76 Ontario Archaeology No. 69, 2000

Economic Strategies and Community Patterning at the Providence Bay Site, Manitoulin Island

Beverley A. Smith and Rosemary Prevec

The Providence Bay site (BkHn-3) on the south shore of Manitoulin Island has produced a large faunal assemblage representing a late precontact/early contact period occupation. This paper provides basic descrip- tive and previously unavailable information about this important site and combines the results of the authors’ independently conducted faunal analyses to identify and reconstruct subsistence activities. The large faunal sample provides the database for a reconstruction of the subsistence and dietary preferences of the site’s occupants, the seasons of site occupation, and the procurement strategies practiced at the site. A com- parison of faunal density and the density of important species of animals provides evidence to support the hypothesis that community and household economic activities can be identified at the Providence Bay site.

Introduction to other researchers. This paper is intended to report the combined results of the findings of Along the south shore of Manitoulin Island, both faunal researchers; present an interpretation behind the wide sandy beach of a sheltered cove of subsistence and procurement strategies; apply known as Providence Bay (Figure 1), a large faunal analysis to aid in interpreting activity archaeological site has revealed evidence of the areas; and to situate these interpretations within homes, material culture, ritual activities and sub- the cultural landscape of the dynamic, early con- sistence strategies of a Late Woodland and early tact period. contact period community. The analysis of the faunal remains from the site contributes to an The Regional and Historical Context of the understanding of the ecological relationships Providence Bay Site between the residents and their environment and of the economic strategies of households, the In the late precontact and early contact periods, community, and the region. the Providence Bay site was a large, important The Providence Bay site was excavated from community on Manitoulin Island in the heart of 1985 through 1988 under the direction of Thor the traditional territory of the Odawa. The site Conway, then of the Ontario Ministry of may have been, in fact, a principal village of the Culture and Communications. Although only a Sable Odawa, translated as the “People of the preliminary draft report on the excavation is Sandy Beach” (Smith 1996:82). available (Conway 1988), the Providence Bay The Providence Bay site has made important site has been featured in the recent literature con- contributions to recent work concerned with cerned with Late Woodland and contact periods Odawa fishing strategies. Molnar (1997) applied in the Upper Great Lakes Late Woodland (Fox fine-scale intra-site spatial analysis of fish 1990; Milner 1998; Molnar 1997; Smith 1989, remains at the Hunter’s Point site (BjHg-3) on 1996, 2000). the Bruce Peninsula using cluster analysis to During the years of site excavation, faunal demonstrate variation in the importance of dif- assemblages were made available to both authors ferent fishing strategies. He used this approach to independently (Prevec 1986, 1989a, 1989b; compare Hunter’s Point with other late precon- Smith 1988); this approach resulted in separate tact and early contact period sites on the Bruce data sets, often from adjacent excavation units. Peninsula and Manitoulin Island, including the These data sets have remained largely unavailable Providence Bay site. Smith and Prevec Economic Strategies and Community Patterning at Providence Bay 77

Figure 1. The location of the Providence Bay N site (BkHn-3).

Providence Bay Site L a k (BkHn-3) e H u ron

20 0 20 km

0 150 km

A detailed study of stylistic variation of diet of the Odawa could not have been derived Juntunen ceramics provides the database for entirely from within their territory...” and that a Milner’s (1998) chronological sequencing of wide-spread “...exchange network was a critical Upper Great Lakes sites in the Late Woodland component of the Odawa subsistence strategy” period, including the Providence Bay site. Milner (Smith 1996:278). identified subregions of ceramics as indicative of socially identified groups who participated in A Brief Summary of the Cultural Occupations “...intensive symbiotic exchange relationships The dominant cultural period at the Providence with inter-regional groups to broaden the area Bay site dates to the latter part of the sixteenth from which they could potentially acquire and early part of the seventeenth centuries and is resources during more frequent bad years” designated as Stratum II. The presence of Period (Milner 1998:334) II glass trade beads, a French iron trade ax, an There is, indeed, ample ethnohistoric evidence iron knife, cut brass scraps and cut pieces of cop- that the early contact period Odawa were impor- per kettle support this early contact period tem- tant players in a system of regional exchange in poral designation (Conway 1988:229-234). the early seventeenth century (Smith 1996:92-7; Milner’s analysis of Juntunen ware ceramics indi- Waisberg 1977; Wright 1967). The Providence cates that the occupation falls within the late Bay site provided an important source of data in Juntunen period, ca. A.D. 1450-1600 the primary author’s analysis of human nutri- (1998:427) The dominance of Sidey Notched tional requirements, sustainable yields of mam- Iroquoian vessels is consistent with this temporal malian species, and preferred mammals for con- estimation for Stratum II as well. At least three sumption as evidenced by faunal remains at sites well-defined “longhouse-like” structures and throughout the Upper Great Lakes (Smith possibly additional houses, as well as two veneer 1996). That study concluded, in part, that “...the middens, containing ritually buried animals, are proportion of beaver and cervids estimated in the associated with this occupation. There is some 78 Ontario Archaeology No. 69, 2000 evidence that the village was contained within a heavily forested (Karrow and Warner 1991:31). palisade. The core of the village covered 0.625 hectare (1.54 acres), but there are indications of The Archaeological Excavations less intensive cultural activity covering an area of The Providence Bay site is located on a stable almost nine hectares (Conway 1988:Table 1). sand dune along the east bank of the Mindemoya In one excavation block of four square metres, River near its mouth at Providence Bay. Within the excavators recognized evidence of an earlier the core area of the site, 107 square metres were occupation, designated as Stratum III; this occu- excavated, representing about one percent of the pation produced one storage pit, three hearths, occupation area. Three or possibly four long- fourteen post moulds, ceramics, lithics, and fau- house-like structures were identified on the basis nal remains (Conway 1988:144). While no date of post mould patterning. The houses were has been assigned to Stratum III, the presence of aligned along the riverbank, although the west- cord-impressed Juntunen ceramics suggest that ern portions of these structures have eroded into this occupation also falls within the late Late the river. To the east, six additional areas, termed Woodland period, ca. 1450-1600 (Milner 1998: “Units”, were excavated in one metre squares. 426). The spatial extent and nature of this earli- Fine-scale recovery techniques, i.e. water screen- er occupation is not well understood. ing through three millimetre mesh and flotation, The site also produced sparse and intermittent were employed to process the soil matrix from all evidence of a later historic occupation, tentative- cultural strata and features (Conway 1988:32- ly dated to ca. A.D. 1850-1870 (Conway 33). Although no formal map of the site is avail- 1988:24). The material culture and subsistence able, a map depicting the approximate location remains of this period are recorded as “surface” or of the excavation units is presented in Figure 2. Stratum I and are stratigraphically separate from Cultural material was recovered from house Stratum II. There are no data as yet regarding floors, pits, and middens. Cultural material at this occupation and, therefore, the small assem- the site was well preserved in the sand matrix blage of associated faunal remains is not includ- underlying the A soil horizon. Ceramics (123 ed in this report. vessels, 13 pipes), lithics (244 tools), trade goods (beads, metal artifacts), paleobotanical specimens Geography and Geomorphology (311 occurrences), and faunal remains (38,793 The south shore of Manitoulin Island is under- specimens) comprise a rich assemblage of arti- lain by Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks, especially facts representing the Late Woodland/early con- limestones, dolomites, sandstones, and shales tact period occupation (Conway 1988; Fecteau (Robertson and Card 1972). With the relative 1987, 1988, 1989; Prevec 1986, 1989a; Smith stabilization of Lake Huron water levels about 1988). 4,000 years ago, Manitoulin Island was left with a relatively thin covering of grey brown luvisols, Faunal Analysis including sand, silt, clay, and some gravels (Larson 1987; Rowe 1972). The exposure of the The method of faunal analysis and reporting fol- south shore to prevailing westerly and southwest- lows standard zooarchaeological procedure. All erly winds results in a shorter growing season at bone specimens were identified to as precise a Providence Bay than at interior localities on the zoological taxon as possible. Each specimen was island; while Providence Bay averages slightly less recorded according to taxon, element, side, cul- than 120 frost free days, the inland community tural and/or natural alteration (such as burning of Manitouaning enjoys almost 160 frost free and butchering), and any information regarding days each year (Boughner et al. 1956). Pollen the individual represented by the element, profiles from Manitoulin Island suggest that in including size, sex or pathology. post-glacial times meadows and open scrub land There is a high degree of consistency regarding were dominant and that the island was never the methods employed by each faunal analyst Smith and Prevec Economic Strategies and Community Patterning at Providence Bay 79

5.0

N 1.0 4.0

5.0 3.0

3.0

7A 2.0 3 2.0 7B 4 2.0 3.0 2 9 3.0 11 10 2.0

1.0 5 1.0 8 1.0 6 2.0 1 1.0 3.0 2.0

3.0

2.0

1.0 Excavation Unit 1.0 Contours: 1m intervals from arbitrary datum 2.0 0 40 metres Approximate Scale 1.0 Figure 2. The approximate size and locations of excavation units at the Providence Bay site. and the assemblages are highly comparable. Both pendently for each unit since it is assumed that analysts employed the same methods of summa- any given individual animal would not be repre- rizing the data. Both analysts identified complete sented in more than one unit. The MNI for each fish vertebrae to a zoological taxon as either species in each unit was totaled to produce an genus (Prevec) or family (Smith). Both analysts estimate of the minimum number of individual noted a discernable morphological difference animals represented by the faunal sample for the between the vertebrae of lake trout and white- site. From MNI, the relative importance of fishes and these distinguishable taxa are recorded species in terms of meat contribution was calcu- as Salvelinus/Salmonidae and Coregonus/Coregonidae lated. Estimates of meat contribution was taken respectively in this analysis. from Cleland’s (1970) faunal analysis from Fort In this paper, the results of the faunal analysis Michilimackinac in the Upper Great Lakes; his for Stratum II are reported as NISP (number of method is derived from White’s (1953) method identified specimens) for each Unit (Tables 1-4) which calculates available meat based upon a and by MNI (minimum number of individuals) percentage of the average live weight for each for the occupation as a whole (Table 5). MNI species. A total of 37,803 specimens and 374 indi- was calculated based upon the most frequently vidual animals represent the faunal assemblage occurring element, taking into consideration side from Stratum II, the Late Woodland/early contact and size. Because the Units are relatively widely occupation. This total is exclusive of the animal separated spatially, MNI was calculated inde- bundle burials associated with this occupation. 80 Ontario Archaeology No. 69, 2000 9 6 1 2 3 4 1 1 3 5 2 22 14 81 23 55 18 26 13 62 60 48 28 20 436 943 4,553 . 26 – – – – – – – – – – 26 – – ouse 1 2 House 3 House 4 House Midden House? Midden Midden? House? Midden? Pits H ten – 1 – 2 – wshoe hare hare 1 10 2 10 21 12 2 14 5 3 1 wshoe r aver aver 13 12 3 317 – 2 45 14 2 7 21 o oose – 37 – 13 2 1 3 – uskrat – 2 – 1 3 – omestic dog – 15 1 – 27 11 1 – omestic ed squirrel squirrel – ed 1 3 – 7 – ed fox fox ed – – 1 2 – lack bear lack – 5 6 – 7 1 1 ynx – – 1 – isher – 1 – – triped skunk – – 1 triped – Be R Eastern chipmunk – – 2 5 2 Eastern Sn M M D F Mink deer 1 28 1 10 3 6 7 5 – 1 Caribou White-tailed 11 – 1 1 L River otter – River 10 2 – 5 9 B Ma S Raccoon – – 2 1 2

cf. Beaver (probably) (probably) – 13 – – 1 cf. Beaver

R

The distribution of mammalian faunal remains (NISP) from Stratum II, Providence Bay site Bay II, Providence Stratum (NISP) from The distribution of mammalian faunal remains

sp. sp. – Dog/Wolf 14 – 2 – 1 1 tes pennanti tes americana con lotor on ID Common Name 3 Unit 2/4 Unit 11 Unit 1 Unit 6/8 Unit 7A Unit 7B Unit 9 Unit 5 Unit 10 Unit Test Total r r x ammalia sp. sp. ammalia 418 335 58 1,962 1,149 57 29 161 6 3 375 uridae sp. Mouse/Rat family sp. – – 1 – Mouse/Rat uridae oy ephitis mephitis ustela vison ndatra zibethicus ndatra docoileus virginianus rsus americanus ble 1. astor canadensis astor canadensis anis familiaris anis odentia sp. sp. Order odentia – – 1 1 angifer tarandus lces alces ulpes vulpes utra canadensis utra otal 5,496 10 2,070 73 462 285 1,560 38 380 70 540 8 amiasciurus hudsonicus amias striatus ynx canadensis ubtotal 4 108 16 122 45 12 411 124 87 5 9 T C C O Leporidae sp. Hare/Rabbit family – sp. 5 3 1 6 – 4 1 Hare/Rabbit Leporidae T Lepus americanus

M R C C V U sp. Ma Order M M – 14 – family 10 – 7 Carnivora 2 15 sp. R – 2 1 O A Deer/Caribou Cervidae S T M Ta L Pr Ma L Ta Smith and Prevec Economic Strategies and Community Patterning at Providence Bay 81 6 4 1 1 6 3 2 2 2 20 83 42 39 10 54 208 161 138 738 201 1,434 4,853 8,008 22,093 ouse 1 2 House 3 House 4 House Midden House? Midden Midden? House? Midden? Pits H ldon redhorse redhorse – – 1 – ldon ock bass ock – – 2 – urbot – 25 – 1 11 – 1 ellow perch perch – ellow – 2 1 – ellow walleye walleye 688 12 – 10 2 8 – 13 1 v 4 ellow mallmouth bass – – 1 – mallmouth Lake whitefish – 36 – 14 58 99 – – 1 Lake

Lake sturgeon – 6 – 3 2 9 Lake – Lake trout trout – Lake 34 – 1 6 1 – – Longnose sucker 1 14 12 – 116 – – – – 18 – sucker 116 – 18 sucker 12 – 14 1 – Longnose 120 – 1 12 2 – 3 White B Y Go R S Largemouth bass – – 1 – Largemouth

sp. Trout genus/family 25 29 20 – 777 9 412 4 – 148 10 148 412 4 – 777 9 genus/family 20 – 29 25 Trout sp.

Y sp. sp. Walleye/Sauger 22 3 14 3 – 2 4 6 sp. Redhorse sp. Redhorse – – 1 – The distribution of osteichthyes faunal remains (NISP) from Stratum II, Providence Bay site. Bay II, Providence Stratum (NISP) from faunal remains The distribution of osteichthyes

sp. sp. Pike/Muskellunge – 1 – 4 – ostoma erythrurum ostoma on ID Common Name 3 Unit 2/4 Unit 11 Unit 1 Unit 6/8 Unit 7A Unit 7B Unit 9 Unit 5 Unit 10 Unit Test Total x x cidae sp. Perch/Walleye family 14 8 3 21 126 1 4 1 4 8 11 126 1 4 8 21 family 14 8 3 sp. Perch/Walleye cidae ca flavescens prinidae sp. Minnow/Carp Family – Family – 4 – sp. Minnow/Carp prinidae x r icropterus dolomieui icropterus salmoides r steichthyes sp. sp. steichthyes 305 1,986 391 17,363 1,208 17 38 269 123 369 24 taluridae sp. Catfish/Bullhead family – – 4 – 6 – – – – – – family – 4 6 – sp. Catfish/Bullhead taluridae ble 2. atostomus catostomus atostomus commersoni cipenser fulvescens mbloplites rupestris otal 30,101 1,016 3,513 682 21,324 2,189 25 72 454 228 535 63 alvelinus namaycush alvelinus alvelinus/Salmonidae ubtotal 1,527 291 3,961 711 185 105 166 34 39 8 981 tizostedion vitreum tizostedion tizostedion tizostedion Coregonidae sp. Whitefish family – 51 2 4 1 – sp. 15 – 4 6 Whitefish clupeaformis Coregonus Coregonidae S S

A Esox Cy C C Mo Catostomus/Catostomidae sp. Sucker/Redhorse family 98 Sucker/Redhorse 48 118 sp. 8 2,578 15 1,022 Catostomus/Catostomidae 213 Lota lota 1 Ic A 750 2 Centrarchidae sp. Bass/Sunfish family – 1 – 5 – sp. Bass/Sunfish Centrarchidae Pe S Ta Mo M M S Pe S T O Ta 82 Ontario Archaeology No. 69, 2000 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 4 7 3 1 9 1 1 9 19 10 21 12 36 72 11 352 412 274 1,325 1,406

– 260 36 128 12 9 163 8 764 8 128 12 260 36 9 163

–

ouse 1 2 House 3 House 4 House Midden House? Midden Midden? House? Midden? Pits ouse 1 2 House 3 House 4 House Midden House? Midden Midden? House? Midden? Pits H H thern snapping turtle – 1 – – 8 – – – – – – – 1 8 turtle – snapping thern ter snake (probably) – – 1 – – – – – – – – (probably) – 1 – snake ter p turtle p – – 1 – r r eat blue heron heron – – 1 1 blue eat erganser – – 5 2 ood duck – ood 1 – – edhead – 1 – – uffed grouse grouse 1 12 – 2 – 6 uffed ald eagle – ald 11 1 – – 7 – lue-winged teal – – 2 – lue-winged landing's turtle – – 1 – landing's assenger pigeon – – 1 – assenger ainted turtle – 6 – 3 ainted 1 B Common raven raven 1 – – Common Common loon 30 19 Common 5 – 72 8 57 8 2 2 71 B R Gr W P R Ma M B P Ga No

cf. Osprey (probably) (probably) – – 2 – cf. Osprey

sirtalis

cf. cf.

The distribution of avian faunal remains (NISP) from Stratum II, Providence Bay site. Bay II, Providence Stratum (NISP) from The distribution of avian faunal remains site. Bay II, Providence Stratum (NISP) from The distribution of other class faunal remains

sp. sp. Frog – – 1 oidea blandingii on ID Common Name 3 Unit 2/4 Unit 11 Unit 1 Unit 6/8 Unit 7A Unit 7B Unit 9 Unit 5 Unit 10 Unit Test on ID Total Common Name 3 Unit 2/4 Unit 11 Unit 1 Unit 6/8 Unit 7A Unit 7B Unit 9 Unit 5 Unit 10 Unit Test Total yd liaeetus leucocephalus yptodira sp. sp. Order yptodira – – 1 8 2 es sp. sp. es 39 26 14 161 17 63 1 4 6 81 aptemys geographica x x dea herodias ergus merganser/serrator astropoda sp. sp. Snail astropoda – – 1 5 3 avia immer ble 3. ble 4. ccipitridae sp. Hawk/Eagle family – – 2 sp. – Hawk/Eagle ccipitridae nas discors nura nura ctopistes migratorius etraonidae sp. Grouse family sp. – – 1 2 Grouse 1 etraonidae otal – 20 1 – 6 3 1 – 4 otal 75 51 22 51 otal 75 otal 113 302 20 24 457 26 172 133 93 66 ite Total - All Classes - All ite Total 1,188 964 648 95 23,621 173 4,099 2,897 200 2,884 1,034 37,803 andion haliaetus elecypoda sp. sp. Bivalve elecypoda – 61 – 8 1 – 1 1 ubtotal 36 25 8 – 99 19 65 11 4 3 82 trigidae sp. Owl family sp. – Owl trigidae – 1 – S Av T He A S Corvus corax Ar A Laridae sp. Gull family sp. – Gull Laridae – 1 – P M Em G Chrysemys picta

Aythya americana Aix sponsa T E Anatidae sp. Duck/Goose family sp. – 4 1 – 3 1 Duck/Goose Anatidae Bonasa umbellus Gr serpentina Chelydra Cr P G Ta Ta Thamnophis A T indeterminate Class T 113 301 20 24 395 26 164 132 88 – 62 S Ta Ta Smith and Prevec Economic Strategies and Community Patterning at Providence Bay 83

Table 5. Estimated minimum number of individuals and meat contribution at the Providence Bay Site. Faunal Category lbs. meat/ind kg. meat/ind MNI Total lbs. Total kg. %

Rabbit/Hare 2.1 1.0 16 33.6 15.3 0.7 Chipmunk/Squirrel 0.2 0.1 4 0.8 0.4 0.0 Muskrat 3.0 1.4 4 12.0 5.5 0.3 Beaver 31.5 14.3 21 661.5 300.7 13.9 Black bear 210.0 95.5 2 420.0 190.9 8.8 Dog/Wolf 15.0 6.8 8 120.0 54.5 2.5 Small Carnivore 2.1 1.0 20 42.0 19.1 0.9 White-tailed deer 85.0 38.6 8 680.0 309.1 14.3 Caribou 187.5 85.2 4 750.0 340.9 15.8 Moose/Lg. Cervid 400.0 181.8 3 1,200.0 545.5 25.2 Common Loon 4.0 1.8 27 108.0 49.1 2.3 Heron/Goose 6.4 2.9 4 25.6 11.6 0.5 Duck 2.0 0.9 10 20.0 9.1 0.4 Grouse 1.1 0.5 9 9.9 4.5 0.2 Passenger Pigeon 0.8 0.4 1 0.8 0.4 0.0 Raven 2.4 1.1 1 2.4 1.1 0.1 Lake Sturgeon 36.0 16.4 5 180.0 81.8 3.8 Lake trout 14.4 6.5 15 216.0 98.2 4.5 Whitefish 10.4 4.7 9 93.6 42.5 2.0 Pike/Muskellunge 2.4 1.1 3 7.2 3.3 0.2 Sucker/Redhorse 0.4 0.2 168 67.2 30.5 1.4 Burbot 2.0 0.9 3 6.0 2.7 0.1 Bullhead 0.4 0.2 1 0.4 0.2 0.0 Bass 1.6 0.7 4 6.4 2.9 0.1 Walleye/Sauger 5.6 2.5 13 72.8 33.1 1.5 Yellow perch 0.3 0.1 2 0.6 0.3 0.0 Snapping turtle 10.0 4.5 2 20.0 9.1 0.4 Other turtles 0.4 0.2 7 2.8 1.3 0.1 Total 374 4,759.6 2,163.5 100.0

The faunal assemblage representing the earlier integrity of bone specimens, especially since the Late Woodland occupation, Stratum III, totals assemblage was recovered by fine-scale tech- 990 specimens. The NISP for each identified niques. taxon is reported by archaeological context; this Certain species appear to have been preferred assemblage is confined exclusively to Unit 7B in the Providence Bay diet. Beaver (Castor (Table 6). canadensis), bear (Ursus Americanus), cervids, loon (Gavia immer), and fish, especially sucker Stratum II Faunal Findings and Subsistence (Catostomus sp.), lake trout (Salvelinus namay- A wide variety of animal species was identified cush), and whitefish (Coregonidae sp.), are impor- from Stratum II, although certain taxonomic tant in terms of meat contribution. Cervids, i.e., groups are more dominant than others in the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), cari- assemblage (Tables 1-4). Almost 80 percent of bou (Rangifer tarandus), and moose (Alces alces), the faunal assemblage is bony fish while mam- contributed approximately 50 percent of meat to mals comprise 14.5 percent; the other faunal the diet, while black bear contributed about nine classes, birds, reptile/amphibian, and inverte- percent, and beaver and fish each contributed brates, each comprise two percent or less of the about 14 percent; the remaining 13 percent of total faunal assemblage. Only 3.5 percent of the the diet comprised a variety of small mammals, faunal assemblage was so fragmented that a zoo- birds, and turtles (Table 5). logical class could not be assigned with any Plants also contributed to the diet of the resi- degree of certainty; this low proportion is evi- dents of the Providence Bay site. A small number dence of the excellent preservation and high of maize (Zea mays) kernels (n=18), beans 84 Ontario Archaeology No. 69, 2000

Table 6. Faunal findings from Stratum III at the Providence Bay site. Taxon ID Common Name Midden Storage Pit Post Moulds Feature 81 #5 #6 #9 Total Lepus americanus Snowshoe hare – – – 1 – 1 Tamias striatus Eastern chipmunk – – 1 – – 1 Castor canadensis Beaver 1 – – – – 1 Lutra canadensis River otter 1 – – – – 1 Subtotal 2 – 1 1 – 4 Mammal sp. med.+ Beaver size or larger 3 – – – – 3 Mammal sp. 28 – – – – 28 Total 33 – 1 1 – 35

Coregonus clupeaformis Lake whitefish – – – 2 – 2 Coregonidae sp. Whitefish family – 1 – 2 – 3 Salvelinus/Salmonidae sp. Trout genus/family 2 – 3 11 1 17 Catostomus catostomus Longnose sucker 1 – – – – 1 Catostomus commersoni White sucker 1 – – – – 1 Catostomus/Catostomidae sp. Sucker genus/family 20 14 89 46 131 300 Percidae sp. Perch/Walleye family 3 – – – – 3 Subtotal 27 15 92 61 132 327 Osteichthyes sp. 9 32 152 101 300 594 Total 36 47 244 162 432 921

Gavia immer Common loon 4 – – 5 – 9 Subtotal 4 – – 5 – 9 Aves sp. large Loon size or larger 8 – – – – 8 Total 12 – – 5 0 17 – – Pelecypoda sp. Bivalve – – – – 1 1 Class indeterminate 6 – 3 1 6 16

Total 87 47 248 169 439 990

(Phaseolus vulgaris) (n=1), berries and other In contrast, between 76 percent and 100 percent fleshy fruits, grasses, tubers, and other plants of samples produced maize in a select sample of have been identified at the site (Fecteau 1987; Huron sites (Monckton 1992). The fact that 40 1988; 1989). percent of the flotation samples produced fruit Maize is not well represented at the Providence seeds suggests that conditions at the Providence Bay site and its dietary contribution and produc- Bay site were conducive to the preservation of tion strategy at the site is unclear. Although an botanicals. There is little evidence, therefore, to adequate growing season is present inland from support an argument for wide scale production the site, the soils of Manitoulin Island are poor of maize at Providence Bay and it is possible that and shallow (Chapman and Putnam 1971:166). maize was mainly acquired in exchange relations The ethnohistoric literature from northern Lake with Huron/Petun people to the south (Smith Huron is equivocal, but there is a general sense 1996:266-270). that small plots of maize were planted in Subsistence remains indicate that the diet of favoured spots, but often had to be harvested the occupants of the Providence Bay site stressed green; in other words, maize was cultivated, but red meat, fish, and wild plants and that plant did not comprise a dietary staple (Smith domesticates were a minor component of the 1996:91-92, 148-150). Maize kernels are rare in production strategy. the site assemblage and no cob fragments were identified. Only 12 percent of the 149 flotation Stratum II Seasonality and Procurement Practices samples (98 litres) from the site produced maize. The intensity of the Stratum II occupation, in Smith and Prevec Economic Strategies and Community Patterning at Providence Bay 85 terms of material culture, features, and faunal 164). Through review of this literature, it is pos- remains, suggests that the site was occupied year- sible to develop a basic outline (Figure 3) of the round. The houses, as manifested by post moulds favoured seasons of exploitation of major prey with associated hearths, pits, and middens, indi- animals (Smith 1996:165). For each season refer- cate that the residents of the site had the domes- enced ethnohistorically, many favoured faunal tic comforts to withstand winter weather at the and floral species have been identified at the locality. The palisade would have further protect- Providence Bay site. ed the occupants from winter winds. This same ethnohistoric literature is also useful The faunal assemblage also suggests a year- as a source to reconstruct the possible procure- round occupation, although there is no unequiv- ment practices used to exploit the animal species ocal empirical evidence to support this conjec- identified at the Providence Bay site (Smith ture. The vast majority of mammals in the 1996:150-155). The numerically dominant assemblage could have been hunted year-round, group of animals at the site is sucker, especially while the muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), aquatic white and longnose suckers. birds, passenger pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius), Longnose (Catostomus catostomus) and white and turtles are available only in warm weather suckers (C. commersoni) are anadromous and (Banfield 1974; Cook 1984; Godfrey 1986). The dense runs of spawning suckers are observed ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), owl (Strigidae annually in the Mindemoya River in early and sp.), bald eagle (Heliaeetus leucocephalus), osprey mid spring. Sucker runs, during which “thou- (Pandion haliaetus), and common raven (Corvus sands may ascend a suitable stream, as many as corax) are year-round residents on the island 500 passing a point in five minutes” (Scott and (Godfrey 1986). Fish are available in the river Crossman 1973:540) were clearly exploited at and lake adjacent to the site at all times of the the Providence Bay site. While there are few ref- year but, like many mammals, certain fish species erences to the exploitation of sucker in the eth- are more likely to have been exploited intensively nohistoric literature of the Upper Great Lakes, in certain seasons. Lieutenant James Allen described their exploita- The reconstruction of the seasonality of Upper tion during the spring near Sault Ste. Marie in Great Lakes occupations entails not only consid- 1832 (Mason [ed.] 1958:164). The suckers iden- eration of the availability of species but also has tified at the Providence Bay site vary in size, and regard to procurement strategies, animal behav- this variability suggests a procurement technique iour, the nutritional status of prey, and other that was not size selective, such as seine nets or such factors. The ethnohistoric literature of the weirs. Upper Great Lakes also provides a number of ref- Lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) is the most erences to the seasonal exploitation of animals, widely described target of the spring fishery in although these tend to be culturally, temporally, the Upper Great Lakes. Historical accounts (cf. and geographically disparate (Smith 1996:144- Smith 1996:152-153) attest to the economic

Figure 3. Season of FALL WINTER SPRING SUMMER exploitation based upon ethnohistoric sources in the Upper Great Lakes Beaver region (Smith 1996). Whitefish Sturgeon Lake Trout Sucker Pigeons Cervids Waterfowl Berries Hare Maple Sap Grouse Tr ipe de Roche Interior Lakes Fishing Muskrat? Turtles? Bear Offshore Great Lakes Fishing? 86 Ontario Archaeology No. 69, 2000 importance of this fishery. While many Late the size and intensity of occupation at the Woodland/contact period sites in the region, Providence Bay site is consistent with Cleland’s such as Hunter’s Point (BfHg-3) (Molnar 1997; prediction about Late Woodland settlement and Prevec 1991, 1992, 1993), Juntunen (20MK1) the Inland Shore Fishery. (Cleland 1966), Marquette Mission (20MK82) Whitefish cranial elements from the primary (Smith 1985) Nyman (ClIf-11) (Burns 1976), author’s sample indicate a consistent live size of Renard (CbHs-5) and Falls (CbHs-7) (Gordon 400-450 mm (approximately 16-18 inches) esti- 1978) produced large numbers of sturgeon ele- mated from comparisons with reference speci- ments, other sites, including Providence Bay, mens of known size. This size range would sug- produced little evidence of intensive sturgeon gest a gill net mesh size of 7.5-10 cm (3-4 inch- exploitation. Lake sturgeon, like other spring es) (McCombie and Fry 1960). Since gill nets are spawners, such as yellow walleye (Stizostedion highly selective in terms of fish size, the size vitreum), yellow perch (Perca flavescens), basses range of the whitefish sample supports the use of (Micropterus sp.), and bullheads (Ictaluridae sp.), gill nets. The large number of common loon in are present in relatively small numbers at the the Providence Bay faunal sample may also be Providence Bay site (Table 3). Other spring considered indirect evidence of the use of nets. foods, such as waterfowl and muskrat, and sum- At several other Upper Great Lakes sites, includ- mer foods, including pigeons, turtles, and ing Juntunen (20MK1) (Cleland 1966), Scott berries, are all present in the Providence Bay Point (20MK22) (Martin 1982), and Shawana archaeological record, thus supporting a warm (BkHk-1) (Prevec 1988), where large numbers of weather occupation. whitefish are identified, loon is also well repre- In cold weather months hunting, trapping, sented. McPherron (1967:196) suggests that and the fall fishery for lake trout and whitefish loon, feeding on fish caught in gill nets would are the dominant subsistence activities described also have been caught therein. in the ethnohistoric literature (Smith 1996:150- The size of lake trout elements in the 152, 154-155) and the major species described Providence Bay faunal sample indicates the are all identified in the Providence Bay faunal exploitation of large individuals; Smith (1989) assemblage (Figure 3; Tables 1-3). estimates a live length of 635-650 mm (24-26 Gill net technology for exploiting fall spawn- inches) based upon comparisons with reference ing fish is well documented in the ethnohistoric specimens of known size. This size range, as well literature (cf. Cleland 1982:762-763) but it is as the relatively small number of lake trout ele- difficult to demonstrate archaeologically. ments in the assemblage, suggests that lake trout Salmonid (including lake trout and whitefish) were not captured with whitefish in gill nets, but cranial elements are notoriously fragile and more may have been exploited by hook and line or susceptible to destructive taphonomic processes spearing, as is described in the ethnohistoric than are the cranial bones of fish from other zoo- accounts from the Straits of Mackinac (Cleland logical families (Butler and Chatters 1994; 1982:762-764; Smith 1985, 1996). It is notable Lubinski 1996). that, while lake trout were formerly very abun- Whitefish are clearly an important species at dant in Lake Huron, there are no lake trout the Providence Bay site. After A.D. 800, white- spawning grounds directly offshore from fish were traditionally targeted with gill net tech- Providence Bay (Smith 1968). Lake trout are nology at certain prime localities in the Upper generally deepwater species, preferring cold Great Lakes (Cleland 1982). According to water; they are most easily caught near the sur- Cleland, large intensive occupations were estab- face (<60 feet) in the fall through early spring lished near whitefish spawning shoals where the (Scott and Crossman 1973:225). exploitation of fall spawning fish required inten- sive labour that was, in turn, rewarded by a reli- Stratum II Intra-Site Community Patterning able store of frozen fish for winter use. Certainly, A consideration of the spatial distribution of features Smith and Prevec Economic Strategies and Community Patterning at Providence Bay 87 and faunal species among units at the Providence buried in relatively narrow tubes of a perishable Bay site suggests that certain areas of the site may material, possibly birch bark, and were, for the have served different economic functions and most part, complete individuals (Smith 2000). that differences in activities in terms of animal Unit 2/4 produced the only evidence of an arti- procurement, processing and use may be identi- fact associated with a house that may represent fied. There is evidence to support the hypothesis the ideological realm; an incomplete black bear that certain units reflect communal activities, mandible which is stained with copper was such as ritual and the processing of animal recovered from the edge of a hearth in House 2 species procured in a large group effort, while (Conway 1988:48). other units at the site reflect household level pro- The units representing sheet middens and curement and subsistence activity. To test this houses were compared with reference to the over- hypothesis, the features and faunal remains all density of faunal remains. A difference in the recovered from sheet middens (Units 6/8 and faunal density reflecting non-ritually buried ani- 7B) were compared with the houses and their mals lends support to the notion that the sheet adjacent middens (Units 1, 2/4, 3, and 11) at the middens differed from houses in the deposition site with reference to the nature of features, over- of subsistence related fauna. Because there is vari- all bone density, and relative density of impor- ability in excavation area for each unit, the data tant subsistence species. are standardized by calculating bone density The post moulds, pits, and hearths associated (NISP/m2). with Unit 6/8, which was most extensively exca- There does indeed appear to be a difference vated, differ from the feature configurations asso- between the density of fauna in sheet middens ciated with houses. In Unit 6/8, most hearths (Units 6/8 and 7B), where fauna was recovered were linear, often with two to four post moulds in very high densities (>250 NISP/m2) and in at their ends. These have been interpreted as evi- houses (Units 1, 2/4, and 3), where fauna was dence of fish smoking racks (Conway 1988:99). found in relatively low densities (<100 NISP/m2) Storage pits from Unit 6/8 commonly contain (Table 7). Units 5 and 7A produced a low density copious amounts of fish bone. In both Units 6/8 of fauna, supporting Conway’s (1988:87, 136) and 7B, cultural material was deposited as a sheet suspicions that these areas of the site represent, or or veneer midden. In Units 1, 2/4, 3, and 11, are associated with, household activities. The post moulds were relatively closely spaced and high density of fauna in Unit 10 suggests that aligned in a linear pattern. Pits and hearths asso- this area is a midden and is possibly a northwest ciated with these houses were generally oval in extension of the deposits encountered in Unit 6/8. plan and basin-shaped in profile and produced A comparison of the density (NISP/m2) of only small amounts of fauna and artifacts relative important categories of animal species also supports to features associated with sheet middens (Conway 1988). Table 7. Density of faunal specimens from Stratum II at the Other characteristics of Units 6/8 and 7B sug- Providence Bay site. gest that these areas of the site differ from hous- Unit NISP m2 Excavated Density es. Only Units 6/8 and 7B produced evidence of ritual bundle burials of animals. In Unit 6/8, the 3 1,188 13 91.4 2&4 964 16 60.3 bundle burials of five dogs (Canis familiaris), one 11 648 – – loon, and three beaver were excavated; from Unit 1 95 2 47.5 7B, three dog bundle burials and a double eagle 6&8 23,621 43 549.3 (probably bald eagle) burial were present. The 7A 173 4 43.3 7B 4,099 16 256.2 young dog remains (most less than one year in 9 2,897 – – age) exhibited transverse cut marks of the ventral 5 200 5 40.0 surface of cervical vertebrae 2, 3, and/or 4, indi- 10 2,884 8 360.5 Test Pits 1,034 – – cating that their throats were slashed. They were Total 37,803 107 310.5 88 Ontario Archaeology No. 69, 2000 the hypothesis there are important differences ting. Both fishing procurement strategies are between the sheet middens and the houses intensive in terms of labour and constrained in (Figure 4). Sucker, whitefish, and lake trout are terms of the time period of congregation related all well represented in Units 6/8 and 7B but are to spawning. not common in houses. Beaver is the only mam- The high proportion of beaver in the sheet mal that is well represented in Units 6/8 and 7B middens is more difficult to interpret. It might and less well represented in houses. In the hous- be expected that beaver would be trapped by es, spring-spawning fish such as walleye/perch, individuals rather than exploited on a communal snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), other small level. If some of the beaver represented in the mammals, and most importantly in terms of sub- Providence Bay site faunal assemblage were sistence contribution, cervids are well represent- received in an exchange network from more ed but are found in relatively low density in Unit northern nations, however, it is not surprising to 6/8 (Figure 4). Unit 7B more closely mirrors the find their remains more commonly associated pattern of houses in this regard and this observa- with a ritual and communal activity area at the tion supports Conway’s suggestion that “it is very site (Smith 1996:267). likely that a house is located on the terrace above Household procurement strategies appear to the swale” (1988:144). target snowshoe hare and other small mammals The differences between the sheet middens as well as cervids since these species are well rep- and the houses at the Providence Bay site may resented in houses and poorly represented in therefore indicate differences in strategies of pro- Unit 6/8. curement and processing of certain animals. The sheet middens may reflect the community-wide Conclusions processing of intensively harvested fish. High numbers of suckers are consistent with spring Providence Bay is an important site in any syn- season weir or seine netting and high numbers of thesis concerned with the late precontact/early whitefish are consistent with fall season gill net- contact period in the Upper Great Lakes; the

Sucker

Whitefish Houses Midden 6/8 Lake Trout Midden 7B Perch/Walleye

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00 Density (NISP/m2)

Beaver

Hare Houses Midden 6/8 Small Mammal Midden 7B Cervids 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 Density (NISP/m2)

Figure 4. Density of select faunal taxa in houses and middens at the Providence Bay site. Smith and Prevec Economic Strategies and Community Patterning at Providence Bay 89 material culture, settlement data, and evidence of patience and assistance in the production of this ritual behaviour are only briefly summarized paper and two anonymous reviews for their here. This analysis focuses on the extensive fau- insightful comments. We are grateful to Thor nal assemblage. Conway for his excellent work at Providence Bay This analysis demonstrates that faunal remains and for providing us with the opportunity to may contribute significantly to an understanding analyze the faunal assemblages from this exciting of past behaviour. The faunal assemblage pro- site. We are indebted to the Department of vides an empirical database for reconstructing Anthropology, University of Toronto that sup- subsistence preferences and seasonal occupation. ports the Howard G. Savage Faunal Osteo- At Providence Bay, suckers in the spring, white- archaeology Laboratory and The Michigan State fish in the fall, beaver, cervids, and hare in the University Museum for providing access to com- winter, and a variety of small mammals, birds, parative collections and facilities. We also thank turtles, and other fish species throughout the Kent Smith, University of Michigan-Flint, for warm season were important sources of food. his excellent maps. We acknowledge the financial The faunal assemblage, high density of artifacts support of the Ontario Heritage Foundation for and substantial housing all point toward a year- partially funding this study. Finally, we gratefully round occupation of the site, at least by a portion acknowledge the influence of the late Dr. of the population. Howard G. Savage, our friend, mentor, teacher Procurement strategies for fish and terrestrial and so much more. species are also accessible through the analysis of faunal remains using ethnohistoric and ethno- References Cited graphic models of alternative approaches to the exploitation of important species. It is suggested Banfield, A.F. that suckers were intensively exploited using weir 1974 The Mammals of Canada. University of or seine net technology and that whitefish were Toronto Press, Toronto. captured with gill nets. Hook and line and/or Boughner, E.C., R.W. Longley, and M.K. Thomas spearing were probably both employed for a vari- 1956 Climatic Summaries for Selected Meteorological ety of fish species. Hunting was undertaken using Stations in Canada. Volume III, Frost Data. snares and traps for both cervids and small animals. Meteorological Division, Canadian Depart- The ethnohistoric and ethnographic docu- ment of Transportation, Ottawa. ments are mute, however, with reference to the Burns, J.A. internal spatial arrangement of communities. 1976 Appendix A. The Nyman Site, a Seventeenth Comparisons of faunal density and the differ- Century Algonkian Camp on the North ences in the distribution of major categories of Shore of Lake Superior, by K.C.A. Dawson. animals across the site are shown to be of great 1-56. Canadian Archaeological Association, Bulletin 8:1-56. utility in identifying activity areas and predicting Butler, V.L., and J.C. Chatters activities in areas of the site that have not been 1994 The Role of Bone Density in Structuring fully excavated. This analysis has shown that spa- Prehistoric Salmon Bone Assemblages. tial differences in fauna may reflect differences in Journal of Archaeological Science 21:413-424. the organization of production and processing Chapman L.J., and D.J. Putnam between community-wide and household level 1971 The Physiography of Southern Ontario. 2nd economic activities. Community level activities edition. University of Toronto Press, suggested by this analysis include the processing Toronto. of intensively harvested fish, rituals as evidenced Cleland, C.E. 1966 The Prehistoric Animal Ecology and by animal burials, and processing of beaver pos- Ethnozoology of the Upper Great Lakes Region. sibly received in exchange networks. Anthropological Paper 29. Museum of Acknowledgments. The authors thank Ontario Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Archaeology guest editor Dr. Max Friesen for his Arbor, Michigan. 90 Ontario Archaeology No. 69, 2000

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Beverley A. Smith Department of Sociology, Anthropology, Criminal Justice, University of Michigan-Flint 422 French Hall, Flint, Michigan, USA 48502 [email protected]

Rosemary Prevec 944 La Salle Park Road, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7T 1M9 [email protected]