Inland Sea Navigators: Algonquian Mastery of the Great Lakes VICTOR P. LYTWYN Acton, Ontario Few if any European newcomers failed to be impressed with the water- craft used by Aboriginal people in North America. They were particularly enamoured with the birch bark canoes used by Algonquian-speaking peo­ ples in the Great Lakes region. Early writers agreed that these canoes were well suited to travel from the white water of rushing rivers to the vast expanse of the Great Lakes. In 1724, for example, Joseph Francois Lafitau described the construction of birch-bark canoes as "masterpieces of native art" (1977:124). He continued: "Nothing is prettier and more admirable than these fragile craft in which people can carry heavy loads and go everywhere very rapidly." Edwin Tappan Adney and Howard Chapelle's seminal study of the canoe in North America commented (1964:3), "Indian bark canoes were most efficient water craft for use in forest travel" and "open water in lakes." Algonquian-speaking peoples in the Great Lakes region were espe­ cially noted for their skill in building and navigating birch bark canoes. The Jesuit missionary Francesco Gioseppe Bressani noted that Aboriginal people in the region around Lake Huron were expert navigators. He wrote in 1654 (JR 38:247): The somewhat long and dangerous navigation which they conduct, on rivers and enormous lakes, with very distant nations for the beaver trade, is effected within little boats of bark, no thicker than a testone - holding at the most 8 or 10 persons, but commonly not more than three or four; they manoeuver these dexterously, and almost without danger. In another report (JR 39:97-99), he explained that canoes were handled "over dangerous rivers and immense lakes, where the storms are not less than those of the sea - especially in one, which is 1200 miles in circum­ ference." In 1732, the Jesuit missionary Sebastien Rasles marveled at the skills of Aboriginal people in handling canoes in open water. He wrote (JR 67:139): "they cross the arms of the sea, and sail on the most danger­ ous rivers, and on lakes from four to five hundred leagues in circumfer- Papers of the 36th Algonquian Conference, ed. H.C. Wolfart (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba, 2005), pp. 255-269. 256 VICTOR P. LYTWYN ence." This paper will examine the ways in which Alonquian-speaking peoples mastered the Great Lakes using indigenous technology and navi­ gational skills. COMPARISON WITH IROQUOIAN CANOES Many of the early European writers considered the canoes made by Algonquian-speaking peoples to be far superior to those built by Iro- quoian-speaking peoples. For example, the French military officer Armand Louis de Delaronde de Lahontan explained the superiority of the Algonquian birch bark canoe over Iroquoian elm bark canoes in his report on a voyage through Lake Erie in the summer of 1688 (1932:61): the Iroquese Canows are so dull and large, that they cannot sail near so quick as those made of Birch-bark. The former are made of Elm-bark, which is very heavy, and their form is very awkward; for they are so long and broad that thirty Men row in them, two abreast, whether sit­ ting or standing, and the sides are so low, that they dare not venture 'em upon the Lakes, tho' the wind be very slack. Another French military officer, Pierre Pouchot, also noted the superiority of birch bark canoes over elm bark canoes, writing in 1760 (1866:216- 217): Canoes of elm bark are not used for long voyages, as they are very frail. ... The canoes made of birch bark, are much more solid and more artistically constructed [than elm bark canoes]. He added that up to twenty-four paddlers and 3,000 pounds of cargo could be carried in a single birch bark canoe. The French historian Pierre-Francois-Xavier de Charlevoix remarked on the masterful canoe-building skills of Algonquian nations, compared with the Huron and French. He wrote (1766:160): Of all the Savages, the most skilful Builders of Canoes are the Outaouais [Odawa]; and in general the Algonquin Nations succeed herein better than the Hurons. Few French as yet can make them even tolerably. The difference between the canoes built by Algonquian and Iroquoian- speaking peoples can be largely attributed to the quality of birch bark available to them. In the early period of European contact - certainly before 1650 - the Iroquois had limited access to birch-bark. They built ALGONQUIAN MASTERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 257 their canoes mainly from elm bark, making a much heavier and more cumbersome craft. Charlevoix observed (1766:159): there are two Sorts of [canoes], the one of Elm Bark, which are wider and more clumsily built, but commonly bigger. I know none but the Iroquois, who have any of this Sort. The others are of the Bark of Birch Trees, of a Width less in Proportion than their Length, and much better made. After the Iroquois dispersed the Huron and neighbouring Algonquian nations from the area around Lake Huron and Georgian Bay in the 1650s, they were able to obtain supplies of birch bark. Some Iroquois canoe builders came to rival the Algonquian craftsmen, and their navigational skills also improved. Iroquois canoe men were favoured by Sir George Simpson, the Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, who required their skills in powering his canoe on company business throughout the interior of North American in the early 19th century. KNOWLEDGE OF WATER AND WEATHER Algonquian-speaking peoples had an intimate knowledge of water and weather conditions, predicated on their need to navigate the often-treach­ erous waters of the Great Lakes. An indication of the importance of knowing water and weather can be seen in the Algonquian languages. For example, the Ojibwe lexicon of Frederic Baraga contains numerous words to describe water and wind conditions (1878-80, pt. 1, s.w. wave, wind). The Great Lakes were thought to harbour malevolent water spirits, and offerings of tobacco were left to appease them and pacify the turbulent waters. Waterfalls near the mouths of rivers, cliffs facing the lakes and other peculiar geographical features were sacred places connected with water, wind and other natural and supernatural forces that shaped the con­ ditions for traveling on the Great Lakes (Lytwyn 1996). The potential danger of using canoes in bad weather on large stretches of open water led Lafitau to comment (1977:125): crossing lakes is very dangerous. The wisest scarcely undertake it without considering the weather. They keep as close to land as they can or cut from cape to cape, and try to reach from island to island. It is undeniable that the Great Lakes can be fearsome bodies of water in bad weather. They are truly inland seas with massive waves and destruc­ tive surges that peril even the largest and sturdiest vessels (one need only 258 VICTOR P. LYTWYN recall the 1975 sinking of the Edmund Fitzgerald). However, Algon­ quian-speaking peoples people were keenly aware of the changing weather and traveled according to the conditions. They also knew the pre­ vailing winds, and chose travel routes that took advantage of wind condi­ tions. The potential for bad weather and water conditions made them cautious but certainly did not preclude travel on wide stretches of open water on the Great Lakes. Aboriginal people who knew the safe passages through innumerable islands and dangerous reefs guided early European visitors throughout the Great Lakes. Algonquians were able to provide geographical and carto­ graphic information that enabled European mapmakers to construct reli­ able charts of the Great Lakes. Indigenous knowledge included the locations of deep-water channels that became valuable in navigating larger vessels through the Great Lakes. Knowledge of shallow waters was also important in the use of the lakes. Ascertaining the locations of shoals where fish congregated enabled fishermen to harvest large quantities of fish with Aboriginal fishing technology such as seine nets. These too were shared with European settlers who benefited from indigenous knowledge of the water. ISLANDS As noted in Lafitau's remarks above, Aboriginal people in canoes used islands as resting places or safe havens whenever necessary in crossing long stretches of water. An anonymous French report in 1718 described one such canoe route across the western basin of Lake Erie. The report stated: "To reach Detroit from the River Sandosquet, we cross Lake Erie from Island to island and get to a place called Point Pelee" (Anonymous 1718:866). Thomas E. Lee, who studied the archaeology of the Lake Erie region in the 1950s, concluded that these islands were important links in a travel route across the lake (Lee 1963:n.p.): "Another Indian route was across Lake Erie by way of the islands to Point Pelee, either by canoe or over the ice in winter time. Some years ago, a large dugout canoe was exposed in the sands of Pelee Island, during a big storm." The cartogra­ pher Lewis Evans depicted this chain of islands in the western basin of Lake Erie in his 1755 map of North America. A notation on the map ALGONQUIAN MASTERY OF THE GREAT LAKES 259 explained (Evans 1755: map): "the Indians cross the Lake here in canoes from Isle to Isle." SAILS As noted above, the power and utility of wind was reflected in Algon- i quian terminology, and the ability to harness the wind appears to have been utilized since pre-European contact times. Early European visitors to the Great Lakes region noted that Aboriginal people in their canoes employed sails. For example, a manuscript attributed to the French fur trader Pierre Esprit Radisson (1961:151) noted that all the canoes in his flotilla of Aboriginal traders deployed a small sail while traveling through Lake Huron and Georgian Bay in 1661.