UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY
The Dcvelopmcni of PrajG in Buddhism
From Early Buddhism Io the Praj~iüpüran~irSystem:
With Spccial Referencc to the SarvWivada Tradition
Fa Qing
A DISSERTATION
SUBMIWED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES
CALGARY. ALBERTA
MARCI-I. 2001
O Fa Qing 2001 1,+ 1 ;~C~",d;brary Bibliolhéque nationale du Canada Ac uisitions and Acquisitions el ~ibqio~raphiiSetvices services bibliographiques
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In the carly agamas and nikayas, projfiü is integrated with thc practice of iilo and sarnüdhi. Primarily. it is the tme undcrstanding of thc Four Noble Tmths.
In Sanq%tivada. prujti
Buddhism in confining puritiü IO the positive aspects alone. Vasubandhu's criticisms conccming the Vibhqa werc answered by Sanghabhadra: in many cases these criticisms wcrc rejccted on the ground that Vasubandhu did not propcrly understand the Vibh.3.
In the Early Buddhism (ai least as cvidenced by the agama lcxts). sanujtiorü is attributed IO the Buddha. For the SarvStivadins. sanujfkrü is thc Buddha's knowlcdge only. It was probably later on, that the Praj~,iopürun~itülitenturc came IO speak of three kinds of tinowledge (san~aj~iurü,n~ürgajdarü and san~ü~raj~iurü).and thcn attributed san~ujfiarüIO the ~Wvakasand pratyckabuddhas.
In thc Praj~iüpüra~tiirüSürras, pruj~iüpüraniirüis a designaiion for the highcst purpon. In pncticing prajtiü. a practitioncr concentrates on obscrving everything as .. . 111 SÜI~~U.Prujfiü in the highest sense or prujiiüpüruniifü is that which enables one to be not attached to anything. and to acccpt reality-just-as-it-is without conceptual bifurcation.
This is a common theme in al1 Mahayana Buddhist siitns.
Whercas pruj>iabhidharma. it is distinguished from prujCÜpürunlir8 in the Upadeia: Only buddhas and advanccd bodhisattvas possesspruj~üpüru»~ifü:arhats as well as pntyekabuddhas have only prujz.
The notion of prujfiüpüruniirü in the Pruj17üpüraniirü Süirus and the Upadcia clearly rcpresents a furthcr stage ofdcvelopment in the notion of the perfect spiritual insight of a buddha. replacing the carlier notion of prujiiü as found in thc early sOtm and in the abhidharma. Acknowledgements
The successful completion of this dissenation would no1 have bcen possible
withoui the kind guidance. assistance and criticism of the following individuals and organizations. Vcn. Zhen Dun Mlli of Thailand. Ms. Chen lRii3h of Hong Kong, The
Yin-shun Foundation. the Depanment of Religious Studies and Asian Studies Group of the University of Calgary. and the Vedanta Society of Calgary have been supponive
financially. In panicular. 1 must herc record iny deep gniitiidc to the following
Venerables for thcir spiritual encoungemeni and suppon: Chuan Yin {ffPfP, Sheng Yi 'Y!
-, K. L. Dhammajoti .&fi. Hong Xun ZWJ.Wei Che 'iilihill. Shin-je i"&.
1 would like to thank Dr. A. W. Barber who in the early stages sewed as my
interim supervisor. Dr. Ronald Neufeldt. Dr. Eliezcr Segal. and Dr. Wayne McCready in the department helped me through man. courses. 1 thank Dr. X. J. Yang and Ms. Toyo
Kawamura. who taught and helped me to read Japanese texts. A special thanks goes to
Ven. Dr. K. L. Dhammajoti, Postgnduate Institute for Pnli and Buddhist Studies. the
University of Kelaniya. Sri Lanka. for guiding me in ihe reading of abhidharma iexts. 1 am also gnteful to him for reading through the wholc thesis and offcring constructive criticism and suggestions.
First and lasi. al1 praise and thanks are due to Dr. Leslie Kawamura. my
supervisor, for guiding me in my research. His encoungemeni. suggestions. ideas; his
compassion for accepting and understanding others; his warm personaliiy for caring for
others: his scrupulous attitude for taking things scriously-al1 continuc ro have impact on
me as a student of Buddhist Studies as well as a human bcing. v Table of Contents
Approval Page ...... ii Abstract ...... 111 Acknowledgemcnts ...... v Table of Contenu ...... vi Abbreviations ...... is Chapter 1: Introduction ...... I 1. The Centrality of the Concept of Pnjiia in Buddhism ...... 1 2 . Scope. Mcihodology and che Sources of the Present Study...... 3 Chapter 2: The Deveiopment of Prajaa in Early Buddhism ...... 10 1. Gcneral Comments ...... 10 2 . PnjfiUpaiifia in Early Buddhism ...... II 2.1 Prujtü and Si!B ...... II 2.2 Pruj~ïZis the Fulfillment of one's Pnctice ...... 13 13 PrujIü as the Spiritual Insight into the Four Noble Tniths ...... 14 3 . Pnjfi3 in Theravada Abhidhamma ...... 16 4 . PrajiiZpararnitii...... 18 4.1 PrujIüpüraniirü and Püruniirüs in the Early Agamas and Nikaya ...... 20 4.2 Pürunrirüs in the Abhidharma Tradition ...... 23 5 . ~anyat~~uiiiiaiain Early Buddhism and Abhidhanna ...... 15 5.1 ~iinyarürelates to Meditational Pnctice ...... 27 5.2 ~i711~arüis Coterminous with Anirya .Dir!iklio and Anüfniu~i...... 28 5.3 SN~iyatüand Nairüin?i.a ...... 29 5 .4 ~~tt~arüExplained as Dcpcndent Co-arising ...... 30 5.5 ~tï~iyarüand the Three Suniüdliis ...... 31 5.6 ~i71iyarüExplained in Ekorrarügania and in the Pruj~iüpürantifüSiilras: Their Doctrin?l Identity ...... 33 5.7 Sii~iyarüin the Sarvktivadin Abhidharma ...... 34 5.8 Sir~i,iut5 in Thcravadin Abhidamma ...... 35 6 . Conclusion ...... 37 Chapter 3: The Definition and Funciion of PrajMü ...... 39 1. Descriptive Delinitions of Pnjil2 ...... 39 2 . The Functions of Pnjila ...... 41 2.1 PrajMü as One of the Ten Universal Mental Concomitants (niahübhPmiku mirru) 4 1 2.2 PrujMü as the Means for Librntion ...... 42 2.3 PrajMü as Abhidharma ...... 44 2 .4 Praj~iüin the Thiny-srven Factors of A\v&cning (bud1iipuksi.üdliornrü!1)47 2.5 PrujMü related to the Four Noble Tniths ...... 49 2.6 Defiled PrujCÜ (kligo-praj~iü)...... 50 3 . Conclusion ...... 51 Chapter 4: The Scope and Nature of Praj~ïü...... 53 vi 1. Prajila in the JPS and Vibh.3 ...... 53 1.1 Drui . JZnu and Prajtïü ...... 54 1.1.1 Dtgi ...... 54 . 1.1.2 Jtïüna ...... 55 1.1.3 Projtïü ...... 58 l .2 The Eight Knowledges ...... 59 1.3 The Relaiionships among Prajtïü, D& JNrina in terms of Three Le\vls of Pnctice ...... 62 1.4 Inter-relationship among D::v!i, Jtiütra. and Prajtiü ...... 65 1.4.1 Relationship between Jtïütia and Prajtiü...... 65 1.4.2 Relationship between Drgi and Projriü ...... 66 1. 4.3 Relationship between Dp!i and Jn
viii Abbreviations
Atigttrrara Niküya. cd. R. Morris and E. Hardy, 5 vols. PTS. 1885-1900. (e.g. A. i. 22 means Arigitrrara NiMya. vol. 1, pagc 72) ADV The Abliidharntad@a ivir Prabltüvpi. ed. Padmanabh S. Jaini. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Rescarch Institute. 1977. AKB Ahltidharntakoahl~üyaed. P. Pndhan. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Rcscxch Institute. 1967. BHSD Buddltisr Hyhrid Sanskrit Dicrionary. cd. Franklin Edgenon. BD Birddltist Dicrionan. Nyanatiloka. CBE The Chinese Buddltisr Encjdopedia, cd. Lan Jifu. Tainan: The SBE Foundation. 1994. Ch. Chinese D. Digha Niküya, ed. T. W. Rhy Davids and J. E. Carpenter. 3 vols. PTS. 1890- 191 1. JlBS Jottrnal of Indian and Bttddhisr Srttdirs. JlABS Jottrnal of rhc Inrernarional Associarion of Bitddlti.~rSrttrlifs. JPS J~üitaprasrltüna.T 1544. M. Majjhiiina Niküya. ed. V. Trenchncr and R. Chalmers. 3 vols. PTS. 1887-1899. MMK /Mùla-/Mudliya~intakakÜrikri(cg. "MMK VI, 6" mcans chaptcr 6. verse 8.) Monier Sonskrit Englislt Dicrionaq+.ed. Monier Williams. Vibh.5 rlbhidharnta-n~ohüi~ihItü~ü-iUs~raTl545. Ny *Nyüyüttt~sÜrajüs~ra.T1562. PED Püli and English Dicrionary. T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stcdc. Pr S Ahl~idl~arntaprakara~~apüda-iüsrra.Tl 542. PTS PHli Test Society. London. S. Sa~!tytttraNiküya. cd. L. Fcer, 5 vols. PTS, 1884-1904. SJD Emkliil; Sanskrit and Japanese Dicrionary. ed. Unrai Wogihara @K:Lf?# Ski. Sanskrit T Taish~;rltinsl-dithe Chincsc Tripikaka (c.g. "T1509, 10a 20-15." means number 1509, pagc 10, column a. line 20 to linc 25). UpadcSa ~~altüpraj~üpürantiropadejaT 1509. Vibh. I'ibliatiga. cd. Mrs. Rhys Davids. PTS. 1978. Vis. I'isuddl~inagga ed. C. A. F. Rhys Davids. PTS. 1975. (cg. Vis. X. Par. 20, p. 336. mcans Visuddhimagga Chaptcr 10. paragnph 20. page 336). Splti~rrhü-ahliidl~arniakoja-~ÜkItyÜ:The Work of Yaiontitra. cd. by Unni Wogihara. Tokyo: The Publishing Association of Abhidhma-koSa-vy2khyZ 1932-1936. Chapter 1: Introduction
I. The Cetrtralify of the Cottcept of Prajtiü in Brrddltism
Thcre would have been no "Buddhism" had it no1 bccn for the profound spintual cxperience known as somyokruybodlii (Perfect Awakcning) of ~nkyamuni,the Buddha.'
Howcver. what is this all-imponant spiritual experirnce-revolutionary and profoundest of its kind-according to the Buddhists? It is Per!fct Insight or Wisdom. projiiü (PBli: putSN O.orliühlrriium). With this projiiü. the Buddha thoroughly and totally realized (sü~ürküra!io)the root-cause of the human predicament and the way of its tnnscendencc. When this Perfcct lnsight arose. the Buddha could not find any ready-made words IO descnbe it. Consequently. he had to express it by newly coining words and imageries and compared this insight IO an cye (cokkliir) and light (üloku) as follows: ido~!r dirkkliqr oriyosacco~i ri nie bhikklioi~e prrbbe r~nu~iitssirrestrdlioniniesit cokkliiqi irdopüdi ~Z!ray irdapüdi poii~iüitdopüdi vijju rrrlapüdi üloko i~~lu~üdi.' (This is the Tmth of Unsatisfactoriness-IO me O bhikkhus. arose the eye, knowledgc. undcrstanding. wisdom. light with regard to dhammas unheard of before.) The above description clearly suggests. among other things. rhai [rom the very beginning. prujiiü is of paramount imponance for Buddhism. From the Buddhist standpoint. transccndence of the human existcntia! predicment of dir!ikhu (unsatisfactoriness)' and the perfection of humanity are possible ihrough the libcrating ' The word "buddha" or "buddhas" (ivithout caps) rcfcrs IO any awakencd bcing. but Buddha (wiih caps) rcfcrs IO thc hisioncal ~~k~rnuni. ' S. v. 422. ' DII!IMU(or PBli JlilMu) is one of the Four Noble Tmths (cuiriln i~ri~uccürii)genenlly tnnslaied by emphasizc distinctively that buddhahood is radically difirent from arhathood bccause ti buddha'spraj~iùis completely different from that of an arhat. This difference is said to be owing to a buddha's ovcrcoming the two-fold hindnnces-hindrance of dclilemcnt (kleSüvaru!ro) and hindnnce of the knowable ~~i~~~üi~ara~ra).When both are completcly removed. prajiiü is perfccted, and by this perfeciion of prujIü-known as prajIüpüraniirü-reality is seen as-it-is and one achieves tnie libention. As K. L. ~harnmajoti'has shown, this central Mahayana doctrine of the IWO-foldhindrances had already been well aniculated in the northern abhidharma tradition. most probably in the pre-Mahaywa era. Aftcr the emergcnce of the Mahayiina, however, therc must have been mutual doctrinal influences on the further articulation of the Buddhist concept ofprojG bet;vcen the abhidharma tradition on the one hand and the Mahiiyana on the other. 2. Scope, Methodology orrd the Sources of the Presertt Study The foregoing remürks suggest that for a proper understanding and a proper perspective of development in Buddhist thoughi, an in-drpth study of the doctrinal developrnent of prajIü in the abhidhma period is a sine qitu non. The abhidhma constirutes an important link between carly Buddhist doctrines on the one hand and Mahayma development on the other. To date. however. thc few studies which focus directly on or have relcvance IO the development ofprajIü in the abhidharma period have mainly been based on the Pali sources. Thus. in his Brtddhisr Insighr: The Nuruirtre ond Roicrion in riif Püli ~ikü~a.~E Underwood discusseç paIIü as round in the Pnli sutta ' Dhnmjoi~.K. L. "The Dcfccis in ihc nrhat's Enlighienmcnt-His okli?la-a~riBaowd rdsan commentiuics. K. Mizuno's Pruj~iüitt the Primiriw Birddltisnt undS~cturiurt~iiddhism.7 in spitc of its title, is basically a discussion on the P5li sources with only brief comparative remarks, here and therc. on the nonhem abhidharma tradition. Accordingly. an in-depth critical study on the doctrinal developmcnt of the Buddhist concept ofpruj>iü, with special reference Io the nonhern abhidhanna tradition. still rcmains a desideratum. To rcspond to this lacuna constitutes the aim of our prcsent study. In our study, we have contined ourselves primarily to the matcrial penaining to the SarvLtivada school, becausc fonunately WC havc an abundancc of resourccs on the doctrines of this school presenred in Chinese translation. which have yct IO be propcrly tapped. With a couple of honorable esceptions-mainly those of Louis de La Vallée ~oussin.' E. ~nuwallner?and more recently C. ~os~~-mostWestem and lndian studies on Sarvnstivada doctrines have tended Io bc based on Vasubandhu's Abl~idl,u>arukoSuhhüsyu (AKB). with somc referencc to Yaiomitra's Spltiqürrltü Ablti~lhurt~tukoSu-tyükltyü(Vy). This is understandable. panicularly for those scholars who do not read Classical Chinese. as thcse two imponant abhidharma tests are preserved intact in Sanskrit. The Ablti~llturntudïpu nwlt l4bhü~üprubhüv~1ri(ADV). though an important Vaibh%ika polemic. suffers from the loss of a large nurnbcr of folios University Microlilms. 1973). " T. Endo. The Buddlia in Thwai. study. Consequently, the only Indo-European scholar who hm studied it suhstantially so Iàr is its editor, P. S. ain ni." The Arrltu-vitiii~~u-sritru.edited by N. H. Snmtati," docs not offer much by way of doctrinal clarification. Another reason for the scholarly focus on the AKB is that this text is comparntively well-organized and has scrved for ccntuncs as the fundamental text in Far Eastern Buddhist traditions for thc study of the Sarvstivadin and Sautrantika doctrines. Howevcr. the author of the AKB is well-kno\vn IO bc biased towards the Sautmntika, so that WC must bc cautious no1 to rcly exclusively or too heavily on it for Our investigation into the doctrinal categones of the Sarv3stivada. .. - The samc rcmark applies also to the Vy. whosc author opcnly professes IO be a Sautrantika. III the present study. while taking the 1ùII advanrage of the Sanskrit originals of the AKB. Vy and ADV. we shall extcnsivelg utilize the data in the Abliidhurmu-niu/rü~~ibI~ü~~ü (Vibh-a) and Saiighabhadra's *~ür~icsüru(h'y).i3 two very important abhidhma tcxts extant only in thcir Chinese tnnslations. Thcre is yet anothcr test. *Ahhidlrorntu- sun~nyu~rud,i,ikü~~by Sanghabhadn of lcss importance for this study. Necdless to Say, a full-scale investigation of prujCü would require a study of al1 the abhidhma tcsis " P. S. Jaini. cd. The Ahltidhnrmadipn ivirli Mbhd?dprnhhAyrri (Palna: K. P. Jayaswal Rescarch Insiituie. 1977). '' N. H. Samiaii. cd. Arrlin%mLico~nsiirr Io base Our study primarily on the Vibhea, AKB (along with ils commentanes wherc appropriate) and Ny. for the following rcasons. Firstly. this will make Our study more specific in scope. Secondly. in the period afier the Vibhwa, abhidharma doctrines becamc much more aniculatcd, which in fact. in an important wy. should facilitate a study of this nature. Thirdly. although the Vibhwa and Ny contain an abundance of extremcly imponant material for the understanding of Sarv3stivBdaNaibhZîika doctrines. bccause they are extant only in Chincse. these rcsources have so far been very lklc tapped. The Vibhaîa. purponing to be a commcnrary on the J~ïünaprasrliüria(JPS+one of the seven canonical Sarviistivada abhidharma tests which the Kaimlrian compilers of the Vibh.3 hcld as the highest authority-consists of 200 fascicles (Ch. jitan). It is in fact an encyclopedia of nonhern abhidharma doctrines. The main aim for its compilation. which probably had taken a couple of centuries for its completion. was to purge what the KaimTrian Sarviistivadins regarded as non-orthodox vicws within their school. In addition, it also offers a critique of al1 prcvalent abhidharma views found incompatible with those of the JPS. Subsequent to this compilation, the Sarv~stivadinswho uphcld the Vibhasa as the central authority. came to assume tlie position of onhodoxy and wcrc known as the Vaibhwikas. Sanghabhadn's Ny, in SO fascicles-which is two and half limes the size of Xuan Zang's translation cf the AKB-is a polemic in defense of the Vaibhwika onhodoxy. Throughout this work. the author complains that the onhodox views of the Sarviistivada have often bccn distoned and misrepresented by Vasubandhu in the AKB. which hr vows to rectify. Sanghabhadn provcd IO bc a rigorous thcoretician. and in many cases significantly fine-tuncd the Vaibhwika doctrine. while remüining faithful to Sarviistivada onhodoxy. WC mus1 thcrefore take Iieed of what thesc two or~hodoswvorks have IO Say regarding the Sarvastivadin doctrines and use them as a kind of marker Io check the explunations given in the 'KB and Vy. Following an investigatiort of the abhidharma views, the development in the concept of prujn'ü in Early Mahayana s0tras and in the Upadefa is examincd. This is in considention of the fact that the Upadefa. which is extant only in Chincsc, represents a major doctrinal finalization of the early Mahayana concept ofprujn'ü and SMt~yurü.The finalization of these eariy Mahayana concepts can serve as a useful contnstive reference IO the development we have found in the period of abhidharma Buddhism. 11 may be mcntioned hcrc that E. ~amotte"has given us a translation of only the first 34 fascicles of this work. By way of a methodological remark. we would like herc to add a critical note on the English renderings of the tcrm prujn'ü/pan'~~ü.As a technical term. prujfiü has been translated into English commonly by the word "wisdom." Alex Wayman has pointed out that the English tenn "wisdom" is cognate with the Sanskrit vidyü. the Latin video. and the German wisse,~.l6 Wisdom is not an Indo-European cognate of jfiü; Wayman, therefore. prefers to reserve the translation "wisdom" for vidyü. Though Edward Conze tnnslatcdprujn'ü as "wisdom". hc admitted that "wisdom" was only a vcry approximate cquivalent of projfiü.'7 Undenvood comments: In agreement with the judgment that the Buddhist usage of pufiriri is "more precise." a diffcrent term from "wisdom" might be suggested as more closcly approaching the "precision" ofpufiriri in English. In this respect. the English word it~siglirserms far more suirable than "wisdom" as a translation forpufitTÜ. and has been used as such by " E. Lamonc. Lr Trniolri. h lu grnndr. kri, rle Sngcssr. clr, Nüg Undcnvood has given various rcasons for tnnslating pafifiü by the term "insight": a) both words are associated with seeing. vision and eyes. b) This vision of insight (pufifiü) gocs bcyond the normal visual faculty of sight and opentes in a super-sensory mental or spiritual capacity. c) Both blsighr andpruj~iüarc said to pcnetrate the surface ofthings IO rcach thcir "inncr characicr" or "hiddcn nature." He also statcs ihat "insight" has an advantage over "wisdom" due to its currcncy in psychological, psychiatric, and psychoanalytic terminology. '" Probably, Undenvood was influcnccd by his contemponry scholars who werc seeking psychological terminology for Buddhism. Pr Another remark penains to the usage of the term "VaibhZ$ika." WC gcncrally fcel it justiliable to use it intcrchangeably with "SarvZstivZda." since out sources arc those of the onhodos SarvZstivadins who came IO be known as Vaibhisikas. Howcvrr, whcrc therc is a rcference made to an opinion of a non-onhodos (thosc noi basing thcmsclvcs on " Undenvood 35-35. Op. cil. 36. 'O E.g: "Prajm." in Th Randoni Housr U~iahridpedD,criona~. Second Edifion. 1987: "Pnjna." in Webster's Third New lnternat~onalDtct~onary of the English Language. 1961 ed. cfc. thevibhwa as the suprcme authority) mastcr or group of Sarvlstivada. WC shall use thc term "Sarv%tivZda/Smasti\fUdin" specifically. . Chapter 2: The Development of Prajiia in Early Buddhism Early Buddhism in the contcxt ofthis thcsis refcn to doctrines prcserved in thc Pali suttas and in the four Chincsc agamas. Since this pcriod immcdintely precedes that of the abhidharma tradition. rw considcr it desirable IO providc an outline of the dcvelopmcn~of prujtiü concept of this pcriod. In addition to the discussion of Pali suttas, somc of the aspccts cxplained in Theravada abhidhamma \dl bc examincd. In the early discourses. the doctrine ofprujtiülpofiü is closcly rclared to thai of no-sclf (itairürtr~u~u~tarrü).Things arc said IO bc no-self bccause thcy arc depcndently CO-arising@rario'(isumttrpü~~u).?" "One who secs dcpendent CO-arising sccs the dhnmma: onc who sees the dhamrna sees depcndent CO-arising(yu pu~iccusur~tttppüdu~~~pussuri. su dl~a~i~m nature-the realization that al1 dhamma are ~tairüti~iyuliiir~(Pali: striitiu-though this notion may not have cxactly the same connotation as Iiiityurü in the ~ahayana)." Sincc - - "nie Pali tcm is pu!iccusuniuppùdu. In the Vis. (Chap. XVII. Pass. 8. p. 16-18). Buddhaghosa hss iinalyzed this !cm gnmmaiically and iheorctically: puficcusurniippidu consisis of IWO terms: papcco(adj.. "be arrivcd ai" or "dependeni") and suniirppdda (CO-arising):or pqrcca (having dcpendcd)and ~aniuppadu (CO-srising).Sumtrppddu means 'ta-arising." not samn~ù(right) uppùrlu (arising). no the bcst English tnnshiion is dcpendcni co.arising. "M. i. 190-91. "The icm .iüpufd is tnnsbied by most scholars as "cniptinrss." ~~nyardhas a profoundly doclrinal meaning. cspecially for Nigirjuna. II does nol mesn that ihings do no1 cxisi ai all: nihcr iii~yulüsignilics only the absence of unchanging substancc. Thinp an. dcpcndcntly cc-arising (pr~riifyu.iu~:tiifpüdu).lhus they me iü,!~. Medhyamaka idcntifics ihc dcpcndcni CO-arisingwiih iii~yurfi.(hlMK XXlV 115: YU!I pruirryasornu~pdda!ijünyoiùt~i fdr!i pruct+niuhc. Dependeni CO-arising.WC daim Io bc .iÜnyard. Tl 561. projrïü is related to projrïüpüroniirü and Sdrpurü in the development of prajTü. we will discuss the term praj,i 2. Prajtïa/paAtïtï in Early Biiddliism 2.1 Prajtiü and ~i7a The Pali Soydo!t&-srrrra of the Dïglinnikü.va has the following statement in its csplanation ofpofi~ÏÜ: For puririü. oh Gome. is purified by silo (moral vinuc). and silo is purificd by poii>iü: where one is, the other is. the moral man has pofidü and the wise man has silu, and the combination of silo andprafifiü is called the highest thing in the world. Just. oh Gotama. as one hand washes the other, or one foot the other. so. oh Gotama. poiidü is purified by sila... and the combination of sila and pa171ïÜ is called the highest thing in the world." The corresponding Chinese version oithis sütra is the Zliong DeJing (tlli#% The Sütra of Cultivating Vinuc). which is contestually the same." Both the Peli and Chinese versions of this early test show that pudfiü is very closely associated with silo (Skt. iïlu. moral vinueh 33b:IIXllY?kit . %i!t!!IIfid[:~].All dharmas ihat arc dependeni co-arising. uc siaie ihat ihcy are ifitnarü.) .$üti~urüis no1 simply noihingncss. For deiail explmaiion. sec Gadjin M. Nagao. hfüdhyamrka and )i>gücüra. tmns. 8; cd. L. S. Kawamum (New York: Siaie Univcrsiiy of New York. 1991) 21 1. Cf. Gadjin Nagao. The Faundarianal Sranrlpoinr of hlddha?oni:ka Philasapl:?. tmns. John P. Kcenan (Nca York: Siaic University. 1989) 4. '' D. i. 124: Silaparidlioiü hi 6110 jiaranra pafifiti Pafifiüparidhora,!: silat!i krrha silaf!i :airha pafifiti ihrlia pafifi Onc with praj~ïühaving suspended killing. is frcc from killing, [is frcc from] taking things not given. improper scxual behavior and false specch. [Hclshc] cven having suspendcd wrong views obtains the proper vicws, and accomplishcs othcr immcasunblc wholesomc dharma~.'~ Prajnü is associatcd with Iilu, but pruj~ïüis not iilu. Praj>i Sinccrcly maintain the Silu. spiritually practicc. study [and] have estensivc knowledge. Become accomplishcd in düna (giving) and attain praj,iü.'7 Although projiiü and iila arc closely associatcd. in the Ekutfnrüguntu the Buddha csplains that Silu is only a comrnon pncticc of the mundane world. while prujrïü is of the highest meaning. The world-honorcd one (luku~iürhu)claims, "thc tcaching of .fila is of the worldly method; the accomplishmcnt of sumüdlii '' is also of the worldly method. supernormal powcr (&hi-püdo) and thosc who can fly are also of the worldly rnethod. The accomplishment of prujiiü is of the highcst mcaning.. . '' Worldly people can accomplish Iilu and suniüdl~iand gain other supcmatural powers. but not prujiü. Silu and suniüdhi arc the methods to gain pruj>iü. The accomplishment of prujiiü is the highest goal in Buddhism. is not just an instrument for the attainment of proj13r. The Pali tradition distinguishes two types of silu: pufifiorri silu and pokqi silo. The former may be tcrmed conventional mon~ity?~It is the silo of an ordinary being withoutpm?n strugglcs to restrain onesell-one will not to do this. nor to do that. or cultivate this or that vinue. One here follows a prescriptive course of action. In the case ofpaku~isilu(natural monlity) one needs to stmgglc no more with cclonü (will). This is the case of an awakened bcing whose actions are a natunl expression of hislher pafi~iü.One's reason and emotion arc pcrfectly intcgrated, and onc's actions are in pcrfcct alignmcnt with one's insight. The Buddha is thus known as one who is i*bjü-coro!iu-suntpun~iu-fully accomplished in both knowledge and conduct. 2.2 PrajtPi is the Fulfillment of one's Practice At the end of So!iadu!i& Sitrru, the Buddha answers a question concerning the definition ofparirïü. The sutta says: He attains the four iltdnus (mcditative absorption)... he atrains various insights ... and the cessation of the corruption... Thus he devclops wisdom O>ufifiü). Thai. Brahmin. is wisdom ~>ofifiü).~' Prajliü is the outcome of one's practice. The Chinesc text gives a very clcar definition penaining IO proj~iü: What is proj~iü?The Buddha said: "If. oh Bhiksus, through sunrüdlii the mind becomes pure. uncontaminated. yiclding. tnined. and dwells steadily, then the three kinds of wisdom (rrividp)" will be attained. When uii+ (ignomcc/darkness) is 'O Sanghankshita. A Sunvy of Buddhisnt. 11s Docirrnr. und hfeihadr rltrou~hrlic Aga (Birmingham: Windhorse Publications. 7'ediiion. 1997) 168. '' Walshe. Tlttts Hm+c1 Heard 13 1. The PPli tcxi Lsa grcal amouni ofrcpetiiion. ihus. I quote from the English tnnsloiion by Maurice \Valshe 1: .,. nii& means in Buddhism one who hm realizcd ihree kinds of knowlcdge: rcmembnnce of formcr rebinhs Wuhhc-n~rüsünussai~).ihc divine eye (dibhn-cuWiu).extinction ofdl conkcrs (Üsm~okkltmu).In Chinese. the Thrce kinds of wisdom are: I ). 7iiii?tJ;Bfl)jp~n~o-nri~dsdni~smy~na-sak.~dI-rCr~yu- w(L~: removed. the light of prajrici will arisc. When darkness is destroyed. the light of Great Dharma " will arise. [Thus] knowledge freed of al1 cankers (üsruva-~uya-jr7ünu) is reached. How so? It is gained by training oncself in fonitudc. concentration. perseverance, and the cngyment of d\.elling alone. Oh Brahmin! This is called accomplishrnent ofprujnü. So projiiü is the final attainment of one's practicc and it is gaincd through the proper process of practice. i.e. the constant practicc of saniüdhi by which the three kinds of wisdom are gained. 2.3 PrajfiE as the Spiritual lnsight into the Four Noble Truths In the Mu~~~finiur~ikü~,the Buddha explained that one who has praj~iühas understood the Four Noble Truths. It reads: Oh. Friendl In what respeci is one called the wise O>uritiuvü)? Because one knows clearly. one knows clearly, oh fricnd. thereforc. one is called thc wise. What does one know clearly? One knows clearly. "This is d~kklru."'~One knows clearly, "This is the cause of dirkklia." One knows clearly, "This is the cessation of dirkklio." One knows clearly, "This is the Path leading to cessation ofdirkkliu." Because one knows clearly. one knows clcarly. oh fnend. therefore. one is called the wise." The text also says that those who havc no pu17Cü (dtrppo,i>iu) arc so called because they do not understand (~inppuiü~~uriri)the Four Noble Truths. In the Chinesc A4uliüka11s!ltila S~irruofMad~»iiguniu, prajfiü refers 10 the situation in which one sees the human situation as-it-is, i.e. one tmly understands the Four Noble Tmths: 2). !Z K ;a IV1 ~u~upapùda-jCdna-sÜ~~ü~-~~ya-~~~&ü3). 8 & ?/ A l'Il Ü5rm.a-k?ma-l,i In the Ekorrurügunio. the explanation on prajrïü is connccted also with the Four Noble Trurhs: He asks. "What is the faculty of prq'rïü?" [Answer:] To know drr!rkltu. To know the cause. To know the cessation. To know the Path. This is called the faculty of prujriü?8 Again. thcre is another passage: Oh Bhiksus. how is the emancipation [byl projriü? Oh. Bhiksus. it is to observe the Tmths of drr!iklta, of the cessation. of the cause, of the ccssation ûnd of the Path [leading to its cessationJ. To know just-as-it-is. Such. oh Bhiksus. is the emancipation [by] prujrïü? In the Su~iyitkrügunru,the term "$'& rrr sliî' ("just-as-ibis") is repeaicd many times in rcference IO praj>ici. The wise observes the Five Aggregates as '~u~t-as-it-is.'~~In the Mudlr~aniügun~u.prajiü is cxplained as the obscnmce of the nature of al1 dhannas-impermanent and changing: How is the Path obiûincd from projrïü and not from ignorance (ntuliu)? Answer: Oh Bhiksus! Practice prujrïü and observe the dharma which are of the nature ofarising and ccasing.'" The phnse, "practice prajrïü and observe the dhmas which are of the nature of arising and ccasing" is restated seven times." From one aspect, projiiü is an awareness of the human conditions. i.e. one tmly understands the Four Noble Tniths. On the othcr hand. pr+Ü is the final attainmcnt that begins with the understanding of the Four Noble Tmths. thc practicing of Silo. dütiu, and the studying of the doctrine. The Modl~yu~t~ügumuesplains: Do not be deluded with regard to dtt!rklto. its cause, its cessation. and the Path to its cessation. Attain confidence, observe the ii!~. possess estensive Icarning. be charitable and accomplish prajfiü.f3 In brief. prujfiü is a process of practicing the Buddha-Dharma. One begins by understanding the human predicament or human condition just-as-il-is and the Four Noble Tmths, and thus realizing the characteristic of al1 phenomena to be that which is always changing. Then. the practitioner practiccs Silo and al1 wholesome things and through the practice of.ranrÜd/~ione finally obtains prujfiü. In other words. prujNÜ rcfers 10 proper understanding of the Buddha-Dharma and to means of spiritual pncticc. It is clear that in Early Buddhism thc pnctice ofiilo and son~üdiiiand the understanding of the Four Noble Tmths are stressed. 3. Praj17àil1 Theravüda Abhidhamrna In the I.ihhotigo. the second book of the Ahhidlrunrnropi~aka,thcre is a Pali phrase which is repeatrd frequently in referring to poti~iü: "untuho diian~n~ui~icoyu sunrmüd~lti-absence of delusion. investigation of doctrine and proper ~iew.'*~The test esplains four kinds ofpoiitiü: 1. cinrüntayüpoti1i~7-puN1iüarising from reflection 2. srrrurnuyü pnrifiü-pufiriü arising froni listening 3. dünoniuyü pufiG-pudriü arising from giving 4. .siluniuyü puriri In another abhidhamma book of Thcravada. the Dho»iniusati~u~li.there is the following passage describing pufi17Ü: What on that occasion is the faculty of puririü? The pu13N The early Chinese tnnslators tnnslated püruniirü as "crosscd over (\Y pürutn + iru)" as exemplified by Sanghadcva who translated the Ekotrurügur~tuin CE 397?' Later. in the abhidharma and Mahayina tests. pürun~irüremained in its translitentcd form. Tnditionally. there are two kinds of explanation concerning the purpon of pruj~~üpürunti~ü: 1. Perfection of prujfiü: 2. Prujfiri can help one cross over to the other shore. Recently. Shongo Watanabe has studied its tcminology from the Sanskrit version of PuAcuvit~~Sari.suhu.~riküPrajt~üpürunii~ü. In addition to thcse two mcanings. he indicated " Sçe on page 16. '"Sce on page JO. Cf. AKB. p.2. mT1?5.550a: bJ5b. th- tlicrc are two othcr meaning~:~' 1. Which can not bc conccivcd (nopulahdliu). The objcct of concciving cannot be rccognizcd i.c. thepruj~>iuof al1 huddhas carmot bc conceived. 2. Which is subsumcd (anrargaru) dharniadlicirur anturpia!i renocyure projnüpüranii~eti. it is clcar that the tcrm praj>iüpüro»nirü includcs the domain of rarharü. bhiirakqi?' ~harma-rca~m.~~ In a later Mnhiyina abhidharma text, .~lbhidhurniu.~aniit~~avu-i:b,~ikIi~'ünu (Sthiramati's commcntary on Asanga's rlhliidliurma.~aniiiccayu). therc arc also mentioned six püruniirü.~. Sthinmati givcs a long cxplanation on the mcaning of praj~üpüra~~iirü.54 1. The Utmost (&lB :ui slieng): 12 kinds of Utmost 2. Perfection (IR]# yiiun niun): The perfection of bodhisattva and thc perfection of the Buddha 3. What the buddhas and bodhisattvas have donc and rcachcd (-kJJi$?$%!fi%~ffi Il] yi qiefo pi1 .su s1io wei siio dao) 3. One has rcachcd the othcrshore which is to bc known ($dljrr.X~1@/;! duo.siio:hi bi 5.1-Iclp oneself and othcrs IO cross the great ocean of the sufiring of birth and death " Shongo Watanabc, "Four Kinds of lnicrprcotion on thc Temnology of Pruj>idpBramii In the Ekorrurügunru, the six pürunrirüs are mentioned." In the Khrrddukuriikü.~~of the Piili tradition. the tenpürunrirüs are ~x~lained.'~ln the early Sotras, the sixpüruniirüs arc discussed in the contcxt of the previous life stories of the Gautama Buddha: The world-honored one spcaks of six highest crossed over (perfection): giving. moral vinucs, fonitude, effort. mcditative absorption and prajfiü. Their strength is like the new moon. [through which] one swiftly crosses over to the ultimatc and secs al1 dha~mas.~' With respect to the six püronrirüs. the Ekorruriiguntu statcs: The Buddha tells Maitreya bodhisattva: "If the bodhisattva-mahisattw practices the foundaiions of four dharma:' he will accomplish the sis pürurnirüs and quickly gain the supremc perfcct awakening (aniirrura-sun,i~usur~~hodhi).sy Hcre. the sis pürunrirüs are identified as the proctice of foundational chancicristics of dharma. In the nikiiya, therc is mention of the Three Characteristics of Dharma (rilukklru~to):urzicca. drikklra and onorrü: "Whethcr Pcrfect Oncs appear in the world. or whether Perfect Ones do not appear in the world. it still rcmains a firm condition, an immutable fact and fixed law: ihat al1 formations are impermanent. ihat al1 formations are subject 10 duhklro. that everything is without a self.'b0 The Pali nikayas do not mention the foundations of four dharma nor do they explain that püruniirüs are connected with " 1'125, 550a; 645b. '' Bi~ddlrrrIo~!~ra and Carryüpr!aku. cd. N. A. Jayawicknma (London: PTS. 1974) 16-20. "~125.550a.13: A4XAlllRM C!&I.fk!XffiüiRPY Hl~UillilJ i&%?AMUh.)II&... "Ekorrardguma lisls the four as (TI25. 639a. 3: 64Ob. 8): 1. al1 dharmas arc impermancnl. 2. al1 are du!tklta. 3. al1 arc no-self. 4. rirn,ü!ruand permanent calmness. TI25. @Ob. 8-1 1: Qiii!!iil:X. Ul!kl rfifi;Q. Zfq?-\lY. -~I]%~TRR.RJ'lfJJIl.$X. !lll~~fia%.-t)JXfrE. ~J!;$IZ .iL&%. hiicrLfilW. -W%iilR4!t. :?::,V/TlitsX.trnd:LfiiQ. ;Il!.%fi~k:ti!. :,!:iRZPiit&X. In LLrfilW. E;Pllrf. InliLbX. trniltLPfiX. '*~125.645b.2:WûE~W. fiE%W;,Fi674~PiIL%. JL5iMWf&. fkrXf%l:JX'$ IEW. " A. iii. 134: also. Su~!iyuna-NrA'dw.iv. 28. the Threc Characteristics of Dharmas. In P5li nik5ya. tenpüruniiare rncntion~d:~' Come. I will examine the things making a buddha. here and there, abovc. belowt [in] the ten quariers. as far as the ideational element. Examining, 1saw then the first perfection. that of Giving (diinapürunii) the great path pursued by the great seers ofold. You. having made firm, undenake and go on to this first perfection, that of Giving, if you wish to attain Awakening. As a full jar ovenurned by whatever it may be discharged the water completely and does not retain it there. so. seeing supplicants, low. high or middling. give a gift complctcly like the ovenurned jar. But not these few only can be the buddha-things. I will examine other things too that me maturing for Awakening. Examining, 1saw thcn the second perfection. that of Monlitv (silupürunii). followed and pncticed by the geai seers of old ... Examine. 1 saw then the third perfection. that of Renunciation (~ickkliumniapüru~~ii). followcd and pncticcd by the great secrs ofold ... Examining, 1 saw then the founh pcrfection. that of Wisdom (puZÜp You. having made firm, undenake and go on to this founh perfection. that of Wisdom, if you wish to attain Awakening. And as a monk. looking for alms. not avoiding Io\. high or middling families. acquires sustenance thus. so you. questioning disceming people and the time. going on to the perfection of Wisdom. will anain Self-Awakening. But not these few only can be the buddha-things. I will examine other things too that are maturing for Awakening. Examining, I saw then the fifih oerfection. that of Enerq (viriyupürunii). followed and pncticed by the great seers of old ... Examining. 1 saw then the sixth oerfection. that of Patience (klranripüranii), followed and pncticed by the grcal seers of old.. . Examining, 1 saw then the seventh ~erfection. that of Tmth [-spcaking] (succapürun~i).followed and pncticed by the geai seen of old. .. Examining. I saw then the eichth ocrfcction. that of Rcsolute Dctermination (ud/~i~~/iünupürunii).followed and practiced by the geai seers of old.. . Examining, 1 saw then the ninth oerfection. that of Lovinc-kindness (merrupürunii). followed and practiced by the great sccrs of old ... Examining. 1 saw then the tenth oerfection. that of Eauanimitv ~i~pckkitüpüruniil. followed and praciiced by the great seers of old ... 3- frw as thesc only are those ihings in the world maturing for Awakening. There is nothing elsewhere beyond these. Be established tirmly in thcm.6' These ten püranris-düfrupcirunti. silupürun~i.nekkl~ofin~upürurf~i. puririüpürunri. i~iriyupürunii. kl~unripürunli. succupürumi. udhi!!~~ür~upürun~i~nieitupürumi and irpekkl~üpürunii.explaincd in the B~rd~llroi~ur~~su(Chronicle of Buddhas). can lcad peoplc to buddhahood. Apan from the Birdrllrui~u~~~sa.there are IWO other canonical works that mention these ten püran~irü~ürun~i:the Curiyripi!uku (Basket of Conduct) and Jüruku (the Birîh ~iories).~'The Curiyüpipku is a small collection of storics conccrning the pürunrirü. It does no1 use the tem pürami. which is used in the B~iddhai~uqisu.but the rem püraniirü is used. Though there are only seven pürumitüs named. the other thrce pürun~irüs(pari~iü. vieiyu and k11u11ti)are implied.@ The ten pürorr~iswerc developcd and brought to maturity by the Bodhisattva Gautama in his former livcs. and his way of pncticing ihem is illustmted in one of the Birth ~tories.6'A long and methodical exposition ofpürumitü is given in the concluding Miscellaneous Section (puki!t!~ukakurhü) of the Commentary to ~uriyu~i!oku.6"n the I~îs~rdd/~in~aggu(The Path of ~urification).~'it is said that through developing the four Sublime States of loving-kindness, compassion. altmistic joy. and equanimity, one may perfcct thesrpüron~irüs. In brief, the agamas explain the six pürun~itüsin relation 10 the foundaiional ': Tlic Ifinor Anrltologics of rlir Pdli Canon. Pur1 111. Climnicle of Ri~rldliosund Rusker of Conr/ucr. Inns. 1. B. Horncr (London: PTS. 1975) 19-23 " Jütoko. 1. (London 1877): 73 1. B. Horncr. "PrcTacc(Buskef ufConducr)." Tlic hhnor Anrl~ologr~~suflhc POL Cunon. Pan III (London: PTS. 1975): VI. " Jüraku. 1. 73 * BD 125. "'Vis. IX. Par. 124. p. 325. ch~acieristicsof four dharmas. but nikiiyas cxplain the tcn pürciniitüs. 4.2 Pürainitüs in the Abhidharma Tradition In the Vibhayi, traditionally ascribed IO Katyiyaniputn (1" century BCE).~'only fo~rpüruniitüsare mcnii~ncd:~~ As explained. the bodhisattva practiccs for threc "World-period" (k~l~u)~~of an un-measunble time (u~~ikl~),~~the four pürunrirüs and gains perfections, i.c. dünupüruntitü, Silupürrrniitü. vinupüritniitü and pruj~~üpürumi~ü... The VibhQa also mentioncd inditions othcr ihan the Kajmirian and in making rcfercnce to them, the text statcs, "...Foreign ~asters"Say.. ." and then an cxplanation of the six püruniitüs follows: Foreign Masters Say that ihere are six püruniitüs. i.e. adding .Ün!i (foriitude) and rlliyünu (meditaiive absorption) to the former four püruniirüs. All SLtn mastcrs in KaJmIra say, the later twopürutnitüs arc includcd in the former four [püruniirüs]. i.e. künti is includcd in the jilu (monl vinue); clhyünu is included in prujiü. becausc when eiiher Silu or prujfiü is completcd the othcr is complcted. Funher. thcre is another cxplanation on six püruniirüs, i.e. "listening" and ks +A Scc. Hajimc Nakamum. Indiari Duddliisni (1987; Delhi: Moiilal Banarsidms. 1989) 107nn42-43. h" The Ahlirdlrarmo-niah~ivib/W~üu.iüs~r~.by Klly5yanlpuira (1" ccniury BCE) imns. Xuan Zang (CE 656-659)TI545,892a-24:PII~QTfinHlIJIA1PiLUII! I)I!'4&WP%fiI>.IWP: :A&&#i'jif Y. ES W&*, r;i&&&$gs,&j:.xu'&s.,. A'alpa is an inconccivablc long space of iinic. an con. II hm 4 divisions: World-dissolulion. coniinuaiion of the chaos. World-formation. continuaiion ofihc formcd world. Sec. BD 76. " Cf.Ti509.86~-19c.SJD 165b. "CBE 2216b. Foreign Msicrs ('hmbb). also callcd Wcstcrn Maslcn (nXDlI pd.+ciïr>.ü!i).rcfcrs 10 abhidharma icachcrs from Nonhcrn India Gwdhnn. rcst of Kalmlm. "TIS45. 892b. 23: 4bBlhliiQ. iiX&Miti%:~~lEii;ll~f~~~:~.Bji&. BiM%IMLU:&AbIi,:, . 14 . i~2#iff-ÿI!ii1iijlnlffiI.ü:;Wi?.MhET. O?&HIiiIfi2?.&BBnBUIi%EO&. Itliih'1J;K. MiM)' , The AKB (Paramanha's tnnslation) gives the following delmition that periains Io püraniirüs: Why are thcse six named pürantirü? II is because one reaches the perfection of vinue's limits." Sanghabhadra dcfincs: Each one rcaches the other shore of prefect virtue. thus. the six are called püraniitüs.75 Thus. the word püraniitü clearly denotes the sense of perfection. The Chinese rendering of "crosscd ove? (la du) agrecing with the Tibctan tradition. follows the derivation: pürani (other shore) + ira ("gone" from di, "go"). The other derivation of the term is: parama (hiphest) +pürania+ püranii+ püra»ii+ ri. It is clev that whichever derivation we adopt. the sense is clearly the perfection of spiritual vinu~.~~ In the Sarvastivida abhidhmas. there are two csplanations regarding the number of püraniirüs: 1). püranrirüs are explained as four in the Vibhasa. and 2). püraniirüs arc said to six according to those from Western KaSmIra. In either case. fourpüranritùs or six püraniirüs. thcy are al1 explained in rcference to Gautama Buddha's former life. 3%: Xlikii5lnlhrir;BOii. E-%ifflfiM'f;.&IPn!&Wi2+ :*fi. fial:;li.iiXL$ %%WO.fi RiffWf~iiri:~.~~Ih;PlTX~lali~W~'iIR-2?$ML&. &U.%z:;?!?6ïi~A42.fiff2.i$!#ifi$% fiHi%. iit: :n;rt.nal*U. BP~I~IW~U~B&B.~lWi!finl%Z~i~fiSh'ii:5:. i61CcitTtC)LS Jl; hWt4iEI. T1559.249~-23:ffitZtiil8iOiX%$. dl!~!tlWUW.&li. Cf. Louis de La VaIIcc Poussin. L'abhirlliurmukoia rle I'arubunill~u. Quatri;rnc chapirn. (Paris: Paul Gcnihncr. 1924) 23 1. Also scc Ihc English Tmns. by Lco M. Pnidcn. Abl1idI1arn1uko~~ublui~1'am(Bcrkclcy: Asian Humanitics Press. 1988) 694: Thcpdrumirrls rrceivc the nome ofprlrnmird bccausc ihcy have anivcd ~umumit)ni ihe oihcr shorc (pürunt) of thc oihcr shorc of the ioiality of ihc pcrfcciions propcr io each of ihcm. "T1563.889a-25;andNy. T1562.591~-21: ~i~l~i~lfEf~lWUEi~!A~.lk7';XiCR$:i:Y. '' For a discussion ofthe derivaiion of the !cm. cf. BHSD 34la-342a. . 5. ~ün~ata/~irt5t7atüin Early Birddliisni and Abliidliarnia In the Mahayana Prujtiüpürurtti~üSNlru.~. prujtiü is explaincd principally by the tcrm One should know that al1 dharma-conditioned (sur!tskrm) dhamas and unconditioned (u.~u~~rsk~tu)dharmas-arc in accord with iiinyrü. Onc should know that fundamcntal nature also is in accord with StTnyuiü. This is in concordancc with prujtiüpüronrirü.77 In conformity with Stinyuiü. one acccpts rcaliiy just-as-it-is: ihcrc is no aitachment. no argument. no conceptual prolifcration (prupuficu).7R Thcre is no diîfcrcncc among "T22I.5~23-25: iC~l-UJXi2:fi?->~L%i>ihfi:%2<:.??;bI%?&NN?i!*. 22.iEflW .EM%:. Also T223 222~25-26. "The original Sanskrit for the Chinese is prupatica (Pili: puputlcu) according io Kumirajlra's tnnslation of dfudl~~umukuküriW,w,hcre hc tnnslaied prupuicu as (TI564 Ib: 24n: 31a. MMK Dedicatoty Vcrse; XVlll 9: XXll 15). It is difliculi Io define iis meaning. Thcre are thrce tnnslations for propufiru in the Chinesc Scriptures: W.3 (frivolous discoursing). da (falsehood). EI (fallacious thoughi) (SJD 859a). According Io the Pülr En~lirliDicnoiiu~. the word pupuficu Iiicnlly mcans "sprcading out. cxpansion. difïuscncss"(PED: 4 12b). Thc Trbct rprm (pu). ah0 mcans "sprcading out" (BHSD3EOb). In ihc Biiddliur Dicrionun. Ven. Nyanltiloka Mahithen suggcsis the following meanings for pupnEco: '"cxpansion. conccptuîl prolifcntion. 'difïwcncss' or 'nuntfoldness' of the world." Hc furthcr dnws attention to the hludlrripr!i therc will be differcntiation or conceptual proliferation. One needs IO practice prujfipüruniifü but one cannot have a sense of an "1" who is pncticing. In the case of rcality-just-as-it-is. there is no diffcrentiating of things. Do not think that one pnctices pruj,iüpüru»tifü; do no! think that one does no! practice; do not think that one both practices and does not practice: also do not think that one neither practices nor not practiccs. This is called the pnciicc of prujrinpüron~i~ü.79 If a bodhisattva does not course in form (rtïpu) nor become attached IO [ils] characteristics, thcn one practices pruj,iüpürunrifü. [If a bodhisattva] docs not course in feeling, perception, formations. and consciousness. no1 become attached to [their] characteristics. then one pnctices prujiiüpürumi~ü.80 This statement is somcwhat similar IO the following found in the M~j~/linifJ~~ikÜ~~: Whatevcr csists thcrein of form. feeling, perception. formations. and consciousness. one sces those States as impermaneni, as unsatisfactory .. . as void. as not self. .. .*' .%in.vu it-at least in tcrms of terminology. The focus of abhidharma tests is mainly on dharmas and concepis. In MahJySna. s'lïnyutü surcly is a salient feature. Venerablc Yin Shun has studicd iünyutü and its developmcnt and relationship among the agmas. abhidharma and conccpnial prolifcmiion. "Bcing dcrivcd from 'pru*dporic' ii convcys such mcanings as 'sprcadinp oui.' 'expansion.' 'dilfuscnscss' and 'mnifoldncss.' The tcndcncy touzrds prolifcmiion in lcrcal of conccpis mybc dcscnbcd in any onc of ihosc tcm. and this is probnbly ihc pnmry mcaning of 'papaZca."' Bhikkhu hnananda, Concqx and Rcdrn: rn Eur!v Buddltnr Tltau.~$n (Kandy: Buddhist 13ublicaiion Sociciy. 1976) 4. In bncf. it is vcry dificuli io rcndcr it as onc Enplish tcm: "canccpmnl prolifcmiion" mybc a bciicr translation for thc Sanskrit icm"praputica." '"~17.53825: 4;2iib-&LM8. +%l;i~. 4;2iill;ii. Ai/l;%-ll:if:lt4;+f. ::%irlfl1>&# 8. ME27,552~.fi.RVi+irE4;X4!j. i!tltflfl%Lbïifi. .+IrZ!~ii~îî+X41j. i!~+r@fiSM#. " M. i. 436: Sa )~ud~marufiha Iiori rüpufiurup i~rdanüfiurui!~ruAAÜgur~,!i ru,illiürapu«ry vrWü!qaroy M dliammr uniccara dukkhura raguro gu!i&mi sullara agha10 ühüdliuro parafa pulakuro ruA~;arouuarrara samanupussuri.... Cf. Bhikkhu Ainarnoki and Bhikkhu Bodhi imns. Tlrc Ifiddlc Lenjirlr Discoiirses ao/rltc Buddha (Bosion: Wisdom Pub. 1995) 540. ...in shon: ~iriyarüin the agamas emphasizes the practical path of libention. .?iinyutü in the Seciarian Buddhism is a gradua1 inclination towards doctrinal discussion. ~in)orüin the Prajfiüpüranii~üSirras is pcrsonally realized profound meanings. Nigajüna's Sü~iyurü unifies concepts @rujCapii) and SNriyaiü in the PrajCüpüraniirü Siirra, with dependent CO-arising @rari(~a-sanii~rpüda)and the Middle Path (mudl'i.amüpra~ipar)in the agamas!' The notion that al1 dharmas are iüny in Mahiyina Buddhism does not deviate from the fundamenial principles of Early Buddhism-dependent CO-arisingand Middle Path. Thrre is no doubt that the motif of the Prajfiüpüruniirü Sirras is Sünyurü. but is there a difference in what Siiriyarü means among Early Buddhism. abhidharma Buddhism, and Mahayma Buddhism? 1s iinyarü thematically only for Mahiïyhists? In the Ekorrarüguniu. the Buddha raught that iiinyarü is the doctrine of al1 buddhas: If one wishes to pay respect IO the buddhas in the past and future. [Il say that one should observe the Dharma of S~ïnyatüin the present.83 In the following discussion. ii3yarü in the agamas and the nikayas will be examined. 5.1 ~ütr~atürelates to Meditational Practice The teaching of Sünyarü appears in diverse ways. In the ii4q~Iiiniüguniu.iiriyulü is explained as a means for meditation or a place for meditation. Ananda, if a bhiksu wishes to pnctice Siiriyarü more. this bhiky should not have a thought of a village. should not have a chought of a pcrson. He should repeatedly have a thought of nothing. In this way, he understands iiiriyaiü with regard IO a village. Stitiyurü with regard to a pcrson. But [for him] there is something not void: the thought of nothingness!' . Here Siinyufü is a means for meditation wherein therc is nothing existent but one thing or one thought in one's mind, i.e. the perception ofdiittyurü. The Lurger Siifru on Srinyu (A353Du kongjing) explains three kinds ofiiitymü as thrce mcthods of meditation: intemal irïnyurrï, extemal irin.vofü and intemal-extemal Sii~~yufü.*' ~iin~ulüas a method for concentration is well illustrated in the Muj~hiniarriküva: And what. friend, is the delivenuice of mind through voidncss? Here a bhikkhu. gonc to the forest or to the root of a tree or to an empty hut, rcflects thus: "ïhis is voidncss of a self or ofwhat belongs to a self?' This is called the deliverance of mind through voidn~ss.'~ In order to achicvc the deliverance of mind, one goes to a certain place, the reflcction on which gives rise IO the linowledge of the voidncss of perception. nius. iiin.vufÜ is stated in rcferencc to meditational pnctice. 5.2 ~17tf~atüis Coterminous with Anitya, Du!ik/ta and Aiiüftnati In the early siifrus, the teim irinyufri is always found with the words "'utiif)~u-impcmanence. du!tkhu- unsatisfactory. iNnyufu and unüfn~on-no-Self': A,%!. ?X!k2-.RfliY.. E!~ZQIW?~~?L!.'W?A!L!. t%ij+2W-.R!ji!L!. Also. Cü!asufitlara Surla, M. iii. 106.: So .~u>ifiutiiidur!riutifiü~urum pümasa~;fiüi.üli pujüii~ln.SuNiunudui!i safiïil#ura~!inurnarsu~ufifiüuiti pajü>wli.Allhi cei'rdaq "...anir).u, dri!rklru. ifinyu. urfüinton." he thinks thus. deliberatcs thus. delicatcly observes and discriminates thus.'" Hcre. during pnctice, one reflects upon dharmas as being u~~iryu.Srinyu Nol only material forms etc. are irin.vu. but even mental perceptions are ifinyu, bccausc thcy are only concepts: al1 attachments should be eliminated. Whatever esisis thercin of fom. feeling. perception, formations. and consciousness, he sees those statcs as impermanent. as dukkhu. as a disease. as a tumor. as a barb. as a calamity, as an amiction. as alien. as disintegnting. as s~r>i>iutÜ.as no-~elf.~~ By an arahant, friend Ko!!hita, these fivc aggregates should be pondcred with mcthod as being impermanent. dukkliu. ... srr,i,iurü and no-Self?' Thus. impermanence. dukkiio. sir,i,iarü and no-Self tngether penain to both material and immaterial subjccts. 5.3 ~üi~~atüand Nairütmya In the early srirrus, the statement that al1 dhmas are irinya is an explanation of no-Self. The Sup.vrrktügun~uStates: AH conditioned dhmasare Srinyu and unattainable. end of passion. beyona desirc. nin~ü!iu.Herein. how can thcre be "I''?'' The same kind of description can bc found in the Sumy~rkr "~99.153all:!%BOYd&!. XiUBaRX.V%. " ~26.565~4:RWE'3!lL&!. il2$lPL!Y~$lEia%Pl12 iTI:LI1*M. Also. T26.672b6: 67834. '' Also sec noie 8 1. M. i. 435-36: E dliamnic onrccaro dukkharo ragaro gan$aro sallaro agharo ühüdlioro poraio palokaro sunnoro anarraro samanupavsari. sa relu ùhanimchi cirra~y pa!iwïpcri So rchr dltammelii cir~oi!~ pa!ivdpcn.d amuldya dlidruyd riria,!r upava,!iharari Cf. Bhikkhu N~nsmoki:Bhikkhu Bodhi. Ahddlc Loigrh 540 " S. iii. 168. araliarü pikho dvuro koltira :me poncupüdünakkhandc aniccara dukkbaro.. sunfiaru anarroroyonaomnsasi karrabbu Ah. S. iii. 167: A. ii. 128. Y'T99.66c10: -tlJ;4iiY&/f~Wi!1~&Wi~iFFR.Jk'I'-Zf~il'.lk. Also.T99.66b-17. Hercin [the statemeni:] "no 1, no Self, no person. no creator, also no shapc. . counienance, teaching, nor instmctor," means ihat al1 dharmas arc Siirqm. So whai is this "Y? The "Y docs not have any essence." Hcrc, "no tcaching, no instntctof'just as NagGuna's siatement: "nu h~acirkasyacir kaScid dharmo birddl~enadeiiru!i"-"No Dharma whatcvcr was taughi by the Buddha anywhcrc about anything" (MMK, XXV, 24). All dhmas are Stinya. dius. therc is no-Self. The differencc betwccn Early Buddhism and Mahayana is that the former lays stress on no-Self while the latter on S~inyurirü. 5.1 ~ün~atüExplained as Dependent Co-arising Naga juna in his iC1adh.vamakukarikü explains Siinyarü as dcpendcnt co-arising @rari(i.asuntitrpudu).O" that in actuality is a restaternent of the expression found in early siirras. In the Ekorrarügania. Siirya~üis cxplained as dependent co-arising: The world-honored one said, "How is it callcd the Dharma of uliimaie Sünyarü? \Vhcn eyes anse. then it ariscs, do not vicw wherc it came from. When it is estinguished. then ii is estinguished. do not view whcrc it became extinguished. Provisional names of dharmas and dcpcndent co-wising dharmas arc cxcepiions. What is provisional names and depcndent co-ansing? Answer: This exists. diat exists. This arises, that ariscs. Avidyü (ignorance/darkncss) is die condition for formations. formations arc condition for consciousness... This is not. that is not. This is cxtinguished, that is extinguished. Avidyü is cxtinguishcd. thcn the formation is cxtinguishcd.. . 95 In addition to the Iwo stilras titled su>iRaiü/itinyarü in the Pali ~~aj~iliiniorii1ü7~vuand Chinesc Madltyaniügania as mentioncd bef0rc.9~thcre are two other siiiras found only in the. Su~ny~rkrügunra:The Sriiru on ~or~~nrür~/~u-~iinyurü( Z - Bq22 Di yi yi kong and The Sürru on Greol Srinyu~fiDlrurmu (J\2&#Du kong/a jing)?' These two siirras are very shon and explain iiinyarü as dependent co-arising. The former is contextually the same as the Ekorrarüguma mcntioncd above. The latter explains jrinyurri in tems of dependent co-arising and the Middle Path freed from the tugoextreme viewvs: the view that body is different from Self and the vicw that body is identical with ~elf.~ 5.5 ~ünptüand the Three Sainüdlris In the Pruj1iüpüruniirüS~rra.v.pruj~~üpürumirü is also explaincd in the contcxt of the pncticc of the three sunrüdltis. The Buddha says, "To dwell in the sunrüdlti means to be in conformity with irinyuiü. signlcss (Üni»nirra). desireless (upru!tiltiru). All senticnt beings arc attached to jrinyurü. attached to sign and desire. A bodhisattva-mahisattva settles down sentient beings with the Dharma of ii?nyurü. signless and dcsireless. and pnctices projtïüpüruniirü.'OO In the Chinese ~i~l~ügumus'~'and Prajtïüpürun~ir~ ~iirras.'~' the thrce sumÜdI~is rcfcr IO jri~iyurü,signless and non-action (IYioio. .a{$).This non-action is used in the same sense as desireless above. Thc ~~ful~üpraj,fipürutni~üSiïiru states, "Non-action is called 'no desire acting among al1 dhamias.""03 In the Ekorrurügunru,threesonrüdliis are mentioned but the same meaning as cxplained in the Projtïüpüruniirü Siirrus: '' T99.92~. '' T99. 84c. W~99.8~~9:-ztu7f~~%itr:(.rfi:nlttiiwij. kmtw>t-.:r~%xiv~i~. ?~;' Thcsc thrcc soniüdhis are referred to as somüdhi büsed on Srinyorü. on being signlcss and on being desireless. In the Pali nikayas: "Moreover. three other sar~tüdl~is:concentration on strfifiorü. concentration on the signless. concentration on dcsire~ess."~~ Funhermore. in the Santvt~iranikriw(Sttifiurusant~dI~i.~~~rra~~t). these threc kinds of sontüdltis are explaincd as the path to ernancipation: And what. oh bhikkhus. is the path that goes Io the uncornpoundcd? Concentration on sirfifiorü, signless 4desireless. This. oh bhikkhus. is called "the path that gocs IO the unc~rn~ounded."'~~ And. Oh bhikkhus. for a full insight into lust three condiiions must bc culiivatcd. Which three? Oh bhikkhus. for a full insight into lus1 si~fifiarüsumüdlti. signless somüdhi. desireless samüdlti mus1 be cu~tivated.'~~ In the nikayas and agamas, threesamüditis leading to ninpüga are culiivatcd and this cultivation is considercd to be equal to the practice of projriripüranti~ri in the ,lu Chincse texi has ?J,! but should be rend 411. SccT125. p. 630 note 18. Sec nlso. 726.792~123.Also. TI, 57613: TI. 59c5:T26.519b24. 'O' mnmwTES. 630~:rn11~1u.n-tixttfi.. a.is. ZW~L.'ir~ .. ~mii~4ur.. WB S. EZPJ~~ALrnirrrr;.. w-t,i;m. wwa. naaars.. a-zwaaR fi!:%. IJi,;Yl.f%!J!X. t?-t)J;Xit. LX!J!*. .Il.+q)C. ICX1%d>WX!i.-%. Z(.7%AlWiL nk. rfi:nSllnBlil;. G?-tllxiz. !%4;m;K. n:w%%>~~lB. '" 0.iii. 219: Apan, 'pi tayo samddhr: sun'iatosamddhi anrmim samddhz appa!irhr~osaniddhi. Io' S. iv. 360: karamo ca hhikkbave asmlharagdmr maggo: siitKaro samddhi aniniiiio sanidiilii appa!ribirasamddhr. Aya~!i vuccari hhikkbavc ura~ikltatagdnirmugga.Also. S. iv. 361. 'O' A. i. 299: Rdgassa hhikkhair abhiEEnya imc tayo dliammd bhdtrrubhd. h'arnnc iayo: Suifiaio somddhi. animino samddlii. appu!irhira suntddlir. rdgassa hhilkhaw uhhiriinya :me ra?o dhummd bhJwrahbd. 5.6 ~üt~~atüExplained in Ekonarügama and in the Praj~iüpürarnitü Sütras: Their Doctrinal Identity In the Prujfiüpüruniirü Siïrrus, prujfid and Siïnyurri are ofien explained in terms of neither existence nor non-existence. There is one passage in the Chinese Ekorrarügunia which has a similar idea as that in the Praj~~üpüranlirüSürras. Matcrial form is impcrmanent; what is imperm~ntis dir!tkliu. what is dir!iklio is \vithout Self, What is without Self is s'ün)a. Siïn.i'urü is neither existence nor non-existence. and also is without a Self. Such is that to which the wise is a~akened.'~ II may be noticed that in this passagc. the explanation of iiïnyutü is somewhat differcnt in that hcre it includes an esplanation on no-Selt thus. gencnlly. Early Buddhism emphasizes the aspect of no-Self. In the projfiüpüruniirü literature. prajNü is explained in terms ofSiinyurd and of"thc tme chriracteristic of dharmas" (dliurnia~ü)~~~.This idea can be found also in the Ekorrarügamu: If this bhiwu hears this teaching of iii~~yurüand understands that there is no existent [things]. then he gains the understanding of al1 dharma and knows them as j~st-as-the~-arc."~ 'WT125.67Uc27: CXR17;. RZti);BIIS?!. EXEIUt. FiaiULXIII232. 321;'Ilti.1I.11~4i. 4; Vil&!. bnSWXBitRi. "'The fini perron who providcd hc icrm "XitU4ll :/tu fa shr xiang" is KurtLlnjlva in his Chinese innslalions of PrajEdpdranrlid Süirur. the Suddl~urniu-puplurikurüiru and ihc ~liilu,rrudli~u,ri~1kukürt1ü. Hajimc Nakamum husysiemalically studicd ihis term. According 10 hirn. ihcrc are six Sanskrit icrms which Kum5njlva uanslaicd into "%?A ll< 411": dharmuiü. san*a-dliarma-IUIII~IÜ,blrüru. dharn~a-svabliüva prukrri. rarrvasya labunu. Sec nie Cltinr~rBuddl~~.~r Eitqrlo~pdiu cd. hnJifu (Tainan: The Chincsc Buddhisi Encyclopcdia Litcniurc Foundation. 1994) 4998a-b. Also sec. Kino Kazuyoshi (&?!PI -3). ,k &O :' O b 5.7 ~iïr~tüin the SarvSstividin Abhidharma In the abhidharma litenture. certain doctrinal issues are expandcd while some othcr issues are strcssed less, such as the notion of Siiryarü. In Early Buddhism, Siinyurü is discussed in the contcxt of the method of pnciicc and the idra that al1 dharmas are Srinyu which appears in early siifras is not so visiblc in the abhidhma. ~iinyufriis explaincd in relation to dir!ikliu. one of the Four Noble Tmths: The highest tmth @aro~~iürrliu-sufyu)in the contcxi of the tmth of unsaiisfactoriness (dir!ikliu-saga) purports IO unsatisfactorincss (dr!ik/tu). impcrmanrncc (uniryu). Stitiyuiü. and non-sclf (unürnian).'" iiyi nien :rd Iiin). Sünyarü is explaincd as one of the four characteristics of dii!ik/tu-~nr~~'~ and, jus1 as in the early siirrus. as a method for pnctice and a process of meditaiion: All conditioning forces (sa~pkura)are impermanent. Conditioning forces with outtlow (süsravu) are unsaiisfactory (dtr!ikliu). All dharma are siinvu and without a Self. Having pondered thus. one ihen diligently observes [rhem].".'- What is new in SarvastivPdin abhidharma is that the functions of unürntun and SiinyarG are disiinguished. Anürrnun is an antidote IO the view that the pirdyrrlu or Ürniun exists. whilc jii~ijarüis antidote io the view of the attachment to the Self (U/fi!JL MW srio ~iinyutü-suniüd/tiis established as an antidote, i.e. no-Self is an antidote to the view of Self (a42 wo jion, Üt»tu~i/pudgulu-d3i);the chnncicristic of iii~t)utirriis an 35 antidote to the vicw of what penains to the Self."' In Buddhavaman's translation of Vibhasi. tcn kinds of Sünyurü are mentioncd as antidotc to thc vicw of the attachment to the Self(surkriyud~:rrilit. the view on real body): Again, [for] sutk Here. the ten kinds ofSti11yurü arc mentioncd. In carly srirrus. there are mentioncd only thrce kinds of Sri~~rü."~ In the early sotras three saniÜd/ris are explained. The three santÜd/iis arc mentioned once in the JPS;"' while in its cornmentary. the Vibhisi. the three .runtüd/~isbased on the PrajfiaptiSüstru (&?&fi Shi shc litn Tl 538) are explaincd as a threcfold sontüd~i(-3 - xI%ît!i sun ihong sun nto di). and Srinyutri-Sririyutü sumüdhi is explained as a technical rneditati~n."~The threefold sunddhi is frequently explained elsc wh~rc.'~~ 5.8 SrrAtiafÜ in Theraviidin Abhidamma According to W. S. Karunaratne. Thenvida abhidhamrna discusscs thrcc aspects wiih regard to sirfiriatri: 1) stti,iurü as an cquivalent for the dcpcndent co-arising. 7) "'~hcVibhfqZ. TI545. 177nll: CISC.l$&!i%lY-;S2Bré:;Tl~l-ll(ff4llft~li~R~L. Y?f4llftW&h? kt. Also. T1545.45b4: 538b5. TI546 35s. ""1545. 37al2: IYiXAIYIIH. E+lhY5fiFj%i. fiL%SI(CiiQ.-1-ffi'ï'fi: ;,P1142. Yb*. 14 !+? In thc Dhonimapada (verse 92193). sicrïfiorü is equaed to riniokklia, which is anothcr temi for nibbüna: "Sufifiaro uniniifru ca. viniokkho ycsu~rigocaru"-"Wliosc goal is emancipation. Le.. sirifiorü and the unconditioncd." In th- ,lbl;LiIiünrniairlia Suri~aha. srrfifia~üis designated as one of the thrce characteristics of nibhüria: A'ihbüno is onefold according Io its intrinsic nature. According to the way (it is expcricnced) it is twofold namely, the element of riibbüna with the substrats remaining and the element of nibbüna without the substnta remaining. II is thrccfold according to its diffcrent aspects namely. void, signless. and longing-free."' With regard IO tmths and sirfifiatri Buddhaghosa States: Firstly as to void (sirfifia): In the ultimate sense al1 the tmths should bc understood as void becausc of the absence of (i) cxperienccr. (ii) doer. (iii) one who is cxtinguishcd. and (iv) goer. Hence this is said, "For therc is sufiring. but no one who sufin. There is action but no dom. Thcre is extinction but no one extinguishes. Therc is path but no goer.""' "' W. S. Kaninanine. Duddhisnt: Ifs Relrgio~iundPhilasplty(Singaporc: The Buddhisl Rcscarch Society, 1988) 45. ':: Ahlridltrimmurrlro Sungahu. by Bhadanw Anuniddhkariya. imns. Banda MahS Thcn. A ~lunuola/ Ahhrdliumma (1956: 1968: 1975: Kuala Lumpur: Buddhisi Missionary Sociciy. 1979) 315. The Pa11 tcxi rcadr (p. 3 12): Tud'cruy suhlWroro ckm*rdliompl: su-upùdrsrsa-nibhunudIWruunup~ïdisesu-~rrhh Thcravàda abhidhamma. dhammas are funher analyzed into 82 elements. Ewything is analyzed in terms oîdhammas, which shows that thcre is no cntity as such. However. the dhammas merely reflect a means Io understand the nature of human conditions or the nature of reality. Evcrything is sirfifiu. thereforc nothing is absolutc and this mcans that nothing has independent existence. This is why Buddhaghosa states that al1 tmths (succüni) are sirfifia. 6. Conclusion In conclusion. in the early agamas and nikayas. prajriü is principally esplaincd as praxis. hjtiü is also explaincd as an outcome or attainment through praxis. In order to attain prujfiü. a practitioner should undersiand the Four Noble Tmths and realizc that changelimpermanence chancterizes al1 phenornena. Also. the practitioner should pnctice Silu. sun~üdiii.and al1 wholesome things. In other words. prajnü is the propcr understanding of the Buddha Dharma and the practice of it. In Early Buddhism. il is stressed that prajtiü is the practicing of Sila and sanrüdlii and the understanding of the Four Noble Tmihs. The absence of delusion. the investigaiion of the doctrine, and propcr views summarize the general view on pa~iNIiwithin the Thenvida. In the agamas, the six püraniirüs are explained in relation to the Four Principles of Dharma. In the nikayas. ten püramirüs are explained. In either case, thosc pürarnirüs are explained in terms of Gautama Buddha's former Me. ~titiyutüis the salient feature of Buddhism. Early Buddhism emphasizes no-Self on the basis of Siinyu dharmas. Abhidharma focuses mainly on dharmas and does not stress the,notion ofStior.arü.In the early sottas and in the abhidhama, SNryarü is û mcans for meditation and one should refleci on things as bcing unityu, du!iklto, Siinyuri and u~~üma~r.What is ncw in Sarviistiviïdin abhidhama is that the functions of asürnriir~and ir?.,orÜ arc distinguishcd. In Mahaynna. Siiryarü is a dominant theme. That al1 dhûmas arc Siinyu does not deviatc from Early Buddhism: but the difircncc bctween Early Buddhism and Mahiyiina is that the fomcr lays stress on no-Self whilc the laiter lays strcss on Siïnyalü. . Chapter 3: The Definition and Function of Prajtiü PrajZ in the Sarv%tivada tradition. unlike that in early Buddhism. is not conlincd IO the suprerne spiritual insight obtained in pcrfect enlightenment (san~kanihodhi).It is not confincd to just the wholesome or pure mental statc either. Even wrong views arc of the nature (svabliüi~u)of prajtiü. In this chapter. we shall discuss the definitions and functions of prajtiü in the Sarvastivada. I. Descriptive Defiritions of Prajtiü Skandhila. who by tradition is said IO be the teacher of Sanghabhadra. in his Abhidharmüvaiüra (Tl 554) gives the SanGstivida description of prajriü as followvs: Prajtiü is the discernment (prai~icuyu) of dhmas. It is thc cxamination (irpulu~a!ra).as the case may be. of the following eight kinds of dharma: inclusion or subsumption (sut~igralia). conjunction (sapprayogu). cndow\ment (sonron~~ügantu). causes (lierit). conditions (prat.vaya). fruitions (phalri). specific-characteristic (si~alak+~!ia). and common-characterisiic (sünrü~ryala~qia)."' This description succinctly gives us both a definition as well as a description of the nature of prajtiü. The definition of prujtiü as being the disccrnment or esamination of dhamas is in fact a standard one. found in al1 Srirvastivada texts in general."' The 111 Tl554.982az2-24: O3ïBiLfiLiihiilT. alIE~?HL4iiEr&l:dPlPJI!.tilllJk41l)\ifiit~~. &IF Tfi $2 tK U 1A 3jt . Sce also. Dhammajoii. K. L. Enrrance Qiro rhc Suprcmc Dacrrine tSkandiiilai Ahhi~lliurmdratdra)(Colombo: Posignduatc Insiituie of Pali 8: Buddhisi Siudies. Universiiy of Kclaniya. 1988) 93. "' Abhidi~arm dlti!~prujrin d/iurmusu~~tgru/~üd~~~ipo/u~o~tasv~is projriü which has. as ils essential nature. the examination of the subsurnption of dharmas etc. Similarly, the AKB States: ntari!~ prujNü dl,urntoprui~icuyu!t-niuli!i (anothcr synonym ofprojri Likewise, in the Vibhag. projfi is consistently defined in various places in a similar manner. Thus, "the discernment of dharmas is nonc other than projfiü."128Again: .4rc al1 j,irinu pruj~ki?Answcr: All inàna are prujriü: for whatever that can ascenain is the discemment of dharmas."' Saiighabhadra also offers sirnilar definitions or descriptions: " ... because there is only one nature which has the function of being aware. Being aware is [the function] of ' .- a.130 prujnu.- Elsewhere. he defines prujrid as "that which discriminates the characteristics of being truc. false. etc. with regard IO an object of perception (ülambonu)"13' Funher. hc explains: The characteristic and nature of al1 dharmas arc very profound. Prujriü is strong and bright. and can illuminate thoroughly [the chancteristic of al1 dharmas]. Thus, it is called the most excellent. Or. projriü surpasses al1 dharmas: thus. it is callcd the most excellent. "Excellent" has the mcaning of "a surpassing." "Surpzssing" in the worldly convcniion is called "excelleni." Herein, the mcaning is: II is only prajtiü. which can extcnsively illuminate what is to be known."' In brief, these descriptive definitions make it clear that the abhidhamikas have a very articulate notion ofprajtïü: II is that mental faculty which discriminates. or discerns or examines the object in a perccptual process. It is in fact the sine quu non for out mind to be able to have such funciions at all. In addition. it should be noted that there are places when the San-mivadinsemphasize prajnri in the scnse of a buddha's perfect insight into the truc nature of Reality. In such a context. Xuan Zang seems to prefer to translitenle raiher than tnnslate pruj17ü. as the preceding quotation from the Ny shows. 2. The Fr~nctiorrsof Prajtlü 2.1 Prajtlü as One of the Ten Universal Mental Concomitants (malrüblrrïmika caitta) All the above descriptive delinitions also serve to indicatc the functions of proj~ili. The fact of the indispensability of prujrïü in any mental act of perceiving is doctrinally espressed in making praj~iüone of the ten universal mental concomitants (niahühl~iimiko cuirro) in the SarvLtivada abhidharma. In the Vaibhvika theory of mental functioning. thought (cittu) cannot arise by itself. Whcnever it does mise-whether as a wholesome (kirSula). unwholesome (akirsulu). or neutnl (uiyükrra) mental state-it necessarily mises concomitantly with ten mental factors called maltÜbliii»riku cuitro."' In other words, whenever there is a mind there is always the function of knowledge. The perceptual process is considered to be always associaicd with pruj170 that is a cuirru, because every instance of knowing functions regardless of whether it is strong or wcak. wholesome or unwholesome. with or without outflow. Thesc ten universal mental concomitants arc: feeling (vedunü). concept (su~nitïü).volition (caonu). contact (spuriu). prcdilection (clturidu), mental application (nionmküra). resolve (udhirnok;~). mindfulness (snifli). concentntion (surnüdlri). and understanding (prujriü)."' In the Vaibhi~ikaconception. each of these is a real entity (draiya) because each uniquely contributes as a real force to the process of perception. The role ofprajriii. as mentioncd abovc, is to make possible the aspect of understanding. This understanding. of course. may be a clear or feeble, right or wrong. pure or impure. etc. 2.2 Prajiiü as the Means for Liberation From the point of view of the abhidharma. prajnü is the only means for liberation. This is consistent with Sarvastivadin vicwpoint ihat abhidhma represents the ultimate teaching of the Buddha. Howevcr, as we will show below, for the abhidharmikas, abhidhma in the highest sense isprujrki free of outflo\v. The salvational significancc of the abhidharma is made clear as follows: Now. for what purpose is the esposition of the abhidhma. and by whom this was Iirst discoursed? ... Apan from the discernment of dharmas. there is no - "' Inn vcrse of AKB. il lisis maii!: instead ofprajdd. howevcr AKB uses the temi prqEA io cxplain maii!~ thai is prajrid and discemineni of dharma. AKB. p. 54: Ikdanil crtand sayjEd cchanda!~sporjo n#aci!r snrp!~/ n~anaslAm'd~irmak.aica samddhi!~ sanrtcnpri. ...man!: prajrkï dhannripraiicaya!:. In Xuan hng's 1r;inslation. we sce only ihc ierm hui ?& sec Tl558. 19a. In this passage. Panmanha nJnslatcd niatr!i as hur 8.buionly tnnsliicnird prajEd as &fi. T1559. 178b9-14. "' AKB. p. 2-3. 43 excellent means for the appcasemcnt of defilements. And it is on account of the defilements that the world wandcrs in the ocean of existence. For that rcason. so thry said. this [abhidhma] has been spoken by the Teacher. The importance ofpruj~iüis further stated explicitly in the prose as follows: Nu lii vinü uhhidhurmupudeScnu Si$yu!i iukru dlrurniün prai'icericf!i-without the expositions in the abhidhmî. a pupil is unable IO discern the dharma."' This disceming of the dharma obviously is none othcr than the San9astivZda definition of prujfiü. We mas contmt this viewvpoint with that of the Sautr.?ntika, expresscd by the author of the ~IrrhuidniScu~~u-siilru-nibu~idliana:"nu hi iSinü scï~ropudeienuiisvu!c iukto dIrurn~ut!i prut~icerirnc-Wi~hout the expositions in the sùtm. the pupil is unable Io discern the dharma.'" In abhidhma. the rem pruj~iri-i.in,irkrurefcrs to a practitioner who is libentcd through prujfiü, by "coursing in accordancc with Dhama"(clliurt~iÜ~ii~süri~i)-thatis. through the undcistanding of the Buddha's Doctrines. In contmt to this the tcrm Sruddliü-vimrckru refers IO one who is libcntcd through faith, by "coursing in accordancc with faith" (Sruddl~ütircsürin).However. this does not mean that one cm completely rely on faith as a means for liberation. Rather. it means only that there are certain pnctitioncrs on account of whose tempenmcnt. faith is an easy point of entry-as it were-in10 the spiritual path. Ultimately. they too must dcveloppruj~iüto achicve final libcration. Indecd. prujtiü as the indispensable means for attaining the Buddhist goal is frequently stressed in the Vibhwn, invoking the aurhority of the sntra. Thus, it quotes a verse of the Buddha as "" AKB. p. 3 "'Arrhuw~~Pculu und the Commeniury fN~bonrfhunu).Ed. Samtsti. N. H. (I1atna: K. P. Jayaswal Kcscarch Instiiutc. 1971) 1404 1. As it has bccn said in thc sotn. Whcn onc obscrvcs by mcans ofprujfiü, That al1 dharmas are without the Self: At that theone loathes unsatisfactorincss (dir!iklia) -This is the path of purification.'3W Again. il says: Wiih regard IO thc Four Noblc Tmths. One constantly examines with prujfiü: One [thcrcby] knows unsatisfactorincss (dii!tklia). Thc arising of unsatisfactorincss (susirrduy~). The complctc transccndcncc of unsatisfactorincss (nirodhu). And the cight-limb Noblc Path (rnürgu) That lcads to security (kpmu) which is nirvü!iuU9 2.3 Prajriü as Abhidharma In thc VibhaSa, numcrous cxplanations arc givcn as IO why abhidharma is so callcd. Among thcm. scvcral concur that abhidharma is the direct disccrnmcnt or rcalization of dharmns. Onc of Vasumitn's cxplanations is that "abhidharma is so-callcd bccause it can dircctly rcalizc (~bhi-sum-'li)"'~the Dharma of the Four Noblc ~ruths."'~'Actually. al1 abhidharma masters cxplain that abhidharma is so called bccausc it can disccrn thc comprehcns~onl.The rooi 1 sipnifics "IO undorstand " AKB. p. 328. T15.58. 114a19-20 "' TI545.4d8-29: i!l%E;JIE1Wlbli'9B:%ltdk. chalacteristics ~fdhamas.~"This discernmcnt ofdharma is consistcntly giwn as onc of the definitions for prujfiü. The Vibha.;a cxplains that the purposc of writing the commentary is to break the darkness of ignorance and devclop the light of wisdom."' Prujfiü has various meanings. but thc Vibhwa refers to the positive aspects ofpruj,io as abhidharma: Vencrable Parsva says: This is ultimate prujriü; this is pruj~iilias judgmcnt; this is prajrii in the highcst sensc; this is infallible prujriü: thus. it is called abhidharma.IJ4 The MahTSasakas says: Bccause of bcing able Io illuminarc dharmas. prajiü is callcd abhidharma. as the sutra says: "Among al1 illuminations. 1 claim that the illumination of prcüis the highcs~.''" In the abhidharma, the discussion on the Path bascd on abl~iprujfiü(highcrprujfiü) is called abhidha~ma.'~~ The AKB States explicitly that abhidhma in the highcsi/real sense is nonc other than the pure pruj,i Ku 'yaniahhidl~urnronÜ»iu/ projCü 'riolü süniicurü 'hl~idl~arr~ia!~/ (1-21) rarru prujriü dliarntupraaicayu / a~nolctiorrüsrui~ü / ... eFu tüvut pürun~ürrltiko 'bliidliurn~a!~/ (What is this so called abhidharma? The pure prajriu togctlicr with ils rciinue is abhidhanna. Therein, "praifiü" is the disccinmcnt of dhmas. "Pure" means without outfl~w.'~'... This, firstly. is abhidharma in the highcst sense.)14' II musi. howcver. bc noied that the dliarniuprui~icayu(discernmcnt of dharma) is not IO be understood as an intellectual cxercisc. It is the direct. intuitive comprchcnsion ofthe truc characteristics of dhmas. Thus the prcfix "abhi' (in uhlii-dhurrrru), is explaincd as "facing dir~ctly."'~~Sanghabhadra's explanation of this brings out the significance more '4'~~5~5.4b16-17:ftft-RUIW. ,EfiL!X!il;hi. 8AlEitlff. !IllX&!~. -t~~lWk;WPRn,ldt~Lfi-. "" TI545. Icl6: IZJ RitB'l'fKtCII,G;AZI;:AWieW. For dcmil discussion. sce TI545. Ic5-16. "'Sce ln: 182. 0s. AKB. p.> cf.. T1558. lbl-5. '" Lac. cir. rad mw!~parani~rrhadliurniat!t1~<1 nrnvipoq dhurrnalo~~u~~ivd pray uhhtmukha dhurmu Why is it that only the prujnü free of outflow is said to be abhidharma? Because having dircctly realizcd/intuited (ublii-sanr-di) the characteristics of dharmas. one will no more be dcluded ... The rctinue (unitcuru) comprises al1 that co-exist (unil-dcur) with praj17ü-nipa caittcs such as. vedorrü. sa~!#iÜ, etc: [i~iproyirkta-so!,~~k The Vaibhzsikas favor the cxplanation that prajIü frcc ofoutflow is called proj~iü.'51 Their opponents argue: Question: If abhidharma has only the faculty of prujlïü free of outflow as ils self-naturc. then why is this SLtra also namcd abhidhma? Answcr: [il is] the instruments for abhidhma. so it also is namcd abhidhma. Just as, eves.where in the sotras. panicular names are given corresponding IO particular instruments. It is the same here: II is like giving the namc "happiness" to that which is an instrument for happiness.'s2 The AKB comments: "Pruj~ïü" is the discemment of dharmas. "Pure" means Io be free of outflow (a~iüsrova).That which accompanies pure prajG (sünucara) is called retinuc. Thus. in summary, the five skundlras free of outflow are callcd abhidharma (facing dharma). This constitutes the absolutc abhidharma O>uranrÜrtliika 'bhidIiurnra!i). If one considers abhidharma from the worldly or conventional standpoint. il comprises those pruj>iü and SLtras through which this [abhidharma in the highest sense] is obiained. "[Those] prajEÜ" refer to prujriü with outflow. derived from cultivation. from reflection and from listening. as well as prujIü derived from binh. the retinue. "[Those] s%tra" refer to those teachings which can gcnerate proj~ïüfree of outflow. As these praj17ü and sLtn serve as the nounshment of that [pure praj~ili],they also in. Ahh~dharnio z,*. "' T1545.3a07-8: I%'l'füJ ?i IFiXL~liEiLlfl. 4,f%UBiR.Also. Ti545.2~23-24:IBlWhbf%f. nî'k 47 corne IO be called abhidhma."'s3 The AKB gcncrally discusses the term prujdü in the context of the meaning of abhidharma. Thc rem abhidharma can bc understood from two perspectives: 1. from the view point of the Iiighest sense. abhidharma reprcsents the highcst prujriii. and 7. from the view point of conventional sense. abhidharma refers IO doctrinal texts thnt represent prujdü as media for transmitting thc tcaching ofthc Buddha. Ultimatcly, "pure prujrio" is called abhidhama-face-IO-face with dhma.lS" 2.4 PrajfiE in the Thirty-seven Factors of Awakening (bodltipaksya dlrarmü!i) Prujriü is counted as one of the three praxes: Sih. suniüdlii and prujdü of carly Buddhist texis. The state in which prujfiü is utilized frccly is called hodlti or ninxï!ru. Therefore. thisprujfiü is always included in the topics on the practice of Buddhism. If we discuss this in the context of the thiny-seven Factors of A\vakcning.prujdü is designated differently according IO ils functions. In the AKB and Ny, prujdü is designaied as these lems in the thiriy-seven Factors of Awakcning: the four Abodes of Mindfulncss (sn'rry-~rpasrhürtürti),'" prujr,iri-indri yu!^ in the fivc Spiritual Faculties (indriyÜ!li). prq'tü-hulu!i in the five mental powers (balürii). dliurmupruvicuyu (discernment of dharma) in the seven Factors of A\vakening (hodliy-u~igüni).sutnyug-drgi in the Eight Noblc Paths (üryü@iguniürga!i) are of the nature of pruj~7ü."6 In the various occasions. the Vibhqa claims thatprujriri is the four Abodes ofMindfulness. since i>rujNü] takes the prujtü of the four Abodes of Mindfulness as its nature."' It is also said the four Abodes of Mindfulness are subsumcd by prujnü-indri yu!^. prujtü-hulu!i. dl~urmuproi~icuyuhodliy~~~igu~~,and sumyugdrgi. '" Further. it is also said The definition on these four Abodcs of Mindfulness given in thc Vibhea also indicatcs that thesc terms are very closely relatcd or that thcy are synonymous: The four Abodes of Mindfulness are: 1) contemplation of body, 2) contemplation of feeling. 3) contemplation of mind. and 4) contemplation of dharma. Howevcr. these Abodes of Mindfulness collectively are said to be one. viz.. the self nsture ofprujtü. one of the cuittus, or praj,io-indri yu!^ in the [five] Spirituol Faculties (iridril.ü!~i). prajtiü-halu!i in the [five] mental powen (hulüni). darniuprui~icuyuin the [sevcn] Factors of Awakenin (hodl?y-u!tgÜiii). suniyug-dr+ in the [Eight] Noblc Paths (üryü:~!ütigu»iürga!~). RI The AKB quotes the Vaibhasika ~Masters: Why is the name of Abode of Mindfulness established in pruj~iü?The Vaibh.ika mastcrs said thus: because the strength of mindfulness maintains and makes pruj~iu 49 dwell. Actually. it is prajiïü tliat makes the mindfulness dwell on the objects.16' Prajnu-indri yu!^ is the foremost among the fivc indr&di~i.'~'and functions to givc risc to the wholesome dhmas: while prujfiü-bola!~funciions to cmsh unwholesome Dhurn~upruvicuyuis prujiïü. as we discusscd abovc. Howcvcr. d/~urmupruvicuyuin the sevcn Factors of Awakening refers IO prujiiü free of outflow. since ihese seven Factors of Awakening are of the nature free of outflo~.'~~ In thc Noble Eightfold Path. "propcr view is prajfiüd"'66thc VibhQa explains: "What is Proper Vicw? This is: oh noble disciples. with regard 10 the unsa!isfactorincss (du!ik/to). its cause. its cessation and thc Path. conicmplate on thc unsatisfactoriness (dir!~k/~u).its cause. its cessation and the Path. and give rise to the discernmcnt of dharma. .."'67 2.5 PrajtZi related to the Four Noble Truths In Early Buddhism. one of the dcfinitions attributcd to prajiiü is thai through which one tmly observes the Four Noble Tmths.'" Early Sarv&tivBda abhidharma also followed this e~~lanation.'~~The Vibh3$i commcnts that one docs no1 undcrstand the Four Noble Tmths. because one's projnü is covered by avidyü (ignonnceldarkncss): Question: [If] prujtïü is possessed completely by al1 minds. [thcn] what is the reason for asscning here that [one who has] "an unique ignorance" can not discern the [Four Noble] Truths? Answcr: Becausc a prujriü that has bcen obscured by an ui~i&i. is neithcr clcar nor pure; it is also unable to discern the Four Noble ~ruths.'~~ Here. prajriü is discusscd as somcthing always dwelling in one's mind. This is the same as saying that it is one of the ntultühh~iniiku.In this context. it may make sense for Undenvood, who has studied pu,iZü from Pali source, to comment that prujriü is not attained by rcaching out and adding to one's self something that one did not have beforc. Rather. it is revealed as the depth of being by clraring away the dross which normally obscures it.I7' In Mahayana, pruj~>iripürumitüis the last among the sis pürun~itüs. In the ten pürumitüs. j,i IO awakcning. However, in Sarv%tivBda, the understanding of an ordinary person is also pruj~iü.which includcs that of both \vholesome and unwholesomc dharmas. For exarnplc. the JPS cxplains false knowledgr (niitl~yüjtiü~ia)as the defilcd pruj,iu associatrd with the six consciousness~s.~~'The Vibh+a funher comments: Herein. the deliled prujtiü associated with the five consciousnesses are prujZü associated with cnving and hatred. The defiled prujtki associated with mental consciousncss are the five views and uvihtü that are not sharrd with cnving. hatred. conceit and hesitation ...17" ThoscprujZü in the five consciousncsses associated with craving and hatred and the five wrong views in the domain of mental consciousness arc defilcd prujfiü. Skandhila also explains detiled prujdü as fivc wrong ~iews.'~~The AKB too implies that defiled prujdü includes the wrong vie~s."~ Most of the above explanations ofprujdü within the Sarvastivada cm also be round in Pnli Buddhism; howcver, it is limited 10 those wholesome with outflow (süsraia). and those wholesome free of outflow (unüsravu). Wrong vicws arc not to be included in padriü. In Pali Buddhism, wrong view is established as kilcsu cerusika to be scparatcd from puddü.'77 3. Conclusion The sbhidharmikas have a vcry aniculate notion ofprujriü: 11 is that mental faculty which discriminates. or discerns or esamines the object in a perceptual process. The definition ofprajïiü as being the discernment or esamination of dharmas is a standard one for SarvÿstivHda in genenl. Pruj~iüis always included in the topic on the pnctice of Buddhism. and it is very closely comected with prujd&Ltdriya!i. prajfiü-bu la!^. dliarniapruvicayu. and suniyug-drgi in the thirty-seven Factors of Awakening. Dliurniapravicuyu is prujtiu. but dliurn~upraidcuya-hodIiyu~igu!trefers to prujdü frec of outiiow. Abhidharma as pruj17ü has two aspects: 1. abhidharma as the pure prujdü. 2. abhidharma comprising the impure pruj~>i which contain the Buddhist teaching. al1 capable of leading to the attainment of pure "' T1554.983a15-28. For Englirh Tnnslation. sce Dhammajoii. Enrrance 117-18 ':6~~558.51~23-24:;i);l('i4LIbh~B.T11*tOLUII-LR91. I77 Mizuno. 68. prqa/>iÜ.Pr'tiü as one of the ten universal dharmas. has both positive and negative meanings. thus it includrs ifiütia. &üttii. d+i. The notion ofdefilcd prujtiü can also be found in Pali Buddhism. However. in Pali Buddhisrn, the wrong vicw is established 10 be separated frorn pa>i>iüas kilesu cerosika. Chapter 4: The Scope and Nature of Prajr?ü 1. Prajriü in the JPS and Viblrü~ü In the carlier chapters. wc saw that in Early Buddhism the term pruj,io generally was applied to the Perfcct Insight of the Buddha. In abhidharma. prujrïü hns a much wider scope in mcaning and refers to any type of understanding-wrong. right. clear, feeble. pure. defiled etc; hence. the abhidharmikas understood prq'tiü in various ways and as having many rncanings among which are jiïüriu (knowledgc). dqi (view). @riri (reccptivity), vi&Ü(wisdom). and so on. However. dcspite the fact that prujrX appears in various forms and modalities bearing different names, the consistent notion of it being the faculty of understanding is maintaincd throughout. The Sarv&tivldin conception of both phcnornenal existence and the domain of the unconditioncd (usaiyk-) is a pluralistic one in each of the cases. There arc innumenblc real entities-dharmas-in either dornain. The types uniqucly characterizcd arc designated by diffcrent names. oftcn on account of the fact that the Buddha himself spoke of the same thing or phenomenon in diffcreni terms. Thus. for the faculty of prujtïü. various synonymous terms are found in the sotn: üloku, pruhhü, prujcü-indriyu, pruj~iü-hala.dharma-pruvicuyu, elc. The Vibhasa declarcs: "All dharmas arc subsumed under si,uhliü~a:this is subsumption (sur!igruliu) in respect ~f~ururiiür~hu.""~Su»t.qruliu is an irnponant methodological device. used in conjunction with that of si~uhhü~olsi~alu~~.in arriving at a finiil list of unique dhmas. This analysis may be bctween one single dharma and nnother dharma. or between one dharma and sevenl other dhqnas. or bctwcen one category of dharmas and another category. or between one category and several other categories. Through the process of sqigraha. the abhidhamika can reduce üloku and the test to one unique dharma. prWCü. In the technical teminology of Sarv%tvldins, pr&>iu is the svuhlrüva of al1 thesc lems. 1.1 Dr& Jtïüna and Prajtïci 1.1.1 DKi According to the JPS and Vibhqa. dysii (view) comprises visual faculty (cakyrindriyu). the five views, the worldly right view (lartkiki srrnyuk-d?.!i), view related IO a Leamer (i~i.rr-d~n!i)"~ and view related to n non-Leamer (~iaik~o-.rsti)."~ The visual faculty. the five views and the worldly right view consritute the view of neither-Leamer-nor-non-Lemrr. '" Worldly right view is pruj,iu associated with wholesomc consciousnesses. Thcse are called " (ariüsrui~u-prujriü).18' View related to non-Leamer is the right view related IO non-~eamer.~~'These last two categories are called "drgi' because they are by nature IN In the conicxi of SalvnsiivJda. iurkm (Lcarncr) means those who nccd IO bc inincd in relcrcnce IO ihosc in ihc siagc of lnsight (duriunu-ntdrgu) up Io the siagc non-rciurn (undgarni). ASUI&W(non-Lcarner) mcans ihosc who nccd no more training in rcfcrcncc Io an whar. Nciiher-Lcamcr-nor-non.Lcarncrrefcrs IO ordinary peoplc. TlSJJ. 95?;i3: ~1545.489b28-19: ZWL)JC. EOMIW lih!. IU.fiiE1L. 'Î??A':!JL. "' TISJS: 506c1~-15:-ZG~.&'I!4LEtJP1C. EUNN lilLi@fGiEJL. "'Asruva. Ili.. "%,ha leaks oui". "ouifluxes": Pnli: dsuw is mnslatcd as "cankcrs". "iainis". "cornipiion". "inioxicanis". "biscs". cic.. Thcrc 8s a Iisi of four: ihc cankcr of scnsc-dcsirc (l;rin~d.wi.u),of dcsiring eicrnal cxisicncr (hkut.ü~uw).or of wrong vicws (dI!!hü~uvu). and of ignorance (uiijd.wi~u).One who atwins arhatship has dcstroycd al1 four of lhosc cankcrs. Sec BD 23. In Buddhism. dsruvu is ihc dcfilcmcnis thai ccasclcssly flow out from interna1 organs (i.c.. (ive sense organs and the mind). Through ihc cffon of ridding oncself ofdsruw by undcfiled prujdü. one can aitain ûwakening or frccdom from ihc bond of dcfilcmcni. "'TIS45.490aI4-17: ti'WK$L&. ;[email protected]~411E8.21Lf&&iQ8%\1C. ':!#A. X/'?RiW.L%. IVM. BR~Î!~E~L.a -:.ii;tir:Lxn,wz>bL. examination (saatira~ümaka).According IO rhis discussion on mifound in the Vibhasa, they can be classified as follows: 1) Vicw rclatcd io I) Visual Faculty ncithcr-Lcamcr-nor-non-Lcame 2)Fivc Vicws 5)Worldly Righi Vicw-prajtd of wholcsome vicw consciousncss 2) View rclaicd io Lcamer <4) prujtd frce of ouiflow rclaicd io Lcamcr 3) Vicw relaicd to non-Leamer-- 5) Righi Vicw rclaicd io non-Lcamcr The JPS and Vibhva define j~ïüna(knowlcdge) as prajfiü associated with five sensory consciousnesscs @a~Tca-vij'iuna.io-san~pray~tkta-praj~ïü)and prajfiü associated wiih the othcr mental consciousness (mano-v~fiüttu-sunrpra~~~tk~u-prajfiü) cxcepting receptiviiy free of outflow (orrüsruvu-&ü~rri)."~ The Vibh.a explains 'i>rajfiü associatcd with fivc sensory consciousnesses" to be of ihree kinds: Hcrcin. "projfiüassociated with five sensory consciousnesses" are of ihree kinds: (1 ) wholesome (ki&ala). (2) defiled (kliga). and (5) Not defiled and neutnl (aniv~rüi~ükrra). Wholesome-wholesome [pr] acquired through birth (rtpaparri-lübliikn-k~tSuIa). Dcfiled--[prajriri] associated with cnving. haired and ignorance thai are Io bc removed through cultivaiion (611üvanüheya-rüga-d1~e~a-n10I1u-sa~pray1tk1üprajnü). Nol dcfiled and neutral-(1) [praj~ïü]born of retribution (vipükuia); (2) and some [prajriu] thai are bom together with proper deponment (air).üpatAikn), the ws and TI544.952aJ-5: Tl545. 49OJ20-2: -Zfu7%. 8 fi.9411E.E. F$W~Z&.E.34llB~. Dhammajoli innslatcd krdnrr as rcccpiiviiy. Hc cxplnins: "&dnrt may bc regardrd as a low dcgree of insighi ihan /,idnu which is a thorouph. drcisivc insighl. Ii invcsiigaics but is siill no1 cxcmpied doubi wiih regard io thc objcci cognizcd; it caichcs ihc kleia. bu1 cannoi cul il.Ii is by ihc iridna. cxempt from doubi. thai the kleia arc cul. Dhammajoii. Enfronce 223. For Ihc rclaiionshio bciwccn bdnrr wdinanri. scc on page 65. 5G cnfis (Sailpusrl~ünika).or a mind of higher knowledge (ohh~ri The Vibhwa explains "'prujfiü associated with mental consciousness" as fo~lows:~~" "[Prujriü] associated with the other mental consciousness" also are of three kinds: (1) wholesome (kr~Sula). (2) dcfiled (kliga). and (3) not defined and neutnl (uni~:rrÜyvük~~o). 1 Wholesome [prajiü] are of two kinds: (a) with outflow (süsraiw). (b) free of outfiow (onüsrava). (a) Wholesome [praj~iü]with outflow is of three kinds: (1) [thai] obtained through pncticc (prüyugu-lühhiku). (2) [that] obtained through detachmcnt (voirü~~u-lubhrku).and (3) [that] obtained through binh (upoporri Iühliika). (1) "[Projfiü] obtained through practice" is projiü which arises through listcning (jrura-n~uyi-prujfiü), prujfiü which arises through refleciion (ci~rrü-niayi-prujfiü). prujrnri' which ariscs through cultivation (bhüivu~rü-niujli-prujcü). ~rirru-n~oyi-prujfiü-the proper disceming with regard IO words and meaning. Ci~irü-mayi-pruj~iü-prajfiü derived from 1) contemplation on thc impurities (uSlrbho-bhüvanü). 2) mindfulness of brcathing-. (Ünüpüno-snrrri), and 3) the abodes of mindfulness (sumrryupasrhünu). Bhüt-UIIÜ-niuyi-pruj~iü-prujfiüdcrived from cultivation: This rcfers to wmth (it~muguru).peak (nrr7dhon). reccptivity (&riri). the highest worldly dharma (lutikiku ugrudhurma). the worldly prujrio associated with by direct realization (ubhison~uyünrikuIurikikopruj~iü). the immeasunbles (uprumünu). libention (vintoku). supreme place (abhibhvüyuruno), pervasive place (k+nüyr~no).'~' (2) [Prujfiü] obtained through detachment (vuirügr.u-lubltiku)-[prajfiü derived from] dlryü~ro. upronrünu, ünipp. vintoka. obhibhvüyurona. kp~ü~utunu. "'~1~45.490;i21-?4:~ (b). [PrajG] fret of outflow (anüsrava) is of two kinds: 1). Leamer. 2) non-Leamcr (1) Leamer-the Eight i17ü1ia related to Leamer. (2) Non-Leamer-knowledge of exhausrion (ksaya-i~iuna), knowledge of non-arising (anrrpüda-i17üna). knowledge which is the proper view of non-Leamer (sanryak-dmi-~CÜIIU). 2 Defilcd-[prajCüj associated with the kleia and seconda- kleia (anitkleia) that are to be removed through insight (daiana) and cultivation (hhüvanü). 3 Nol defiled and neutnl-[prajiü] bom of rctribution, and bom together with proper deportment. the ans and cnfis, or a mind of higher knowledge According to above explanation of die Vibh%& the whole structure of iZna can be diagrammed as follows: ( 1) wholuomc prnjtid xquired ihrough binh prnjfid assochicd wiih dcsirc. Iiaircd and ignomncc ihai wiih iivc wnsory YC IO be rcmovcd ihrough culiiv~tion l consciousncues 1 \ 3) noi defincd and bom ofrciribuiion ncuinl somc ihai xc bom iogcihrr wtth propcr dcponmcni. ihc ans and cnRs. or a mmd of hirhcr kn~ulcdpc -1) r>rorr;d arocs ihrouch luicnmc. the pmpcr drrccming wiih regard io aords ihrough mindfuinessofbnthmg abodcs of pnciicc mindfulnas 31 nmifid arises ihrourh culiivaiion: b.&n;h. W. rcccptl&y. the highesi worldly dh;imia. ihc worldly projdd nssociatcd with by dirccr rcalintion. immcasunblc mind. libention. suprcmc phce. penmivc place. 2) obiamcd dlqüno. oprnntdna. ürùpyu. rmokw. ihrough nblithhv The JPS states that pr@ü is associated with six cons~iousnesses.~~~The Vibhqa states: What ispruj~iü?Answer: pro;% is thai which is associated with six consciousnesses. This is of three kinds. vk., wholesome. defiled. not defined and neuuûl as explained in detail previously. [However.] there is a diffcrence: the eight receptivities free of outflow (u~tüsroi*a-@tiri)are also subsumed under projriü because they have [the nature ofl discernment of dharmas. Projriü can be found in al1 States of mind (eirr~)'~~ The cight receptivities free of outflow are subsumed under projriü. Whatevcr is associated with mind and has the funclions of discerning and understanding is prq'riü. Prujriü includes the contents ofj,i 1.2 The Eight Knowledges The above discussions show that iZna is an imponant modality of proj~iü.The Sarvastivada amved a1 a list of eight knowledges (sometimcs also enumerated as ten. sec below). The cight knowledges are: I ) knowledge of dharma (df~arniajfiüna).3) infercntial knowledge (aniuyujfiüno), 3) conventional knowledge (su~~~i~r~fiüno),4) knowledge of others' mind @aracirr~ünu).5) knowledge ofdii!iklio (dir!ik/~ujfiünu),6) knowledge of arising (satnuday'rïünci). 7) knowledgc of cessation (nirodl~ujfiüna).and 8) knowledp of the Path (ntürgaj~iüno). As regards the essential chancreristic of knowledge. the Vibhea explains: "For what reason is it called knowledgc" It examines and judges an object (Ülunibo~io):thercfore, it is called kn~wlcdge."'~~And. "for what reason is il called knowledge? What is the meaning of [the word] knowledge? Knowledge means whatever that is judgrnenia~."'~~ The JPS discusses the right kinds of knowledge as fo~lows:'~' II" ~1545.490b9-13:ZRl.3lS. B?GWUEB. JtiiLfB. ,~IIVU~W.~R~IIW~!.lhluliiil;W(T1545. 490a20-b9)fixh'l]l>;..~~I\:Z./1~EBlii. TC.ZBP. -UJ&ll4k?AliiH. '"~1~45.7'>7d9-b1:I::lfu7&%?:. ',h?TIiZit?&tl[ikP. &ZZ.\B. "' T1545.1.17bl5-16: rflfqhi%%'. F":Efu78. BikZitE+Ï&. Alsu. T1545. 549~14-15. "2~i544.9s7b~9-c2:iil\W.:illiLP1'73%jrW. 5Mil.T:. WEiikXXIr. ;&ii[xlXliù6r. Xii Ititl. TJi What is knowledge of dharma (dlltornia-j~iuna)?Answer: It is knowledge free of outflow in the sphere of desire (kün~adliürt~)with regard IO al1 conditioning forces (suquküra). the cause for al1 conditioning forces, the extinction of al1 conditioning forces. and the path that leads to destmclion ofall conditioning forces. Again, it is the knowledge free of outflow with regard to the knowledgc of dharma and the stage penaining IO the knowledge of dharma. Thesc constitute the knowledge of dharma. What is inferential howledge (unvayu-j~üna)?Answer: II is knowledge free of outflow in die sphere of form (nipadliüri~)and the sphere of no form (ünïpyudltüri~) with regard to ail conditioning forces (so~nsküro).the cause for al1 conditioning forces. the extinction of al1 conditioning forces. and the path that leads IO destruction of al1 conditioning forces. Again. it is the knowledgc frec of outflow with regard to infcrcntial knowledge and the stagc penaining to inferential knowledge. Thesc constitute inferential knowledgc. What is knowledge of othen' mind (parucirru-jNuno)?Answer: It is knowledge that is the result of cultivation: it knows die present mind and thought-concomitant (cirra-coirro)dharmas of others. What is conventional knowledge (sa~niyri-j,iüno)?Answer: II is prujNü with outflow in the three spheres. What is knowledge of rltr!ik/ru (di~~~k/iu-j~üno)?Answer: It is knowledge that operates (dvrr) the conditioning forces in their aspecis (üküra) as unsatisfactory (du!!kliaru!i). impermanent (uniryoru!~). empty (Siinyurü) and without a Self (u~turn~ata!~). What is howledge of arising (sanii~daya-jüno)?Answcr: II is knowledgc that operates the causes of the conditioning forces in dieir [four] aspects (üküro) of being cause (Iieruro!~).arising (sun~i~dayura!~).successive causation (prubhovctra!~)and condition @raryoyora!~). What is knowledge of cessation (nirodliu~no)?Answer: II is knowlcdge that operates the extinction of the conditioning forces in their [four] aspects as cessation (nirudltar~~!~).calm (iünrura!~),excellence @ro!ritoia!i)and escape (ni!isuru!ioru!i). What is knowledge of the Path (inürga~üna)?Answcr: 11 is knowledge that opentes the path of counteragents against the conditioning forces in their [four] aspccts as a path (ntürgora!~), right mediod (nyÜ)mru!i), course of pnctice @ruriparriru!i). conducive to exit (noiryÜ!iikura!~). . Thesc cight knowledges have prujiü. which is one of caim dharmas. as their nature."' There is also the classification of knowlcdgc inio tcn-the abovc cight. togethcr with knowlcdge of exhaustion (kqvujiünu) and knowledgc of non-arising (unrtrpüdujt>rrina).The Vibhq$ in quoting the Abhid/~urmuprukoru!iupüdu-Süstru(PrS). defines and differenliates the last IWO howlcdgcs as follows:'" PrS [states]: ...What is knowledge of cxhaustion? It is io know tmly that 1 have known unsatisfactoriness; 1 havc abandoncd the arising [of unsatisfactorincss]; I have realizcd the cessation [of unsatisfactorincss]; 1 havc cultivated the Path. What is knowlcdge of non-arising? Ii is to know truly that I have known unsatisfactoriness. and therc is no more to be known up to 1 have cultivated thc Path. and there is no more to be cultivated. The Vibh&$i furihcr distinguishes these lasi two knowledges in the following manncr: What distinguishes knowledgc of exhaustion from knowlcdge of non-arising? .4nsurer: To begin with. they difîcr in namc only. That is. this is called knowlcdge of cxhaustion: this is called knowlcdge of non-arising. The cause is callcd knowledge of exhaustion. the effect is called knowledge of non-arising; what has been done is called knowledge of exhaustion and that which is fostered by the musc is called knowledge of non-arising. To acquirc what has not been acquircd or what has already been acquired is knowledgc of exhaustion. and only to acquire what has not been acquired is knowledge of non-arising. Both the iiniirkti-niürgu as well as viiqu-niürgu arc subsumed under knowlcdge of cxhaustion but only the vi+u-niürgu is subsumcd under knowlcdge of non-arising. The fivc types of arhais are cstablished as the basis of knowlcdgc of cxhaustion, and the establishment of (only) one type of arhat on thc basis ofthat is knowledgc of non-arising. That which is common to both the sharp (ri&u) and blunt (m41) faculties is knowledge of exhaustion but that which penains only to the sharp faculty is knowlcdgc of non-arising. These are the distinctions."' "'~156727.28: W\LbU~Dljriitrt1.lAI.iCIî'L. 'WT1545.I5OaJ-16: t%TliX3...-Z1'7&W.3llnP.iBliltlBIbdRll9MdGie. tPl%i!kB. ~~liiDI$iillllii~Z1~iYRi.7!1ii%!c!fi%i)ie4;1YY). Cf.Tl558. 13523-18. lP' ~1545.527~06-14: 191%'%4%'iil~P~;I? En$t!l~KI;~l. Wt%i&Wk%d!k%'. iyi~liil:: IW. RLW48. iWklKRr41â'. f~ll&ôFS.!!A4%'.IYfiRKIEW. 1dF!iliiirlE&t. nlE 4;8lifi3?).ZR%?:. il%r;nli#l#flir%M%jemE&%'.I3EW)LirWI;-R5k%'. iYfiPLil!.Lfi. I;.7P%RI%'. %LdP-MH%?ERY%'. IUfiX~FlJtkltiAA!Er&%'.nKWIZ;1!k,%%?~. i2 inx )i'l Both the AKB"~and the ~bhid/tarttrüi~orüru~~~enumcnte ten kinds of knowledge. On the other hand the Vibhwa follows the JPS and enumcrates only the first cight. Regarding this difference. the Vibh-a explains !hri although in the sütns the Buddha sometimcs expounded two knowledges, sometirnes four and sometimes ten, the JPS enumentes eight as the middle, because these cight completely subsume al1 knowledgcs-the two-fold and four-fold cnumention etc. are abbreviations and the ten-fold enurneration is an elabontion. Funher. the eight are found among the Learners. the non-Learners, as well as those with or without defilements. In contras!, the last IWO knowlcdges are found only mong those who are non-Learners and thosc without defil~ments.~~~The last two arc excluded in the group of eight because they are limited to cenain stage.'" Various otherexplanations and classifications are also given in this same conte~t.~~" 1.3 The Relationships among Prajlïü, Jiiüna in terms of Three Levels of Practice The Vibh.3 explains prujfiü. ..!i and jtiütiu with respect to a Leamcr and a non-Leamer (arltur) as well as with respect IO an ordinar). person What is drgi related to Leamer? Answer: Projtiu related IO Lrarner. That is. the '*AKB. p. 394; ADV p. 373. TI558. 134~07-10. 191 AR WiLfi;& TI554. Dhammajoti. Efiirancc 118-21. 1PsT1545.546~l-9:IUlffûfi?_k:!*-Ji32 16. nEW!4N'. iJii%l\WiJi;W-l.W. f~I%?LY.X.Jt~l~f!?f~i/\%' ft&. EU~l\Wli-@rttiQ. 1n:X%'&i&KiiiI,&. 9 :W%lS2L.sX34M+Y4~1.-k%'!M%M%' &ifiEN4;R. nlEkI\W1II:&R&P&rtt&&fSifKL.IllikliilL/\N"t~14'FA. üii4k.%JltABrI'. flkii&Üifkt &iR%?,":riTR4!);; üniEl?kR;'r'1~JCl. lL/&4:f& CT.ThrVibha?a:TI545.546b9& lm Tl545 727d6-27:AKI; ...-ILIW!I:.LXf%Ri&. '"E.~.: TI545. 547b5-9: f:BL'BZ?3'W4i-I3~ :?liL. -ZtY7Jt+Lii/\%'. BU fi.l&>i:4il\ y:. -P.l%Ettdj.ti;fiA. ~.f~l'LEttAtll.fi?;. 2hnt?&.G:f&&%'. lQi~4IlEttL;W%'. 1~3r4IUFi ~&~a~ty. receptivity free of outflow (uriüsrat~u-~Üiiri!~)and the eight knowledges of Learner. . That is. al1 prujfiü free of outiiow from the receptivity on the knowlcdge of dharma with respect to unsatisfactoriness (du!tklte-dl~ur»rujfiünu-~ü~~~i~~)up to the diamond-likc concentration (ivjmpuniu sumüdl~i)are called drm!i relatcd to the Leamers. What is iEünu rclatcd to Leamer? Answer: They are the eight knowledges related to Learner. viz. the four knowledges of dharma (~iliurn~ujfiünu)~~~and the four inferential knowledges (u~~vo~ujfiüriu).'~~What is prujfiü rclatcd IO Leamer? Drgi rclatcd 10 Leamer and iEüm of Leamer together are callcd pruj~iü rclated IO Leamer. bccausc bodi drm!i and ifiünu have disccmmcnt of dharma as their characteristi~.'~~ In brief. jriünu related to Learncr refers to the eight knowledges: hirelated to Leamer refcrs to the eight knowledges and the eight receptivities: prajfiü related IO Leamer is the combinaiions of both jfiünu relatcd Io Learner and &fi related to Leamer. In the stage of a Learner. pruj~iüis equal to drs!i which contains iriünu and eight receptivities. What is &i rclated to nomleamer? Answer: Prujtiü relatcd to non-Lcarner that are not subsumed by knowledge of exhausrion and knowledge of non-arising arc the right views related to non-Leamer. What is ifiünu related to non-Leamer? Answer: The eight knowledges of non-Lemer. viz. the four knowledges of dharma (rlltarmujfiünu) and the four inferential knowlcdges (uniq~ajfiünu).What is prujtiü related to non-Leamer? Answer: Drgi rclated to non-Leamer and itiünu related to Non-Leamer together are called prujfiü rclated to non-Lemer because both their miand ifiünu have discerning of dharma as their chancieristic [which is pruj~7ü].'LU What is dgi related to ncither-Leamer-nor-non-Leamer? Answer: Visual faculty. the five views and the worldly right view ... What is i%nu related to neither-Leamer-nor-non-Leamcr?Answer: Prujfiü associated with the five sensory consciousnesses, and prujfiü with outflow associated with mental consciousness penetntes rhrough the three, viz., wholesome. impure, and neutral .. . What is prujfiü related to neither-Leamer-nor-non-Leamer?Pruj~iü associated with the five sensory consciousnesses, and pruj,iu with outilow associated with mcntal consciousncss. . J~iutiuwith outflow and prujt7ü with outflow arc both found in al1 mental statcs with outflow, becausc they al1 have judging and disccrning of dhmas as thcir charac~cristic.'~' In bricf. for ordinary person or thosc in the stage of neithcr-Lemer-nor-non-Lcarncr. it7Ünu and projWü arc identical: both refcr IO projfiü associatcd with the Iivc scnsory consciousnesses, and prujfiü with outflow associatcd with mental consciousness. II must be undcrstood that thcrc is a spccial case of&i which is not subsumed underprajt7ü: the visual fac~lty.'~~The rclationships among praj7ü. ifiü~iciand drm!i in tcrms of the thrce classes of beings may bc illustraicd by the following table: a) In relation IO dr~!i: Learner rcceptivity frce of outilow '*jN { 1jt7ü11u Non Lcamer Prajiia that are not subsumcd by kno\vlcdgc of cxhaustion and knowlcdgc of non-arising Ncithcr-Lcmcr- visual Iaculty nor-non-Learner fivc vicws worldly propcr view b) In relation to ifiütio: Leamer 4 un~~uya-jWüna Neithcr-Lcamcr- Pruj17ü associated wiih thc five sensory consciousnesses nor-non-lcarncr (And prujiiü with outflo\v associated with mental consciousncss C)In relation Io pruj17ü: Leamer {" 'O' TI545. 506~24-507al:??FJ:ll:';!lL.%'i))L. BOfiIfi!i.)Lllf (ti il:#. .. ~,~fSlz;-l~I-lL'2-ll:,%1;~N'.E fi. Xi4llES. [email protected]{ll~~Uî.~S'II%WGRE!X',~... Sfq1LJ24L!R1i!E. E fiXi41lEE. üftCi4iliEfiMi;B. 4i.SB.Gflll%-W$i;lii~L-d;t. *+if ikRit4llll. '"For more discussion on iliis mttcr. scc Dhamm~ori.K. L. "Thc Abhidhamu Connovcrsy on Visuil Pcrccption." Recent Reseurclicr in Budd/ilrt StudIes: Ersri)l hi Hunour uf Profissur ): Karunudusu. Ed. K. L. Dliammajori etc. Colombo: Y. Kaninadsa Fcliciwtion Commirtcc. 1997): 8 1: 92-93. Non Learncr Neithcr-Learner- Prujriù associatcd with the fivc sensory consciousnesses nor-non-Learner (And prujriü with outflow associated with mental consciousness 1.4 Inter-relationship arnong Dr& Jriüiia, and Prajtïü 1.4.1 Relationship between JtSatra and Prajtiü. The JPS explains that cvery case of jfiüna isprajfiü. but some cases ofprujfiri are not j>iririu, viz. thc reccptivities free ofoutflow (anüsrov~-&üti~i).'~~The Vibhssa comments: ...Are al1 cases of jfiüna prajfiü? AI1 cases of itiuna are proj,iü, bccausc every case of judgment disccms dharma (dliurnru-prai~icaya).Somc cases of prajfiü are no! jfiünu, viz. the reccptivities free of outflow. because it initially comprehends thc [Four Noble] Tmths for the first time without j~dgment.'~~ "Why is the receptivity frec of outflow no1 knowlcdgc? Answer: Because, when comprehending the Tmths by means of receptivity free ofoutflow. there is receptivity bu! no deciding; comprehcnding but no disccming; conjecture (vi-rurk) but no concluding; investigating but no knowing; direcily realizing (ublii-sum-di) but no repeatcdly disceming. Thcy merely exercise their hnctions incessantly-hcnce they are not cnlled know~ed~e."'~Altcmative explanations are also given by Vasumitn, Dhmairita. and others: The vencrablc Vasumiira explains thus: "Rcceptivity (&Enri). with regard to the Noble Tmths. is reccptivc ai this stage. but it has not yet understood decisively. hence 66 ii is not called know~edgc.""~ The Bhadanta (~harmatr~ta)"'explains: "Whcn thc sccing ofa thing is complcte, it is called prujtir. Ir is not the case that ai the initial stage of receptivity. ihe sceing of a Lhing becomes complete. Thus. though one docs not speak of the reccptiviiy free of outflow as knowledge, but thcy are actually knowledge.""' 1.4.2 Relationship between Dp!i and Prairia. The JPS and Vibh-2 explains: Are al1 drm!iprujRü? II has IO be explaincd in temis of a tetra-lemma: [il There is a +i that is not prujriü. viz.. visual faculty. [ii] Thcre arc somc prujriü that arc not d*i. viz., prajtiü associated with the fivc groups of consciousness. knowledge of exhaustion (&uya-jtiütia) and knowledge of non-arising (unrrtpBffu-jtiÜtia). and those prujriü with outflow associated with mental consciousness but with exception of the five views (d~gi)and worldly proper vicw (latikiki-suntyug-dr~!i).[iii] Thcrc are some d~m!i that are also prajtiü. viz.. thosc prujtiü free of outflow wiih the exception of knowledge of exhaustion and knowlcdge of non-arising. and the five views and worldly proper vicw. [iv] Some are ncithcr minorprujriü. viz.. [all] cxcept those cxplained bcfore."' The Vibh&a further comments that the visual faculty is not called knowledge. because visual faculty is mattcr (nipu). but the knowledge is not matter."" "Why is it that prujnü associated with the group of five consciousncsscs is not mi? Answcr: That whose mode ofactivity (üküru) is sharp (t.i!tu) and enters deeply into objecu (iilunibutiu) is called &i. I'rujtïri associated with the group of five consciousnesses is not shqand docs not enter deeply into objects: thus. it is not called drm!i. Again. it is because b.!i can discriminate. but this prujriü canot. It is because drs!i can have specific characteristic and common chancicristic as objects. but this prujtiü can have only specific characteristic as objcct. It is becausc drs!i can have [dhmaofl the thrce pcriods of lime and unconditioned (usut~t.vk~tu)[dharma] as objects, but thisprajrïücan have only the present [dharma] as objects. It is because :'oTIS45. 49Ob?K!J: LT4 IViift:bllLV. .Zfi?%3HftEUI:2.. i1iiA%BlI4;%W. '" The Bhadnnta (Ah!!) rcfers IO Thc Bhadnnta DhnrmntrPia. one of ihc four San~PsiivPdageai commcntators ai ihat iime. Sçe Yin Shun. Rl~reurcliun the Alurn Sun~üsri~~üW.EUNMJLE. RICbI.... dm!i can apprehend objects repeatedly, but this pruj~iücan apprehend objects for only a moment (k.? [In shori.] d~ridelibentcs and examines objects (Ülonihano), this prujtiü docs not.' ' 1.4.3 Relationship between Dr+ and Jt7Üna. The JPS and Vibh.8 explain the relationship bctween drgi and jtiütin in thc sme manner: Are al1 drgi ,%Üno? It has Io be cxplained in tcrms of a tctn-lemma: [il Thcre are some mithat are not jtiüno. viz. the visual facultp (cukitrindriyu) and the receptivity free of outflow (a~irisrava-kü~iri)."~[ii] Therc are some jriunu thal are not drgi; viz. prujiü associated with thc five groups of consciousness (putica-samprayi~kru-jiüna).knowledge of exhaustion (kayu-jfiüna). knowledge of non-arising (unirfpüdu-jiünu). and prujtiü with outflow associated with mcntal consciousnesses (süsruvü munoi~ijnüna-samprayr~kro-prniiü) but with exception of the five views. worldly right view (~uirkikis~niyuk-~!i)."~ [iii] There are somc dp!i that are also jtilitiu: viz. the fivc views and worldly right view: prujtiü frcc ofoutfio\v but with exception of receptivity with outflow (anüsrui~u-k+iri), of knowledgc of exhaustion and of knowledge of non-arising."' [iv] Some are neithcr drgi nor itiüno. viz. those excluding what have been mentioncd aboveT9 The Vibh.8 repeats JPS's cxplanation and gives furiher reasons how they are related or not re~ated."~ Why are the knowledge of exhaustion (&o.vu-jtiüna) and knowledge of non-arising (miitrpüdu-jiüna) not drn!i? Answer: "Because the mode of activitics (ùküru) of thesc Iwo i~ïünais not sharp and can not enter deeply into objects.'" Venerable Ghosaka said: "The knowledgc of exhaustion and knowledgc of non-arising have accomplished what should be donc: thcre is nothing more to pursue; 68 thus, they are no1 callcd drs!i."'*' Comment: it should bc explained as thus: the knowledge of exhaustion and knowledge of non-arising are itiünu but not drgi. bccause what nceds Io be done is nccomplished; with regard IO the four Noble Truths there is no more searching, because the prepmtory [effon] has ceased."' Dc!i and iEünu share in scope with following items: eight jriu,ru. worldly proper vicw of non-Lemer. five views, worldly proper vicwv."' According IO VibhX$l's explanations above. the inter-relationship of these three maybe dingnmed as follow: KnOWlCd ught m.worldly I Pm@ asrocaid WI non.leama. five ihe five ~oupsof vinus. woddly propa COnsCIouSnaS. 2 knowldgc of c&aUNon. 3 knowkdgc of non.ansmg. 4 pm~anunüi OU~~OW associa!cd with menial consciousnas but m!h the exceplion of ihe five nmsand the wortdly propa vim 2. Prajtiü, Dcfi and Jfiüt~ain tltc Later AbIridIrarma Tus Here. later abhidharma texts rekr IO those tcxis aftcr the Vibhwl, viz. Vasubandhu's AKB. Sanghabhadra's Ny. *Ahkid/iarnia-soniayupru~Iti>ikü. ""hc Np and *Ah/iidliurniu- son~uyuprad~ikuare extant only in Xuan-zang's Chinese translation. Like the Vibhga, thc AKB explains pruj~ïüas one of the [en universal dhmas that kas the ability to discern the dharma~."~Sanghabhadra adds: "to discem the wronç or right characteristic of an object is prajiiri.""7 As a universal dharma. pruj~iühas various meanings. Not only does it have a positive sense but also it has a negative connotation. It usually is discussed in compatison with dr~~~iand in ProjEÜ is of two kinds: with outflow and frce ofoutflow. Only pruj~rilifrec of outflo\v is called the noble [praj,iu]. Thc eight receptivities among the noble prujrïü are not of the nature of j~ïüiiu because the doubt to be abandoned by them has not been abandoned. Thcy are subsumed by the nature of Mibecause they are of the nature of conjecture. The knowledge of exhaustion (~uwjiïüiin)and knowledgc of non-arising (u~ir~tpodujiïünu)do not possess the nature of 11n~ibecausc they have stoppcd thc scarching mind and do not conjecturc."' The remaining (knowlcdpes) are of the nature of both j~ïüiruand dr:!i becausc thcy have completely removed doubt and arc of the nature of conjecturc. All pruj~ïüwith outflow are subsumcd in the nature of itïüiiu. Among these. only sis viz.. the five defiled drs~riand worldly proper vicw (loi~kikisuniyugd~)are of the nature ofùrs!i. Because the noblepruj~ïü with outflow explained thus are al1 of the nature of die discernment of dharma. they are subsumcd in the nature of proj~ïü."9 Accordingly, the relation among the three can be diagramcd as follow: "'Sec fn. 15. ':"T1558. 19aZO: E;;PIEitliCiiiU R. AKB. p. 55: mori!~ prajn'U ~lliartnaprai~icayu!~.Also. T1558. 35b28. ::'T1562,385b6-7: TmlVffi%%E'.S4U. ;S%Z)H. "' AKB. p. 391: Sanghabhadn follows the AKB but adds more explanation regarding the difierence between jrilino and dei. Saiighabhadn explains why the eight reccptiviiies (.ünri) are not knowledge and the knowlcdge of exhaustion and knowledge of non-arising are not How is it that the eight receptivitics are not able to be dccisive? Because the doubts IO be abandoncd by them can continue to aise. or because the desire which sccks 10 perceive the object has ceased. \\'ha is named i~iü~rais slack in prepantory effon (prayoga). When the receptivitics are arising. there is a desire for conjecture: the effort [therein] being strong. they are included as iCÜna. However they are callcd mion account of their nature of conjecture. The knowledgc of exhaustion and knowledge of non-aising are not of the nature of drm!i. because the desire for conjecture therein has ceased completely. and because the prepantory effort genented therein is extremely slack. However they are callcd i,ir7na on account of 21" Sce on page 66. Sec. Dhnrnrnajoti. ThAbhidlrormo Conrrovcq 92K 7 1 their being decisive in nature."' The eight receptivitics are the stages of understanding prior Io the stage of knowledge. They are called receptivities. for they have the nature of conjecture. and thcy still rcmain in the stage of +!i. Besides. therc is still an elcment of doubt. Saighabhadn adds that receptivitics are not knowledgcs, for thcy are still in the stage of prcparatory practice, whilr knowledgc is the state afier prepmtory practice. In the VibhX?LÎa. the eight knowlcdges are explained sepmtcly from the othcr IWO know~edges.'~~The eight knowlcdges are cxplained in detail. while the two knowledges are not. The AKB and Ny cxplain thcse tcn knowledges c~llectively:~" These ten knowledges are sumrnarized into two kinds, because of the distinction in their either with or without outflow. When the two kinds of knowledge are difïcrentiated by their defining-charactrristics they becorne three: viz., conventional knowlcdge (su~~ii~riii>iünu).the knowledgc of dharma (dhurnruiCÜnu).and inferential knowledge (uniyaj~iüna).The former. i.e.. knowledges with outflow are collectively called "conventional". because they mostly take worldly objccts such as a vase etc. The latter. Le., knowledges free of outflow. are divided as [knowledge of] dharma and inferential [knowledge]. Among thcse hee, the convcntional [i~iünu]has al1 conditioned and unconditioned things as its objects. The knowledge of dharma and inferential knowledge respcctively have the Four Noble Truths of the Sphere of desire (künradlrüirr)and those of the highcr Spheres as their objects."' The explanation of the AKB is very simple in cornparison to the Vibh$g; Sarngabhadn follows the AKB, but he adds more e~~lanation."~ 3. Conclusion Prajfiü has the function of disceming dharma (dltar~rta-pruvicoyu).Thus, it has the widest scope among the three-praj~io subsumes al1 i%na and ù+i exccpt the visual faculty. Visual faculty can only bc subsumcd under &!i. because it does not have the function of discernment. The rcceptivity free of outflow is pruj~iüand mi.but not j~i Chapter 5: Some Controversies Between Vasubandhu (and Diir@mtika/Sautràntika) and Sanghabhadra Related to PrajriZ 1. General Cotnnrenfs ibhadra's two works. the Ny and *Ahhidliarn~usa~~tyupradpiküare intende to uphold Vaibhqika onhodoxy by demonstrating that Vasubandhu's auto-commeniary contains errors in interpreiation. In ternis of stmcture. they follow the contents of Vasubandhu's AKB with minimal emendations; however. Siuighabhadra substitutes his own commentary in place of Vasubandhu's. The Ny exhaustively refutes Vasubandhu's position, while the *Ahhidliar~ttasunruyapradri,iküserves as a direct exposition on Sanghabhadra's own vicws."' Funher, contestually. it consisis of seleciions from vanous pans of Ny IO show the correct theory of Vibhva. Sanghabhadra's introduction to the *Ahliidliarrtiusu1t1uyuprud Cos. in the Ny, Vasubandhu is called Jingzhu #!&, literally. "Sntra master", and this has bren taken to mean thSanghabhadra identifies Vasubandhu as a ~autrantika."~ "'Cox. Dispurcd 56. ''' T1563.777alOrT. =IVCox. Koirnlra 244. Sec ah. ia VaIICe Poussin. "Documents d'Abhidhrnu-Ln Controverse du Temps: les deux. les quatre. Ica trois Vdritts". Milanges Cltr~~orset Douddi~iqucs,V. p.34. However, a quotation from the Ny found in Sthiramati's commentas. on the AKB suggests that the Sanskrit equtvalent of jing-=hic is actually sùrrnkür~~."'~According to Cox, it could simply refer io Vasubandhu as author of the sotra. that is, thc kürikfi of the Abhidhornrakoia, or il may be a sarcasm. suggesting Vasubandhu's lack of familiwity with Buddhisi scripture."' However. Cox also notices that Vasubandhu together with other Sautrantikas are defended by Sanghabhadra."' Yuan Hui (mm) in his commcntary on AKB (f3&,%5.YiT,iJi< she hot sons shrr) daims that Vasubandhu originally studied Sarvastivada and later Sautrantika.'" Vasubandhu himself admittcd that hc relicd on the Vibh.3 mostly."' This indicates that Vasubandhu was not completely faiihful IO ihc Vaibhwika tradition. Tnditionally, therc are four standpoints regarding the view of Vasubandhu's position. 1) Pu Guang (&%) in his commentary on AKB (fl!S:aX! Jtcshc lunji)'" says: Although he clarificd the meaning of Sarvastivada. oAen he rcctified it wirh the Sautriintika's view. Vasubandhu was aligned with what is logical. and not with any partisan view. 2) Fa Bao ($A@)in his commentary on AKB (fi&'.'2&fi Jirshe 1icnshir)"lb says: The hstra's verses were creatcd mostly on the bais of the Vibhqa, but its esplanarory prose were based only on superior logical validity and were not inclined towards any panicularschool; howcvcr. thcrein it mostly adopted the Sautrantika vicw. 3) Yuan ~ui'~'commcnts: Vasubandhu's standpoints are IWO-fold: (i) the explicit and 240 Op. crr 244-245. .'" Op. clr. 139. :'' Op. crr. 24849. :"TI823.24: II~BKVI;. EX4i;;:. tB'M8U. :"Ti558, l5Zbll i!Ei.&Xi$ü~li3!1& &!SfblPi'3Wi,!. "'TI821. laid-16: PftS-tJJ4iB. IL5UEBEL. %:QDlibGfY%\;i:. Wfi-RI]Vi. ""~1822.458a29-br:dt;lYbGBI~UiYi(W)LTi. iZ??9MEWJ!i!ilTiL~;);;1..%&-RU. tU??.rl'l~l~PL~ general standpoint of the Sarvativada. (ii) the implicit and "secret" standpoint of the Sautritntika. 4) Kuai Dao says: It is Sarvastivada. Pu Guang and Fa Bao both have similar opinions that Vasubandhu was bascd on logical rcasoning. not on any school. Yin Shun has discussed extensively this maner: for him. the views of the Chinesc masiers appear to bc the more credible one. He concludes. Vasubandhu \vas principally inclincd IO logical ~alidity.'~~In view of doctrine. Vasubandhu tends to be a Sautrmtika but in lems of spiritual praxis, he follows the theory of abhidharma. He details: "With rcspcct 10 ciira-cuirr(~-dl~arma,hc agrccd IO somc cxtcnt with thc Sautrmtika. [ai the samc time] he still followcd thc abhidharmikas. With rcspcct to nipu-dliurniu. cilla-viprayiikru-su~!~skrirudlrurmu (elements not concomitant with mind), and asa~nsk~~a-dl~urmu(uncondiiioned dharma), he followed the D&s!antika and Sautritntika. With rcspcct to cultivation and attainment, hc completely took the notion of the ~aibh@ika."=" Although Sanghabhadra was a great commentaior, the salient lime of Sarv%tivBda abhidharma had gonc. never to retum. At the lime of Vasubandhu. Sautr'htika flourished and fused with Mahayana Yogacara to become one. Whatcver effon Sanghabhadn made. it was insuflicient to resurrect ~arvastivada."' 2. The Controversy Between Vasubarrdltu and Sariglrabliailra Thc abhidharma texts by Vasubandhu and Sanghabhadn inforrn us about the expositions of Sarvastivada and Sautrmtika. However, scholars in the past. influenced by '.ii~~i~i.iwrtiam~iljt. itirnamwiknr. uniiitra. iiaua;;:. .r;-#:;;:. rJi:FtiP,!@. ,a TXZ. %nURiiQ. '"fllfiiht: E25l. 7b-c. '49 Yin-Shun. Rrsmrrh on rlic Main San,dmit7din Commcrtlari~~sand Comm~niarors659. ''O Op ni. 684. '"Op. cil. 7 1 O. Vasubandhu's prestige. were inclined towards Vasubandhu whose position was supposed Io have represented the orihodox Vaibhqika and called Sanghabhadn a neo-vaibhX:ika. Venerable Yin-Shun does not agrec with this vi~w~oint.'~'bccause he disagrecs that the Vibhqa commented on every doctrinal theory; sometimcs. it commentcd on cenain vicws; sometimes, it merely listed opinions without comments. Vasubandhu usually gave an explanation for the first one or the most popular one. and thus. Sanghabhadra objected to him. The main controversy between Sanghabhzdn and Vasubandhu \vas that they did not agree upon which of the excerpts found in the AKB werc from the Vibh.3. In what follows, somc of the examples periaining to the notion of praj~iriexplaincd by Vasubandhu and Sanghabhadn will be discussed."' 2.1 PrajfiE as a Real Dharma For the Sarviistivada, each unique force having a unique function is a rcal entity (dravya). Prajiü is one such real entity. and is to be found in each and every mental state that anses. For the Darstnntikas and the Sautrnntikas following Buddhadeva. only cim (mind) exists. apan from which thcre is no caitra."" The latter is merely a namc denoting a specific state of cirru exercising a specific function. Thus a hostile mind is simply a mind that is hostile; there is no any rcal entity called "hostility (prarigha)" which exists separately from the mind. The AKB expresses a view-presumably that of the D~st~tika/Sautrnntika-thata cairra is a specific state of the mind."' Sanghabhadn defends the Sarviistivada position that cairras are real entities and are "' Op. cil. 697ff. :"Vcnenble Yin Shun has discusscd the conirovcny between Vasubandhu und Sanghabhadn in deiail. Sec Yin-Shun. Rc.searrb an rhç Abin San~dsrivùrlinCamni<.niaries and Comm<.nrarars 70 1-706. '"~1545. 661~14-15: %XffiSm%kld.&fiUll&: cic. Also ADV. p. 76: ... ndrrhùnrarabhlrdi cairosikd iri bha~laniubuildliadc).aI~/ :" AKO. p. 440: ai*aslhdi.iiqo hi ndnlo cc~asaicairasrkahhovcii. distinct from cicru by invoking scriptural authority and logical arguments: "[The Sütra] says that prujtïü is foremost: Although the essential chancicristics of dharmas arc extremely profound, prujzü being strong and bright is capable of illuminating them all. Hence it is said IO be forcmost. Or. proj~iüsurpasses al1 dharmas. hcnce "foremost". the word "foremost" means "surpassing." In conventional usage. that which surpasses is said to be "forcmost." The meaning in this [scriptural context is that it is only proj>i Pruj~iüexists as a distinct entity, because it is so said in the various sütras. Whenever the mind perceives an object. there is always the function of discerning (pro-i~i-~cur)-[thefunction proper to praj~iü].In a case where this function is fceble. it is not detected. Hence decidedly prq'tïü should be a universal mental concomitant (niu/iü-hliii»iika)."' Sthavira ril la ta, the leading Sautrmtika rnaster of the time, denies that projtiü is a real niohü-bliiiniiku dharma because there cannot be a mental state wherein prujtïü cm co-esist with uvi& and doubt (i*icikits~):~'~ "Knowledge (iriunu) and non-knowledge (uj~iüno).hesitation and decisiveness. logically cannot co-exis~.""~ Sanghabhadn replies: It is universally accepted that a mental state which is one of false view (niirlyü-drsri). co-exists with aiidid. Without a deluded mind there cannot be a false view. Thus uvi Still. there is the problem of ihe possibility of having praj,i state conjoined with a unique ignorance (üveniküuiidvü). On this. Sanghabhadra argues: Let it be conceded that logically ujtïüna and j~iünacan be conjoined (sunrpru~~ukcu). Once this is concedcd. it follows that there should also be prajnü in the mental states conjoincd with a unique ignorance. It is only because of it being feeble that ils nature does not show up clearly. A similar reasoning shows that [prajii<] also co-exists with doubt. If in [a menial state] conjoined with doubt, praj~ïüis completely absent. how cm there be an investigation of the [Iwo] altematives-[tmc. untruc: real. unreal, etc.]. This is becausc, with regard to the IWO alternatives. there must be a discriminative discernment and investigation, for a doubt to be f~rmed.''~ 2.2 The Three Kinds of Prajiiü in Preparatory stagez6' The Sanfastivada holds that the process of gaining spiritual insight (uhhisanruyu) into che Four Noble Truths is a gradual one. The preparato~stage leading to this insight too is likewise a gndual one. Ir is explaincd that firsi one must be established in vinues (iyrrusrlto). and next, one must study the sotra or listen IO the proper teachings. Having studied and listened. one then should reflect on the meaning. FinaIl?: one must devotc oneself to cultivaiion. This briefiy outlines the gradual development on the basis of observing iilu, during one's practice from inrra-ntayi-prujfiü and then to The AKB distinguishcs three kinds of pruj,iu and criticizes the Vibh.5 as follows: The Vaibhqikas said that the characteristics of the three pruj>iri are distinguished accordingly as whether they takc as object-refercnts. only the name [of their object]. or both [the name and the thing], or only the thing (orrliu).Thcy are distinguishcd as follows: 1. Projnü arising from listening has only name as its objective-referent. bccause it is notable IO contemplate the thing without having abandoned the words. :" TlS62.389b7-12: R2-lniWDüW4IiE. I(.fflXL. JtkT$!l4r. I~JbdnJl. 4ll&bG. 9%&4i.k!. K!i%%&k. 4Ll;lWT. di~H3flfS. ,fiN6(Eftll. fiCt4UE2WSZ;. TViBl4i .n%HI.rp. W .I:Ai'. X:>;lImR. P114rm!. TirnUP. "'Thcsc ihrec kindr oïprajrid in thc Vibh3g arc in rcïcrcncc withprqfiJ wiih outflow or conventional 915b13-14. "All beings who posscss a nund [dircctcd tonnrds annbning] are tcndrng tonmds daia~ia-nidrga.Thcy should Tint dwcll in pure irla. thcn pnciice [prnjfid] csmblishcd by lrstcning ctc." 2. Prujfiü arising from refiection has both name and the thing as ils objective-refcrent. because sometimes it draws out the thing on the basis of words. sometimes it dnws out words on the basis of the thing. This is becausc it cannot contemplate on the thing without the words. 3. Praj~iüarising from cultivation lias only the thing as its objective-refcrent; because il is capable of contemplating on the thing without the ~ords.'~ Vasubandhu holds that the three prujfiü should arise on the basis of listening to perfect doctrine. of rcfiecting on proper theory. and of cultivating sanrüdlri: If it is so [Le., if il is as claimcd by Vaibhqika], then prajtir7 arising from reflcction could not be established. That is to sa): if [prujiiü arising from reflection] followvs on the bais of name and on the bais of the thing, then it would be the same as i>ruj>i Now, in detailing the characteristics of the three [kinds of prujiü] without enor. [il should bc know that] a pnctitioner by listening to perfect doctrine comes IO supreme pruj,iri. [then this] is called prujfiü arising from listening. If one comes IO supreme pruj>iù by rcflccting on proper theory, [then this] is called prujfiü arising from reflection. Ifone comes IO supreme pruj>i<3by cultivating suniüdlii. [then this] is callcd prujriü arising from cultivation. The tems "arising from" expresscd above means that the occurrence of the threc kinds of supreme pruj~iüarises on the bais of having listening. refiection [and cultivation] as the three [kinds ofl causes.'6s Aside from the Vibhe2 explanaiion of the three kinds of praj~iügiven abovc criticized by Vasubandhu. it also explains the threc kinds of pruj~iZin the manner of Vasubandhu's "cone~tion."'~~Thus. Vasubandhu's explanation is no! differcnt from that of the Vibh-2. Smighabhadn criticizcd Vasubandhu as not having undersiood the VibhXy correctly: '"T1558. 116~9-~17:~ieTJR1i~R.184U.,~%U&~.Ol~Ci~;~l. IBTfiTitiO#t%%Q. k-fiEfiZm WWi. !W?ifi+21SP&rntd.iiB+difi;l&. ~iR.irtiR4lX.k2RZfitVlit&2. BfiItilQrC dE%*ilrinl&&.Cf. Leo M. P~dcn.inns. AbhidliarmakoiabbO~an~,by Louis de La Vallee Poussin. Vol. III (Berkeley: Asian 1-lumaniiies Press. 1989) 917. The Ski in AKB (p. 334) is morc concise. ;Wrfil% ÿ.Xoli~M.€SPllil!!L!?9S.-lKl~fiIti.Also Sanghabhsdrn quorcd ihis passage: TI562.669a12-316. 2"~1545.?17b-c. He (Vaçubandhu) without having understood the meaning of [the three chancteristics] in the Vibh.3, made those sta~ements.'~~However, the meaning of the three characteristics cxpounded in the Vibwa is not like that. If there is prq'liû at the lime of the preparatory stage. which is an understanding induced by vinue of taking name as its objcct. that prujriü so induced is called [prujriü] arising from listening. If at the timc of the preparatory stage. the name is understood as through the strength of reîlection. then that "dccisive prujriü" following afrer it is callcd [pruj~;û] arising from reîlection. If, without relying on name. only the thing is contemplated on. and there occurs prujriû in the form of intcrnal realization. [this] is callcd pruj~i Thus. Sanghabhadra stresses that the three prujriû are distinguished in the stage of prepantory pnctice 2.3 The Four Abodes of Mindfulness The Vibhga. AKB and Ny explain the Four Abodes of Mindfulness (sprry~ip~slhürius)'bvas prujfljll. The Four Abodes of Mindfulness. faculty of prujriü (in-iyu). prujZü powcr (bulu), the investigation of dharmas (dl~arn~uprui~ica.~.a).and Right views (sumyak-d:s!i) have prujdü as their essenrial nature.'70 The AKB explains right view, right thought (suni.vuk-saykulpu) and right effort (.sunipg-~ü.vünia). as the aggregate of prajtiri: Right view, right thought. right effort are called the aggregatc of prujdü. Although "thought" and "effort" are not pruj~ïü.bccause iheir nature is in accord with prujt>iu. they are also called pruj~~ü.'71 Regarding the definition of the Four Abodes of Mindfulncss. Vasubandhu criticizes the Vaibhwika view as follows: The Vaibhwikas rnake the statement: pruj~ïüis made to dwell by the retaining strength of mindfulness. In realit): il is by prajcü that rnindfulness is made IO dwell on an object. becausc one who secs tmly can remember cl~arly.'~' Vasubandhu's criticism seems to be harsh, bccause the ~ibh@a"' actually gives a Prujdü can dwell on the objcct because of the suength of mindlùlness. thus it is called Abode of Mindfulness. Or the strength ofprujNü rnakes mindfulness dwell on object, thus it is called Abode of ~indfulness." In another place of the AKB. Vasubandhu sta~es:'~~ s~rg'upusrlrdnuas "carnes1 thought" (Monicr !273a). cf. BHSD 614b. The Four Abodes of Mindfulncss arc Mindfulncss of Body (ku). Feeling (vrhnü). Mind (ctrfu) and Mind-objccts (dlrur~nu).sec BD 165. For the relaiionship beiwcen rmyriandpraj6d in Sarvastivldin abhidhamw. sec C. Cox. "Mrndfulncss and Memory: The Scope of Sn~~rrfrom Early Buddhism Io the Sarvssiivld~nAbhidiwmu." ln rlic hltrmr O/ dlcn~ov.cd. Janet Gyaiso (Delhi: Sri Saiguiu Pub. 1993): 75-77. 2'"T1558. 132b13-14: Y;IP~%K.WPH)JIV~~~XEILU.B~>~W.T1562.726~21-22; AKB. p. 383. '"T1558. 19b13-15: h!A%!%!lltEEhZECd. !~%t/kEIiB:I~BCkIIIIi~b<1fi~i!IY%. :': "T1558. 132b29d: FtBiYllilifB~P3t.Hdi$/~l.f+K&. i!?ü~rtiH+%tL% DiB)LX fi: ~A2P. "' Thar the Vihhasa givcs various explamirons is wll-known: somciimes. il criticizes ccnain exposiiions: someiimcs. ii commcnis on cenain ideas. Howevcr. in mort of ihc cxcs. ii simply enumcnies difircni definitions wiihoui making nny remarlis. ~"Tl545.724a19-21 : .Xrh%JlClBRiS&2$1L. %~kBJ~iu%&tll&b%lk.. "'~1558. 118~27-119as:f~~?l.%1M. Tfi3.3 What are the essential nature of the Four Abodes of Mindfulness (srn~ty~cpusrl~üt~as)? . The essential nature of each of the Abodcs of Mindfulness is threefold because of the distinctions as regards self-nature, combination. and objcct. (1) The Abode of Mindfulness with respect IO self-nature has prajrZ as its essential nature. This prajriü is of threc kinds. viz.. [prujriü] arising from listening, etc. These arc also named three varietics of Abodes of Mindfulness. (2) The Abode of Mindfulness with respect IO combination has prajfiü and other (cairra) with [prajfiü] as its essential nature. (3) The Abode of Mindfulness with respect to an object has those dharma, which prajr7ü takes as object. as ils essential nature. Hou, do [WC]know that [the Abodes of Mindfulness] have as thcir self-nature prajfiü. not something else? A Sotra States, "To dwell on one's body and IO observe one's body are called the Abode of Mindfulness on body." The other three [Abodes of Mindfulness] are the same. Thesc observations refer only Io the essential nature of prujfiz. becnuse where there is no prq'fiü there is no function of observation. Vasubandhu. quoting the Vaibhvika. goes on IO comment and argue as follows: Why is the name of the Abode of Mindfulness given to prajZ? The VaibhZ.ikas state: Becausc in this stage. Mindfulness is strong. This means that. dcpending on the strength of mindfulncss. prujfiü can opente. just as an ax splits wood due IO the support of the strength of a wedg~.'~~ Actually, il should be said that prajfiü causes Mindfulness IO abide; therefore. the nieof Abode of Mindfulness is given IO ptmJtiü. because what is obscrved by prujfiü is accordingly remembered with clarity.- From the discussion above. it can be understood that according to Vasubandhu. the functioning of the Four Abodes of Mindfulncss is caused by prujt7ü;'7S thus, prujriü is the essential nature of the Four Abodes of Mindfulness. rh@/if.f. ="~isss.119a8-9:18l!t,%~.u+$Zt!i. E&EE42ikZ. PBrfi~tIC?JJ;,Mi.Aliosee.fn.272. "'Cf. Cox. Alindfuhicss 76. 2.4 Prajtiü and the 16 üküra Another controversy between Vasubandhu and Sanghabhadra is the explanation on the rclationship between the 16 ükura (aspects) and prajfiü. Vasubandhu statcs: .. . Thus, ü&üruhas projfiü as its substance, because if prajG did not possess an üküra (sü-ü&üra),prajfiü could not be conjoined (sanrprayirkta) with projEÜ itself. However. it would be proper IO state that üküra is a distinct mode of gnsping object by mind and mencal statcs (citta-caittos). But is it that prajnü alone perceives an aspect (ükürayati) [of an object]? No. How then? Prajfiü al1 othcr mind and mental states. which are of the nature of having an object (so-ülanrbanu)perceive an aspect: Evcrything that exists is perceived with an aspect (ükrj~~ute).Thus [there is this threefold distinction:] (1) proj,ia is üküro, that which perceives an üküro. and that which is perceived with an üküra; (2) other [mind and mental state] which ide objcci (sülonibunü)perceive an üküra. and are perceived with an üküru; (3) al1 [other] objects of perception (ülaba~ra)are perceived with an ~küro."~ Sanghabhadn remarks: Hcre, the siitra masier (Vasubandhu) submitiing [to the daim of] another school. composed the [following] statement: "...üküro is a distinct mode of gnsping object by the mind and mental statcs." [but] this is not reasonable. The cxplanation given by my (Sanghabhadraj school is correct. That is. only the prajfiü that opentcs by discerning the chancteristics of an object is called an üküro. Praj~iüand al1 other mind and mental states takc objects, hence, they are [the subject i.e..] "ihat which perceives." for this so-called "[subject of] perceiving wiih an Üküra" should rcfer IO prajfiü as ükura. The other mind and mental states, not bcing üküra. how can they 84 perceive an ükür~?'~~ So what Sanghabhadra emphasized is that only prujtiü is üküru per se. The oiher mind and mental states may also be said to perceive with an üküro by vinue of being conjoined with prujtïü whose function is to disccrn the characteristic of an object. II is in fact on account of this latter function that prujtïü is said to bc üküru. 3. Conclusion Vasubandhu's comments on the Vibhga are based on the viewpoints of the Sautrantika. but Sahghabhadra's IWO works. the Ny and Abl~idhurtt~usuniu~'uprud,i>ikü, follow the structure of the AKB but maintain a Vaibhqika onhodox vicw. Some of Vasubandhu's criticism of the Vibhq3, are found unacceptable by Sanghabhadra. because according to him. Vasubandhu did not understand the Vibh.3. With regard to the three kinds of prujtïü, Sanghabhadra stresses the threc prujtïü in the stage of preparatory pnctice. The Vibh.3, AKB and Ny explain the Four Abodes of Mindfulness as prujRü. The AKB adds right thought (sumwk-su*kulpu). right effon (santyug-iyüyün~a)IO its discussion on pr'riü. For Vasubandhu. prujtiü can lead one IO thc Four Abodes of Mindfulness; thus, thc Four Abodes of Mindfulness are of the nature of pruj~iü. In the controversy between Vasubandhu (and D3rs!antikdSautCintika) and Sanghabhadra. the Vaibhqika strives IO establish thc realit): nature. and funciion. of prujtïü. It is to be noted that projtïü is defined as üküru. thc discerning function ofprujtiü. It is this function ofprujt,iu that basically makes possible the function of vedattü. san@ü. etc. in the perccptual process. . Chapter 6: Prajtiü of the Two Yiïnas and the Buddha 1. General Comments The abhidharmikas follow the traditional distinction of the Sravaka-yana, pntyekabuddha-y~a-collectively called the two yanas-in contrast IO the Buddha who is decisively superior. K. Dhammajoti has discussed okliga-ojSm (non-defilcd ignorance) in co~cctionwith arhat/arahant and indicatcd that arhats arc inferior in compatison IO the levcl of the Buddha's awakening."' In the early discourses. the arahants arc said IO bc libcnted likc the Buddha. For thcm as well as for the Buddha. "accomplished is the spiritual lifc; donc is what had IO be donc" (vrrsiruy bruhmucar~~w~~: kutum karu!~~wr~r)."' Howcvcr. thc carly suttas also indicatc that the Buddha's knowlcdge is highcr than that of arahants. For cxample. in the Su»npasü~lun~nSutra. the Buddha dcclares that Sariputta. though having attained arahanthood, cannot fully fathom the mind of even the prescnt ~uddha."~In the MNlupariyüyu-miro. both an arahant and the Buddha arc said IO know cach objeci of cognition truly as-it-is. and thcrcfore cntirely free from any wrong conception. However, arahants are dcscnbed as "knowing pcrfectly @uri~Xürum).~~~while the Buddha is describcd as "knowing pcrkctly to the end @uri~i,i~runrur~~).~Herc, the difkrcncc bctween an arahant and the Buddha is indicatcd; '" Dhmjoti. K. L. "The Dcfccü in thc arhat'; Enlightcnrnent-His okligo-uj6dnu and vasona. " Buddli~srSrudres (Bukkyo h'cnkyu) Vol. XXVll(1998):65-98. '"D.i.82. 100. 124. 158. 159.203;D.ii.66. 153:M.i.22.67. 117. 139. 184.32. '"D. iii. 99-1 16. This inswncc is also mcntioncd in the V1bhSs3and thc Upadcia, sec note 3 13. :u M. i. 4. "'M. i. 6. PTS cdition rads as poriri6&1~1!t.howcvcr. thc Burncsc-script BuddhasPsam Sam111cdition and the Sinhala-script Buddha Jayanti Tripitaiis cdition rcad aspari66 Different schools have differcnt theories concerning the Buddha's perfect knowledge. The Vibhea lists al1 arguments suggesting that many early Buddhists, the Sarv&tiviidins included, must have had various well-formed notions on thc subject of the Buddha's perfect awakening in contmt IO the awakening of Sravaka and pratyekabuddha: Question: ...why is it that the Bhagavant alone is called buddha? Answer: Becausc he was able to attain awakening for thc first time. because he is awakened with regard to the universal. and because he is awakened with regard to the panicular. he is called a buddha. Because Sravaka and pratyekabuddha cannot airain awakening for the first time, because they cannot be awakened with regard IO the universal, and because they cannot be awakened with regard to the particular. they are not called buddhas. Some say: With regard IO j~iqira((what is to be known). one who is awakened by onesclf. awakened to the universal. and awakencd without any crror. is called a buddha. Although a pntyekabuddha can be a'akened by himself, he does not have the other IWO kinds of awakening; a iravaka has none [of the three]. Hence they are not called b~ddhas.''~ .. Some say: One who has absolutely overcome al1 irntional habitua1 force (vüsa~iü). is called a buddha. The twoyünas have not done so. Somc Say: One who can go to the very bottom of the profoundly deep river of the dependent co-arising @rarityasanrurpùda) is called a buddha:" The IWO .vinas cannot do so. Thus the sOtn gives the simile of three animals. a hare. a horse and an elephant, crossing a river: A hare swims across on the surface only. A horse swims across at times on the surface, at timcs touching the bottom. An elephant crosses over always by walkingon the bottom ofthe river. The ways Sravaka, pratyekabuddha and buddha crossed over the river of the dependent co-arising is respectivcly likewise. Somc say: One who has abandoncd both kinds ofaj,io>ia (ignorance)-defiled (kliga) and non-defiled (akliga). is called a buddha. Sravaka and pratyekabuddha can knowledge. hc mnslatcd as "hns fully undcniood 11 IO the end." 2"T1545.73~bl-12: lu7btllUt!IB%YA18.EfZillf btl. EiSXSr. li&XWLL.1118UIff;. BOUWX ~:i~iilt.1;0i9f. I;PI;IIW. wara;. m.~~würiw~w. RE,S;~W. azm. w.wfi~w.MY ..M. ~WIWA.btl+ar%. if;*. fiFxsrmmt. -~JJ~WX%Y-~. ~~iitmt.ilul~-tïlw~t. muriin. bii+sne. '"Cf. TlSJ6.277a15: i- :FIPiu7. 88 abandon only the kliga one, not the akligu one; hencc thcy are not callcd b~ddhas.'~' ... Somc say: One who, at the time of attaining the knowlcdge of exhaustion [of dcfilements] (Iyyu-jfiü~io).abandons both kleia-üvoruna (the obstruction of what is Io be known) and mob-Üvara!iu (the obstruction of libcntion) and acquires liberation of the mind. is called a buddha. In the case ofiravaka and pratyckabuddha. they either first abandon klcio-Üvara!ro and later mokpüvarana, or first abandon moka-üi~aranu.latcr klcia-üvuran; but not both [ai once]. Hence they are not callcd b~ddhas?'~' In the above passage, a total of some 21 theories are m~ntioned.2~~of which we have translated only thosc which arc of more interest for our prcscnt discussion. In panicular. we may note the following: awaking to the universal as well as the particular: awakcning in al1 manncrs: complete and non-erroneous awakcning to jfiqta: the absolutc conquest of al1 vüsa~iü(habitilal force). the complete comprehension of the dependent CO-arising:the abandoning of both kliiu and aklih-ujfiü~tu;the rcmoval of both kleia-üvaro!~ and molqo-üvara!~. All of thcse are actually entenained by the Vaibh@ikas themsclvcs. As a mattcr of fact, sincc thcre is no objection niscd by the Vibhwa compilcn to any of them. it is likely that they represent the opinions of various Sarvilstivadins including the Vaibh-ikas, and of other abhidhamikas tolcnted by them. As shown abovc. ihcrc are various opinions on the subjcct of the Buddha's knowlcdgc; howcvcr. the Vaibhqikas cmphasizc the aspect that Gravakas and prqyekabuddhas. although awakencd, still have some habitual forces (vüsariü) and possess the non-defiled ignorance (akliga-ajEüna).The Vibh~aasserts: There nre two kinds of falsc knowledge (witl~~d~~iüna):1. Defiled (kliga), 7. non-defiled (akliga).The defiled one is associated with avidvü (ignomnceldnrkness). the non-defiled one is not associatcd with avidyü like when one [secs] a bare tree a thought of a person nrises etc. As for the defiled one. both sravakas and pratyekabuddhas can completely abandon il, as wcll as rendcr it incapable of manifesting (sani-ud-ü-dcur).As for the non-dcfiled one. though iravakas and pratyekabuddhas can completely abandon it. they still manifest it. It is only the Tathagata who absolutely (ayanturn)does not manifcst [it] any more. as he has permanenily abandoned defilements (kleia)as well as habitual force (vüsanü).It is for this reason that he alonc is called a perfectly awakened one (saniyak saybiiddlia). The defiled n~itliyü~riünais a false knowledge from standpoint of the highcst sense O>araniürtlia).The non-defiled false knowledge is a false knowledge from the conventional (sarnv~ii)standpoint. not from the highest standpoint. sincc it is not associated with the defiled wong dhmas.'9i ~ravakasand pntyekabuddhas still revcal non-defiled ignomncc, while the Buddha does not because hc has permancntly (atyaniarn) abandoned defilements (kleia) and habitual forcc (vüsanfi).It also indicatcs that Savakas and pratyckabuddhas still have some defilements and habitual force remaining. This kind of explanation can be also round in the laier Pali abhidhamma literaturc. and represents a kind of feeling for the superiority of the Buddha's wi~dom.'~' In the Vibhqa. one of the definitions regarding the Buddha is given: If one permanently abandoned two kinds of aj~üria,viz., defiled (kliga) and non-defilcd (akliga). one is called a buddha. Srilvakas and pratyckabuddhas. although having abandoned kliga ajEÜria. have no1 abandoned akliga one.'q3 Such a delinition can also be round in other Sarvativada abhidharma ~exts.*~~ sravakas and pratyekabuddhas still remain in imperfection since they have The Vibha?n also explains habitual forces (vüsanü) which still take effects within the Question: Why do Çriivakas and pntyekabuddhas have habitual forces remaining even though they have removed defilements white the Buddha does not? Answer: Proj,i The Buddha's wisdom is sharp, has immediately removed defilements and the remaining habitua1 forces: not the two yüt~as.~~~ For Vaibheikas. the wisdoms or knowledgrs of the two yünas, Sravakas and pntyekabuddhas. are inferior IO the Buddha, because thcy still possess habitual force and non-defiled ignorance. The AKB gives basically similar descriptions and cxplains that the Buddha alone is callcd the one who has destroycd al1 darkness in every ~ay.'~'The Buddha has absolutely destroyed aj~ünuwith regard to al1 jtic.io (wliat is to be known) in everyway, so that ujtiünu cannot arisc anymore.'98 Pntyekabuddhas and iravakas have destroyed darkness with regard Io al1 things (sanorra), as they have removed kliga-aj,i everyway (sorvarliü). because they have riot removed ukligu-ajtiüna. Accordingly. they still have this akligu-ajIïütto with regard to things far remote in rime and space. to the - 2W Dhamlriïta in his Sa~~ijuk~ObhirlltarmaI~~dqagivcs lhc samc cxplannlion. T1552. 92 l b28-29: YI# L'CE&RUT%. I;P%I;UTi?. =-TIS~S.77~4-6: I:u~~c~~w~~;ABI:B. ~lt&~fittt;ifiimwi~c~;m~~~i. ~'SI;URWEI;~W 8g WifftWilii4i!%W. *TISJS. ISS~S-6:WZ?,*X$~J&W#iitdkI.it.X. Ji. :&/A. 29' AKB. p. I : sanarhusamahardndl~~~ra Loc. ci!. tac (i e. aj&7nam)ca bhagavaro buddhasja pratipa~~al AKB docs not givc any ncw information. The distinction between the Buddha and the two yüna is entirely based on whether or not the akliga-aj>iù~iuis absolutely (aryanrar.n) abandoned. However. the AKB does not mention iv%anü. Thc Sphi~!ürrliü Abhid/iarniakoiu~~ükI~.i~ü~a commentary on the AKB, States explicitly that "abandoning aj~iünaabsolutely" means that there is no morc manifestation (usaniudücüra)of it. This means that ajCÜnu that can still manifest as in the cases of pntyckabuddha and Sràvaka is akliga-ajriüna. Like the Buddha. they have already absolutely abandoned the kligu This vüsanü and akligu-ojiiü~ioare explaincd as a synonyin by sanghabhadra?" He defines thesc two as follows: If [pruj~iü]cannot understand the chanetcristics of taste, force. maturity. vinue. quaiuit): place, the. similarity, difierence etc. tmly as they are with regard IO al1 dhmas, this is akliga-ajAüno. This ukliga-uj,irina is called i~üsanü. [PrajCÜ]does not strive diligently to understand taste. iorce, maturity. etc. Prujfiü and diîlërent dhannas together serve as the causes for the arising of a subsequent similar prqa/MÜ.This pruj~iüagain docs not strive diligently to understand. becoming the cause for the arising of another prajAü that does no1 strive diligcntly to understnnd. To this way. from beginningless timc, causes and effccts in succession becomc habits. Thus. it is this inferior knowledge (itiüna) induccd [through a succession] by previous knowledges which repeatedly gels used IO bcing incapable of undcntanding the objects' taste. etc.; that is called akligu-a.~iÜna.Those very cirru-cairra co-nascent with it are known collectively as ivïsanü?' According to Saiighabhadn, ukligu-ajCÜnu and vüsanü are the same thing. Rep~esentingthe orthodox Vaibhbika. Sanghabhadra also maintains that vüsorrü is a merc designation for a panicular mental disposition. Akligu-aj>iriro is a blunt prajZ, one of the ten universal mental associates. As the practitioner progresses on the path, hisher prajCü is continuously bcing polished, as it were, until finally on the aitainment of buddhahood, this same projtiü is transformcd into complcte kno\vledge (suri-uj~;arü). In Sarvbtivada abhidharma, the arhats' knowledge is irnperfect because il rciains some non-defiled ignorance (akligu-ajtiriria). as discussed above. How then about the perfection of the Buddha's knowledge? The perfection of knowlcdgc is descnbcd as sun~ujtiurü (complete linow~cd~c).~~~For Sarvastivadins. sun~ujriurü is the Buddha's knowledge that is free from okli;p-aj~ürro.'~ In Early Buddhism. son~ojCar8 refers to the knowledgc of the Buddha. The Sut~~yttkrügatr~adescnbes the Buddha: "As such. having attaincd awakening. [the Tathagata] is endowed with complele knowlcdges (s~rvujtiarü)."'~~The Ekorrurügonia says. "Having attaincd survujCarÜ. [the Tathagata] rcached [the staic of] unobstnictcd pruj~ru..-- i.306 The Buddha. aller being awakened. is describcd by the expression, "At that 'O' Thcrc arc two Sansbit icrms ihai Xuan-wng iranslaies as - WB. 1. Surnurrujfidnu. 2. Sanwjtiurd. The former is only mcntioncd oncc in AKB: jfidnaraqipur pi~nuiculun~i~thdunitpudi?!ajtidno!>i sun~urrujfidnurun~urlidj~i~nuau~uInaj~id~iur~i CU cu~urvidha pruIid~~~u~!ipur (AKB. p. 415416). The comsponding Chincsc translation by Xuan-wng: Wküb!jiiP¶1B. -1(DIiB. i- WW. 2- tlJNW. l!4,~lliNBmiWIUiiM(TI.558. I4lb18-19). The Iaicr is appcarcd scvcml times in thc Inst chapicr of AKB. AKB. p. 467: 471;474-75. T1558.155a6-9. 156b. 157c. "scc. IIlk$GZ. -tJJN!W! a Wf'R (Tokyo: Wktt. 'VIX 4 W 93. Also sec. Dliammajoii. Tite Dcfkrs 79. '"'T99. 168~23:,$?@II Le. Jkz-tlJP1'. '0T125.618b26: U:lili-tJJFI' i&.RrfiRfH the. the Tathagata by means of san~aj~iorüknows thu~."'~' The PrujCupriSristro distinguishes plainly Srilvakas and the Buddha: "havakas are not so; thcy do no1 share snrvojCarü with the ~uddha.''~~~ In the Vibhaca, sorvoj~iarüis explaincd as the knowledgc only attributed to the Buddha: Comment: Only the Buddha knows the limit of namcs; othcrs [cannot] bccause they have no sarvujI7ur17?~ The Buddha is so called because he is endowed with sarvuj~k~rü?'~ "[The Buddha] attains supreme perfect awakening (a~iururüsonyak-su~ibodlii), posscsscs sorvuj~iarüand rcalizcs truly the nature of dharmas.""' Thus, for the Vaibht&ikas.son-ajriurü is the complete knowledge represcnting the Buddha's pruj~il. Sarvuj~icirü,complete knowledge. means knowledges regarding the 'hAve Loci (üyuta~ro),i.c. knowing the common chmcteristics and specific characteristic of the Twelve ~oci?" The Vibhva. frequently explains that only the Buddha has sun~aj~iorü. while an arhat does not. Howcver. there is one apparently contradictory statement in the Vibhwa where it explains that the Buddha has two kinds of knowledge: sun.oj~iorüand sun~üküruj~iarü(the knowledge of al1 modes). whilc ~ari~utnhas only sun~uj~iurü."~ This one occurrence may be influcnccd by the Mahayana movement at that lime. For '"'~120.512~23:I(JR'rII'@LZI-VJW. !U,Ybli. '0'T1538. 526al.5: tCUi!ll1;1. 4;WIII:VJI-UJJW. 'm~1545.74a8-9:;f~.I....nllfff;PB~ZLX!iW. GkkY%li-tlJ%'&!~. AISO.TI~G.74~3.5: UfJCfjLfl~ 8SWU8-tlJW. Aiso. Tt546.6~23-24;T1546.277aB. ""TI545. 177b7: Jl-08)i-%%>M. Also. inNy:T1562. 747~11. "'~154~.59b7-8:;ItWRIiI~~~t.Il-WB~inl9;a#;&it:C+:4U... "'~1546.343ai-26: I!likltl\W. 4;ERfk. 4;QGClrLrk. &%"dbI-tlJh The notion ofsarvajrïaiü in the Prajriüpüraniirü-shs is funher fine-tuned as three kinds of knowledge: sorvajriurü. niürgajfiarü (the knowledge of Path) and sorvükürojfiarü. representing the knowledge of the two yünas, the knowledge of bodhisattvas and the knowledge of the Buddha respcctively. The UpadeSa comments: In the later chapten [of the Prujtidpüraniirüsrirrol. the Buddha said himselfi "Sar~*ojrïarüis the matter of srivakas and pntyekabuddhas. iî4ürgajrïarü is the matter of al1 bodhisattvas. Sarvükürajrïurü is the matter of buddhas. hivakas and pratyekabuddhas only have general sarwaj,iorü. but not sun~ükürajfiarü~is There is a very interesting argument in the AKB pertaining IO whether the Buddha knows al1 things in one moment or a serics of moments. The arguments bctween the Vatsrputfiyas and Vasubandhu are as follows: ... We do not say [as do the ~ah%~ghikas]"~that the Buddha is called sarvojfiorü because he cm completcly know al1 [dhmas] immediately. Only in the scnse of series. has he the ability [IOknow]. therefore he obtains the name of a buddha. In the continuation of al1 skandhas, he accomplishes such unique ability. At the time of applying his mind, knowledge without error nriscs with regard IO the object he desires to know. Thus [this] is called sarvajfiarü. II is not ihat in one moment of thought evcrything is linown. Thus. regarding this. it is as stated in a verse: "As Tire. by the capacity of its series. bums all, in the samc manner. sanqjriarü. does not know al1 things abniptly."'" "'TIso~.259a19-20: N&RlXit~tliJi~ItU&!i. 87~-tlJf18. "'T1509. 259ii20: 646b20-24. Cf. hmoilc. E. Le Traifr' rlc la grande I4.rrit dc Sagcssr. de hrdgdr]irna. vol. 1-5 (Louvain: Universiit de Louvain. 1944. 1949, 1970. 1976 und 1980) 1746. Ilb Leo M. Pruden. tms. from French. Abhidhamiako~ohhd~sant.by Louis de La Vallce Poussin. Vol. IV. (Berkeley: Asian Hummilies Press. 990) 1328. "'T1558. 155aS-13:~?41~~8~-tlJflCCRi4bI&!i8-tIJ~/~.W'JtHlRiiY!IE&!i. ~W%Il%Y.~X PIlilA. PIPnBLBnUIfIL.~f~~~.~~fia);RitrZtrZ481Pl%'&.&%-tIJtJ,'. Il:E-2f1L41iiHb1. W? kitl$iPnPLXi:.'tiitUa{itrk !mk&-t)J $I~-~IJ~J/4l-dlil1Bb1." Am. p. 467: ...apdlh ern n'anna jaranna jaranani s.vd1. fasmdf prajfiaprisarpudgula rdiidhdr Buddha has completc knowledg in a series of moments. In the early siifras, san~ujrïafüis ascribed to the knowlcdge of the Buddha. For SarvLtiv3dins. san~uj~iofüis the Buddha's knowledge only. while arhats do not have sarvuj~ïalü.Later the Pruj>i Mahaymists, with their emphasis on the exclusive goal of Buddhahood, in contrast to the arhat ideal. had very good reasons to bc espccially interestcd in this development. One imponant theoretical hition of the Mahayma effort in this enterprise is the theory that a buddha is distinguished from the other two yütius in having both san~aj>iurüand san~kurujt>iu~ü;an arhat has only the first, not the second. . Chapter 7: The Developrnent of Prajiiü in Mahayana Buddhism 1. Ceneral Comments The abhidharma period witnesscd the flourishing of what we may term "Buddhist Philosophy." The doctrinal development of prujfiü \vas clearly discerniblc among the abhidharma schools. However. the period of the emergence of the Mahiyana and the subsequent development in Mahayana doctrines. to some extent. overlapped with the period of the abhidharma schools. The discussion below focuses on the relatively early Mahàyma stitras because, without doubt, there must have been a mutual influence. during the doctrinal formulation and articulation of prujfiü thought, between the abhidharma and Mahayana traditions. The purpose of discussion here. however, is not so much to determine this mutual influence. but to provide a comparative and contrastive perspective. As was the case in Early Buddhism. the two doctrines of prujtiri and S.iitiyatü in Mahayana are closely related. As a matter of fact. it may be said thai in MahZyZna-particularly in the earlier phase of Mahayana before the Yogacrsa-it is explicit that pruj13Ü in the highest sense is praj,iiipüraniirü which refcrs IO the spiritual realization that al1 dharmas are jrit~.va. 2. Tlre Development of Projiiü in the Prajtkïpüramitü Stütras Praj>nipüranritüSiitrus rue categorized as large. medium and smnll, and they refer to the, PrajIüpciraniitü in 100.000, 15.000 and 8,000 lines respcctively. These three categories werc already established by the lime NagBjuna (ca. 150 CE) wroie the ~pade~a?"The UpadeSa refers to ihese three categories as high. middle, and low. and names them Gitatig-:an (%R), Fang-girang (ak),and Dao Sing ($37 ~224)."' According to the Taishb Tripi!akn. Guang-:an (%,X T222). Fang-gitang (hk* n21) are different innslations for the Prajtiüpürutititü in 25,000 lines. However, Ven. Yin-shun designates those named abovr as the PrajtTUpuraniitü in 100.000.25,000 and 8.000 lines in thal order. It is possible thai when Kumarajiva translated the Upadeia, he used the sotra name. Gtiong-:an. which already existed ai that time. to refer to the Praj~iüpüraniitüin 100,000 lines?" In this thesis. reference to only PrajZpüraniitü in 8,000 and 15,000 "'~1509.756a28-29: $IIIL'P&~~Z~?~~~IBI~~.fi :+!fi. %.llZfi:Gii-tB!b;. "'~1509.529b22-23: 2&SZMi'if;BEf %*. ii%ii9iiL'PT. %?V&hSff. '20Tr;inslaiions of Yin-shun's Thr Orrgin and D~vclapmcnrof Bc Priniiriir Alahdydna fIJllOk?$2%?L2 &ittRI'!l111(Taipci: Zhcng Wen Pub. 1990) 24-25: Thc Upadcsa says: "hcre. ihe rncdium Prajddpdramird has 22.000 gPIh. the large prajddpdramird has 100.000 gih(T1509.756a28-29)." The Upadeia mcniioncd two cdiiions of [the large] Prajidp&rantrt& Sürras: 1) The one wiih 22.000 glthls is thc book on which ihc Upadcia based. II is gcncrally callcd "The Large Praj,idpdramitd Sütra" (*6A&E%!)which is cqual IO the second division (of six divisions) of the Xuan-wng's tr~nslation of "The hrgc Prajddpdranirrd Sdlra." 2) nie one wtih 100.000 githis concsponds Io "The Lrgc Prajridpdramird Stllra". hc Tirs1 division of ihc Xuang.wng's lransiaiion. Thc Upadch cigain says: 'Thc fasciclcs of [diiïèrcni] cdiiions of Prajddp&ramir& SOrras have many or less [thus ihcy can bc caicgorized os] hia. middle. low: Guang-:an Fang-guang. and Dao-xrng (T1509. 529b22-23)." Nlglrjuna ius mcniioncd hcrc divisions of high. middlc and low and also lisicd thc s0tn namcs. Agatn. [ihc Upadch] says: "...the small. Fang-guang, Guang-=an (TIS09. 620a)"; and thcse constiniic anothcr hcc sections. KurillnjIvo's translation OC "The Small Prajd&pdrnmifü Sürra" and Lokamba's tnnilaiion of"Duo-nng Proj,idp&ramir& Sütra" arc the samc book. which concsponds IO thc fiNidivision ofXuan-wng's tmnslaiion ol"The hrgc Prajidp&ramir& Sütra." The 20 fasciclcs Fang-guan>: ProjidpdramrrdSürra (T22I) uas innslated by Wu lu0 chu PP.M'x and the Guang-:anSùrra that remains as incomplcte cdition of IO fascicles and thai wu innslaicd by Dhannamksa (239-316) correspond 10 the second division of Xuan-wng's nnslation and ihcy also bclong 10 the caicgory of "h~cPrajiidpdramrtd Sürra." "Fang-guan" and "Gangmn" or "Gang-:ad' and "Fang-guun." plus "the Small Prajddpdramrl Sürra"-Da According to Edward Conze, al1 thcse Prujfiüpüruniifü Srifras can bc summed up in two sentences: 1. One should become a bodhisattva, Le. someone content with nothing less than complctc knowledpe (sarvq'fi~fü)attained through pruj17üpürun~ifüfor the sake of al1 living beings. 2. Thcre is no such thing as a bodhisattva, or complcte knowledge. or pruj,iripÜruniifü, or an attainment. The solution of this dilemma lies in nothing else than the fearlcss acceptancc ofboth contndictory facts.'" 2.1 Prajtiü in the (8,000 lines) The Pruj17üpürunri~üin 8.000 Lines (A:!usühusrik Aga) is the oldcst sDtra among the pruj~>iUpÜru»iiiü litcrature.'" The carliest exiant version of this tex1 is Lokakyxna's Chinese translation. the Dao Xing Bo Re Jing ($37 &E%,The SOtn of the Path Pncticing ~rujfiü)."' 3.1.1 Praj&ï and Non-attachment In the PrujAüpürurni~üSfifrus, the foundational idca behind the wordpruj17ü is that a Buddhist pnctitioner is beyond any kind of discrimination regarding objects or circumsianccs both material and psychological. Any opinions on good or bad are considered as an attachment thus beyond praj~>iupürunri~ü: Thc Buddha said to Subhüti, "As regards the bodhisattva-mah%attva's practicc of prujfiüpürunrifü: Not obscrving the defecis of material forms (rfipu) is the pncticc of Surra had the ihrec editions (large. middle and small) and theprajn'Opnramir0uiih 100.000glth3s had becn esiablishcd already. '"Edward Conzc. The LageSurroon Peficr Il'rsdoni (Delhi: Moiilal Banarsidass. 1979) 5. '" Edward Conzc. The Praj17~7pdramirdLirerarurc (Tokyo: The Reiyukai. 1978) 1. "'Tomojiro Hayashiya claimcd that this rom is uanslaicd by Dharmnkga (%itX$ Zhu-lu-/tu) no1 Loliakyma (XWaZhi-/au-ira-clien). Sec. T. Haynshiya. Bu&d o.vobr Bu!ih?dshi no h'cenh?d 'VflIY2 (Tokyo: Kikup Shotcn. Nov. 1948): 519-569. Cf. Nakmun. Indian 163n32. pruj17üp In Kumarajiva's translation of the ~~1'~this idea is expressed in various ways: The Buddha says. "If a bodhisattva does not give rise 10 the matenal form, then he gives rise to prajiüpüraniirü.. ."'Ib Do not think of pncticing praj,ipüruniitü. do not think of not practicing. do not think of pncticing or not pncticing, also ao not think of neither pncticing nor not pncticing. This is called the practice of prujiüpürun~iiü.Why? All dhnrmas are not pcrceived."7 Subhoti, if a bodhisattva does not coursc inX%aterial form (rüpu) nor becorne attached to [their] chmcteristics. he practices projtiüpüramirü. [If a b~~dhisattva] docs not course in feeling. perccption, formation. and consciousness. nor becorne attached to [their] characteristics, he practices prajfiüpüranii~ü?2q Bodhisanvas cruinot be atrached to anything including the supreme perfect awakening (anirrruru-saniyuksa~!~hodl~i): The Buddha said to Subhoti. 'The niahü-pürun~irüis a bodhisattva'spruj~i 2.1 .2 Prajtïü, ~lïn~aiüand Empty Space There is nothing to which one cm become ntmched becausc things are SNII~U.Prujr7ü SMP. IJIMXPJ. -VJSWX&. J:' J:' Edward Conzc. Thc Perficiron of Il'isdum ni Eiphi Thouund Lirrcs & Ils lksc Summay (Bolinas: Four Seasons Foundaiion. 1973) 145. 12q~27,552~-5: %%B. $;:RiX+fffi+%ti~. El!i~&&+!ilg. +i~%.U!li2ii4~%4l!.Wir ,*t;:#i#.&, J'"~r7,~~~ais-ro:BRXiE#. ~>l~Xb'fii'2~I&-E.I~ih'.rfiXlG?-Wit IWRX. ?WI Irt%KüLESi-WC. .B;,RRRI. requires the pnctitioner Io stand on a higher level IO observe al1 phenomena. This mcans one secs things-just-as-they-are: "Al1 dharmas have SNt?,~arü as their defining-chancteristic: [all dhmas] have non-chancteristic. non-creating. non-arising. non-producing. non-ceasing, non-depending as thcir defining-cliaractcnstics."'" ~iït~vurü.non-characteristic. non-arising etc. arepruj~>iopüraniirü: ~üti.vatüdoes not opente, does not return; it is without characteristic. without activity. without creating, without arising. without producing. There being nothing, no operation. no returning-this way discoursing is the discoursin onprajfiüpüratt~irü. [This is IO say] thcre is no one who listens. receives. or attains5 ~iit~~urüand al1 diese negaiive terms imply that there is no aitachment when one pnciices prajCüpÜrantirü just as one practices empty space: When one pnctices prajiiüpüraniirü. one's mind ncithcr increases nor decreases. neither retreats nor proceeds. Oh. World-honored One! Practice ofprajfiüpüramirü is just like practice of empty space."' The Sotra thus makes a direct statement that the practice of empty spacc is the practice of prajfiüpüraniirri: Within this profound prajtïüpüra~nirü.there is no definite dharma. To pnctice cmpty space is 10 practice pruj,Siiüran~irü.Oh World-honored One! Not to practice al1 dhmas is to practice pru~fiü~üra~~ii~ü.To pnctice limitlessness is to practice prujiiüpüraniirü. To pnctice non-attachment is to pnctice prajfiüpürut~iirü? The empty spacc contains and accepts eve~hingwithout being contaminated by any thing. The characteristic of prujt;üpüran~itri is just like the measurelessness and boundlcssness of the space. 2.1,3 How to Practice Non-attachment and Siin,larü are the principles for the practice of prajRüpÜraniirü~ however. how can one practice Siiiyarü? At that time, Subhüti asked the Buddha, "Oh World-honored One! If a bodhisattva wishes IO practice prajiüpüraniirü. in what manner should Sii~yarübe practiced? In what manner should s'iinyatü-saniüdlii be entered? The Buddha said to Subhüti. "A bodhisattva who practices prajn In brief, in practicing prajfiü. practitioners concentrate on observing everyihing as Sùizya. without a sense of what is being practiced and what is to be obtained. However, this does not mcan that one does nothing; on the contrar): one practices without abandoning and without being homfied by the idea that nothing is obtainablc. and nothing is cultivatable: Oh World-honored One! If proj,iüpÜruniirü is empty. how does a bodhisattva develop by means of prajiüpüramirü? Flow does hc attain closeness to the supreme perfect awakening (aniirraru-sanzyasa~!tbodhi)?Subhüti. a bodhisattva practices prajiüpürarnirü. there is neither increase nor decrcasc. Subhüti, if a bodhisattva hears this explanation, he is no1 surprised. not horrified. does not despair. does not despond. 11 should be known that this is a bodhisattva's practice of prajiüpüraniirü.'36 A bodhisattva practices prajriüpüranlirü and is attached to nothing: ncvcrtheless. this does not mean that thcre is nothing or that spiritual progess is impossible. The stitra reads: The Buddha said to Subhüti, "Therc is a rcason that if a bodhisattva claims that . prujïüpüranriiü is cmpty and nothing. hc thcrcby relinquishes prujtïüpürunriiü and is far away from prujtïüpüraniilü. Subhüti. this is callcd a bodhisattva's projnüpüranriiü?'7 Ifone clairns thatpraj,iripiironrirü is nothing in thc litcnl and conccptual scnsc. then one misunderstands prajfiüpüraniitü. A bodhisattva is attached to nothing. becausc al1 dharmas including prujtiü and S~inyuiüthemsclves are only provisional namcs. All dharma arc only provisional namcs. One should know that prajtïüpürun~itüis also likc this. AI1 dharma occur by rcason of Ianguage and speech: one should know projtïüpüranriiü is also like this. Also. language and spccch possess nothing and [dwell] nowhere: one should know prqjtïüpüraniirü is also like thi~?'~ In conclusion.prujfiü is a means for practice and al1 atmchments should bc abolished. All dharmasareSünp and whatever isdesignated as a dhmaekists only conventionally. A bodhisattva is not attachcd and is frccd from any attachments in thcir minds; a bodhisattva concentrates on observing al1 dharmas as Srirryu. Arguments and opinions are considered to bc attachmcnrs: accordingly. languagc and concepts ultimately should be abandoned inprujfiü pncticc. 2.2 PrajfiE in the Large Prajfiüpüramitü Sütras Rcgarding the meaning of prajniipüraniiiü. thcrc arc many e?tplanations: however. when Subhoti askcd a qucstion conccming thc meaning ofprujfiüpüron~iiü.the vcry firsi answer that the Buddha gave Subhüti wathat pruj,iripürartriiü is so-callcd bccausc one gains the highest meaning and crosses ovrr sat!rsüra to the other shore. This is in fact the mcaning ofpüruniiiü: pürurn (othcr shore) + iia (rcached): Subhüti said to the Buddha "For what reason is the often stated projtïüpürun~itü called prujfiüpürunrirü?'The Buddha said, "[By prujCüpürunri~ü.] one obtains the . highest meaning, crosses over al1 dhamas to reach thc other shore. For this rcason, it is called projfiüpüron~irü?39 Thc large Prajfiüpüranrirü Stïrrus (in 25.000 lincs and in 100.000 lines). add more items to explain the same doctrinal point. The impression that one gels in reading thc satras is that one idea is illustntcd by using as many examples as possible. Howcver. the basic doctrinal issue is the same: there is no attachrnent IO al1 dharmas inasmuch as al1 dharmas arc Sii>r.vu. Again. Subhüti. a bodhisattva who is not attached IO the five aggregates. is said to pnctice prajfiüpürun~irü.Nol Io be attachcd IO the six sensory organs- eycs. eus. nose, longue. body and consciousness is callcd the pnctice of prujfiüpürunritü. Nol to be atrached to the sixpüranrirüs is called the pnctice ofprajfiÜpürunrir Why does one have attachments? The sOtn States: The Buddha says, "Because one thinks. one becomes attached IO the scnsuous world. fonn world and formless world. Because one does not think ofanyihing. one attains non-attachrnent. Thus. a bodhisattva racticing projfiüpüruntirü. ncither appronches anyihing nor is attachcd to anything." So long as one has something in mind. one ha, utachment. In order IO ovcrcorne attachments. one must pncticeprujfiüpürunrirü without having any idea of pnctice. The Buddha says, "A hodhisattva who practices prujfiüpürunrirü does not see proj,icipürunrirü. This is bodhisattva-mahisattva's practice ~f~rajnü~ürumirü?~~ To cmphasize the aspect of non-attachmcnt. ihe Buddha has cxplaincd that cvcn pnctice is non-pncticc, bccause any idca of practicc is also considered as a concepiual prolifention (prapafica):3" "How docs a bodhisattva-rnahZsativa practicc prajfiüpüraniirü?" The Buddha said, "No practice is callcd pnctice ofproj>iüpüraniirü." "World-honorcd One! How is no practicc the practice of prajfiüpüraniirü?" The Buddha answered, "Bccausc prajfiüpüraniirü is no1 pcrceivablc (an-upa-d1abh)-bodhisattva is no1 perccivable: pncticc is not pcrccivable. The pnctitioner. ihc Dharma of pnctice, the place of practice also arc not pcrceivablc; thcreforc, this is callcd bodhisattva-mah&aiiva's pncticc of non-pncticc of praliüpürantitü. bccausc any conccptual prolifcniion (prapafica) is non-pcrceivable."44 In the pncticc of prajn'üpüraniitü. thcrc is no spacc for any fixaicd conccpis and idcas. Thosc bodhisattvas who wish to gain a higher lcvcl should take thcir stand on the highest position first wherc thcrc is no conccptual prolifcration or concept of "who is practicing," "what is pnciiced," and "whcrc thc destination is." Non-attachment. as esplaincd in the siifras, also rcflects a middle path in which, psychologically, onc is ncithcr angry nor happy in confronting any circumstanccs, becausc one esperiences that thcrc is not one who is agitatcd or abused or pniscd.)J5 In Early Buddhism. al1 dharma arc said to bc Jii~yabccausc thcrc is no ürnian. The Sain continues the line of cxplanation in Early Buddhism, Undcrsianding j~in.aiü through praj~ïü,and no1 to reckon the "1" or "Self'-this is praj,iüpüranrirü?4' '" Sec fn 78. 1U~13.373~13: %IU7WEV;aWElibC;-I#ai. #A. 4;~rPLZililllf~iWiii.WLT. %lu7 4cF~V.iilt'fifixXIP. a;. MfiiriiHiii.i;qfl/&. fiE+"f!1. i~fi4;981. irfiiiiLjr@di; 4ci1TCl/&. EZgWR,.,qEe4;i~bfi%%&;. -tJJ:A&k,$14;ZJf!i&k. '"1221. 10315-22: ... liill;.RiilldrX. d4iMAdll. ,TBXWb,FiWIiMfi:4ii;IiL'. 1213. 296311: M~&~~8i1I'~~b~~~.~~~. ""1222. I5Ob26-27: P;OW?2l;itA4Y. V74&&BBY. One should know that al1 conditioned (sü~tskyia)dhmüs and unconditioned dharmas conform Io iünyalü. One should know that "original nature" also conforms to itinyarü. This coincides with praj>iüpürantirü.)" Ail dharmas here include both conditioned and unconditioned dharmas. What is ncw in the large Prajriüpüramirü SNrras is the statemcnt that prajfiüpüranri~üis jtinvarü, One should enter rajr7üpürantitü as one enters the contemplation ofiiinyarfi. Ail things are nothing!' The sntn explains the practice of prajncpüranti~üas the practice of seven kinds of A bodhisnttva-mahàsattva who cultivates prajtïüpüra~~iirüpncticrs seven kinds of iünyarü-i.e. Stinyaiü of nature, itittyarü of characteristic. Si711yarü of al1 dharmas. Srïnyalü of nothing perceivable, iti~arüof non-existent dharmas. Srinyarü ofexistent dharmas, iünyarü of both existent and non-existent dharmas. This is said to be in conformity with praj>iüpüranii:ü?4q As explained in the Aga, the large Prajtiupürantirü Stirras compares praj~iüpürartritü to an empty space: What is the chancteristic ofprajt,irpüramirrj? The Buddha says. "'Prajriüpüranrirü is like the characteristic of empty space. It neither has any chanctcristic nor is chmcte~~ed.~~~ Prajriüpüranri~ü. SNrryarÜ, empty space are parallel idcas and stress the idea of non-attachment in the proccss of a bodhisattva's spiritual cultivation. 1.7 I221.5c23-25:~ti;i'Al-tJJlitii1.3it.%IIII>it.IicR'+~.X;fJi;t;CIfi;Oi(5!D. XI.\EI1Z&'&bXii:. Also T223.222~25-26. '"~~21.112523-24: hR%;-iPiUl'ih'.$liihQa. ,?irfiii%i.RBiii. Also in 100.000 linçs: T22O. 210526-27: BY%ltKM. +'itRrfifi4;WflI~*llltllltE&Eb"83:.Carcful observalion. if dhmas have noihing, rhis is called prajZüpdranlild. ""I223.222~28-22352:WiXr):RliiI1ZE&bYiE. fiE-W.rii:llCk5! hll1Q:ditY BtTiillY .%jLq{iitYditiiiL9. QZ WI1Z+?%&XB4UI.Xuan Zang's rmnslation of prujriBpdramird in 100.000 lines onen lisis 20 kinds ofiünwtd. See. E20. 13bl2: 18s: 1999: ?Oa6: 20b17: 2127: 29~24. 22.2 Positive Expression Not every pnctitioner stands at the highest level: therefore. for the bepinner. a more positivc description on prujfiü is necessary. The Prujt~üpüruniirüSürru in 35.000 Lines has positive expressions periaining the meritorious vinues: "World-honored One, docs a bodhisattva practice projnüpürunli~üfor the purpose of merit (piyiya)?" Thc Buddha rays. "[A bodhisattva] pncticcs ncithcr for ment nor for non-merit. The bodhisattvas should honor al1 buddhas. should bc accomplished in al1 wholesome mcrits. should be in che company of the Truc Friends. then. only one can attain suprcme perfect awakening (uirirrruru-~um~asu~~hod~ri)?~~ In the pnctice of prajfiüpüruniirü. although one should not approach if with a purpose in mind, al1 wholcsomc merits need to be accomplished. This rather positive esplanafion can be applied specially to a novice bodhisattva: The Buddha said to Subhati. "A novice bodhisattva who wishcs to lem about the six püruniirüs should be in the company of the Tme Friends. should always attend on thcm. and should follow closely to ihose who can esplain prujt~püru»iirü..."'5' According 10 Kumanjlva's translation. a bcginner should leam jii~iyurü and pnctices six püraniirüs: "World-honorcd One! If no pnctice is a bodhisattva-mahisattva's praciicc of prajiiüpürun~irü,how is a novice bodhisattva to practice prujiiüpürunriru~""Subhüti. a novice bodhisattva from the time of arousing hisher [bodhi] mind should lem the Dharma that nothing is pcrceivable. Because this bodhisattva. by vinuc of the unperceivable dharma, practices giving (dünu), moral vinue (Silu). fortitude (lqünri). clTori (vityu) and medifative absorption (dhyünu). In the same way. by vinue of the unperceivable dharma. hc pncticesprujfiü al1 the way to the knowlcdgc of al1 modes (survukùruj~iüt~u~ü)?~' 7.23 The True Characteristic of Dharmas (Dlrart~iarü) In Kum?uajTva's translation, prujfiüpürantirü has been explaincd in terms of the notion of "the tme characteristic of dhmas"'" as the reason why dharmas arc Slinya. When a bodhisattva-mahisatva practices praj>iüpüruniirü in this wag. he knows only "the tme characteristic of dharmas". "The WC characteristic of dharmas" means ihat there is no contamination or purity. In this manner. Subhüti. when a bodhisattva-mahisattva. practices pruj~üpüruntirü,he should how that names are concepts. Having known that names are conceptual and unrcal ,he does not become attached to material forms. feeling. perception, formation and consciousness ...'5' To accept things-as-they-arc is one aspect of prujr>iupüranti~ü.The s0tn also explains that one perceives "the tme characteristic of dharmas" as one becomes a buddha: The Buddha said to Subhüti. "A buddha is so-called. because he knows the tme meaning ofall dhmas." A~ain.a buddha is so-called becausc he perceives "the truc characteristic of dharmas." In bricf. in practicing prujfiüpürurrtirü one must be free of ang purposc; however. positively spealting. one needs to accomplish al1 wholesome merits. This positive explanalion is meant as a prescriptive instmction for the novice practitioner. A bodhisattva can have no fixated concepts or idcas in the praciice ofprujfiüpürunti~üand must be free of any conceptual prolifention or discrimination. A bodhisattva nccds to abolish al1 attachments and view things just-as-they-are under any circumstances. just as the empty space cmcontain and acccpt everything. 'Y XiLl #Il Zliu-fa-shi-xiang. dharmara. sec fn. 1 10. "'E23.23lbl2-16: WRM.JUF$lPii&fifisn'PRRi.tERlXitllU. Xitilf4UI;. %%.Ri?. fin!LflffB. WEB,;;1Bii!+2Bi&&jffILi. .j:;ttPbiZ'i'ME;a. biG%'?l. +XE&X.2!L! ir a...AISO. E2I. 115~26.27.:XiZ3!,R4Il,RtX. X~L$i$~Xf.t!mfi.F??:XiAQnU.~&. &itXiUfiii kfWBiii8Y. ')"E23. 379a15-16: Nb if; 244 ff %. RI lf' SJ 1 &Y %>CA; . 2.3. Conclusion Prajtiüpüruniitü is a designation for the highcst purpori and can help a pnctitioner cross ovcr saysüra to the other shore of ttino!ru. In pncticing prujfiü, a practitioner concenirates on obscrving that everything is Sütryu. whilc not having a scnse of what is pncticed and what is IO be obtained. That is. although prujtiopüruntiri~is pncticed, it is not pncticed to fulfill a goal or purpose. The large Prujfiüpürattrirü Sürrus added more items to esplain the same doctrinal point which is the same in al1 prujfiüpürarnirü ~01s.This means that inasmuch as al1 dhmas are +va, there is no basis for attachent IO any dharma. Conscquently. when prujfiü is a means for practice al1 attachments will become abolished. A bodhisattva is one who should not have any attachcnts and who should concentrate on observing al1 dharmas as iùtiya. Conscquently. for a bodhisattva. al1 arguments and opinions are seen as attachmenrs. In fact. for a bodhisattva. languagc and concepts should be abandoncd in onc'sprajfiü practicc. 3. TJre Dcvelopnrenf of Prajtiü in tJte Otl~erMal~ü~~üna Sritras 3.1 The Saddharmapuqdarhsütra The SuddI~arntupu!r~urikusti~ru(Lotus Sotn), one of the few whose original Sanskrit texts IO survive. is one of the rnost influcntial Mahayana sotm. It is süid tliat there wcre six Chincse translations of the Lotus Sotn, but only the translations made by Dharmarakca and by Kurnanjlva are ex tan^?^' The Lotus Soin follows in the footstcp of the Praj~üpuruniirüSüwa and cxpounds ifinyafü. The SOtra belongs 10 the Mahayana. the "great vehicle," and stresses the doctrine of One Vehiclc (ekuyünu). which is the Buddhn Vehicle. It is only with the Buddha Vehicle thüt one attains the ernancipation of cessation. There is no other vehicle. The exception is the Dharmas explaincd expcdiently by the ~ath~gata?~~ According to this soin, the doctrines of Four Noble Tmths and dependent CO-arising were taught by the Buddha for the purposc of prornoting Mahàyana. The Buddha's real intention is to teach the Buddha Vehicle. Oh Sons of a good fmily. at the beginning, the Four Noble Tmths were cxplained for thosc who sought to be Srivakas. and eight billion gods came down to listen 10 the Dharma and produced a rnind bent on enlightenment (bodl»lifpÜdu-cirro). In the rniddlc, the profound twelve-link causaiion was expounded for those who sought Io bc pntyekabuddhas, and rneasureless sentient bcings produced a rnind ben1 on enliglitenrnent or rernained as SrJvakas. Next. the Vaipulya (extensive and glorious) class or twclve kinds of sotras such as the iCIultüpruj~üpürantirü.Avafa~uku [soin that is deep as] sen and [expansive as] clouds wcrc explaincd to illustnte the "' Leon Hurviu Scrtpiure of ihr Lorus Blossoni of the Finc Dhnrmo (New York: Columbia University Press. 1976) ix. "'~262.25cl8-20:WUf%fifi~d~rP.!JLLIRf@&. F%.n);!I~l!kXf!i!&f.. 110 bodhisattvas' practice in the distant past pcriods?59 This passage givcs a chronology of the wholc Buddha's tcaching. First, the Buddha tau& the Four Noble Tmths. then. the doctnnc of dependent CO-arising,and finally the PrajIüpüruniirü and Ai~aran~sukasimas. This chronology indicatcs thai thc ProjIüpürun~itüand Avutarnsuka sotras had bccn prescnt beforc thc Lotus SLitn was composed. The Sutra's refcrcnccs IO jr7oiprü is not as extensive as that in the PrujIüpüruniirü Sütras and its major conccm is with pnctice nther than with thcory. Its central themc is the One Vchicle; in short. to makc buddhahood availablc to al1 living bcings \vas thc Buddha's sole purpose for coming into the wor~d?~~The definition of the One Vehicle. is IO be sought in the doctrine of iüiiyurü: The Tathàgata knows this one characteristic. one taste Dharma, i.c. the characteristic of cmancipation. the chancteristic of dispersing, the characteristic of cessation, the characteristic of ultimatc nin All dharmas are considerrd to bc Shnyu by vinuc of dependent CO-arising,just as thcy have bcen explaincd in Early Buddhism. The Sntn follows in the linc of Early Buddhism: Again. a bodhisattva observes that al1 dharmas are siinyu, as characteristics just-as-thcy-are, not pcwcrtcd. no1 moving, not retuming. not turning, just like the cmpty space. no1 possessing a nature. extinct of al1 language and speech. ncithcr produced. accruing, nor arising. nameless, without characteristic. not existing, measurelcss. borderlcss. without hindrancc and without obstruction. and existent by virtuc of causes and condition^?^' III In the ~eini~~urfart~,a-cokru-s~ifru?~~which is rcgarded as predecessor of the Lotus SQtra. wc find a clcar definition ofprajiüpüruinifü: "Not Io differeniiate al1 dharmas is called pruj~üpürarr~irü.~~3~ In conclusion. there are many doctrines taught by the Buddha: however. the Buddha's real intention is to teach the One Vehicle. which is explaincd as the doctrine of iiiqarü. ~iir~~arüsimply is, because everything is dependcntly CO-arising. ~iin~arüis chancterized as empty space. which contains everything but attachcd to nothing. In i~ï~yufü.languages and concepts do not apply. Things occur but only as causes and conditions. Thus. the SOtn clairns "dharmas neither anse nor ccase ..." A bodhisattva practicesprajtïü, acccpts things just-as-thcy-are. and does not differcntiate things. 3.2 The Buddha-avatamsaka-sütra The full name oithis sain is called thc Buddl~ü~ofa~ü.uku-n~aI~üvuip~~~~~u-s~(j< ?il& f& & hYt% Du fang girung fo hua yan jing), in which the Sanskrit texts. now separatcd as "Gu!i&i~)~fiI~u"and the "Daiablihiku-sflfra," arc includcd. '" The dcvclopment of awakening is describcd by mcans of a story of a pilgrimage in which the ccntnl chancter, a scekcr of tnith named Sudhana. is sent on a journey by MailjuÇri. the pcrsonification of wisdom. The spiritual friends whom Sudhana encountered on the journey do not claim to hold the whole lni~h?~~This indicates that therc is no particular mcthod of practice rhat is universally valid; pmctices arc pan ofa cohcrent whole that needs al1 its pans to function b. -tJJ;ii;;~&. l;%;l;al;&. .%%.%4Ui!.%Tiili. W~diSIlü.PtCA.ioUlWli. '"'l268 l%YWtkf?iRiPl;il(MU5h.Sec. Nakamun. Indran 192. Ibl 1268.285520-25: l~ff~i~l-tJJiLZ@t;l&HP. 16' Nakamun. Indian 195. le. Thomas Clcq. Invoduclion. The Flowr Urnnmenr Scrrprure. A Tlanrlanon ofrhe Avaranrraka Surra, Vol. III. rnns. Thomas (Boston: Shmbhala. 1987) 1. propcrly.'67 With respeci IO the doctrine ofpraj17ü. ten püraniitüs are explained together with the icn bodhisattva siages. Here. the aspect of geai compassion (niahükanqiü) is emphasized: This bodhisattva possesses the ten püraniitüs and the pnctice of the ten stages in each thought moment. Why? This bodhisattva, in cach thought moment with grcat compassion (nrahükancnu) as the staning point. pnctices the Buddha Dharma and dedicates them to great prajtïü.'68 In order to obiain the perfection of pruj>iu. one necds to help others with the grcat compassion: Oh. sons of buddha! Bodhisattva thus observes conditioncd dharmas IO have many imperfections. IO have no self-nature. to neitlier arise nor ceasc, and always gives rise to great compassion (nruhükoncnü) without discarding sentient beings. Then. prujfiüpüraniirü appears face to face with him?6' What is prujtïü? Prajiiu in fhc ten pürunritüs is explained in two ways: first. prujfiüpüratitirü means that by which one secs al1 dharma just-as-they-ar~?~~Sccondly. in praj17üpüraniirü one accepts al1 things and tolcntes any circumstances without becoming upset. "To endure al1 dharmas as neither ansing nor ceasing. this is called prajfiüpüraniitü.'"7' One views al1 things as-they-arc and thus accepts every one and every fhing and endures any situation. PrajGpüranritü is what frres one from attachments or discriminations. The satn reads. iL.%bl!nP. "' 7-79. I96c3-1: lk.C.%it. !#%RN. b%lllfi&iüi'P. Also. P-86. 517~28-29:BXit5W.l; !kIUl. ,!&filiülff. And.7-78. 563b03: Rh4rBF.fllI,@t;:fiiü~i.7-78.561~03:.~;tiiLl~!îil"l. :L&.C'LPP1k&Rasn. If a sentient being comes to my place. 1will inimediately cxplain projtïüpüranrilü for . him. Oh. sons of a good fmily! 1. seeing al1 sentient beings, do not discriminate thc chancteristic of al1 beings. becausc I see clearly with the prujiü-cycs. 1, hcaring al1 words, do not discriminatc the chancteristic of language. because the mind is not attached. 1. sceing al1 Tathagata. do not discriminate the characteristic of Tathagata, because 1 undcrstand the dharma-body. 1, iaking charge al1 dharma-whccls, do not discriminate the chancteristic of dharma-wheels. bccausc 1 am awakcncd Io the self-nature of dharmas. In onc thought. 1 knowing extcnsivcly al1 dharmas do not discriminatc the chancteristics of al1 dhamas. becausc I know dharmas as i~lusion?~' gain, prujEüpüramirü entails that onc acccpts things as-thcy-are, thus one does not discriminate things or pesons whether a sentient being or a Tathagata. In more positive tems. the Ai~uru~~r.wku-srirraacknowledges the karma effecls: All dharmas have relnbution based on thcir karma?73 A bodhisattva observes al1 dhmas. [He obscrves that] the world is appeased. empty without remainder: thcre is ncithcr creation nor creator. and also yet al1 karmic retributions are not nu~lified.~~' Thcre is nothing existent but karmic effects: Know ihat al1 sentient bcings are Srinyu-none-exisients: howcver [know that] karmic effects are not destr~yed?~' The sotn also explains that one necd not bc pcssimistic, became the "wholesome roots." wholesome merits are not cmpty: The Tathigata's pmpcr Dharma can not bc nullified. Immeasunble wholesome roots arc ail not en~~t~.'~~ The Avalo~soku-s~ïiraexplains that when 42 foundational Sanskrit lettcrs for libcration are chanted, then the 42 prajiüpürunriiüs are considcrcd as primary; one eniers mcasureless and countless prajiüpüruniitü gatc~?~~The sütra also discusses a hundred million asa~rkhyu(unmcasurable time) prujfiüpürariritügat~s.'~~ In conclusion,prajtiü as explaincd in the A~~oia~~rruknSNtru is basically the samc as that explained in the prujtÏüpürumitü s0tns. i.e. prajfiü is not something to which onc should be attached but is the accepmce of rcality-just-as-it-is without discrimination. The Ai~aiat~rsukunot only cxpands the six pürantiiüs into ten püraniiiüs but cven claims therc are innumerable pruj,iitpüronritüs. In more positive terms, the sütra emphasizes compassion (koriqro) or the act of helping othcr scntient beings as the main task of a bodhisattva. A bodhisattva pncticcs prujtiü and utilizes appropriate actions (upüyu-karrjulyu)to help othcrs. In short. the sutra givcs positive comments on doctrinal issues and spells out the eKccts of karma and wholesome mcrits. 3.3 The Ratnaküfa-sütra The iClriliüra~t~uk~-d/rurniupar~üy~-~a~usü/~~~ri~-gr~n~I~u(;Iï#'16% Du hao ji jing. The Heap of Jewels Sütn) consists of 120 fasciclcs in 49 sections. The compleied translation of the sntn seems to be a compilation of translations done by diretent penons. This sutra contains a broad mge of subjects. Gama C. C. Chang commenis that this s0tn can bc callcd a small encyclopedia of Mahayana Buddhism. The topics discussed nnge from the monastic precepts (vinayu) to prujtïü, from good deponment to thc manifestation of the Tathagata's light, from illusion (n10.vÜ)and appropriate actions to the nature of consciousness and the Pure Land practice?79 Among the various texts found in this satra, sorne are vcry close to the texts of Early Buddhism. The practicc of prujr,iüpÜrun~irüis explained as the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path, and prajtïüpüruniirü is explained as the understanding and knowledge of depcndent CO-arising that had been represented as thc Twelve Links in the chain of causation. If a bodhisattva-mahasattvn wishes IO practice prajtiüpüraniirü. he should diligently practice the Noble Eightfold ~ath."" How is a bodhisattva-mahkattva to accornplish prajtiüpürar~iiru? Maitreya! If a bodhisattva-rnahsattva is aware as follows: depended on this dharma there is that dharma; dependent on this dharma, that dharma anses-that is, avidyü (ignoranceldarkncss) givcs rise to karma-formation (~~r~kura)'~'.karma-formation gives rise to consciousness (vij~üna)...38' Becausr the Rarnukiï!~consists of a collection of difirent texts. the cxplanations on prajriüpüramirü are diverse. Most of the texts explain praj17ü in the context of the six piraniiris: however, sorne texts, following the Aiara!!~saku.expound ten püramirüs in rclationship to the ten stages?83 Prujriü andprajr,iripüruniirüarc expounded as the same: there is no discrimination in prujGü. Thcre is nothing to be graspcd nor is there anything to be abandoned. As for rtin~Ü!iaor sor?tsüra, the sain States: Prajfiüpüran~irüdoes not sec that diere is a dharma to be grasped or to be abandoned. One who pncticcs prajtiüpüran~irüin that manncr does not sec nirvÜ!ia as enjoyablc, nor birth and death (sor~~~üru)as despicablc.38J So long as one perceives bcauty and uglincss. one discriminates: Do not sec [things as] beautiful or ugly: do not produce a thought ot'high or low: do not accept or reject. Why? Dharmas are ncither bcautiful nor ugly becausc they are devoid of al1 chmcteristics. Dharmas are neither high nor low because the chancierisiics of dhannas arc equal. Dharmas are neither to be accepted nor re'ected bccausc thcy abidc in Lirnit of Rcality. This is the practicc of praj>iüpüruniirü!8' One who practiccs praj~T "Bodhisattvas help innumenblc sentient beings, but there is no1 a single bcing IO bc h~lped.""~Bodhisattvas practicc pruj,iri but do not give risc to any conceptual proliferation ~>rapa>ica)?~' The sarra also explains that sar~rsira.nirvüna and even the Buddha "...are convention (sa~p~ri)and dependent on concepts: thc wise should not become attached to ih~m."'~~~rin~utü means that one is far removcd from gnsping and attachmcnt. and that from the perspective of the Highcst Tmth @arunrÜrrl~u-sa~~a~~i)there is no perception of reality. Bccause the nature of al1 dharma is ii711yu. it is callcd iri~ryarüjus1 as the vast emptincss is called "cmpty space." The nature of vas1 emptiness is inexpressiblc so as 3.4 Prajtïia in Pure Land Buddhism The idca that one can be bom in a pure land by chanting a buddha's narne can be found in the ~~4uhüprujAüpüru,r1irüSiïrra (in 25000 line). but the purc land therein "'T310. 152~19. "'T310.380a13: ... IUI# AiallSLW&<;2. B);t?dt4;EUA. "v~3~o.?27b17r?f;iYlii$~tlIlit#. 8nllltllit;iqCl. ttlr&.ii& ;&%h.i;.:.!ma&! %.%fi 2. fiiïLCkI;V;:X. BiXYit&8Y-\2. iTY@Qi++..l;4 nial. Cf. MMK.xxiv-8. describcd is no1 specitically AmitPbha's ~uddha-land.3wIn the Sitkhüi~ariiyt7ha-.sürru and Anii~üyitrdhyünu-siiira.the chanting of AmitZbha buddha's name and bcing born in the Buddha-land of AmitBbha arc espounded.3v' These sutras mainly promote the Purc Land of Amiabha. Howevcr. in order IO bc bom in the Pure Land. an accumulation of merits is necessary. and this accumulation of merit is bascd on the pncticc of sis püruniitüs. The Sitk/iÜi~uriiyiihu-siifruStates: Pncticing sixpüraniirüs one exhons others 10 practice: in many ku1pu.s merits will be accumulaicd and vinue will accr~e?~' The practice of the six püraniirüs is proclaimed as one of AmitPbha (Dharmakan) Buddha's vows in the Larger ~itk/iüro~i~i/iu-sü~ru.~~~Evcn though al1 kinds of people can bc born in the land of AmitPbha. there are diiï'crent levels. In thc Siik~tüi~uri1~hha-s13rra,there arc threc levels of people born in Amitebha buddha's land. The first bel consisis of thosc who rcnouncc the world as ira»ia!iu (recluse) and practice the six püran~irüs?94Although the Pure Land sutras do not cxpound ititiyaiü pet se, the jütiyurü of al1 dharmas and no-Self can be methods for seeking and atiriining the pure buddha-land.39' 3.5 The Mahaparinirvaqa-siitra The Mu/1üparir1in~ü~iu-s01ruwas writtcn some timc betwecn thc period following 'P"1223.375n15: -t'iiA-iRiSiWM. 73$iWEdfh14~&. T253.378blO-Il: WrYïLRiXllLJ:!hl;tl: di%. d;llLiPWWI I:iJi$LZ2. "' Nakamum. h~dian203. '" O3&WRRH!T360,269c?t: îilrifi.i&ii:. %Ahi~.R%:~PIMJ~WJKLY. '" It is the scvenih vow in %;WWQBELIIXHCin'IZ1%WSIEAii!H$T362. 301b29. And ihc tweniy-sevenih vow in the %;3ikWQEflT364.329b22. 1W n6z. 309c3-59. T3a. 337a17-20. '"'~360.273al6-17: -OY%&! A:)ii-?f& 1: U~.rJi&~?.k confidence. it is said that al1 senticnt bcings have the Buddha-nature. Great . confidence is the Buddha-nature. Buddha-nature is ~athagata?~' The Buddha-nature that the sOtra promotes is one's confidence in the Buddha; it is Tathagata; it is also the great loving-kindness and compassion of the Buddha. Eve- sentient being embodies this qunlity and hence possesses Buddha-nature: Oh, sons of a good family! Great loving-kindness and great compassion are callcd Buddha-nature. Why? The grcat loving-kindness and great compassion always follow a bodhisattva jus! as shadow follows the figure. All sentient beings will without doubt atcain great loving-kindness and great compassion; thus, it is said that al1 sentient beings have Buddha-nature. Great loving-kindness and great compassion are called Buddha-nature; Buddha-nature is called ~athagata?" All sentient beings are embodied with Buddha-nature and thus are potential buddhas. As long as one has loving-kindness and compassion. one is considered IO have Buddha-nature. Even the worst immoral person (iccliunrika) has Buddha-nature and is able IO bccomc Buddha: "Oh Tathagata! If il were said that an iccl~unrikahas no wholesome dhmas. would an icchunrika not have a loving mind towards schoolmatcs. teachers. parents. relatives and wives? But helshe does have such [a loving mind]. so isn'i ii good?" The Buddha says, "Good. Good! Sons of a good family, that is a good question.'40' This conversation between KaSyapa and the Buddha implics that even the worst immoral person such as an icchunrika has the Buddha-nature. As regards how to develop the Buddha-nature, the satra suggests that one should study and follow the Mahayana sotras. mainly the hfuliünirvü!io Srifru. "All bodhisattvas who dwell in the I/aipirlya and Muhünind!iu srirrus sec ~uddha-na~urc.'~~'By pncticing al1 dharma. If there is something to bc viewed, then one docs not sec Buddha-mture. .If one cannot practice pruj~üpürunxirü. then one neither obtains nor enters reat niripü!iu. Therefore. a bodhisattva sees al1 dharmas as non-existence of nature. 4& "Tathagata is also 3iinya. the great ninvp~ais also Sii~ivu.Thus a bodhisattva views al1 dharmas as Sti~~yurü.'~~~This statcment contradicts the above statement that the great fiir~~Ü!~uis Self and non-Sünprü. These contndictory statcments suggcst that the compilation of the satn was not from a single source. There are clear signs of patches?w 3.6 Conclusion The SuddIturn~upu~~durikusN~ruin continuing the doctrine of S~io,orüround in the PrujEüpüruniirü Siiira stresses the doctrine of One Vehicle (ekuyüna). The Avaru~yuku expands the six püruniirüs into tenpüruniirüs, and cven claims that there are numberless pruj~>iopüruniirüs.Positivcly. it also emphasizes the aspect of compassion (kurti!iu) and fully explains the notions of karmic efïccts and wholesome merits. The Ruoiukiiru-siirru covers al1 aspects of Mahayana doctrines. The Pure Land School does not emphasize Siïnyurü. but explains that 3ii1yurü and no-Self cm be methods for seeking and attaining the Pure Land. To practice the six püruniirüs is one of the Amilabha buddha's vows. To be bom into the Pure Land. the bodhisattvas are encounged to practice the six püruniirüs in order to accumulate merits. The hluliüpuri~~ind!iu-s~i~ruexpounds the theory of Buddha-nature that gives rise to many controversial issues. Since the satra was dcveloped at a later date. there are many elements that need to be studied bcfore any conclusion can bc made. Chapter 8: A Sumrnary of Prajiiiü in the UpadeSa The Upadcia (Maiiüprajtüpüranri~ü-ripadcia)is a commentary on the Pa>icavit!lSatisühasrikciusrikü Prajtüpüramiiü ~171ro(Pr Nagajuna by tndiiioc?'O Although the Upadeia quotes offen from the JPS and Vibhwa it mostly takes a critical attitude toward them?" The Upadesa lists 23 reasons4" for why the Buddha spoke the Prajtüpüronritü Siirras. All of those reasons can be placcd under one motif which is IO explain the Path of bodhisattva: In the Tripi!aka, cxtcnsively quoting various similes (~ünta),the Buddha explained the Dharma for the sake of tavakas. [but] hc did not explain the bodhisattva path. The Buddha now wishes to esplain in great detail the bodhisattva path to Maitreya etc.'"' This bodhisattva path isprajtüpüronrifü. Praj~iüpürut~riiüis explained as that which subsumes everything but at the samr time is nothing, because, as long as a prictitioner believes that there is a thing it is considercd to be an attachmeni. In the UpadeSa, proj~iü~raj>ilipürun~i~üis explained as "the truc characteristic ofdhmas." In regard Io "O ïhcrc arc some arguments rcgardrng thc author of hc Upadcia. a rcccnr book by Vcncmblc Yin-Shun. has showcd that thc rcal aulhor is NOgaqum. In hir book. hc spccifically dcals wlth somc qucslions raiscd by Lmottc. -f--AdL#. Akin Himkawa (Y JIl%)and bUAi'!d!W. Yin-Shun. Thr Auiliur and Transluiion of i/ie Da Zlti Duo Lun ;tN'Z,&2/1-'fiAtl(.kYJ(Taiwan: Dong Zong Publishing Housc. 1991 X;;:* rtitt. tWlA-t-W '"TI 509.91~:273a: 255b. Sce Yin-Shun. The Author und Translarron. 51. 4' Tl 509.57~-62c. "'T1509. 57~24-5831: . 16ia;Ifa11D);uâi. %tRii,%it. I;,?tHr%it?. f&"iiü'l>%ihsf . t&;Jt;XTH~li. "the tme chancteristic of dharmas," there is no dispute; one accepis rcality as-it-is. What follows is a discussion on the ternis relaied 10 prajki-"the tmc characteristic of dharmas,"">raj17üpüraniirü,""non-disputalion dharma (oro!ra-dliurrna ,&ai&MW zheng fa)" from the UpadeÇa. 2. "The True Characteristic of Dharmas" "The tme characteristic ofdharma~'~'~is a synonym ofprajcü. II is the reality of al1 dharmas as scen by bodhisattvas. In that stage. a bodhisattva views things-as-they-arc wherein subjects and objccts arc removed; thus, a bodhisattva has no conceptual proiiferaiion @r~~mico)~"or disputation (ar~!trr).i'~ The UpadeÇa daims that the Buddha. wishing to explain "the tmc characteristic of dharmas," delivered the PrajAüpüra~~iirüSNrras: The Buddha wishes to reveal "the tme characicristic ofdharmas" in order to remove al1 sentient beings' doubts?" All buddhas have two ways to tcach Dharma: the first one is to observe people's minds in accordance with their capacity of being iaught; the second one is to observe secm. i IO. '"Sec fn. 78. "'Doctrinally. rqtu is cqual to klciu (cmoiional amiciions) and ihus urow mcans %cc from dcpnviiy. passion. impuriiy" (BHSD ab-65a). Thc Chincsc iranslaiion "without dispuic" is the Iiicml mcaning for urqa (\II). II also mcans "without fighiing;" "mihout clash." "forcign. distani." In the carly siiim. uru!iu rcfers 10 the Buddha. cg. hfudli?.umü~u~iiuI'C4$W! (T26.44469) says: hl !k fm2ELW#KR filWY: .hiitFdUPnIQW6f~ThcTath3gaia. bcing libcmtedihus mcnially.gainsthe fivc repuiaiions: in accordancc wiih Dharma. undispuiablc (uru!~u).wonhy of love and wonhy of respect ... The VibhgP dso uscs uruno in refcningio the Buddha (TISJS. 25% 26): HCS#&V,S.I-LB$LRXR &!l,%bD. ii~l:l1I;!â&&!lt.Ci3. The Buddha is the one who hu seen the mcaning. thc Dhma. wholesomencss and whai is imcd. Thus he is said IO bc "uiihoui-dispuic." The worldly no1 bcing Iikc this is wid IO bc onc "hving dispuic." "'TlS09. S9bl7-19: ~%~~~'~OJ;-WX~LU~U. ll-tJJ%%LfZ\. [the true chancteristic ofl al1 dharmas. Here the Buddha wishes to explain "the truc . characteristic of al1 dham~as!'~ This "me characteristic of dharmas" is also explaincd as thc highest purport siddliü~iro:"~ It goes beyond al1 expressions. The practitioner's thought is extinct in the locus of hisher aciivity and dwells nowhere. It does not proclaim any dharmas. "The truc characteristic of dharma" has no begiming, nor middle, nor end. neither exhaustion nor destruction. This is called the highest purport sidd/~ü,uo.j'~ "The tmc chancteristic of dhmas" is the "original" nature of dharma. It is projriü that sees reality as-ibis before it has been construed as an cntity or concept. Thc subjcct matter of the UpadeSa is projfiüpürontirü. This prujfiüpüroniirü is the perfect insight of a bodhisattva and is explained as "the true characteristic of dharmas." 2.1 ' In the Upadeia the Vaibhqikas arc criticized as those who do not know "the true characteristic of dharmas"; thus. they are said to not pncticc the path of bodhisattvas.'" This indicates that "thc truc characteristic ofdhmas" is known by the bodhisattvas only and not by the so-called Hinayana gravakas of whom the abhidhmikas are the representative: "'~1509. 62~9-62b~:XPii -.iflait: : -2;. IWA~bFitiOl2fi: :.n.tKXit7WliiaXil.l 1061. E20.604c:T221.77b: T223.32Sb. ""The Chinese .& W is the innsliicntion of ihe Sanskrit siddhünro. Siddl~ü~~rriis composcd of~iddhu (from 4.~id11:accomplished. fullillcd) and unru (end): thus. il liicnlly mcans that which can accomplish one's end. It also means "senlcd opinion or doctrine." "dogm." 'hxioni." "receivcd or admirted tmih ..."(Monicr 1216n).The Upndcia cxpounds four kinds ofsiddhünro, sec TI509.59b-60c. 4:o~iso9.6~b7-9:i~-t~i;fi;;'. a.c.ri!,uamtmfi. ~;,J~X "The true characteristic of dharma" is what results from one's practice on a bodhisattva path. "The true characteristic of dharmas" is prujfiüpüronti~ü?" Both the Buddha and bodhisattvas possess knowledge regarding "the truc chancteristic of dharmas" evcn though the bodhisattvas may still have canker/outflow (süsrava). The Question: The Buddha, who has removcd various defilements (klebs) and habitual forces (vüsonü) and [gained] the pure prajfiü-eye, should thus obtain "the true chanctcristic of dharmas." "The true characteristic of dhmas" is prujfiüpüraniilü. A bodhisattva has not removed al1 outflow (Üsravo); his prajfiü-cye is not pure. how can hc gain "the truc characteristic of dhamias"?'" Answer: This will bc widcly cxplained in later sections. Now. 1 just cxplain briefly. For example. people enter the sea: some people are just beginning IO enter, while some people have reached the bottom. There is a distinction conceming depth and shallownrss. but both are said to have entercd. The Buddha and a bodhisattva are jus1 like this: the Buddha has reached the deep bottom, whilc a bodhisattva has not removed al1 defilements and habitual forces. Thus, his power is weak and he can not enter as explained by the simile in later sections. For example. a person in a dark room is lighting a lamp. which lights up al1 things. Thcre is another big lamp which makes [the room] brighter. Thus. [we] know that darkness shattered by the latter lamp compounds together with the former lamp. Although the former lamp stays togethcr with the darkness, it also can light up things. If therc \vas no darkness [CO-existing]with the former lamp. the latter lump has no [clarity] to add on to. The prajfiü of al1 buddhas and bodhisattvas are just like this. The bodhisattva's prujfiü conjoins with habitual forces of defilemcnis. but [bodhisattva] can perceive "the true chancteristic of dharmas." just as the former lamp can light things up. The Buddha's projfiü has none of the habitual forces of dcfilements; and he also perceives "the truc chanctcristic of dharmas." in the mamer that the latter lamp makes die room brighter?" Thus it is clear that both the Buddha and bodhisattvas are those who posscss the knowledge of "the truc characteristic ofdharmas" and are just likc the light that funciions to remove darkness. though there may be a difîcrence of being strong or fecblc. The Upadeia also distinguishes "the truc characteristic of dhmas" with regard lo other traditions. Different traditions havc difîcrent notions regarding "the truc characteristic of dharmas." Howevcr, it is only "the truc characteristic of dhmas"of the PrajAüpüraniiiü Srirras that is equated to praj17üpüraniiiü. The UpadeSa explains: The worldly books are not truc. becausc they are for the purpose of protecting a country and uniting a family. for personal welfare. longevity and [worldly] pleasurc. Heretics fall into the doctrine of wrong view: their minds have attachment, so their [doctrines] too are not truc In the Dharma of SrZvakas, although thcrc are the Four Tmths. they observe "the true characteristic of dhmas" with "impermancncc (aniiyoiü). dir!ikliarü and no-Self (nairüinya). Their prajriü is not complete. not sharp enough for [helping] al1 sentient bcings. They arc not considered as having acquired the Buddha Dharma. They have true prajfiü. but it is notprajAüpüraniiiü. II is said, "when the Buddha entes and exiles al1 saniüdhis. hiputta etc. can not evcn hear the names". not mention that they can know them. Why? Arhats. pntyekabuddhas. from the first moment of arousing the [hodhi] mind, do no! makc great vows (niaküpra!iidliüna): have no great loving-kindness (nialiüniaiirîj; have no great compassion (nialiükanc!iü): do not seck al1 merits (pqta); do not make ofîerings to al1 buddhas of the threc times (the past, the present and the future) in the tcn directions; do not attentively and concentratively seek to know "the truc characteristic of dhmas": but seek only freedom from du!iklla, decay, illness and death. All bodhisattvas, from the moment of arousing the [badhi] mind, make great vows. have great loving-kindness. and compassion. seek al1 merits, make offering to al1 buddhas of the three times and in ten directions, have great and sharpprajfiü, seek "the truc characteristic of dhmas." They abandon various contemplation. such as contemplation of purity. contemplation of impurity, contemplation of permanence. contemplation of impermanence. contemplation of happiness. contcmplation of dir!iklia, contemplation of iiinya. contemplation of the Real. contemplation of Self. contemplation of no-Self. They abandon these conteniplations derived from the mental strength of falsc views. They contemplatc only thc truc characteristic in the extemal conditions: not pure, not impure, not permanent, not impermanent. not happy, not di.ikha. not Stinya, not real. not Self, not non-Self. All such contemplations they neither becomc attached nor do thcy acquire, because they are dharmas of Worldly Convention. not the Highest Purpon. That which is pervasively tZiSrii%LlHl. P This passage also indicatcs the diffcrences between a buddha. an arhat and a pntyekabuddha. An arhat seeks freedom from illncss, decay. dir!ikha etc. while a buddha is compassionaie to al1 beings and secs evcrything just-as-it-is: there is nothing to be attained: there is nothing to which one can be attached. Only prajtiüpüraniiiü as expressed in the Prajriüpüraniiiü Siilras comprises "the tme characteristic of dhmas." ~ravakasattain prajtiü only. not pruj~üpüromitü.Prujriupürmniiü penains to the Buddha and bodhisattvas. The distinction between the projtiü of a buddha and ~hatof a bodhisattva is expounded in the UpadcÇa. Both the bodhisattva and buddha have prujtiüpüranii~ü,but they differ in that a buddha's prajt7üpüraniiiü is muiaiis miriandis "the knowledge of al1 modes" (son~~küraj~~arü).'"~ The prajriü obtained by a buddha is tmc püramiiü. because its cause is pürantirü. What a bodhisattva is practicing is also called püraniiiü bccause the result is spoken about with regard to a cause. This prujtiüpüraniirü that reiides in a buddha's mind is altemately called "the knowledge of al1 modes." Because a bodhisattva practices prajriü in order to cross over [the ocean of sat?isüra] IO the other shore it is called püramiiü. Bccause a buddha [is one who] has crossed [from sar!r~üruIO] the other shore already, he is called [one who possesses] "the knowledgc ofmodc~.'~'~ "The truc chancteristic of dharmas" is prujn'üpürurnirü. Sravalcas have prujn'ü but not praj~iüpüruniirü."The truc characteristic of dharmas" and prujr~üpüruntirüare the path of bodhisattva. Functionally, there is no diffcrcncc in "the truc charactcristic of dhmas"of bodhisattvas and the Buddha. The differences are only in terms ofdegrces of awakening. PrajCüpüramirü of a bodhisattva becomes sun~ükürajtia~üwhen one becomes an awakencd bcing (buddha). 2.2 "The True Characteristic of Dharmas" and ~iii~~atü The UpadeSa defines "the truc charactcristic of dharmas" as "al1 dhamas and the self-nature of al1 dharmas arc iünya."'" That "the true chancicristic of dharmas" is Si71iya refers to the practice wherein a bodhisattva helps others without a sense of help. without a sense of the dichotomy of subject and object. "The true characteristic of dharmas" means that [dharmas] are void of nature ... If [dharmas] are not [realized as being] void. thcn one will fall into the exireme of permanence and will produce defilements (klesa). [Dharma] being void of nature has no actual dwelling place; it neither cornes from somewhere. nor goes to anywhere: this is called thc eternal characteristic of dharmas. The cternal characteristic of dharmas is a synonym of "[dharmas] being void of iiature"; it is also called "the true characteristic of dharmas." In this characteristic, there is neither production nor cessation, neither increase nor decrease, ncithcr contamination nor purity. Bodhisattvas dwell therein. and sec al1 dharmas king void of nature. They neither reireat, nor douht. nor regret with regard to the antirruru-saniyuha~?tbodii(supreme perfect awakening). Why? They do not sec dharmas as obstruction: thereforc. by vinuc of expedience (ttpüya-kaitSa!va) they help senticnt bcings. Ir is by virtue of expedience. bccause [although] ultimatcly there is neithcr any dharma nor sentient being. yet [bodhisattvas] cross over sentient being~.'"~ In elrcwhcrc, thc Upadeja urcs san.aj>i To obtain "the tme charactenstic of dhamas" meüns that one knows [dharmas] to be void of nature: This person knows that dharmas arc void of nature. that there are neither dharmas nor scnticnt being. Worldly beings having not obtained "the tme charactenstic," have various ideas and differentiations. just as a mad person who falsely sees things thinking that they are real. In order to cross thosc mad worldlings over [IO the other shore.] it is said [a bodhisattva] discourses for sentient bcings. In the dharmas of the mad. there is the discrimination of thcse dharma. but among the real dharmas there is no [such distinctions]. A bodhisattva desiring to fulfill his original vows is not attachcd to the [dharmas] that are void of nature; hence. therc is the crossing over of scnticnt beings [IOthe other shore]?" Pruj~~üpürun~irü."the tmc characteristic ofdharmas." reprcsent the highest wisdom; ils opposite is conccptual proliferation @rupo>ica). In [expounding] prajtiüpüru~~~irü,[the Buddha] explains "the truc characteristic of dharmas." In "the tmc characteristic of dhamas," there is no contamination of conceptual proliferation @ruputica): thus it is called ultirnatc purity. Being untimately pure. it can light up pervasively al1 five collections of dharmas. i.e.. the past, the future, the present. the unconditioncd and the ineffab~e.'~' Due to thesc reasons, ordinary worldlings consider material fom (ripa) as being either large or small. By vinue of being led by [their own] speculation and discrimination. they spoil al1 dharma-natures. [In coninsr.] prajnüpüramilü. in accord with thc naturc ofrtipa, views them as they tmly arc. and does not make them to be large or smal~."~~ Whethcr therc is buddha or no buddha. al1 dharma-natures always abide in the world. The characteristic of al1 dharmas is identical with "the truc characteristic of dharmas." "The tme characteristic of dharmas" is identical with proj>iüpürurni~ü. If one seeks "the tme characteristic of dhmas"as being permanence or impermanence, then this is completely wrong. If one enters into the dharma-nature, then one commit?. no error. The dharma-nature is permanent, thus therc can be no fau~t?'~ In prajiiüpürun~irü,there is no characteristic ofprujii "The tme characteristic of dharmas" is a universal nature of al1 dharmas. It is pruj~>iopüronri~ü.It abides regardless of whether there is the Buddha or not. Il is also SNIIW~ÜIO which the categories of existence and non-existence do not apply. Becausr al1 dharmas cannot be rescinded. in the Buddha-Dharma, al1 linguistic discourses are dcstroyed. the realm of mental runction is extinguished. and being eternally non-arising non-ceasing, [they] are charactcrized as nirvü!ra. Why? If the chancteristic of al1 dharmas tmly exisied. thcn it could not exist later. If al1 dharmas existcd previously, but do not exist now, then this amounts to nihilism. Funher, al1 dhmas should not be permanent. Why? If thcy are permanent, then there would be no offense. nor merit. nor anyihing to hun or kill. nor the giving of one's lire, nor benefits from pnctice. neither bondage, nor liberaiion; and the worldly would bc ninSü!tu. Because of these reasons, dharmas ought not be permanent. If al1 dharmas arc impermanent. thcn il will amount to nihilism. and again. there would be no ofinse. nor merit, nor increase nor decreasc in effects and results; and causes, conditions and (mit of rcwards would be lost. Bccause of these reasons. dharmas ought not bc impermanent?'6 Whcn "the tme characteristic of dharmas" is obscrvcd by the bodhisattvas, thcre is no proliferation of concepts and conventional knowledge does no! apply. Thus. there is no suysüra nor nirvünu. This is the Middle Path. which does not refer to something between permanence and impermanence, bu! is the observation of reality as iiitiyarü on the basis of the dependent CO-arisingto which the daims of permanence and impermanence are equally inapplicable?" The same expression ean bc seen in the statement of Niig&junass MMK. where he explains Dependent CO-a~ising~'~and dllrarni~rü (the true chancteristic 3.1 Definition of Prajtïüpüramitü The Upadeia lists various arguments regarding the definition of projCüpüruniilü. Some argue that "the faculty ofprajnü frec of outflow" is the highest; thus, the faculty of prujriü frec of outflow is called prujfiüpüruniirü.J(O Others argue that prajnüpürunrirü is the prujfiü with outflow (sü~rai~n~rajfiü)?~'Some claim that the wisdom from the lime of the bodhisattva's first resolve to attain hodhi up to the time when he becme the Buddha. '"~1~09.62?a10-14:~;h(o~~P~~.S~fWWioi: .LLWii. S!@l;SjS. Rlf2 .S&. h!4+ .IJJ $,;Y. pJLj&? 2;-i,k~[Xl&$,$il~Y,P%.4i4i;zf': I;:itf%Pf&. l!llYI.lP~Y~~X4ii: # .Sa. fil b %\lt'S.-If people oniy observe ihc ultimatc ~ü~~t~nrü.mosi will hl1into the extremc ofannihihion: if thcy obsc~ecxistcnce. mosi will hl1 into ihc exiremc of permanence. In order IO depan from ihcsc Iwo cxiremcs. the .<ünya~üof "twclvc causes and conditions" is cxplaincd. Why? If dhamus arisc from thc coming togcthcr of causes and condiiions. thcn ihcsc dharmas would no1 have fixed nsturcs. Ifdharmas do no1 hnvc fixcd natures. ihcn this is ultimaieii?nyord. chnnctcristic ofiünynrd. In order tocxiinguish ihc Iwo exiremes. il is provisionally callcd the Middle Pnth. 'lnMMK. XXIV. 18: w!i prar~usarnurpdiln!~iÜnynrc3y rdqt prncnkimahe sd prnjtinprir updildyn prnripor saii.o mndhynmd-Dcpcndent CO-arisingwc declarc io bc iünyard. Thni [iünynrdl is dcpcndrnt conccpi. jus! that is thc Middle Paih. Sec fn. 23. Il" MhlK, XVIII. 7: iiit~!rrnmnbhi Bodhisattvas have prajfiü which is both with outllow and without outîlow. and this is culled prajfiüp~iramifü.~'Some people wy: Praj5üpüramirri has an unnaainable chancteristic and it is existent and non-existent, permanent and impermanent. Stinjo and real. II is neithcr conditioned (sarm.a) nor unconditioned (asa~~isk.na).neither dharma nor non-dharma. ncither gmped nor abandoned. neither produced nor ceased. It is beyond the tetra-lemma (cürri~ko~ikn)of existence and non-existence. etc. It is nothing to which WC can be a~tached.'~"The Upadeia concludes: Within this prajn This tetn-lemma statemcnt is similar to that found in the MMK. The Upadeia continues: "Thus. while abiding in praj,iopüramiiü. without abiding in dhmas. one accomplishes the sis püran~irü.'"b II is explained: In this way. a bodhisattva observes al1 dharmas to be neither permanent (nirya) nor impermanent (anifyu). neither dii!rkha nor siikl~a(happy), neither void nor real. neither Self (üfman) nor non-Self (anüiman). neither arising nor ceasing. neither non-arising nor non-ceasing. [A bodhisüttva] in this manncr. abiding in the profound The so-callcd "senticnt beings of the world" relying on their own views, relying on their own dhmas. and rclying on their own dialectic positions. generate disputes. Conceptual prolifention is the root of disputes: conceptual proliferation ariscs on the basis ofall views (drs!i)?' This non-dispuiation is explaincd as the non-attachmcnt or not holding on to any The practitioncr. who can understand thus tmly, with regard to al1 conceptual prolifention on al1 dharmas. docs not takc hold of. does not grasp. and does not sec. This is tmc non-dispulafion. [Thus.] one can know the o.fa-flavor of the Buddha ~hma?" All non-disputalion dhmas (ara!~adlinrr~ia)arc without chancteristic (olu/qo!~a); thcy arc always extinct and incxpressible. The doctrines of giving (düna), impermanence (anirya), du!~kha,iiïnyatü etc., now cxplained are cessation because thcy arc without conceptual prolifention. One with sharp facultics (rï/q!lerrdriya) knows the Buddha's intention and will not gencnte dispute. Onc with blunt facultics (nydvinrlriyu) docs not know the Buddha's intention, clings 10 chancteristics. becomes attachcd to one's thought, and givcs rise to disputc-this is called dispute. This prajfiüpürumifü has no locus for dispute (ra!~nsrhürin)'"~because al1 dhmas are ultirnately Biinya. If the ultirnate Mnyafü can bc acquircd or disputed. then if cannot be called ultimate iNn.vufü. Prajfiüpürantifü is callcd "the locus of non-disputafion"; bccausc the two phenornena of exisience and non-existence arc exting~ishcd.~~~ Whcn one tmly understands the nature of al1 phcnomena one has no disputation. Non-dispuiaiion accus in ihc situation of the Buddha's prujtiü whcre al1 conceptual prolifcntions such as existence and non-exisience are transcended. 3.3 The Practice of Prajt7ipüramirü If praj>iopürantitü constitutes the perfect knowlcdge of a buddha. why is therc a need for the Praj~iüpüraniitüSiitras IO cxplain the othcr fivc pürantitü? It is because. as the UpadeSa explains, ai the beginning the other five pürantitü necd IO be practiced in order to enter to the gate ofpraj,iÿpürartritü: For the sake ofpraj~iüpürantitü.[the Buddha] explains the fivepürantitüs. If one can ditectly course in "the tme characteristic ofdharmas" then [the Buddha] would no1 have expounded düna etc. as the entry point into prajfiü. Because people have blunt faculty and are burdened with offenses, various reasons are explaincd [by the Buddha]: "By düna miserliness is dcstroycd. Monl vinues counteract and make dcfilements (kleia) Icss. Fonitude opens the ponals of ment by which people are ablc IO do dificult things. Effon. like the wind. blows out fire which is unccasingly ablaze. Dhyüna can absorb one's mind in one-poini-ness, because one observes "the tnie characteristic of dharmas." These five pürantitü are al1 subservicnt to prajriüpüran~itü,and just as the minor kings arc al1 subjugated IO the wheel-turning rnonarch and just as al1 streams enter inro the ocean. so too. wholesome dharmas like düna etc.. being guarded by praj~iüpürantiiwill lead [all beings] to san~~jrïarri?~~ Thus. the Buddha explains the first five püraniitü as the step for attaining praj~iüpüra~~tirü.If one can directly approach "the true characteristic ofdharmas." one in pnnciple does not need the other fivepürantitü. Question: Having known the chancteristic of prajrïü which is an unaitainable dharma without characteristic. how can a practitioner gain this dharma? Answcr: The Buddha uses cxpcdience IO explain Dharma. If a pnctiiioner practices in accordance with what [the Buddha] taught, then he orshe will gain [the Dhma]. For example. a dangerous way on the cliff can be reached by aid of a ladder. Also, deep water can be crossed over by help of a boat. A bodhisattva from the first moment of arousing the [hadiii] mind hears frorn the Buddha. or from disciples ofthe Buddha. or from sütm: "AH dharmas are uliimatcly iünya. and there is no definite characteristic IO grasp or IO be attachcd IO. The highest true dharma [is wherein] al1 conceptual prolifcntions arc extinct. The characteristic of nirvü!ia is the most securc (&ma)." [He then reflects:] "1 wish IO help al1 scntient bcings to be emancipated; how can I gain nirvÜ!ia alone? At present. my rnerit. wisdom. the spiritual pernetmtion are not .sunicient, so 1 cannot guide sentient beings; thereforc. 1 must accomplish thesc conditions. and pmctice the five püruniirü giving ~tc.'~'~ For a bodhisattva. pruj~iüis that wisdom which sees al1 dharmas Io be of one characteristic. With it. one views al1 as one and equal. or accepts things as-they-arc. When a bodhisattva-mahsattva prnctices prujtïüpürumitü, al~houghhe knows al1 dharmas are of one characteristic. hc also knows the particular chawcteristics of al1 dharmas. Although he knows the panicular characteristics of al1 dharma. hc knows that al1 dharmas are of one characteristic. Such prujn'ü of a bodhisattva is callcd projfiüpüruniirü.J'Y The abovr passage succinctly explains the naturc ofpruj~îüpüruniirüas prqjn'ü in thc tme and highest sense. It is pcrfcct prujt7ü whcrcin both the universality and panicularity of each and every dharma is seen in their iotalistic perspective. The ability of pruj~îüpüruntirüIO know al1 the panicularities of dharmas is onen described as "the knowledge of al1 modes" (.surva-üküru~~iurü)?M)We have seen this kind of description by the iibhidharmika, distinguishing the prujtiü of thc Buddha from that of the two ymas. Only the Buddha's prujn'ü can fully discern at once boih the general characteristic (süniü~t.vu-lu&v.u) and specific characteristic (svolu~u!ia)of dharmas?61 The application ofprujn'üpüruntiru in a bodhisattva's practice is for the purpose of vicwing al1 dharmas as of one charasteristic-"the tmc characteristic ofdharmas." This is IO view reality as-it-really-is and not to vicw things as WC want them to be. Thus, "A bodhisattva who docs not mise [any thing] with regard to al1 dharmas is said to be [one '"1'1509. 196all-?O:I~~1I~I:181BEIW4II. ILk4URSlglit. iiXZfu7f1:8l,?il.? YI 1: f#UZfI ,WL. ?Tt?Wfr$4tf111Jf?~.%Qi1%%6Zi. fYi#fitL: XW+!&. Fl~~~Slg~lfi.flJBL~KrX. fia f%fiU,*&%?fiil, fiG?%~llKil.-tJJtZWJW. .R!i&Zi%V4mX. ~-üli~~XZ&KA.ii! %41lJ;hiEV5. ~~l~~-tJJZ~.??tq%3Ui94?? 4k+&'i@!. %'.M. ~~JJ~J~~&.4~1i:Gl ?X%. ?;JLXJ;;&lW. iTftibE3 tiBH8. "'~1509. 194bi-5:EA@;,q,jlR~112E&tib'Y;. Pftbllit-411. .11~fE81-tlJiti~+l14ll:BIIRiXiLlb l4411. .B;fEbI-t/li2-tU. AAlmE8'O. %.WtW&M#. Sec fn.314 'O' Sec on page 87. wh~is] able to pnctice praj~üpürumifü.'46' 4. Prajiiüpüramitü iir tire VïbIiZ~üand Upadcia In the Prajrr?YpÜraniiiüSiifras, il is said that with the six püraniiiü and san,ajEafü, one will not fall into the stages of iravaka and pratyekabuddha?63 This indicaies that the six püranri'ü and sarvujrïafü are crucial for bodhisattvas. This notion is funher crnphasizcd in the Upadeia: Without acquiring the Dharma of prajfiüpürumi~ü.if one enters into the gate of abhidharma, one will fall into "existence"; if one enters the gate ofirinyarü, one will fall into "nihilism"; if one enters the gate of ~araqga?~one will fall into "existence" and "nihi~isrn."~" Here, the UpadeSa specially cmphasizcs praj~iüpürumirü. Actually. the Vibhqa defines prujRüpüranii~üas a positive prujrïü. In other words. prajriüpüraniitü is the perfection ofprujria as in the case of the Buddha. The Vaibhasikas defineprajiüpüraniifü as that prajno which is devoid of false prqrr/EÜ(niifliyü-prajriü): When one pnctices prajEü without bcing penurbcd by falseprajrïü. il should be said that onc'sprajrïüpürunrirü is ac~om~lishcd?~~ It is possible that the Vibh.2, to some degree. was influenced by the In the VibhaSa. praj~X subsumes al1 iCÜna and ùrs!i (except the visual organ. eyc~).'~'in the UpadeSa, it is said prujtïüpüruniirü contains al1 praj~îübut here prajfïü is differcnt from thar in the Vibh.2. In particular. prajtîü and i~irinudo not include negative aspects: Question: What is prajtïü? Answer: It is praj~iüpürunrit 1) Prajtïü related IO ncither Learner nor non-Lcarncr is likc "the stage ofdry insight" (SrrkluvidarSu~iü-bliii~~ri),"" [meditationl on loathsomeness (airrbliaru- lrüvunü). [mindfulness] on respiration (ü~iü~ü~ra~s~~~,~i).the Four Abodes of Mindfulness (sni,~yirpusrhÜna)related to the sensuous spherc (~»radlrür~~aiocura),the stage of warmth (.magara), the stage of the summit (niiirdl,an). the stage of reccptivity (k@rri) and the highest worldly dharma (luitkikü~radlrarr>rn).etc. ?) Prajtïü related to Lcarner is prajfiü which is the receptivity of the knowledge of dharma regarding drr!ikha (du!rklre dlrurn~u-j~iürra-~ÜIII~).up to vajra-like concentration (i~ajropai~iasanrüdlti)of arhat in the ninth irresistible path (Ünanlar~'a-nrürgu). 3) PraiCü related IO non-Leamcr is prajfiü of an arhat on the ninth emancipatory path (iimukri-nrürga).Afier this stage. al1 are prajtÏü related to non-Leamer like: the knowledge of exhaustion (kaya-j~iüna) and knowledge of non-arising (uniir Üdu-jtïüna) etc. The prujrïü for attaining pratyekabuddhahood is also like this? k' Here. the three stages arc difirent from that in the Vibh-a. In the Vibhwà, the stage of neither Learner nor non-Lemer refers to ordinary person.470 But. the Upadeia exglains this stage as those who have already begun their spiritual trainings. Thus. projriüpüromirü in the UpadeSa does not include the wisdom of ordinary bcings. II is clear that prq'riü in thc UpadeSa represents only the positive aspects of knowledge-suprcme spiritual insight. unlike that in the Vibhag. The UpadcSa also says that there are two kinds of prwfiü: Then: are IWO kinds of projiü: one. the conditioned; IWO,the unconditioned. One who is traincd in the conditioned prujiiü can accomplish the six pürutnirüs and dwell within the tcn siages (bhiinti). One who is trained in the unconditioned projfiü can destroy al1 dclilements (klcia) and habitua1 forces (i~usorrü), and accomplish buddhi~hood."' Here. the unconditioned projriü refcrs to prajCü of a buddha. whilc the unconditioned refcrs IO projdü of thosc who dwcll within the ten stages. 5. Conclusion "The truc chancteristic ofdhannas" is the situation of the Buddha's perfect insight, prajriüpürornirü. ln that scnsc. it is beyond the tetn-lemma or four possibiliries: exist. non-exist. both exist and non-exist. neither exist nor non-exist. If it was the case that the Praj,iupüroniirü Sürros and the UpadeSa stressed cxclusively the stage of the Buddha, then these texts would be useless from the point ofview of spiritual pnxis. For ordinary beings. non-disputaiion. non-conceprual proliferation are orily guidelines or principles for pnctice. What the Projrrnipüroniirü Siirros really intend for us is to jusr pnctice the six prajriüpürontirü without a thought ofpnctice. ln other words. projr>iopüroniiiü is for the purpose of removing out atmchmenu in our daily pnctice. There are two levels in the "' TiSO9.6SlbiS-i7:&~ii:l'il: -4. 4iB: 'A. sr.>. JF4iZ.>&E. PSJLZfiSiiR'P. @ -fi&+: J;!R%>\itt:. iX-tlJff~ib!R&Wîl. pncticc of prajr~üpüramirü.The first is a level for the beginncrs or ihose wiih bluni faculty, who need to pnctice the livc pürantirü in order IO enter prajGpÜrantirü. The second is a lcvel for those with sharp faculty. who can dircctly observe "the tme characteristic of dharmas." In the Vibhass. prajriü is explaincd as any kind of understanding including false views (ntirlyü-&!i), and prajkipürantirü is explaincd as ihat prajcü which is free frorn false undersianding. In the UpadeSa, prajriüpürantirü includes al1 prajtïü, which correspond to al1 positive prq'riü in the Vibh.a. One who lacksprajri inio the stage of srivakas: IO possesspraj~iüpüran~irüis IO bc on the path of bodhisattva. Chapter 9: Conclusion In view of the early agamas and nikayas, we have discussed prajfiü in lems of propcrly understanding the Buddha Dharma and the practice of il. It was pointed out that praj,ia comprises the pnctice of jila and samüdlii and the understanding of the Four Noblc Truths. The absence of delusion. investigation of the doctrine. and propcr views were topics that summarized the gencral view onpafinü within ThenvBda. We found that in the Sarvastivada, prujnü was explaincd in conjunction with i~iü~lu and drgi, and it had the function of discerning dharma (dliarma-prui~irqvo):thus. in this context. prajfiü had the widcst range of concept. PrajEü penained to al1 kinds of i~iüna and drgi except the visual faculty. The visual faculty bclongs to d3i since it has no function of discernment. Receptivity free of outflow !vas contextually rclated to projtiü and hribut no1 10 inüna. because they initiate comprchrnding the Four Noble Truths but not real knowledge. The highcst knowledge. or praj17ü of an awakencd one was the pruj~iüfree of outflow, among which the knowledge of exhausiion and knowledge of non-arising were not contextually relatcd Vasubandhu criticized the Vibh.3 vicws, uArii irorii iiir virwpuirii of iiie Sauiriîntika. Sanghabhadn's Iwo worhs. the Ny and *Abliidliurn~usaniayripradli,ikü. follow the structure of the AKB and endeavor to defcnd the orthodox Vaibh*ika vicws. Vasubandhu's criticism of the Vibhwa is sometimes rcjected by Sahghabhadn on the grounds that Vasubandhu did no1 properly understand the Vibh-3. With regard to the threc prajfiü-indru-may ci~rrü-n1.6and bl~üvutrü-niuyi-Sanghabhadn siressed that the thrce prq'nü wcre functioncd in the stage of prcparatory practice. The Vibh-a, AKB and Ny explaincd the Four Abodcs of Mindfulness as praj~iu.The AKB also added right tho.ught (sanryak-sar~rkalpa).right effort (sanryag-vyüjdnrri) to thc domain ofprajriü. For Vasubandhu, prajriü led one Io the Four Abodes of Mindfulness; thus, the Four Abodes of Mindfulness were constitutcd ofprajdü in view of their intnnsic nature. Saiighabhadra argucd against Vasubandhu and the Sautrantika-D&s!3ntika on the ontological rcality of prajdü as a universal caiira (nralrü-hhrinrik~)~"He also argued against them IO establish that prajriü is üküra. Abhidharma as prajdü included two aspects: 1. abhidharma as the pure pruj,i<. 2. abhidharma as every incident ofprajriü with outflow as well as abhidharma as that which was capable of helping others IO gain pure prajdü. In the early sotras. son~ajrïutüwas discussed as an attribute of the Buddha. For Sarv%tivadins. san~ajrïarürcferred to thc Buddha's knowledge only: an arhat does not have san~ojEarÜ.II is probably later on. that the prajdüpürun~irüliterature came IO speak ofthree kinds of knowledge. and attributcd sarvajtiarü to iravakas and pratyckabuddhas. II is evident that the Sarv2stivadin notions of vüsunü and okliga-ujdüriu. emrrging fairly early in Buddhist history. must have gone through centuries of dcvclopmcnt before they came to bc formulated in the form visible in such abhidharma works as the Ny. In the course of their devclopment. various views that conflicted to varying degrees were put fonvard, somc of which viewed the IWO as one. For the VaibhGika. this akfiga-ujdürro too was subsumed under prujdü. Thc Mah3ytinists. with their emphasis on the exclusive goal of buddhahood. in contrat to the mhat idral, had very good rcasons IO be especially interested in this 42This is a mcnial forcc that functions in al1 cases of porccpiion. rince any perception presupposcs a ccnain dcgrce of undcnianding-which strong or wcak. good or bad. right or wrong. This proj,ill. subsuming boih the positive and ncgaiivc aspects of undentnnding as it doer. includcs ~iniartaand kinnrr and 'h!l. 143 devclopment. One imponant theoretical fmition of the Mahayanist effort in this enterprise was the theory that a buddha is distinguished from the othcr twoyüna in having both sarvajtïarü and sarvükürajdatü. an arhat has only the firsi. not the second. The Upadeia furiher commented !hat sarvajdaiü was identical topraj~ÏÜpÜrantirü.the perfect insight for both bodhisattva and the Buddha. ln this context. sonak This notion. however. was also disccrned in a certain form in the abhidharmika doctrine. That is. it was only the Buddha-not the twoyüna-who could discern properly both the gencnl chancteristic (süniü~tya-lakana)and specific chancteristic (svalnka!ia) of al1 dharma. In the context of the Praj~iüpürar~iirüSNrras. praj,iopüro»iirü was secn IO be a dcsignation for the highcst purport that served to help a practitioner cross over from saptsüra to the other shore of tiin~ü!ia.In practicingprajtiü. a pnctitioncr conccntrated on observing evcryihing asSii~i.va.wiihout having any notion of what is pncticed md what is Io be obtained. That is, althoughpraj,i0püranii~üis practiced. it is not practiced to fulfill a goal or purpose. It is a pnctice that is no-practice. WC also found that the large Praj~iüpüraniirü Stïrras explained the same doctrinal point which recurs al1 praj~iüpürantirüsotras from several difïcrcnt perspectives. Praj~iüin the highcst scnse or praj~iüpüraniirüwas that which cnabled one to be unattached IO anything and to acccpt reality-jus<-as-it-is without conceptual bifurcation. This is also a common theme found in al1 Mahaynna Buddhist s0tras. Whereas prajdü had various connotations in the Sarvbtivada abhidhama; in the UpadcSa it was distinguished from praj>iripüramirü. According to the UpadeSa, only buddhas and advanccd bodhisattvas possessed prajdüpürantirü; arhats as well as pn!yekabuddhas had only prajtiü. The UpadeSa funher stresscd that if one takes up the abhidharma without havingprajriüpürantifü as one's base. one will fall into the extremes of existence and of non-existence. Accordingly, the notion of pra~tiüpürontifüin the PruJtiüpürontitÜ Srilras and the UpadeSa represented a funher stage of development in the notion of the perfect spiritual insight of a buddha and replaced the earlier notion round in ihe early sotras and the abhidharma. Bibliography I. Printary Sources Abhidliormadpo ivirh Vibhü~üprahlrüv~rti.Ed. Jaini. Padmanabh S. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Rcscarch Institurr. 1977. Abhidl~arnrakoiaBIrügyant of lhsirbundlrir. Ed. P. Pradhan. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Researcli Institutc. 1967. Abhidliumniatrha Sangaha. 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