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A Crucible in Which to Put the Soul”: Keeping Body and Soul Together in the Moderate Enlightenment, 1740-1830

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A Crucible in Which to Put the Soul”: Keeping Body and Soul Together in the Moderate Enlightenment, 1740-1830 “A CRUCIBLE IN WHICH TO PUT THE SOUL”: KEEPING BODY AND SOUL TOGETHER IN THE MODERATE ENLIGHTENMENT, 1740-1830 DISSERTATION Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the doctor of philosophy degree in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University KARA ELIZABETH BARR, M.A. DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 2014 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE: Dale K. Van Kley, director Matthew D. Goldish, advisor Geoffrey Parker COPYRIGHT BY KARA ELIZABETH BARR 2014 ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the relationship between Christianity and the Enlightenment in eighteenth-century Europe. Specifically, it explores how the Enlightenment produced the modern Western perception of the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body. While most traditional Enlightenment historiography argues that the movement was defined by radical, atheistic thinkers, like Diderot and Spinoza, who denied the existence of the traditional Christian immaterial and immortal soul, this project demonstrates that these extreme thinkers were actually a minority, confined largely to the intellectual fringes. By contrast, not only were many Enlightenment thinkers sincere Christians, but they were actually the most effective communicators of new ideas by showing how the Enlightenment supported, rather than attacked, traditional Christian beliefs. This moderate Enlightenment is responsible for developing Western ideas about how the mind and body are related, especially within the emerging fields of psychology and psychiatry in the mid-nineteenth century. This dissertation gains its focus through an examination of the work of two historiographically neglected enlightened thinkers—David Hartley in Britain, and the Abbé de Condillac in France. Both of them argued for the traditional Christian belief in an immortal soul, but used enlightened ideas to do so. The first two chapters look at how Hartley and Condillac developed this argument by making use of not only their published works, but also their private papers and correspondence. This evidence demonstrates that despite and even because of strong religious convictions, both thinkers remained open to ii new ideas about the relationship between the mind and the body. The later chapters examine how Hartley and Condillac’s ideas about the human mind were received both geographically (in their respective home countries and throughout Europe and America) and chronologically (from their own lifetimes until the mid nineteenth century). They conclude that both thinkers’ compelling synthesis of religious, philosophical, and scientific concerns in large part accounted for their continuing popularity in the early nineteenth century and beyond. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS WITH gratitude to my dissertation director, Dale Van Kley, as well as Matthew Goldish and Geoffrey Parker, for generously placing the staggering accumulation of their wisdom at my disposal throughout the research and writing process. A mere statement of thanks seems inadequate in the face of your continued attention and support. MY warmest thanks for the unfailing encouragement of my wonderful colleagues in the History Department at the Ohio State University, most especially Jessica Wallace, Daniel Watkins, and JT Tucker. A special note of gratitude to Jim Bach for always having the right answer. FINALLY, I offer my deepest love to my family, most especially my incomparable parents, without whom this dissertation quite simply never could have been written. To my always faithful and mostly patient dog, Paddington: Yes, buddy, we can go play ball now. iv VITA 2009..........................................................B.A., History & Psychology, Walsh University 2011..................................................................M.A., History, The Ohio State University 2009-present.............................Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University FIELD OF STUDY MAJOR FIELD: History Early Modern Europe v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract................................................................................................................................ii Vita.....................................................................................................................................iii List of Tables .....................................................................................................................vi Introduction..........................................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1: THE SELF AND SOUL IN DAVID HARTLEY’S BRITAIN, 1700-1760...................33 CHAPTER 2: DEFINING THE SOUL IN THE ABBÉ DE CONDILLAC’S FRANCE, 1700-1775......77 CHAPTER 3: “THE ADOPTED SYSTEM OF FUTURE PHILOSOPHERS”: AN AFTERLIFE FOR THE OBSERVATIONS, 1755-1815.........................................................132 CHAPTER 4: THE RADICAL REVOLUTION AND THE MODERATE RESURRECTION: CONDILLACIAN LEGACIES IN FRANCE, 1780-1804...........................................................203 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................262 Bibliography....................................................................................................................274 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 0.1: Frequency of Word “Secular”.........................................................................28 Table 0.2: Frequency of Word “Secularization”..............................................................28 Table 2.3: Frequency of Review of Foreign Language Works in the Histoire des ouvrages des sçavans.......................................................................................................128 vii ! {Introduction} “FRAGMENTS OF A SHATTERED UNIVERSE” ! At the turn of the twentieth century, a physician in Massachusetts sat rocking in his desk chair, deep in thought. In his career, he had witnessed any number of deathbed scenes: the tearful goodbyes, the fading of hope for recovery into resignation to the end, oftentimes a priest flitting in and out—hearing confessions, sprinkling holy water, making solemn signs, and administering last rites. Yes, he had seen all of this; and it troubled him. He liked to think of himself as a thoroughly modern man, a scientist and a skeptic through and through; he was unmoved by the spiritualist craze that had recently swept the nation, and was equally ambiguous about Catholic teaching on the afterlife so prevalent in the small town of Haverhill where he made his living. But still he wondered as he rocked back and forth: was there a way to definitively prove whether the soul existed or not? It seemed obvious to him that science, and not theology would provide the answer. And so, over the next six years, our Massachusetts physician assembled a team of like-minded doctors and formulated an experiment. His hypothesis was simple: if the soul existed, then surely it must possess mass—it had to weigh something and would therefore be detectable as it left the body at the moment of death. His methodology was equally simple: he and his team arranged to be present at several deathbeds, which they specially equipped with scales to finely gauge any shifts in weight, however slight, as the 1 ! ! patient slipped from life into death. The results of this six-year endeavor shocked and fascinated the nation: The Plain Dealer in Cleveland, among other major newspapers, 2 ! ! reported that “a woman’s soul weighed half an ounce and that men’s souls weighed from three-quarters of an ounce to almost a full ounce”.1 Twentieth-century Massachusetts seems worlds away from eighteenth-century Europe, and in some ways it is. But our doctor’s assumption that the soul must be material and thus measurable by scientific means represents the culmination of a radical departure in the history of Western thought about the soul, of which the Enlightenment is a crucial element. As John Wright and Paul Potter’s edited collection on the mind-body problem in Western thought suggests, different interests—from the religious to the medical and political—often dictated the manner in which the soul was separated (or not) from the physical body.2 While, very broadly speaking, medieval Europe entrusted discussions of the soul to theologians who generally argued for its immateriality, by the dawn of the twentieth century the soul was not only considered to be fair game for scientific inquiry, it was also acceptable to assume its materiality. This dissertation tells the story of how that shift occurred. It attempts to explain how the soul went from being the province of the priest to the problem of the physician. My reasons for telling this tale are several, but essentially I hope to demonstrate a few things about both Enlightenment and modernity and how they negotiated and related to Christianity which are perhaps counterintuitive to modern definitions of both terms. What better place is there to demonstrate shifts in perception and worldview than in a study of the very essence of the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 “Weigher of Men’s Souls Tells of His Experiments”, The Plain Dealer 90, 31 March 1907, 5. Some headlines were quite colorful, including the San Jose Mercury News’ apt “These Bright Doctors Say Soul is Material” 2 John P. Wright and Paul Potter, Psyche and Soma: Physicians and Metaphysicians on the Mind- Body Problem from Antiquity to Enlightenment, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003): 4-11 3 ! ! human person? But before delving into the story
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