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Home , Algonquian peoples, Manitoulin Island

Inland Sea Navigators: Algonquian Mastery of the Great

VICTOR P. LYTWYN Acton,

Few if any European newcomers failed to be impressed with the water- craft used by Aboriginal people in . They were particularly enamoured with the used by Algonquian-speaking peo­ ples in the region. Early writers agreed that these canoes were well suited to travel from the white water of rushing rivers to the vast expanse of the Great Lakes. In 1724, for example, Joseph Francois Lafitau described the construction of birch-bark canoes as "masterpieces of native art" (1977:124). He continued: "Nothing is prettier and more admirable than these fragile craft in which people can carry heavy loads and go everywhere very rapidly." Edwin Tappan Adney and Howard Chapelle's seminal study of the in North America commented (1964:3), "Indian bark canoes were most efficient water craft for use in forest travel" and "open water in lakes." Algonquian-speaking peoples in the were espe­ cially noted for their skill in building and navigating birch bark canoes. The Jesuit missionary Francesco Gioseppe Bressani noted that Aboriginal people in the region around Huron were expert navigators. He wrote in 1654 (JR 38:247): The somewhat long and dangerous navigation which they conduct, on rivers and enormous lakes, with very distant nations for the trade, is effected within little boats of bark, no thicker than a testone - holding at the most 8 or 10 persons, but commonly not more than three or four; they manoeuver these dexterously, and almost without danger. In another report (JR 39:97-99), he explained that canoes were handled "over dangerous rivers and immense lakes, where the storms are not less than those of the sea - especially in one, which is 1200 miles in circum­ ference." In 1732, the Jesuit missionary Sebastien Rasles marveled at the skills of Aboriginal people in handling canoes in open water. He wrote (JR 67:139): "they cross the arms of the sea, and sail on the most danger­ ous rivers, and on lakes from four to five hundred leagues in circumfer-

Papers of the 36th Algonquian Conference, ed. H.C. Wolfart (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba, 2005), pp. 255-269. 256 VICTOR P. LYTWYN ence." This paper will examine the ways in which Alonquian-speaking peoples mastered the Great Lakes using indigenous technology and navi­ gational skills.

COMPARISON WITH IROQUOIAN CANOES Many of the early European writers considered the canoes made by Algonquian-speaking peoples to be far superior to those built by Iro- quoian-speaking peoples. For example, the French military officer Armand Louis de Delaronde de Lahontan explained the superiority of the Algonquian birch bark canoe over Iroquoian elm bark canoes in his report on a voyage through in the summer of 1688 (1932:61): the Iroquese Canows are so dull and large, that they cannot sail near so quick as those made of Birch-bark. The former are made of Elm-bark, which is very heavy, and their form is very awkward; for they are so long and broad that thirty Men row in them, two abreast, whether sit­ ting or standing, and the sides are so low, that they dare not venture 'em upon the Lakes, tho' the wind be very slack. Another French military officer, Pierre Pouchot, also noted the superiority of birch bark canoes over elm bark canoes, writing in 1760 (1866:216- 217): Canoes of elm bark are not used for long voyages, as they are very frail. ... The canoes made of birch bark, are much more solid and more artistically constructed [than elm bark canoes]. He added that up to twenty-four paddlers and 3,000 pounds of cargo could be carried in a single birch bark canoe. The French historian Pierre-Francois-Xavier de Charlevoix remarked on the masterful canoe-building skills of Algonquian nations, compared with the Huron and French. He wrote (1766:160): Of all the Savages, the most skilful Builders of Canoes are the Outaouais []; and in general the Algonquin Nations succeed herein better than the Hurons. Few French as yet can make them even tolerably. The difference between the canoes built by Algonquian and Iroquoian- speaking peoples can be largely attributed to the quality of birch bark available to them. In the early period of European contact - certainly before 1650 - the had limited access to birch-bark. They built ALGONQUIAN MASTERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 257

their canoes mainly from elm bark, making a much heavier and more cumbersome craft. Charlevoix observed (1766:159): there are two Sorts of [canoes], the one of Elm Bark, which are wider and more clumsily built, but commonly bigger. I know none but the Iroquois, who have any of this Sort. The others are of the Bark of Birch Trees, of a Width less in Proportion than their Length, and much better made. After the Iroquois dispersed the Huron and neighbouring Algonquian nations from the area around and in the 1650s, they were able to obtain supplies of birch bark. Some Iroquois canoe builders came to rival the Algonquian craftsmen, and their navigational skills also improved. Iroquois canoe men were favoured by Sir George Simpson, the Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, who required their skills in powering his canoe on company business throughout the interior of North American in the early 19th century.

KNOWLEDGE OF WATER AND WEATHER Algonquian-speaking peoples had an intimate knowledge of water and weather conditions, predicated on their need to navigate the often-treach­ erous waters of the Great Lakes. An indication of the importance of knowing water and weather can be seen in the . For example, the lexicon of Frederic Baraga contains numerous words to describe water and wind conditions (1878-80, pt. 1, s.w. wave, wind). The Great Lakes were thought to harbour malevolent water spirits, and offerings of tobacco were left to appease them and pacify the turbulent waters. Waterfalls near the mouths of rivers, cliffs facing the lakes and other peculiar geographical features were sacred places connected with water, wind and other natural and supernatural forces that shaped the con­ ditions for traveling on the Great Lakes (Lytwyn 1996). The potential danger of using canoes in bad weather on large stretches of open water led Lafitau to comment (1977:125): crossing lakes is very dangerous. The wisest scarcely undertake it without considering the weather. They keep as close to land as they can or cut from cape to cape, and try to reach from to island. It is undeniable that the Great Lakes can be fearsome bodies of water in bad weather. They are truly inland seas with massive waves and destruc­ tive surges that peril even the largest and sturdiest vessels (one need only 258 VICTOR P. LYTWYN

recall the 1975 sinking of the Edmund Fitzgerald). However, Algon­ quian-speaking peoples people were keenly aware of the changing weather and traveled according to the conditions. They also knew the pre­ vailing winds, and chose travel routes that took advantage of wind condi­ tions. The potential for bad weather and water conditions made them cautious but certainly did not preclude travel on wide stretches of open water on the Great Lakes. Aboriginal people who knew the safe passages through innumerable and dangerous reefs guided early European visitors throughout the Great Lakes. Algonquians were able to provide geographical and carto­ graphic information that enabled European mapmakers to construct reli­ able charts of the Great Lakes. Indigenous knowledge included the locations of deep-water channels that became valuable in navigating larger vessels through the Great Lakes. Knowledge of shallow waters was also important in the use of the lakes. Ascertaining the locations of shoals where fish congregated enabled fishermen to harvest large quantities of fish with Aboriginal fishing technology such as seine nets. These too were shared with European settlers who benefited from indigenous knowledge of the water.

ISLANDS As noted in Lafitau's remarks above, Aboriginal people in canoes used islands as resting places or safe havens whenever necessary in crossing long stretches of water. An anonymous French report in 1718 described one such canoe route across the western basin of Lake Erie. The report stated: "To reach Detroit from the River Sandosquet, we cross Lake Erie from Island to island and get to a place called Point Pelee" (Anonymous 1718:866). Thomas E. Lee, who studied the of the Lake Erie region in the 1950s, concluded that these islands were important links in a travel route across the lake (Lee 1963:n.p.): "Another Indian route was across Lake Erie by way of the islands to Point Pelee, either by canoe or over the ice in winter time. Some years ago, a large dugout canoe was exposed in the sands of Pelee Island, during a big storm." The cartogra­ pher Lewis Evans depicted this chain of islands in the western basin of Lake Erie in his 1755 map of North America. A notation on the map ALGONQUIAN MASTERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 259 explained (Evans 1755: map): "the Indians cross the Lake here in canoes from Isle to Isle."

SAILS As noted above, the power and utility of wind was reflected in Algon- i quian terminology, and the ability to harness the wind appears to have been utilized since pre-European contact times. Early European visitors to the Great Lakes region noted that Aboriginal people in their canoes employed sails. For example, a manuscript attributed to the French fur trader Pierre Esprit Radisson (1961:151) noted that all the canoes in his flotilla of Aboriginal traders deployed a small sail while traveling through Lake Huron and Georgian Bay in 1661. A collection of drawings dated about 1701, said to be done by Charles Becard, Sieur de Grandville, but also attributed to Louis Nicolas, include several depictions of canoes with sails (see figure 1). Lafitau observed that canoes could be fitted with sails. He wrote (1977:125): "one cannot carry much sail and, in moderate winds, it is impossible to make use of sail without exposing oneself to the risk of perishing." Charlevoix commented (1766:160), "All the Canoes even the smallest carry a Sail, and with a good Wind can make twenty Leagues in a Day." The Jesuit missionary Claude Allouez recorded an interesting and perhaps unique account of using sails on ice in 1677. He described a journey over ice that was undertaken by a canoe with a sail over Green Bay. (JR 60:151): "instead of putting the Canoe into the water, we placed it upon the ice, over which the wind, which was in our favor, and a sail made it goe as on water." While travel across wide stretches of open water on the Great Lakes was usually contingent on fair weather conditions, occasionally an unan­ ticipated storm could bring danger to people in canoes. Even in stormy weather expert navigational skills allowed Aboriginal people to success­ fully cross the lakes. Thomas Gist recorded an example of such a journey in 1758 after he was taken into captivity by a party of Wyandot (1956:298). Gist was transported to the Wyandot village near Detroit, and their route was across Lake Erie from Sandusky to the . Their journey was imperiled by a sudden storm, but they were able to

1. Baraga's Ojibwe dictionary included words to describe sails, but whether these pre­ dated European contact is not known. 260 VICTOR P. LYTWYN

Figure 1. Drawing of canoe with sail (Nicolas 1974:18)

safely reach shore in canoes furnished with sails; the sails were taken down when the storm approached (Gist 1956:298). In 1847, the Anglican missionary Frederick O'Meara noted (1847:24) that navigational skills of an Ojibwe steersman prevented an accident while sailing in a canoe dur­ ing a windstorm along the of Lake Huron. European fur traders incorporated sails into their trade canoes, but they also encountered Aboriginal people using sails on their canoes. For example, Alexander Henry recorded (1809) a meeting with Aboriginal people in a flotilla of 20 canoes under sail near Mississagi River on Lake Huron. Whether Europeans influenced Aboriginal people in incorporating sail technology or vice versa cannot be determined from the historical documents. Scholars of sailing and boat building, however, have down­ played the indigenous invention of sails. Howard Chapelle's study of the history of North American sailing vessels paid little attention to the use of ALGONQUIAN MASTERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 261 sails by Aboriginal people. He quickly dismissed the idea, stating (1935:5): There are no accounts of the use of sailing craft by the Indians in the records of the first English or Dutch settlers of North America and so it may be presumed that the Indians were wholly unacquainted with the art of sailing. Similarly, in their work on the history of the canoe, Adney & Chapelle downplayed an indigenous origin for sails (1964:8, 10). They observed "The canoes carried small sails, but these could be used only with fair winds of moderate force." However, they cautioned against concluding that sail technology was an Aboriginal innovation: It is extremely doubtful that the prehistoric Indians using bark canoes were acquainted with sails, though it is possible that the coastal Indi­ ans might have set up a bush in the bow to utilize a following wind and thus lighten the labor of paddling. However, once the Indian saw the usefulness of a sail demonstrated by white men, he was quick to adopt it. Unfortunately, sails and other elements in canoes built before Euro­ pean contact have not been found in any archaeological sites (Wright2004:1203). In addition, none of the early written accounts described the material of the sails used by Algonquian-speaking peoples in the early period of European contact. Pouchot noted in the 1750s that blankets were used as sails. Presumably he meant European trade blan­ kets, but his comments were made over a century after contact. It is possi­ ble that, before Europeans arrived, Algonquian-speaking peoples made use of animal skins or other natural fibres in the sails. Such a possibility is enhanced by their intimate knowledge of the power and other qualities of the wind. They would have easily known the usefulness of a sail after try­ ing to set up a tent during a windy day or trying to start a fire exposed to windy conditions. In other parts of North America, sails made of animal skins were used on watercraft, suggesting an indigenous origin. Perhaps the best example is the umiak, a large boat built with a wooden frame and covered by sealskins. These boats could carry as many as sixty people and navigated large stretches of water such as the Strait of Belle Isle between Labrador and Newfoundland. They were also used in hunting whales in the open . The Jesuit missionary Antoine Silvy wrote one of the ear­ liest descriptions of the umiak in 1709 (1980:108). He reported that the 262 VICTOR P. LYTWYN

Inuit who lived on the Labrador coast equipped their umiaks with a wooden mast and a sail made of caribou skin. The Labrador Inuit had lim­ ited access to European trade goods at that time, but scavenged ship­ wrecks for iron that was used in parts of their boats. The Hudson's Bay Company fur trader Andrew Graham described Inuit umiaks with sails in his observations recorded in the period 1767-1791 (Williams 1969:232- 233): They also have a mast which is stepped forwards, and a sail made of the intestines of seals, or other animals, very neatly sewed, about six feet high, and seven feet broad; but as these have no hold of the water, it is obvious they cannot bear the sail when the wind is sideways. The use of seal, caribou or other animal skins for the sail indicates that indigenous materials were well suited to sail technology and points to a pre-European contact origin. Inuit sails made of animal skins were noted by many early observers and continued Into the 19th century. For example, Franz Boas visited the Inuit of Baffin Island in 1883-1884 and described their umiaks that included the use of sails (1888:529): If the wind permits, a sail is set; but the bulky vessel can only run with the wind. The mast is set in the stem, a mortise being cut in the fore­ head of the main timber, with a notch in the wooden piece above to steady it. A stout thong, which passes through two holes on each side of the notch, secures the mast to the wooden head piece. The sail, which is made of seal intestines carefully sewed together, is squared or fastened by loops to a yard (sadniriaq) which is trimmed with straps of deerskin. It is hoisted by a rope made of sealskin and passing over a sheave in the top of the mast. The rope is tied to the thwart farthest abaft, while the sheets are fastened to the foremost one. The continued use of animal skins for sails when European canvas was available indicates a preference for Aboriginal technology. Most scholars of Inuit history agree that umiaks were equipped with sails, and that these were made of caribou, seal or walrus skins (see, for example, Burch 1984:310; Hughes 1984:274; Kleivan 1984:602). How­ ever, some Inuit scholars have not endorsed the idea that sails were indig­ enous. For example, Dorothy Jean Ray opined (1984:290), "the sails were probably not aboriginal," but provided no evidence to substantiate her statement. Eugen Arima rejected the idea that sails predated European or Asian contact (2002:150) because "the engraved representations of umi­ aks made during the Thule culture (1000-1500 CE) don't show sails." ALGONQUIAN MASTERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 263

Other Aboriginal people were using sails at the time of first Euro­ pean contact. For example, the Beothuk of Newfoundland built birch bark canoes that sometimes employed a sail. In addition, the Beothuk canoe was ballasted with heavy stones to make it "particularly suited for use on open waters" (Reynolds 1978:103). The Eastmain used sails in their birch bark canoes. The ethnologist Lucien Turner (1894:182) remarked, "Sails are sometimes erected in a single canoe. At times two canoes are lashed together and a sail spread from a single mast." The Mi'kmaq, who depended upon the ocean for their livelihood, were renowned navigators. They routinely crossed long stretches of ocean to reach fishing and whal­ ing grounds. Mi'kmaq navigators crossed 160 kilometres of open water between Nova Scotia and Maine. They were also known to use sails in their canoes and there are several early paintings depicting such configu­ rations. Kenneth Roberts and Philip Shackleton noted these paintings in their study of the canoe (1983:168), but advised against concluding that the sail was an Aboriginal invention: "The use of sail by the Mi'kmaq was reported in very early French narratives, although it was very likely a bor­ rowed idea." Rick Nash followed this view, writing (2002:47): "The sail is a European adaptation." The Aboriginal people of the west coast of British Columbia some­ times used sails to power their carved wooden canoes. They were able to travel far into the Pacific Ocean and hunted whales from these craft. Jim Poling commented (2000:16), "Whether the sail was adopted from Euro­ peans or used before European contact is a matter of debate." Eugene Arima was similarly cautious in his assessment of the antiquity of sails on northwest coast dugout canoes. He wrote (2002:118): "While it seems that a square sail of matting was known for a long time, European exam­ ple and the introduction of canvas made sails a regular feature on North­ west Coast canoes." The Inland Tlingit of northwestern British Columbia were known to have used hide sails on dugout canoes (McClellan, 1981:474).

FISHING AND HUNTING FROM CANOES Algonquian-speaking peoples were expert hunters and fishermen and used canoes to harvest both fish and game. Fishing from canoes involved a wide range of techniques, including angling with hook and line, spear- 264 VICTOR P. LYTWYN ing and using an assortment of nets (Cleland 1982). Shallow and deep waters were targeted for fisha t certain times of the year. Aboriginal peo­ ple knew the habits of fish and were able to locate them in different areas as they moved through their seasonal cycles. Thus whitefish were pursued in fall when they congregated in shoals around islands, and were harvested in spring when they moved en masse to spawning beds near falls and rapids. Trolling with lines and lures for lake was done in deeper water, and may have incorporated sail-powered canoes to cover large areas. In 1837, a lithograph was published in the Penny Magazine entitled, "Chippeway Indians fishing on American River Thames." The picture depicted two Ojibwe in a canoe near rapids, the man in front pol­ ing and the man in rear spearing fish. The caption noted (Anonymous 1837:21): The mode of fishing represented in the engraving requires a dexterity in its management which scarcely any but an Indian can achieve. Two Indians occupy a canoe in the centre of the stream. One poises himself on each edge of the vessel in front, the other in a similar way behind: each has a fish-spear. Canoes were also used at night with torches to spear fishan d to hunt game near the shoreline (Lytwyn 2001). Canoes were also used to hunt game animals that were driven into the water. In the Great Lakes region, the best examples involved deer hunting, with the prey chased into the water and dispatched by hunters in canoes using spears or arrows. For example, in 1806, Charles Aikins noted (1905:15) that Aboriginal people used canoes to kill a deer in Lake St. Clair near Belle River. The deer was chased into the water, pursued with a canoe and killed with a spear. Waterfowl were also hunted from canoes in marshlands throughout the Great Lakes region. The marshes along the delta islands in Lake St. Clair were especially noted as hunting grounds for ducks and geese.

TRADE AND WARFARE ON THE GREAT LAKES The naval historian J.B. Mansfield concluded that Aboriginal people nav­ igated the Great Lakes for the purposes of commerce and warfare long before the arrival of Europeans (1972:61): "The Great Lakes were tra­ versed by the aborigines for a long period prior to the arrival of the Euro­ peans. Trips from the upper to the lower lakes were annual occurrences, ALGONQUIAN MASTERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 265 and warfare was almost perpetual." Trade routes in pre-European times can be deduced from the locations of Aboriginal trade materials through­ out the Great Lakes region. In his map in the Historical Atlas of , the archaeologist J.V. Wright depicted Aboriginal trade routes crisscross­ ing the Great Lakes, he commented (Carlson & Wright 1987:14): "In pre­ historic Canada trade goods moved over long distances along well- established routes that, in some cases, were used for thousands of years." The early European accounts of warfare on the Great Lakes contain numerous references to battles on the water in canoes (Brandao 1997:177-268). Some of the clashes between Algonquian and Iroquoian- speaking warriors during the 17th century included flotillas numbering in the hundreds of canoes on either side. During the early period when the Iroquois used elm bark canoes, they were easy targets on the water for the swifter and more maneuverable Algonquian birch bark canoes.

COMPARISON WITH EUROPEAN BOATS AND SHIPS The canoes of Algonquian-speaking peoples were considered to be much more useful on the Great Lakes than European-designed boats made in the same time period. Euro-Canadian and Euro-American fur traders adopted the canoe for transporting cargo on the Great Lakes and used sail­ ing boats and ships only in limited capacities. During the 1750s in the course of the so-called French and Indian War, the English naval force did not include sailing ships on the Great Lakes. When Major Robert Rogers was sent from Montreal to Detroit in 1760, he transported his troops in whaleboats. During the uprising led by Ottawa War Chief Pon- tiac, the allied Algonquian Nations were successful in blocking the move­ ment of British supply and military boats through the Great Lakes. Canoes were faster and easily able to out-manoeuver the wooden boats, and many cargo ships were taken as a result. Only after the end of Pon- tiac's war did the British begin to build and use sailing ships on the Great Lakes. Even with the advent of sailing ships on the Great Lakes, canoes continued to be used as effective vehicles of transportation. Theodore Karamanski noted (2000:27-28) that John Askin built the first sailing ship (after the Griffon) on Lake in 1778. However, these early ships were relatively small vessels that did not quickly replace Aboriginal 266 VICTOR P. LYTWYN canoe technology. Canoes were less expensive and could access the same territory as the sailing ships. Aboriginal people also adopted European boat-building techniques and constructed small flat-bottomed sailing skiffs known as Mackinaw boats. Boat-builders at Wikwemikong on Manitoulin Island were renowned for their skillfully crafted Mackinaw boats. The Jesuit missionaries Hannipeaux and Ferard commented in 1857 (1857:210) that "nearly all are very skilled in the building of Macki­ naw boats." Only limited access to capital kept Aboriginal people from building and using larger boats and ships. Indian agents in Canada and the were also complicit in preventing Aboriginal people from compet­ ing in the commercial fishery by discouraging them from this enterprise. One Canadian fishery overseer wrote in 1859 (Gibbard 1859:576): "In my opinion all the Indians would be better men if they never saw a fish."

CONCLUSION The Great Lakes were an essential resource for the Algonquian peoples who lived on the shores. The water and its resources nourished and sus­ tained the people for countless generations. Indigenous technology devel­ oped in respect to conditions that were shaped by these expansive bodies of water. Canoes were perfectly suited for travel on the lakes, and may have incorporated sail technology before Europeans arrived. Canoes were also used for harvesting fish and game, trade and warfare. European new­ comers marveled at the navigational skills of Algonquian peoples and adopted Aboriginal technology in building canoes for their own purposes. At the time European kings and queens proclaimed sovereignty over the Great Lakes region, Algonquian people reigned supreme as navigators of these inland seas.

2. Fishery overseer William Gibbard was apparently murdered several years later when returning from an attempted prosecution of an Odawa from Wikwemikong who had been accused of interfering with Gibbard's investigations. The cause of his death was never determined (see Lytwyn 1990). ALGONQUIAN MASTERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 267

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