapeth His ordainment though one fly Among the clouds, gnaw spearheads, rend the hides Of lions with his shouting, yet although His teeth are anvils he is still God's slave…

However, we have to take into consideration, the representation of God in the first half of the Shahnameh, before Asfandiyár’s tale and emergence of Zoroaster; where God appoints destiny on His own will. Yet this outlook seems only to apply to the ‘formal architecture’ of the epic, as confined to passages at the commencements of stories or in the letters composed by mighty warriors, because throughout the main plots, Spihr, stars, time, and the faith are main factors in determining the destiny. In his letter to Kai Kavous from , Siyáwush appreciates God and refers to his will

From Him are triumph and success who is The Lord of sun and circling moon, and giveth Crown, throne, and casque their lustre, whom He will Exalting or dejecting, ordering. Without a why or wherefore, though 'tis wise To acquiesce…

Key Khosrow also commences his letter to Fariborz by mentioning divine will:

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From Him come triumph and defeat, from Him Both good and bad get might and their desire. He fashioned the world and place and time, He fashioned ant's foot and massy mountain, And hath bestowed life, lustihood, and wisdom, High throne and majesty and diadem. No man can free himself from that control; The lot of one is Grace and throne, another's Misfortune, want, grief, suffering, and hardship; Yet see I that All-holy God is just In everything, from yonder shining sun To darksome dust…

When Firdausi starts to quote from Siyáwush and Kai Khosrow, we can see some similarities to normative Zoroastrian ‘’rism’ (or ‘right*eous+ or the cosmic order.’ Siyáwush believes that there must be no challenges between what God and Kai Khosrow both desire, and likewise he thinks that whatever God does to people is fair. However, to repeat, it is typically in the beginning of any story that we read about God and his will while in the remaining of the book, Spihr and relating elements are more important. It reflects the cosmic predicament by which God (Zurvan) created the world through creating Ohrmazd and Ahriman, afterwards; and then leaves the world to the limited time and Spihr. In the Shahnameh, too, God has a role only in the beginning, and leaves the world to Spihr afterwards. From the story of Gushtásp forward, especially in the story of Asfandiyár, the belief in destiny and divine faith becomes more highlighted than Spihr. Considering the shift in religion and advent of a new prophet, Zoroaster, such an alteration in beliefs seems significant. Belief in destiny becomes a distinct religious outlook for Gushtásp and Asfandiyár, according to which it is believed that destiny is in the hands of God. It is probable that there is a linkage between such approach to destiny and the monotheistic tendencies of Zoroastrianism. In Zoroastrianism, as we recall, it is held that Ohrmazd is the absolute God and “Good spirit and bad spirit were twins that manifested

87 themselves in thought, words, and deeds. One of them was good and the other evil.” It becomes obvious that for a monist, believing that creatures can offer any kind of help and support to God is interpreted as a kind of blasphemy. Therefore, belief in the role of Spihr and stars, which effects on the individuals’ capability of doing on the cosmic stage, has faded away and replaced by the belief in God’s will. The divine will can be heard mostly from Asfandiyár, who is the man of religion and publicizes the new religion of Zarathushtra. He, exactly after each victory, remembers God and praises him for his kind help.

O righteous Judge! Thou hast bestowed upon me Strength, Grace, prowess. Thou hast laid These beasts upon the dust and all good art guide …

He bathed himself and, looking to all-holly God alone As his protector, said: “O righteous Judge! Thou hast destroyed these creatures by my hand…

Then in the presence of all-holy God He wallowed in the dust and wept, exclaiming: “who could have slain that dragon if the World-lord Had not assisted him?…”

O just and only god! Thou art our guide Upon the mountain and the waste …

O righteous Judge! Thou hast bestowed Upon me wisdom, puissance, and prowess, Hast driven out the sorcerers and been my guide to every good…

Gushtásp, Asfandiyár and Katayun, in contrast to Zál, Simorgh, Rustam, and Zavāre who appeal to the Spihr-affected determinism in the Rustam-Asfandiyár tale, remember God's will.

No host will serve; the world-lord, if my faith

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Is drawing nigh, will not withhold it with his troops…

When one hath triumphed, and illumed Earth by his fortune and his eminence, He ought to smile since good and ill alike derive from God…

Katayun submits to he divine will:

The mother took her son's rede and therewith Resigned her to the justice of the Lord…

From Gushtásp:

The World-lord gave him unto me, Gave him to me because I was in trouble…

God's will has been mentioned in the thousand-verses famously attributed Dakiki, although with a less frequency, to consider the decision of Spihr and stars as well. Regarding Zoroastrian beliefs of Dakiki, this comes into importance:

I will break the warlocks' backs and hearts, So will I maul that witch, and trample down Their heads by might of Him, the one just God…

God gave to thee the kingship of the earth, And all thy chieftains stood before thee. Thou Didst err, ungratefully, despite His care, While even after He had made thee Shah An ancient sorcerer misled thee…

If it pleaseth God, [I] will trample down Thy head in fight upon the day of battle…

Then the glorious Asfandiyar [will come],

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With troops behind and God to succor him…

For ’tis God's purpose which no shift can stay; The maker of the world is not a tyrant. Thou wilt not profit by indulging grief, For that which shall be is as good as done…

Arjasp was shamed, we triumphed. Who can know To do this save the Maker of the world…

Failure of Abstinence and Knowledge in Preventing Destiny As background to the of destiny in the Shahnameh, consider the withdrawal of the Zurvanite-affected Zoroastrian text Dina-i Mainog-I Khirad:

The sage asked the spirit of wisdom thus: ‘Is it possible to contend with destiny through wisdom and knowledge, or not?’ The spirit of wisdom answered thus: “Even with the might and powerfulness of wisdom and knowledge, even then it is not possible to contend with destiny.” Because, when predestination as to virtue, or as to the reverse, comes forth, the wise becomes wanting in duty, and the astute in evil becomes intelligent; the faint-hearted becomes braver, and the braver becomes faint-hearted; the diligent becomes lazy, and the lazy acts diligently. Just as is predestined as to the matter, the cause enters into it, and thrusts out everything else.

And in the Shahnameh:

The process of sky is over all That He, the Lord of Saturn, Sun and Moon, Hath willed…

Though thou shouldst sit in conclave with the sky Yet will its revolutions grind thee down…

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Let not thy head be snared through youth as thou Wouldst ’scape destruction from the turning sky…

Will ne'er produce a more illustrious Plant, While, if the sky shall purpose otherwise, No taking thought will make it love him more…

The turning sky is bent on my destruction, Though guiltless, by the hands of wicked men, And I can make no bold attack to-day, For none can strive with God…

Whomsoever the sky above us is untowardly No gentleness or rage availeth thee…

Daunt not the Iranians, For if the sky turn over us for ill To wait is no avail. Array the host; Dash not our souls with what may be…

The Shah replied: “Give this affair due weight. If I resign to him the imperial throne, The treasure, and crown of majesty, He will not even see , And none will know him in Kabulistan; He will be safe from every turn of fortune, and favouring stars will be his monitors.” The astrologist re-joined: “who can escape The process of the sky? None can avoid By courage or by might the sharp-clawed Dragon Above our heads. What is to be will be Past doubt, the when the wise seek not to know…”

Transient World and the Necessity of Happiness

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The transience of life is so obvious that motivates everyone apart from their beliefs and religion. With the Zurvanite perspective containing a belief in a concept of time that regulates all existence, transience is naturally more prominent along with the tendency to suspect the unreliability of the world. In Zurvanism, the world is the result of the time exactness. To make the creation possible, time is to be limited and any limitation has a beginning and an end. Compared to the eternity and infinity of Zurvan, the world is just a passing moment—a constantly changing ‘pause’ that lasted for twelve thousand years. The good and the evil are in a permanent conflict and the good needs change and movement to destroy the evil. Zurvan i derang-xvatdy, i.e., the limited time is the one that provides such movement and change without which the evil and chaos will last forever. Thus the world is doomed to change. The world finds no possibility to come into existence other than as changeable and transient, hence consent or designated to it is the only way.

I only wish for that which is mine own, And let the harvest be as heaven hath sown…

One must accept the destiny and try to make life full of joy. When the length of life is not manageable by any human, the width must be considered to be enlarged. Humanity should notice that world is transient.

This world is a lodging not a home. None ever had more Grace than had Jamshid, Yet still high heaven trod him under foot, And found the world a monarch in his stead…

They have but bricks and dust to form their bed, And he that sowed good seed is blest alone. From dust we come and shall return to dust, And all is dread, distraction, and distrust. The world will outlast thee; its mysteries How wilt thou ken? ’Tis full of instances…

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This is the process of the ancient sky It robbeth infants of their mother's breast, And to the dust deposeth suddenly A heart by fondness for the world possessed. Brave not the world but seek its joys to win; …Vex not thy soul, this home is but a cheat, Thy sole possession is a narrow bier; What needeth thine amassing ? Sit and eat…

Those in the world who toil laboriously, And win applause because their aims are high, Must make the dust their bed when all is done; That is their bane, and antidote is none. Thy sojourn here, thou knowest, is soon sped, Why set the crown of greed upon thy head? Canst thou still wear it after thou art dead? In this world ample pleasure thou canst take, Why art thou toiling for another's sake? Thou toilest and another will consume At ease, unmindful of thy bier and tomb, But for him also pleasure hath its bound, And his head too must pass beneath the ground…

The use and fashion of this world it is To take with that hand and to give with this; We are aggrieved because of its caprice, And alternate ’twixt summit and abyss. If then thy heart alloweth thee be glad, Ensue but pleasure while it may be had, Provide thee well and give the rest away, And suffer not one moment to be sad…

Where are and Salm And Faridun? All lost and one with dust! We go about and toil and gather wealth,

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Yet frustrate all the wishes of our hearts, Since in the end the dust will be our share, And not one of us will escape that day…

As ’twere a conjurer this drunken sky Deludeth us with tricks threescore and ten At whiles employing blast or cloud and then The sword or dagger or the agency Of some unworthy weight. At whiles to one Plunged in calamity 'twill grant relief, At whiles allot crown, treasury, and throne, At whiles chain, dungeon, bitterness, and grief! Man must accept his lot whate’er it be; Mine own affliction is my poverty. The man of wisdom, had he died at birth, Had suffered not the heat and cold of earth, But, living after birth, hath want and stress, Constrained to weep a life of wretchedness. Woe for his heart, his usance, and intents! His pillow is the dust in all events…

There is a resemblance between death and the instability of the world; therefore all the narrated events occur in a bitter setting. Although it sometimes leads to ‘catching the moment’ and ‘being happy,’ in fact men only own rare moments of happiness. The death of Farud is a good example, indicating Firdausi's sad tune when compared with Khayyam’s, who denies this world. And Khayyam also believes it preferable for human being not to come into birth, even Firdausi, too, expresses his dreams of it would have been better if the wise men not had never appeared in the world to feel later the bitter taste of death.

The use and custom of the world is this: To keep back from thee what its purpose is. Its juggling tricks behind a veil are done, It acteth harshly and capriciously,

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While in greed's grip we travail long, and none Can tell appearance from . From wind thou earnest and to dust wilt go: What They I will do to thee how canst thou know…’

Though thou liv’st long the end will come; None can evade the sky. My Grace divine Surpasseth not Jamshid's, and he was sawn Asunder by a foe, or faridun's or Kai Kubad's —those mighty, high-born Shahs— And when had come the time of Siyawush Gurwi, the son of Zira, cut his throat. Kings of Iran and Lions in the fight Were they, and they have gone. We have outstayed them, and loitered like Great lions on our way…

We leave the world behind as Our memorial and pass away, And there is nothing left of any man Save the report of him. If I shall die With fair fame all is well with me, but fame I must have for the body is for death…

What wouldst thou with this Wayside Inn- this gain Of treasure first but in the end of pain? Serve God or Ahriman yet still thou must, Though made of iron, crumble into dust…

Where are now , Jamshid and Faridun? They came from wind and wanished in a breath! Thus too Have mine ancestors, pure-, elect, And high and holy, gone and left their room To us. None stayeth in this Wayside Inn. In this world have I toiled exceedingly

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In public and in private to establish The way of God and wisdom as the guide Thereto, but when through me the enterprise Had grown illustrious, and when the hands Of Ahriman were barred from wickedness, Faith stretched its lion's claws and brought me down As though an onager! And now my hope Is that in Paradise my heart and soul May reap what they have sown…

This last statement is what Asfandiyár said when he saw shadow of death—the very Asfandiyár who was ambitiously attempting to spread religion, he was ignorant to instability of the world and tried to confine further this already limited world of people. Unlike the other parts of the Shahnameh in which devaluation of the world is a good reason for the human to be tranquil, Asfandiyár is referring to cruelty of the world, requiring his reward to be paid in the other world and remembering the expected paradise. One could expect such a demeanour from Asfandiyár, who is a man of religion, nevertheless the point is that the religious tenets in pre-Asfandiyár sections of the epic notion are in explicit contrast to the Asfandiyár sections. In the Zurvanite approach, which is reflected in the initial chapters of Shahnameh and perhaps has inspired it too, fatalism and destiny are combined with nature of life in such a way that they dominate Zurvan itself and its will for creation comes true only by nascence of Ahriman. In such a religion, where the path of human autonomy is so much narrower, salvation is nothing but consent to destiny and an enjoying of predestined allotment and portion. We must be satisfied and pleased with our allotment. It is useless to animadvert against God, given that those who had determined one’s destiny are also encumbered by their faith and they can do nothing beyond the limit of rules of existence. Even the other world, Heaven and Hell are ephemeral and the pre-mergent state in a Zurvanic eternity. Hence, we cannot become attached to the after-life; it is preferable to enjoy our allotment and portion of life. However, in the Mazdean Zoroastrian idea that Asfandiyár tries to disseminate, determinism and fatalism are clearly not as commonly present as

96 they appear in Zurvanism. Moreover, in the end, the universe will follow what Ahura Mazda the Benevolent had intended. In this perspective, if man fails to obtain result from his deeds in this world, he will put his trust in the other world and God’s heaven, hence if he does not achieve his desires, it may be in his best interest. We hold in this thesis the ephemerality of world and dominance of destiny over life in Shahnameh is adopted from Zurvanite mind-set. Its message is the belief in happiness and gratification are the best ways to conquer life’s ennui.

Mirth as thy mate sufficeth, and no sage Will name to-morrow …

At whiles allot crown, treasury, and throne, At whiles chain, dungeon, bitterness, and grief! Man must accept his lot whate'er it be; Mine own affliction is my poverty…

Come, let us give ourselves to joy and feast : When it is time for us to pass we pass…

One day a rise, another day a fall, Now all is gladness and then terror all, In sooth our best course is the cup to raise That maketh earth look bright, and fleet the days…

We have already seen in such passages there exists the attitude which famously reappeared in the poetry of .

Zurvan: God of Death In Zurvanism, Time (Zurvan) not only is the initial reason for creation and destiny definer, but Time is also the God of the Death;

Death is the final destiny for everything and everybody. Time, that is Zurvan its worldly figure, has determined its moment. Life happens

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across time and death happens does too. The final of everything is Zurvan…

The spirits of the dead people must pass through path of death, the Zurvan- made path to reach the Činvat Bridge. An Avestan text Aogemadaēča mentions that Zurvan can never be hidden and there is no remedy against him. When Time comes upon a man, he can do nothing against it; and Time sews up the eye of Man. In the Bundahishn, Zurvan determines longevity: “before advent of Ahriman, thus spake Zurvan; Keyumars, the raider, was preordained to survive thirty winters and become imperial.” Time, in a different part of the Bundahishn, is a main factor of death; “if it were doomed to decay, there would be no escape for mortal human whether he flies upward or descends unto a well or sinks under cold offspring.” An association of time and death is carefully depicted in Shahnameh:

Now hath faith put thy head within my reach. Well hadst thou held aloof, for time itself Would have thy life…

Bent down the body of the gallant youth, Whose time was come and all whose strength was gone, And like a lion dashed him to the ground…

If there remaineth time for him on earth He will remain ; do thou remain with him…

Assuredly his time hath come, For he hath set forth to encounter me…

Our time, I fear, is come. If they shall take thee They will not leave thee living and will rack Our hearts for thee…

The hero-flinging crown-bestower followed

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Human in furious haste but caught him not, His time had not yet come…

Thou wilt not get away In this fight from these famous warriors. Dost thou expect to go back to Iran? Dost thou expect to lift thy head on high? Thou hast cut off our princes' heads. Abide, For now thine own time draweth to a head…

’Tis better not to mark the why and how, For all must go as soon as time is up. Blame not the circling of the sky…

I fear my time hath come. If yonder warrior Be Rustam, then this plain will be a scene Of grief for us…

When as Kamus the warrior's time had come The thought occurred to me : This Iron Wall Is Rustam, with his raw hide lasso-coils…

Afflicted, helpless men, Possessed by pain and care and fed on grief! Ye surely cannot know that your own time Is almost o'er…

My time is o'er! For since I girt me as a man I have not looked In my long life on better men or arms Assembled anywhere…

See that ye fear not death or any thing, For none will die but at his faithd time

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And if so be that faithd time hath come What is more glorious than to die in battle…

Thou villain! Guard thyself Because thy time hath come, and I will mix Thy thighs and 's body with mine arrows…

My time is come, I lay my body in the dust…

Oft-times before the war I sued for peace, But he refused because his time had come…

On hearing how the army was bestead, And knowing that his time was near, Sikandar bade carry From the palace to the field his throne…

For fourteen months I reigned unwittingly, Expecting to retain the crown and throne For years, but now my time hath come, and thou Must gird thyself to rule…

The Other World Return to eternity, in Zurvanite perspective, is the world`s tacit faith. The Good`s strife and struggle to rid the world of Evil will have no result other than the extermination of both spirits, hence resulting in merging with eternality of Zurvan. The presence of mere Good in the world, after the destruction of Evil, will not last long. The interdependence of Good and Evil does not allow them to exist without one another. Hence, the eternal rule of Ohrmazd over the universe is not characteristically and determinedly possible unless we consider the existence of both Ahriman and Ohrmazd as part of the Zurvan's limitless reality. At the end of their battle, the creators of the world besides all their own creatures shall join Zurvan, in a manner that is unknown to us. Therefore, Zurvanite doctrine does not speak clearly about life after death and the other

100 world, while Zoroastrian Mazdaism, utilizing a synecdoche characterization of the world as farmland, relies on human deliberation. Every man shall reap the harvest of their deeds based on how good or bad they perform in this world. Thus:

…and what you asked of this world and the heaven; for the world is a faith of death and nothingness. For the heaven, the faith is so that the soul of the pious shall therein last without decay, harm, or death, awash with joviality and charisma, forever at the side of gods, the upright, and the essence of the righteous. And the punishment for the wicked is also everlasting in hell, their souls themselves their retribution and their consort with demons looking to them like a healthy man falling to a grievous malady…’

In Shahnameh, both standpoints concerning the human afterlife claims exist. In earlier parts, the other world has been briefly mentioned with no clear indication of resurrection, heaven or hell. Yet so a better place may be in store For thee, and heaven's eternal rest be won…

Sometimes with astonishment and unawareness, it is mentioned as uncertain future of human after death;

From wind thou earnest and to dust wilt go: What They will do to thee how canst thou know?…

Regarding an ambiguity in some couplets of the Shahnameh concerning the world and according to Zál’s words in a debate with Mōbads, who wanted him to be examined, Zaehner discovers in Shahnameh a representative sample of Zurvanism:

If our provision be an honoured name Our souls will be on that account held dear, But if we do the deeds of greed and shame That will, when we have breathed our last, appear…

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What a prospect! Yet even though he is not sure, for in what this ‘honour’ consists—whether it be an honourable estate in the ‘house of eternity’ or merely ‘honour’ from the lips of men as yet unborn—is left utterly obscure; and as to the concupiscent, their faith will be manifest when they are dead—yet we do not know to whom and where, ‘for a veil is drawn over our ultimate lot…’

The dust and bricks close o'er our head And all is consternation, awe, and fear…

All that is known is that after our brief and miserable sojourn in this valley of tears we must pass on to the ‘house of eternity,’ which, according to Denkard, is the ‘essence of infinite Time.’ Here we can expect no ecstatic union with the ‘one,’ no merging of the self into ‘self’ as of a drop into the sea... Man—who is the microcosm—will return to the Infinite Zurvan, where motion finds eternal rest in an Infinite which neither understands nor is capable of being understood.

One could accept Zaehner’s suggestion that Zál and his family to be Zurvanites, since in Rustam/Asfandiyár story where Asfandiyár talks explicitly about Heaven Smirch—that is, in relation with Zál—alludes to what are taken as false beliefs about the other world. However, we cannot go further to consider the Shahnameh to be entirely based on Zurvanism. As start, the stories in Shahnameh, from the very beginning until the faith of Kai Khosrow events are all displayed as worldly accounts of worldly heroes. However, while narrating Gushtásp’s sovereignty and the concurrent emergence of Zoroaster and the beginning of Asfandiyár’s religious , there is an air of religion finding dominance over the tone of the epic, although, it only in the accounts of The Seven Trials of Asfandiyár and his battle with Rustam, one can find much more talking of belief in God`s will and heaven than in any other section of the Shahnameh, as far as research for in this dissertation has revealed. One cannot help but notice that the idea of rewards and penalties for the worldly deeds originates from Zoroastrian doctrine, and has evidently found its way to other religions from the Iranian originated religions to Judaism.

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Zaehner believes that belief in heaven and hell among the Jews dates back to the time of their settlement in the land of Babylon, in the vicinity of the Persians and the .

...for the theory of a direct Zoroastrian influence on post-exilic Judaism does explain the sudden abandonment on the part of the Jews of the old idea of Sheol, a shadowy and depersonalized existence which is the lot of all men irrespective of what they had done on earth, and the sudden adoption, at precisely the time when the exiled Jews made contact with the Medes and Persians, of the Iranian Prophet's teaching concerning the afterlife…’

Belief in heaven and hell is known to be of Zoroaster`s specific teachings. Therefore, it is safe to say that Asfandiyár, as a and preacher of Zoroastrian Mazdaism, regards all worldly deeds through the lens of their results in the Other World, and openly speaks of heaven. However, before the appearance of Asfandiyár and Zoroaster, there is not much talk of the manner and quality of afterlife in Shahnameh; that world is always referred to as the “other world” or “that universe,” except in one occasion which is in the account of the early days of Kai Khosrow`s rule:

If any of our host Shall fall, their place is Paradise above… and of course, compared to the plethora of verses uttered by Asfandiyár and his kin, this one verse is not significant. In the account of Asfandiyár, the afterlife has also been referred to as the “other world,” but along with specific hints about the quality of heaven and hell.

Who left the way of God and forfeited Good days on earth and jocund paradise…

Be happy now in jocund Paradise, For God compacted thee of manliness and justice…

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O thou who art above both name and place! Cleanse from all fault the soul of matchless Rustam, Assign him paradise for his abode, And joyance of the fruits that there he sowed…

Then all my cares and toils have turned to wind, And all the doctrine of Zardusht is wrong, Which teacheth us that those who disobey The Shah's commands shall have their place in hell…

But if thou leavest here a name for vice Thou’lt lose God's grace and jocund paradise…

All these have passed away, have left an evil name And not attained to jocund Paradise…

The hearts of noble men obtain both worlds, But justice pleaseth not the hearts of churls, Who in this world possess an evil name, And in the other win not paradise…

What wilt thou say to our just Judge and Guide When questioned at the Day of Reckoning? …

The master of the sun and moon will judge His acts just and unjust to state and host, And if the king oppresseth but a gnat His spirit will be left to mourn in hell…

Ascribe not faith or knowledge to the man That doubteth of the Day of Reckoning…’

Comparing two verses, one narrated by who is a member of Zál family and the other by Bishutan who is Asfandiyár’s brother, one may distinguish

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Zurvanite perspective from Zoroastrian Mazdaism in terms of the ‘other house’ of heaven, and the hell. Thus:

Voice of Simurgh: Be luckless in this world and afterward In pain and anguish…

Voice of Bishutan: Abuse will be thy portion in this world, And inquisition at the Judgment Day…

Contrasting two worlds, Simurgh does not mention the other house. He merely points out that killer of Asfandiyár would suffer intolerable pains after death. In this case, the date and the place have not been specified. While Bishutan, representative of Zoroastrian thought, speaks out a system of rewards and punishments and so underlines ‘the other house.’ Conclusion From the contents of the second part of this dissertation, it could be concluded that, whether subconsciously or consciously, Firdausi was significantly influenced by Zurvanism. Beliefs and thoughts of a nations seldom disappear without a trace; they often leave a vestige, a touch that no matter how small or insignificant, it still can be traced back to people who left it behind themselves. Nations do not abandon their beliefs, thoughts, and culture in an instant, even when the swords of the victors push them to do so; this is how the flickering ghost of Zurvanites has been smuggled into the Iranian subconscious to puzzle us in perpetuity. Many parts of the Shahnameh reflect Zurvanite principles about subjects such as will or evil, fatal, destiny and pessimism. Those views evinced in many lines of the epic that reflect the Zurvanite mind-set, and Firdausi’s own words have an unmistakable resemblance to the Zurvanite beliefs. Even today, in many Iranian households, we often find a fine copy of Firdausi’s Shahnameh placed next to other fine copies such as Quran, and not merely for decoration. The Shahnameh has been greatly and deeply involved in shaping Iranian culture in general: many Iranians perceive Shahnameh as ‘their history before their history’ and even incorporate it into their contemporary religious culture.

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The Shahnameh is holy to Iranians; it is a testament to the fact that they have an identity that precedes their other identities, an identity as old as their concept of ‘time.’ Firdausi knew this fact, when he developed a link between the ancient Persian doctrines with the Iranian psyche in an effort of making integrity and to at least remind them of who they used to be if they should ever find who they are puzzling. As he wrote:

For thirty years exceeding toil I bore And made the Persians live in Persian lore. Unless the world-lord had close-fisted grown I should have had a seat upon the throne…

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