ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

ANCIENT INDIA arrived. Such a culture is called Chalcolithic which means the stone-copper phase. PRE-HISTORY  The Chalcolithic people used different types  Recent reported artefacts from Bori in of pottery of which black and red pottery was Maharashtra suggest the appearance of most popular. It was wheel made and human beings in India around 1.4 million painted with white line design. years ago.  They venerated the mother goddess and  Their first appearance to around 3000 BC, worshiped the bull. humans used only stone tools for different purposes. This period is, therefore known as INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION the Stone Age.  The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient  Has been divided into Paleolithic age, civilization thriving along the Indus River Mesolithic age and Neolithic age. and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and north-western India. THE PALEOLITHIC AGE (Old Stone)  Among other names for this civilization is (500,00 BC – 8000 BC) the Harappan Civilization, in reference to its  In India it developed in the Pleistocene first excavated city of Harappa. period or the Ice Age.  An alternative term for the culture is  The people of this age were food gathering Saraswati-Sindhu Civilization, based on the people who lived on hunting and gathering fact that most of the Indus Valley sites have wild fruits and vegetables. been found at the Halkra-Ghaggar River.  They mainly used hand axes, cleavers,  R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered choppers, blades, scrapers and burin. Their Harappa (on Ravi) in 1921. R.D. Banerjee tools were made of hard rock called discovered Mohenjodaro or Mound of the „quartzite‟, hence Paleolithic men are also Dead‟ (on Indus) in 1922. called „Quartzite Men‟.  Harappan Civilization forms part of the  Homo sapiens first appeared in the last of proto history of India and belongs to the this phase bronze age.  It has been pointed out that Paleolithic men  According to radio-carbon dating, it spread belonged to the Negrito race. from the year 2500-1750 BC  The sites are found in the valleys of Soan,  Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers not iron.  Tools have been found in AP, Karnataka,  Specialized in 1. Town planning, Maharashtra, Bhopal and Chhota Nagpur Architecture, Craftsmanship. 2. Burnt brick plateau. building 3. Urban culture.  Hunting & gathering GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT THE MESOLITHIC ERA (8000 BC – 6000  Major sites in Pakistan are Harappa (on Ravi BC) in W. Punjab) Mohenjodaro (on Indua),  Hunting & fishing Chanhu-Daro (Sindh), etc. In India, major  The characteristics tools of the Mesolithic sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Age are known as Microliths – pointed Surkotda(Gujarat), Kalibangan(Rajasthan), cresconic blades, scrapers, etc, all made of Banwali(Hissar), and Alamgirpur(Western stone. UP).  Largest and the latest site in India is THE NEOLITHIC ERA (6000 BC – 1000 BC) Dholavira in Gujarat. Dr. J.P. Joshi and Dr.  Neolithic men cultivated land and grew R.S. Bisht were involved in it. fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goat. TOWN PLANNING  They knew about making fire and making  Elaborate town-planning. It followed the pottery, first by hand and then by potter‟s Grid System. Roads were well cut, dividing wheel. They also painted and decorated their the town into large rectangular or square pottery. blocks. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lightning. CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD  Used burnt bricks of good quality as the  The end of the Neolithic Period saw the use building material. of metals of which copper was the first. A  The towns were divided into 2 parts: Upper culture based on the use of stone and copper part or Citadel and Lower Part.

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ECONOMIC LIFE  In Harappa, there is one place where AGRICULTURE evidence of coffin burial is there.  Grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, SCRIPT melon, etc. The Indus people were the first  The script is not alphabetical but to produce cotton. pictographic (about 600 undeciphered  Domesticated animals on large scale. pictographs). Besides the cattle, cats and dogs were  The script has not been deciphered so far, domesticated. Horse wasn‟t in regular use but overlaps of letters show that it was but elephant was. written from right to left in the first line and left to right in the second line. This style is TRADE AND COMMERCE called „Boustrophedon‟.  Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and POLITICAL ORGANIZATION trade was carried through Barter System.  There is no clear idea of the political  16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64, 160, organization of the Indus Valley people. 320). Perhaps they were more concerned with  Raw materials for these came from different commerce and they were possibly ruled by a sources: gold from N. Karnataka, silver and class of merchants. lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and Iran,  Also, there was an organization like a copper from Khetri and Baluchistan, etc. municipal corporation to look after the civic  Bead making factory existed in Chanhudaro amenities of the people. and Lothal. They were items of export.  The inland transport was done with bullock IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES carts. Harappa  The standard Harappa seal was a square or Excavations at the site have led to following oblong plaque made of steatite stone. The specific findings: primary purpose of the seal was probably to i) two rows of six granaries with brick mark the ownership of property, but they platforms; 12 granaries together had the may have also served as amulets. same area as the Great Granary at Mohenjodaro ART AND CRAFT ii) evidence of coffin-burial and cemetery  The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze „H‟ culture (two antelopes and the Age. hunter) on a postherd from a cemetery  Bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. have been discovered. Tools were mostly made of copper and iii) Single-room barrack bronze. For making bronze, copper was obtained from Khetri in Rajasthan and from Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the Dea) Baluchistan and tin from Afghanistan. Some of the specific finding during the excavations of Mohenjodaro include;  The Harappans were also an expert bead i) a college, a multi-pillared assembly hall; makers. ii) the Great bath-(the most important  Potter‟s wheel was in use. Their pottery was public place of the city); red or black pottery. Played dice games. iii) a large granary (the largest building of  The most impressive of the figurines in Mohenjo-daro); perhaps the bronze image of the famous iv) evidence of direct trade contact with dancing girl (identified as devadasi), found Mesopotamia; at Mohenjodaro. v) a bronze dancing girl  Harappan Seals made of terracotta vi) a bearded man; and vii) a seal with a picture suggesting RELIGIOUS LIFE Pashupati Mahadev  Main object of worship was the Mother Goddess. But the upper classes preferred a Kalibangan god, nude with two horns, much similar to A ploughed field was the most important Pasupati Siva. discovery of the early excavations.  Pashupatinath represented male deity. i) Bones of camel  No temple has been found, though idolatry, was practiced. Lothal

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Lothal was an important trade centre of the planning was not always followed as in other Harappan culture. Each section was built on a wide Harappan sites. platform of unripe bricks.  An inscription comprising 10 large sized i) remains of rice husk (the only other signs of the harappan script. Harappan city where the rice husk has been found is Rangpur, near Surkotada Ahmedabad);  Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) district of Gujarat ii) an artificial dockyard; and excavated by J.P. Joshi in 1972, iii) evidence of horse from a doubtful Surkotada was an important fortified terracotta figurine. Harappan settlement. iv) Practice of fire culture  The site is important particularly because it v) evidence of double burial (burying a has provided the first actual remains of male and a female in a single grave); horse bones. vi) evidence of a game similar to modern day chess; Suktagendor vii) Dhoravira – Terracotta replica of a  Suktagendor, situated in Sindh (Pakistan), plough was an important coastal town of the Indus civilisation. Chanhu-daro  Excavations at Chanhu-daro have revealed three different cultural layers from lowest at the top being Indus culture, the Jhukar culture and the Jhangar culture.  The site is specially important for providing evidences about different Harappan factories.  Bead makers shop

Alamgirpur  Alamgirpur is considered the eastern boundary of the Indus culture.

Kot-Diji  Kot Diji is known more as a pre-Harappan site. It gives the impression of a pre- Harappan fortified settlement.

Amri  A spectacular feature of Amri is that it gives the impression of existence of transitional culture between pre and post-harappan culture.  Important findings at Amri include the actual remains of rhinoceros; traces of Jhangar culture in late or declining Harappan phase and fire altars.

Ropar  Buildings at Ropar were made mainly of stone and soil.

Banwali  Situated in Hissar district of Haryana, Banwali has provided two phases of culture during its excavations; the pre-Harappan (Phase I) and the Harappan (Phase II).  Though Phase II belonged to the Harappan period, chess-board or grid pattern of town

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VEDIC PERIOD : THE ARYANS polyandry, levirate and widow-marriage. There are no examples of child-marriage.  The Central Asian theory, given by Max  Aryans were fond of soma, sura, food and Muller, is the most accepted one. dresses.  It states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic  Iron plough – Vedic period pastoral people and originated from area  B.G. Tilak - Arctic region as the Original around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia. rome of Aryans.  Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (in Hindukush Mountains) around ECONOMY 1500 BC.  Copper metal was first used by Vedic people.  The holy book of Iran „Zend Avesta‟ indicates  Aryans followed a mixed economy-pastoral entry of Aryans to India via Iran. and agricultural – in which cattle played a  Central place Theory – Christaller predominant part.  (Ancient period) Ratnakara – Indian Ocean  Most of their wars were fought for cow (most important form of wealth). EARLY VEDIC OR RIG VEDIC PERIOD  Standard unit of exchange was cow. At the REGION same time coins were also there (gold coins  The Aryans first settled in India is called the like Nishka, Krishnal and Satmana). „Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava‟  Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance (The Indus and its five tributaries and the and Godhuli as a measure of time. Saraswati)  Physicians were there called „Bhishakas‟.  The staple crop was „yava‟, which meant POLITICAL ORGANIZATION barley.  Monarchial form, tribe was known as Jan and its king as Rajan. RELIGION  Many clans (Vish) formed a tribe. The basic  Rig Vedha contains hymns in honour of social unit was the Kula or the family and Gods. Kulapa was the head of the family.  The most important divinity was Indra who  The king was assisted by a number of played the role of warlord (breaker of forts- officers of which purohita was the most Purandar, also associated with storm and important. Next important functionary was thunder.) the Senani (leader of the army), although  Garments – Nivi, Paridhan & adhivasa there was no regular or standing army.  There was no regular revenue system and  The second position was held by Agni (fire- the kingdom was maintained by the god). He is considered as an intermediary voluntary tribute (Bali) of his subjects and between gods and men. the booty won in battle.  Varuna occupied the third position. He  Villages were headed by Gramini who used personified water and was supposed to to represent village in sabha and samiti. uphold the natural order. He was ethnically Later, Gramini was handed over the charge the highest of all Rigvedic gods. of Vrajapati also (an officer who enjoyed  Soma was considered to be the god of plants. authority over the pasture ground) Maruts personified the storms. Some female,  Bali – Early Aryan tax deities are also mentioned, like Aditi and Usha, who represented the appearance of SOCIAL LIFE dawn.  They settled among the dark aboriginals, the  Didn‟t believe in erecting temples or idol Aryans seem to have laid greater stress than worship. Worshipped in open air through before on purity of blood, and class divisions yajnas. hardened, to exclude those dasas who had found a place in the Aryan society and those Aryans who had intermarried with the dasas and adopted their ways. LATER VEDIC PERIOD (Painted Grey  The term Varna was used for color, the Ware Phase) Aryans being fair, the dasas dark.  The family was patriarchal in nature. REGION  Women enjoyed equal power with men.  They reveal that the Aryans expanded from Marriage was usually monogamous and Punjab over the whole of western Punjab indissoluble, but there are few instances of over the whole of western UP covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab.

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 In the beginning, they cleared the land by  The X mandala contains the famous burning; later with the use of iron tools Purushsukta which explains that the 4 which became common by 1000-800 BC varnas (Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, POLITICAL ORGANIZATION thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma.  A regular army was maintained for the  The third mandala contains the Gayatri protection of kingdom. Mantra (addressed to sun).  Saraswati is the deity river in Rig Veda. SOCIAL LIFE  The four fold division of society became (b) SAMA VEDA clear-initially based on occupation, which  Derived from the root „Saman‟ i.e., „melody‟. later became hereditary: Brahmins (priests), It is a collection of melodies. Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas  Contains „Dhrupada Raga‟. (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three). (c) YAJUR VEDA  The institution of gotra appeared in this age  Deals with the procedure for the first time. Gotra signified descent from performance of sacrifices. common ancestors.  There are two main texts of Yajur veda:  In this time also, Chariot racing was the White Yajurveda (or Shukla Yajurveda) and main sport and gambling was the main Black Yajurveda (or Krishna Yajurveda). The pastime. former contains mantras and the latter has commentary in prose. POTTERY  The later Vedic people used four types of (d) ATHARVA VEDA pottery – black and red ware, black-slipped  Contains charms spells & folk traditions. ware, painted grey ware and red ware.  Folk traditions of the Later Vedic Period  Divided into 20 kandas (books) and has 711 RELIGION hymns – mostly dealing with magic (along  Order of Gods in importance 1. Prajapati 2. with personal problems of people) Rudra  Socio-religious conditions of the people. 3. Vishnu 4. Indra THE BRAHMANAS  Indra and Agni lost their importance.  They explain the hymns of the vedas in an Prajapati (the creator) became supreme. orthodox manner. Vishnu came to be conceived as the 1. Rigveda : Kaushetki and Aitreya preserver and protector of the people. 2. Yajurveda: Taitriya & Shatpatha  Some of the social orders came to have their 3. Samveda: Panchvish & Jemineya own deities, e.g. Pushan, responsible for well 4. Atharvaveda: Gopath being of the cattle, became the god of the  The most important is „Shatapatha shudras. Brahmana‟ attached to Yajurveda, which is most exhaustive and important of all. It THE VEDIC LITERATURE recommends „One hundred Sacred Paths‟. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Smritis, Vedangas, Dharsans, Upavedas, Epics. THE ARANYAKAS  Called „forest books‟, written mainly by the THE VEDAS hermits living in the jungles for their pupils.  The first three vedas are collectively known  These are the concluding portions of the as „Trayi‟ or „trio‟. Each veda is further Brahmanas. divided into Samhitas.  Deals with mysticism and philosophy.

Opposed to sacrifice and emphasize (a) RIG VEDA „Meditation‟.  Oldest religious text in the world.  A collection of hymns. THE UPANISHADS  Contains 1028 hymns (1017 + 11 valakhilyas)  Philosophy – secret/esoteric doctrines. and is divided into 10 mandalas.  The word means „to sit down near someone‟  II to VII are the earliest mandalas, each of and denotes a student sitting near his guru which is ascribed to a particular family of to learn. seers (rishis) – Gritsamada, Visvamitra,  Called Vedanta (the end of the vedas) firstly Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaj and Vashistha. because they denote the last phase of the IX is the compilation of „Soma‟ hymns. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 5

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Vedic Period and secondly, because they stages; the fifth stage ended in the twelfth reveal the final aim of the vedas. century AD.  The main source of Indian philosophy.  Mahabharatha 10 BC – 4 AD – Vyasa  There are 108 Upanishads.  Ramayana 5 Bc – 12 AD - Valmiki  They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of RISE OF BRAHMANISM action (Karma)  Puranas or old stories (18 in no.) contain the popular myths of these times. SMRITIS  Explain rules and regulations in the Vedic THE MAHAJANPADAS life.  In the sixth century BC onwards, the  Main are Manusmriti, Naradsmriti, widespread use of iron in eastern UP and Yagyavalkyasmriti and Parasharsmriti. western Bihar created conditions for the VEDANGAS formation of large territorial States.  Six Vedangas are Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana,  The land between Himalayas & Narmada Nirukta, Chhanda and Jyotisha. was divided into 16 independent states (MAHAJANPADAS) DARSHANS  There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshana.  These are given by 6 philosophers of Ancient India:  Nyaya (Analysis) Darshana : Gautama  Vaishesika Darshana : Kanada Rishi (referred atom as Kan/anu)

 Sankhaya Darshana : Kapila

 Yoga Darshana : Patanjali

 Purva Mimansa : Jaimini  Uttara Mimansa : Badaryana or Vyasa (wrote Mahabharata, classified GROWTH OF BUDDHISM & JAINISM vedas, composed the puranas and also gave vedantic philosophy) BUDDHISM Buddhism stands for 3 pillars. UPAVEDAS  Buddha(Lights of Asia): its Founder There are four upavedas:  Dhamma : His Teachings  Dhanurveda (deals with art of warfare)  Sangha : Order of Buddhist monks and (Upaveda of Yajur Veda). nuns.  Gandharvaveda (deals with art & music) (Upaveda of Sama Veda). THE BUDDHA  Shilpaveda (deals with architecture)  Also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata (Upaveda of Atharva Veda)  Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima  Ayurveda (deals with medicine) (Upaveda of Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal. Rig Veda).  Relics of Buddha are preserved in a stupa

 The first human statues worshipped in India EPICS were those of Buddha Though the two epics – the Mahabharata and the Ramayana  In Amarakosa → „Buddha‟ – An ocean of wisdom and compassion.  The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is considered older than the Ramayana and  Attained „Nirvana‟ or „Enlightenment‟ at 35 describes the period from the tenth century at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal BC to the fourth century AD. It is also called tree. Jaisamhita and Satasahasri Samhita and has  Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where one lakh verses. his five disciples had settled. His first  The Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki, has sermon is called „Dharmachakrapravartan‟ 24,000 verses. Its composition started in the or „Turning of the Wheel of Law‟. fifth century BC and passes through five  Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria

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district of UP) in 483 BC at the age of 80 in  Apart from these 2, there is a third vehicle, the Malla republic. called „Vajrayana‟, which appeared in 8th century and grew rapidly in Bihar and THE DHAMMA Bengal.  Buddha‟s preachings were mainly related to  Woman god as Tara. purity of thought & conduct.  Mahavansh and Deepvansh are the other  According to Buddha, soul is a myth Buddhist texts.  Jataks are the fables about the different THE SANGHA births of Buddha.  Consists of monks Bhikshus or Shramanas and nuns. CAUSES OF DECLINE OF BUDDHISM  Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were  It succumbed to the brahmanic rituals and called Upasakas. ceremonies, such as idol worship, etc, which Buddhism had earlier denounced. BUDDHIST COUNCILS  Revival of reformed Hinduism with the The monks gathered 4 times after the death of preaching of Shankaracharya from ninth Buddha and the effect of these events had their century onwards. effect on Buddhism.  Use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals, FIRST COUNCIL: At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under in place of Pali, the language of the common the chairman ship of Mehakassaapa (King was people. Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha into  Entry of women into Buddhist monasteries. two Pitakas – Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka.  Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the sixth SECOND COUNCIL: At Vaishali, in 383 BC under century and the Turkish invaders in the Sabakami (King was Kalasoka). Followers divided twelfth century AD. into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas. THIRD COUNCIL: At Pataliputra, in 250 BC under Mogaliputta Tissa (King was Ashoka). In this, the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language. FOURTH COUNCIL: At Kashmir (Kundalvan), in 72 AD under Vasumitra (King was Kanishka). Vice- JAINISM Chairman was Ashwaghosa), Divided Buddhism  Founded by Rishabhanath into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.  24 Tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus), all

Kshatriyas. BUDDIST LITERATURE  The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath  In Pali language. (Emblem:Snake) was the son of King  Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly Ashvasena of Banaras. (Non-injury, Non- referred to as Tripitakas, i.e Three fold lying, Non-stealing, Non-possession) Basket.  The 24th and the last Tirthankar was  Introduction of Buddhism into China by Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion) Kashyapa Matanga.

 Nalanda – seat of Mahayana learning. VARDHMAN MAHAVIRA  Gandhara school of art came into existence  He was bonr in Kundagram (Distt in Mahayana Muzafffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC. VINAYA PITAKA  His father Siddhartha was the head of  Rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries. Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister SUTTA PITAKA of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali.  Largest, contains collection of Buddha‟s  In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th sermons. of Vaishakha), outside the town of ABHIDAMMA PITAKA Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme  Explanation of the philosophical principles knowledge (Kaivalya). of the Buddhist religion.  From now on he was called Jaina or  Discuss problems of Metaphsyics. Jitendriya and Mahavira and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of NOTES: Arihant, i.e., worthy.  In Mahayana, idol worship is there.  At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava,  Hinayana became popular in Magadha and near Patna, in 527 BC. Sri Lanka. It believed in Individual salvation and not in idol worship. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 7

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 Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted MAGADHA EMPIRE on the retention of the rule of nudity which Mahavira had established. BIMBISARA (544BC – 492BC)  Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who  Contemporary of Buddha. remained in the north, allowed his followers  His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja) He to wear white garments, owing to the strengthened his position by matrimonial hardships and confusions of the famine. alliance with the ruling families of Kosala,  Hence arose the two sects of the Jains, the Vaishali and Madra (3 wives), Digambaras (sky-clad, i.e., naked) and the Svetambaras (white-clad) AJATSHATRU (492 BC – 460 BC)  Kosala was ruled by Prasenajit at that time. TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA  Buddha died during his reign; arranged the  Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do first Buddhist Council. not attach any importance to the performance of sacrifices. UDAYIN (460 – 444 BC)  He believed that every object, event the He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, smallest particle, possesses a soul and is situated at the confluence of the Ganga & Son. endowed with consciousness. That is why they observe strict non-violence. SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY  The Jains reject the concept of a Universal  Founded by minister Shishunaga. He was Soul or a Supreme Power as the creator or succeeded by Kalasoka (II Buddhist council). Sustainer of the universe. Dynasty lasted for two generations only.  Jainism does not deny the existence of gods  Greatest achievement was the destruction of but refuses to give gods any important part power of Avanti. ruled by Pradyota dynasty. in the universe scheme.  Gods are placed lower than the Jina NANDA DYNASTY:  Attainment of salvation (moksha) by  It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya believing in penance and dying of starvation dynasties. MAIN DIFFERENCE between Jainism and  Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. Buddhism. – attribution of a soul to all  He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole beings & things. sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling  Universal brotherhood (non-belief in caste princes. system)  Alexander attacked India in their reign.

NOTES: CAUSES OF MAGADHA’S SUCCESS  In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are  The 2 capitals of Magadha, Rajgir and given and they are called the way to Nirvana. Patliputra, were situated at very strategic points. JAIN COUNCILS  First used elephants in wars. First Council: Held at Pataliputra by Sthulabhadra in the beginning of third century BC. NOTE: It resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace Archaeologically, 6th century BC marks the 14 Purvas. beginning of NBPW phase (Northern Black Polished Second Council: It was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) Ware) which was very glossy, shinning type of in the fifth century AD under the leadership of pottery. This marked the beginning of Second Devridhigani. Urbanization of India.

OTHER POINTS  Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya‟s time. It Kalinga, it ALEXANDER’S INVASION was greatly patronized by Kharavela in the  Alexander (356 BC – 323 BC) was the son of first century AD. Philip of Macedonia (Greece) who invaded  Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and India in 326 BC. At that time NW India was Prakrit dialects. split up into a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (kingdom of Porus), Gandhara etc. Except Porus who fought the famous battle of Hydaspas (on banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, all other kings submitted meekly. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 8

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 Remained in India for 19 months and died in  Chandragupta was succeeded by his son 323 BC at Babylon. Bindusara in 297 BC. He is said to have  The effects of Alexander‟s invasion were conquered „the land between the 2 seas‟, i.e. indirect: the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal. At the time  It exposed India to Europe, by of his death, almost the entire subcontinent opening up four distinct lines of came under the Mauryan rule. Greek communication, three by land and Ambassador, Deimachos visited his court. one by sea.  Due to cultural contact, a ASHOKA (269 – 232 BC) cosmopolitan school of art came up  Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila in Gandhara. and Ujjain by his father, Bindusara.  He was the first ruler to maintain direct contact with people through his inscription.  Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Armaic and Greek. (James Princep first deciphered the inscriptions.)  Ashoka became the Buddhist under Upagupta.  Central point in his Dharma – Peace & Non- violence.  Shahabazgadhia Rock edict of Ashoka – Askals sway over western India.  Bull capital – Rampurva (Mauryan Art)

THE KALINGA WAR (261 BC, mentioned in XIII rock edict)  It changed his attitude towards life. Ashoka became a Buddhist after that.

THE MAURYAN DYNASTY ASPECTS OF ASHOKA’S REIGN

 Ashok‟s empire was divided into provinces

with a viceroy in each province. He CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322-297 BC) established Dhramshalas, hospitals and  With the help of Chanakya, known as Sarais throughout his kingdom. Kautilya or Vishnugupta, he overthrew the  He appointed Dharma Mahapatras to Nandas & established the rule of the Maurya propagate dharma among various social dynasty. groups including women.  Seleucus Necater was one of the generals of  He sent them to Ceylon, Burma (sent his son Alexander and after his death, had Mahindra & daughter Sanghamitra to succeeded in gaining control of most of the Ceylon) and other south-east Asian regions, Asiatic provinces. Chandragupta defeated notably Thailand. him in 305 BC and was compelled to yield  Ashoka is called „Buddhashakya & Ashok‟ in parts of Afghanistan to Chandragupta. Maski edict and „Dharmasoka‟ in Sarnath  This accounts is given by Megasthenes (A inscription. He was also known as Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the „Devanampiya‟ – beloved of the gods and court of Chandragupta Maurya) in his book „Piyadassi‟ of pleasing appearance. Indica. We also get the details from the

Arthashastra of Kautilya SIGNIFICANCE OF MAURYAN RULE  Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to  The emblem of the Indian Republic has been Sravanabelagola (near Mysore) with adopted from the 4-lion capital of the Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow Ashokan pillar at Sarnath. starvation.  Universities of Taxila & Banaras are the gifts  Vishakhadatta wrote a drama of this era. Mudrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta‟s  Kautilya‟s Arthashastra, Bhadrabahu‟s Kalpa enemy) & Debi Chandraguptam in sixth Sutra, Buddhist texts like the Katha Vatthu & century AD. Jain texts such as Bhagwati Sutra,

Acharanga Sutra and Dasavakalik comprise BINDUSARA (297-273 BC) some of the important literature of this era.  Called Amitraghat by Greek writers. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 9

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 Saka era – began in 78 AD called the Vikram Samrat is reckoned from  Arthasastra is a book on principles & the event of his victory over the Shakas in 57 practices of statescraft. BC. (From this time onward, Vikramaditya  Hiranya – revenue items was collected only became a coveted title) in cash  The most famous Shaka ruler in India was  Punch marked silver coins. Rudradaman I (AD 130-150). His achievements are highlighted in his NOTES: Junagarh inscription. This inscription This last Mauryan king Brihadratha was records in details the repairs of Sudrashana killed by Pushyamitra Shunga (Commander in lake in Kathiarwar. It is the first major Chief) in 185 BC, who started the Shunga dynasty in inscription to be written in Sanskrit. Magadha. 3. THE PARTHIANS  Originally, they lived in Iran, invaded at the beginning of Christian era, from where they moved to India.  The most famous Parthian King was Gondophernes (AD 19-45).

4. THE KUSHANS (45 AD)  Came from north central Asia near China.  Kanishka AD 78-144 was their most famous king.  He had two capitals first at Purushpur, near modern Peshawar and second at Mathura.  The first king to have the image of Lord Buddha inscribed on his coins.  He patronized the following persons.  Ashwaghosha (wrote Buddhacharita, which is the biography of Buddha and CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT „Sutralankar‟)

 Nagarjuna (wrote „Madhyamik Sutra‟) 1. THE INDO – GREEKS  Vasumitra (Chairman of fourth Buddhist  A number of invasions took place around Council) 200 BC. The first to invade India were the  Charak (a physician, wrote „Sasruta‟) Greeks, who were also called the Indo- Kanishka is known in history for two reasons: Greeks or Bactrian Greeks (because they 1. He started an era in AD 78, which is now ruled Bacteria) known as Saka era and is used by the Govt.  The most famous Indo – Greek ruler was of India. Menander (165-145 BC), also known as 2. He extended his whole – hearted patronage Millinda. He had his capital of Sakala to Mahayana Buddhism (Held the fourth (modern Sialkot) in Punjab. Buddhist Council in Kashmir)  He was converted into Buddhism by  The Gandhara school of art received royal Nagasena. The conversation between the two patronage of the Kushans. has been described in the Pali text, Milinda  Vikrama era = 3102 Bc , Kalachuri era – 248 panho or „The Questions of Milinda‟. AD  Greeks were the first to issue coins which Kali era – 3102 BC, Hijra era – 622 AD can be definitely attributed to the kings, and

also the first to issue gold coins in India. IMPACTS OF CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS  They also introduced the practice of military  Introduced the use of riding horse on a large governorship. The governors were called scale. The Shakas And Kushans introduced „Strategos‟. turban, tunic, trousers and heavy long coats.  The Greek rule introduced features of They also brought in cap, helmet and boots Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of which were used by warriors. India. Gandhara art was its best example.  In the religious field, the Greek ambassador

Heliodorus set up a pillar in honour of 2. THE SHAKAS OR SCYTHIANS (90 BC) Vasudeva near Vidisa in M.P.  A King of Ujjain, who called himself Vikramaditya, defeated Shakas. An era Compiled by R Rex Christopher 10

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 The Kushan empire gave rise to several  Started the practice of granting tax free schools of art – Central Asian, Gandhara & villages to brahmanas & Buddhist monks. Mathura.  The official language was Prakrit & the script  Mathura produced beautiful images of was Brahmi, as in Ashokan times. One Buddha, but it is also famous for the Prakrit text called Gathasattasai is headless erect statue of Kanishka. attributed to a Satavahana king called Hala.  Vatsyayana wrote Kamasutra

KINGDOMS AFTER THE MAURYAS THE SUNGA DYNASTY SANGAM AGE  Pushyamitra founded this dynasty. He performed two Ashwamedha sacrifices. THE PANDYAS  A Shunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of  Their capital was Madurai Kalidasa‟s Malavikagnimitram.  First mentioned by Megasthenes, who says  They were basically Brahmins. This period that their kingdom was famous for pearls saw the revival of Bhagvatism. and was ruled by a woman.  Patanjali‟s classic Mahabhashya was written  The Pandya kings profited from trade with at this time. the Roman empire and sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus. THE KANVA DYNASTY  The founder of this short-lived dynasty was THE CHOLAS Vausdeva, who killed the last Sunga king,  The kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Devabhuti. Coromondal. The chief centre was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade. Capital was THE CHETIS OF KALINGA Kaveripattanam/Puhar.  The Hathigumpha inscription (near  A Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa) of Kharavela, the Lanka & ruled it over for 50 years. third ruler of the dynasty, gives information  Karikala was their famous king. about the Chetis.  Main source of wealth was trade in cotton  Kharavela pushed his kingdom beyond the cloth. They also maintained an efficient Godavari in the South. navy.  He was a follower of Jainism and patronized it to a great extent. THE CHERAS  Their capital was Vanji (also called Kerala THE SATAVAHANAS OR THE ANDHRAS country)  They were the successors of the Mauryas in  Greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red the Deccan & the central India. Chera.  Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty. The most important king was OTHER ASPECTS OF THE 3 KINGDOMS Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106 - 130) who  All the gathered information is based on raised the power and prestige of Sangam literature. Satavahanas to greater heights. He set up his  Three sangams were held. The first Sangam capital at Raithan on the Godavari in was held at Madurai but its work has not Aurangabad dist. survived. Its chairman was Agastya. The second Sangam was held at Kapatpuram. Its IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SATAVAHANAS chairman was Tolkappiyar (author of  Mostly issued lead coins (apart from copper Tolkappium). The third Sangam was held at and bronze) Madurai. Its chairman was Nakkirar. It was  Satavahanas rulers called themselves the third Sangam from which covers the Brahmans. entire corpus of Sangam literature.  They also promoted Buddhism by granting  Silappadikaram by Ilango-Adigal (story of a land to the monks. married couple) and Manimekalai by  The two common religious constructions Sattanar are the famous epics of this time. were the Buddhist temple that was called  Other books are Tolkappium by Tolkappiyar, „Chaitya‟ & the monasteries, which was Jivikachinthamani by Tiruthakkadevar and called „Vihara‟. The most famous Chaitya is Kurol (called the „fifth veda‟ or the Bible of that of Karle in W. Deccan. the Tamil Land) by Tiruvalluvar.

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GUPTA DYNASTY SKANDAGUPTA (AD 455 - 467)  He faced Hunas effectively. CHANDRAGUPTA – I (AD 319 - 335)  Restored Sudarshana lake.  He enhanced his power & prestige by marrying Kumara Devi, princes of the NOTES: Lichchavi clan of Nepal. Mihirkula was the most famous Huna king  He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj Hiuen Tsang mentions him as a fierce persecutor of Buddhism. He was defeated by Yashodharman (one of the feudatories of Guptas in Malwa) SAMUDRAGUPTA (AD 335 - 375)  The Gupta kingdom was enlarged CONTRIBUTIONS OF GUPTA RULERS enormously by Chandragupta‟s son & ADMINISTRATION successor Samudragupta.  The most important officers were  His court poet Harisena wrote a glowing Kumaramatyas. account of the military exploits of his patron.  They issued the largest number of gold coins In a long inscription at the Prayag Prashasti in ancient India, which were called Dinars. pillar at (Allahabad), the poet enumerated Silver coins were called rupyakas. the people & countries that were conquered by Samudragupta. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT  Samudragupta believed in the policy of war  Vishti (forced labour) was there. and conquest and because of his bravery and  First instance of Sati took place at Eran, MP. general ship he is called the „Napoleon‟ of  The practice of untouchability intensed. Fa- India (by the historian V.A. Smith). hien mentions that the Chandalas lived  He assumed the titles of Kaviraj and outside the village and were distanced by the Vikramanka. upper class.  Vasubandhu, a celebrated Buddhist scholar  Nalanda (a university) was established as a was his minister. Buddhist monastery during the reign of  Though a follower of the brahmanical Kumara Gupta. religion, he was tolerant of other faiths; Received a missionary from Meghavarman, RELIGION the ruler of Sri Lanka, seeking his  Bhagavad-Gita was written during this time permission to build a Buddhist temple at only. Gaya, which he granted.  Bhagavatism centered around worshipping Vishnu or Bhagvat. CHANDRAGUPTA –II (AD 380 - 413)  Idol worship became a common feature.  Took the title of Vikramaditya by defeating  Vishnu temple at Deogarh (near Jhansi), a Rudrasimha III, a Kshatrap king of Ujjain. small temple near Sanchi and a brick temple He also took the title of Simhavikrama. at Bhitragaon (near Kanpur) belong to the  He was the first ruler to issue silver coins. Gupta architecture. Also issued copper coins.  The iron pillar inscription, fixed near ART Qutabminar in Delhi mentions a king  Samudragupta is represented on his coins Chandra (considered by many as playing the lute (vina). Chandragupta II only)  2 mt high bronze image of Buddha belonging  His court was adorned by celebrated nine to the Mathura school (The Gandhara gems (navratnas) including Kalidasa, Buddha represents mask-like coldness, while Amarsimha, Varahmihir and Dhanvantri. the Buddha from the Mathura school  Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India at this imparts a feeling of warmth and vitality. time.  Buddha images of Bamiyan belonged to Gupta period. KUMARAGUPTA – I (AD 413 - 455)  Ajanta Paintings and paintings at Bagh, near  He adopted the title of Mahendraditya. Gwalior in MP, are of this time. They belong  Founded Nalanda University (a renowned to the Buddhist art. university of ancient India).  In the last years of his reign, the peace and LITERATURE prosperity of the empire was disturbed due  Kalidas, the great Sanskrit dramatist, to the invasion of Turko-Mongol tribe, belonged to this period. His books are: Hunas. During the war with the Hunas, Abhigyanashakuntalam, (considered as one Kumaragupta died. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 12

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of the best literary works in the world & one OTHER DYNASTIES AND RULERS of the earliest Indian work to be translated (7TH CENTURY – 12TH CENTURY AD) into European language, the other work being the Bhagavadgita), Ritusamhara, HARSHA VARDHANA (AD 606 - 647) Meghadutam, Kumarasambhavam,  Belonged to Pushyabhuti family & son of Malavilagnimitram, Raghuvansha, Prabhakar Vardhan. Vikramurvashi etc. Out of these,  Originally, belonged to Thaneshwar, but Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Raghuvansha shifted to Kannauj (after Harsha‟s death were epics and the rest were plays. Kannauj was won from Harsha‟s successors  Apart from Kalidas, others were Sudraka by the Pratiharas). (author of Mrichchakatikam), Bharavi  Brought „5 Indies‟ under his control (Punjab, (Kiratarjuniya), Dandin (Kavyadarshana and Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa). Dasakumaracharita). To this period belongs  Defeated by Pulakesin-II, the great Chalukya 13 plays written by Bhasa. king, on the banks of Narmada in 620.  Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa and Pulakesin-II bestowed the title of Devichandraguptam. „Sakalottara-patha-natha‟ – „the lord of the  Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchtantra and entire north‟ – on him Hitopdesh.  Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang (prince of  The Gupta period also saw the development Travelers) visited during his reign. He spent of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and about eight years (635 - 643) in the Patanjali. This period is particularly dominions of Harsha and earned his memorable for the compilation of friendship. Hieun Tsang has left a detailed Amarakosha by Amarasimha. account of a grand assembly held at Kannauj  Ramayana & Mahabharata were almost in 643 attended by representatives of completed by the 4th century AD. Hinduism and Jainism.  Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Prayag (Allahabad), at the end of every five  Aryabhatta, the great mathematician wrote years. Aryabhatiya and Suryasiddhanta. In  Harsha was a great patron of learning. He Aryabhatiya, he described the place value of established a large monastery at Nalanda. the first nine nos. & use of zero. He also Banabhatta who adorned his court wrote calculated the value of pie and invented Harshacharita and Kadambari. Harsha Algebra. In Suryasiddhanta, he proved that himself wrote 3 plays- Priyadarshika, the earth revolves round the sun and rotates Ratnavali and Nagananda. on its axis. In this way he discovered the  After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire cause of the solar and lunar eclipses and the once again broke up into petty States. methods for calculating the timings of their  I- tsing, another Chinese pilgrim, visited in occurrence. He also said that the heavenly 670 AD. bodies, like the moon, were spherical and they shone by reflecting the light. THE VAKATAKAS  Varahamihira wrote Panchasi-dhantika and  The founder of this Brahmin dynasty was Brihatsamhita. He said that the moon moves Vindhyasakti round the earth and the earth, together with  Most important king was Pravarsen-I who moon, move round the sun. performed 4 Ashwamedha yagyas.  Brahmagupta was a great mathematician. He wrote Brahma-sphutic Siddhanta in CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI (BADAMI) which he hinted at the Law of Gravitation.  Founder – Pulakesin – I.  In the field of astronomy, Romakasidhanta  Established their kingdom at Vatapi was compiled. (modern Badami, Karnataka)  Vagbhatta was the most distinguished  He sent an embassy to the Persian king, physician of the Ayurvedic system of Khusro-II. His court poet, Ravikirti, wrote medicine. Aihole inscription. Hiuen Tsang visited his  Palakapya wrote Hastyagarveda, a treatise kingdom. on the disease of elephants.  Much of the paintings and sculptures of the  Court language was Sanskrit. Ajanta and Ellora caves were completed.  Dhanvantri – famous for Ayurveda Aihole is called the cradle of Indian temple knowledge. architecture.

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NOTES:  He lead a naval expedition against the  He was the hero of Bilhana‟s Shailandra empire (Malaya peninsula) and Vikramankadeva Charita. He introduced the expanded Chola trade with China. Chalukya Vikrama era (1076 AD).  He annexed northern Sri Lanka and named it Mummadi-Cholamandalam. Also THE RASHTRAKUTAS conquered Maldives islands.  Founder- Dantidurga  He constructed Rajrajeshwari temple (also  Originally district officers under Chalukyas called Brihadeshwar Shiva temple) at of Badami. Thanjavur.  Their king, Krishna-I is remembered for  His son Rajendra-I annexed the whole of constructing the famous rock-cut; Kailasha SriLanka. In the North, went as far as Ganga temple at Ellora. It was constructed in the and the dominions of the Pala king Dravidian style and elaborately carved with Mahipala. He took the title of „Gangaikonda‟ fine sculptures. after that and founded a capital-  Their king, Amoghvarsha, is compared to Gangaikonda Cholapuram. An even more Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men of remarkable exploit in his reign was the naval letters. He built the city of Manyakheta as expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya his capital. (Sumatra) empire. The Chola navy was the  Their king, Krishna-III set up a pillar of strongest in the area for some time. victory and a temple at Rameshwaram.  His son Rajadhiraja-I performed the  Rashtrakutas are credited with the building Ashwamedha sacrifice. of cave shrine of Elephanta.  Up to 1115, the extent of the Chola empire remained undiminished under Kulottunga I, THE GANGAS except for the loss of Ceylon, and included  Their king Narasimhadeva constructed the the entire region south of the Krishna and Sun Temple at Konark. the Tungabhadra extending up to the  Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the Godavari on the east coast. Kulottunga III, famous Jagannath temple at Puri,. (1178-1210) was the last great Chola  Kesails, who used to ruled Orissa before monarch. Gangas built the Lingaraja temple at  Dancing figure of Shiva called Nataraja Bhubhaneshwar. belong to this period only.  Cholas temples had massive „Vimanas‟ or THE PALLAVAS towers and spacious courtyards. The  Founder-Simhavishnu. They set up their entrances had elaborate Gopurams capital at Kanchi (south of Chennai). (gateways).  Narsimhavarman was their greatest king. He  Local Self Government was there (concept of founded the town of Mamalapuram Panchayat Raj has been borrowed from it). (Mahabalipuram) which is adorned with beautiful rock-cut Raths or Seven Pagoras, THE PALAS OF BENGAL (CAPITAL- Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign. MONGHYR)  In the middle of the eighth century, the Pala THE CHOLAS dynasty came into power. Its founder was  Founder- Vijayalaya. Capital was Tanjore. Gopala (750AD) who was elected to the  By the end of the ninth century, Vijayalaya‟s throne as he had proved his valor and successor, Aditya I Chola, wiped out the capability as a leader. Pallavas of Kanchi and weakened the  Then came Dharmapala who won Kannauj. Pandyas, thus bringing the southern Tamil  Patrons of Buddhism. Dharampala founded country under his control. But they had to Vikramsila University & revived Nalanda face the Rashtrakuta power. Parantaka I University. captured Madurai but was defeated by  Suleiman, an Arab merchant visited them & Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III at the Battle was impressed. of Takkolam. Although the Rashtrakutas  Palas had trade with south east Asia were later defeated.  The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja-I THE PRATIHARAS OR GURJARA (985-1014) and his son Rajendra I (1014 - PRATIHARA 1044).  The foundation of one branch of Pratiharas  Rajaraja founded the largest dominion in was laid down by Harichandra, near modern south India. Jodhpur in the middle of the sixth century AD. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 14

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 The foundation of another branch was at Vishnu. It was built on Dravidian model. It is Malwa with its capital at Ujjain, and the the greatest religious monument of the earliest known king of this branch was world. Nagabhatta I.  Shailendra Empire used to rule over  The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja Sumatra, Java and Malaya peninsula. They (also known as Mihir, Adivaraha-for his were Buddhists. They built the largest devotion to Vishnu). He regained Kannauj. Buddhist stupa in the world in Borobudur.  His successors was Mahendrapal I. His teacher was Rajashekar - a celebrated poet, dramatist and critic, & author of Karpuramanjari, Kavya Mimansa, Bal Ramayan, Bhuvankosh, Harvilas, Bal Bharat, Vidhsaal, Bhrinjika, Prapanch Pandav etc,

THE RAJPUTS  Of all the Rajput clans, 4 clans – a. Pratihara or Pariharas of S. Rajasthan b. Chauhans of E. Rajasthan. c. Chalukyas or Solankis of Kathiarwar d. Parmaras or Pawars of Malwa Mt. Abu. So they were called Agnikula or fire family.  Two main clans of Rajputs are :- a. Suryavansha (Sun family) b. Chandra Vansha (Moon family)

NOTE:  Chandellas of Bundelkhand built Kendriya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho in 1000 AD.

 Solankis of Gujarat (Siddharaja) built the

Dilwara temple at Mt. Abu (West Indian

style of Architecture)

 Parmaras of Malwa; Greatest king was Bhoja

(1010. 55) also known as Kaviraj. He wrote

Ayurvedasaravasva (work on medicine) and

Samaranganasutradhar (a rare work on

architecture)

 Famous literary works of this period:  Somadeva : Kathasaritasagar (The Ocean of the stream of stories)  Bilhana : Vikramadeva Charita (Biography of Chalukya king Vikramdeva : VI)  Kalhana : Raitarangini (history of Kashmir)  Jayadeva : Gita Govinda (in Sanskrit)  Chachnama : Work on the history of Sind.

Arab Conquest of Sind: Sind was then ruled by Dahir. Md.-bin-Qasim (of Iraq) defeated Dahir in 712 AD. This is considered to be the first invasion of India by the Arabs.

SOME OTHER POINTS  In Cambodia, Suryavarman – II constructed the Angkorvat temple, dedicated to Lord Compiled by R Rex Christopher 15

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MEDIEVAL INDIA other Rajput kings and defeated him in the First Battle of Tarain. (1191)  But he defeated Prithviraj in the Second MAHMUD OF GHAZNI Battle of Tarain in 1192  Born in 971 AD, Mahmud Ghaznavi was the  Also defeated Jaichandra (Gahadval Rajput, eldest son of Subuktagin, the king of Ghazni ruler of Kannauj) at the Battle of Chhandwar (in present day Afghanistan). in 1194 AD.  Mahmud began a series of seventeen raids  Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar into northwestern India at the end of the 10th Khalji, one of Ghori‟s commanders, annexed century. Nonetheless, he did not attempt to Bihar and Bengal and destroyed Nalanda rule Indian territory except for Punjab, and Vikramshila University. which was his gateway to India.  His second expedition was against Jaipala, PRITHVIRAJ CHAUHAN the Hindushahi king of Punjab whom he  Prithviraj III (1179-1192), also called Raj defeated in the First Battle of Waihind. Pithaura by Muslim historians, was a king of Jaipala could not survive the shock of the Rajput Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty, humiliation and he burnt himself to death. who ruled a kingdom in northern India  His sixteenth expedition was the plunder of during the latter half of the 12th century. Somnath temple (dedicated to Shiva) in  His elopement with Samyukta, the daughter 1025 AD, situated on the sea coast of of Jai Chandra, the Gahadvala king of Kathiarwar. Kannauj, is a popular romantic tale and is  The objective of Mahmud‟s expeditions was one of the subjects of the Prithviraj Raso, an to plunder the riches of temples and palaces epic poem composed by Prithviraj‟s court and was not interested in expanding his poet, Chand Bardai. empire to India. However, he later annexed Punjab and made it a part of his kingdom, THE DELHI SULTANATE just to have easy access. The Sultanate of Delhi (1206 - 1526) has 5 ruling,  He patronized 3 person dynasties: a) Firdausi (Persian poet, known as Homer a) The Slave or Ilbari (1206 - 1290) of the east) who wrote Shahnama. b) The Khalji (1290 - 1320) b) Alberuni (a brilliant scholar from Central c) The Tughlaq (1320 - 1413) Asia) who wrote Tahqiq-I-Hind. d) The Sayyid (1414 - 1451) c) Utbi (court historian), who wrote Kitab- e) The Lodhis (1451 - 1526) ud-Yamni. THE ILBARI DYNASTY OR SLAVE DYNASTY SOMNATH TEMPLE  The dynasty is called Ilbari dynasty because  The Somnath Temple located in the all rulers of this dynasty, except Aibak, Kathiarwar region of Gujarat, is one of the belonged to the Ilbari tribe of Turks. twelve Jyotirlings (golden lingas) symbols of the God Shiva. QUTAB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210)  It is mentioned in the Rig Veda. It is known  First person who established the permanent as „the Shrine Eternal‟, as although the Islam kingdom in India. temple has been destroyed six times it has  Lahore and later Delhi were his capitals. been rebuilt every single time.  Famous for his generosity and earned the  The present temple is the seventh temple sobriquet of lakh-baksh (giver of Lakhs) built on the original site.  Laid the foundation of Qutab Minar after the name of famous Sufi saint, Khwaja MUHAMMAD GHORI Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.  The real founder of the Muslim Empire in  Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing India was Shihab-ub-Din Muhammad Ghori Chaugan(polo). The Turks only introduced or Muhammad of Ghur. It is true that polo in India. Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim  Built the first mosque in India – Quwwat-ul- invader of India but he failed to carve out a Islam (at Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpara Muslim empire in India on account of his (at Ajmer) premature death.  He was a great patron of learning and  He was also a ruler of a small kingdom in patronized writers like Hasan Nizami who Afghanistan. wrote Taj-ul-Massir, and Fakhr-ud-din,  Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the king of writer of Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi Delhi at that time, received contingents from Compiled by R Rex Christopher 16

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ILTUTMISH (1210-36)  Nasiruddin Mehmud (1246 - 1265) – Export  Shams-ud-din Iltutmish was the son-in-law Calligraphist. of Aibak. He is considered the greatest of the slave kings and the real consolidator of the BALBAN (1266-1286) Turkish conquest in India.  First Muslim ruler to formulate the theory of  Prevented „Chengiz Khan‟ attack by refusing kingship III to the theory of divine right of to give refuge to an enemy of Khan. the kings. Jalaluddin Mangabarani (a ruler from Iran).  He himself was a member of Chalisa. Thus, due to his diplomatic skill he  He ordered the separation of military prevented Mongol attack. department from the finance department  He formed Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa (diwan-i-wizarat), and the former was (a group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles to placed under a ministry for military affairs suppress nobles) (diwan-i-ariz).  Divided his empire into IQTAS, an  The declared the Sultan as the representative assignment of land in lieu of salary, which he of God on earth. Introduced Sijdah or Paibos distributed to his officers. practice, in which the people were required  He introduced the silver tanka and the to kneel and touch the ground with their copper jital – 2 basic coins of the Sultanate. head to greet the Sultan.  He patronized Minhaj-ul-Siraj, the author of  He also instructed to the Ulemas to confined Tabaqat-i-Nasiri. themselves to religious affairs and not to  He is called the Father of Tomb Building engage in political activities. He also started (built Sultan Garhi in Delhi) the festival of Nauroz.  In order to win the confidence of the public, QUTUB MINAR he administered justice with extreme  Qutub Minar in Delhi is the tallest brick impartiality. He employed an efficient spy minaret in the world. system.  The Qutab Minar complex also houses  He was a liberal patron of Persian literature Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, built by Aibak. and showed special favour to the poet, Amir  The mosque is said to be built by the parts Khusro. taken by destruction of twenty-seven Hindu  After Balban‟s death, Kaiqubad (1287-1290) and Jain temples. sat on throne but he was an inefficient and  To the west of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque fun-loving person. is the tomb of Iltutmish which was built by the monarch in 1235. JALALUDDIN FIRUZ KHALJI (1290-1296)  The Ala-i-Darwaza is a magnificent gateway  He was the first ruler to put forward the view to the complex. that since a large majority of people in India  The iron pillar, situated behind Qutab Minar are Hindus, the state in India could not be a is one of the world‟s foremost metallurgical total Islam state. curiosities.  The most important event of his reign was  It was erected by Chandragupta II the invasion of Devagiri in 1294 by his Vikramaditya of the Gupta dynasty. nephew and son-in-law, Ali Gurshap of Ala- ud-din Khalji. Devagiri was the capital of the Yadava kingdom in the Deccan and Ala-ud- RAZIYA (1236 - 1240) din plundered the vast treasury.  She was the first and the last Muslim woman ruler of medieval India. She succeeded her ALAUDDIN KHALJI (1296-1316) brother in 1236 and ruled for 31/2 years.  His first conquest was of the rich kingdom  She promoted Jamaluddin Yaqut, an Gujarat, (ruled by the Vaghela king, Rai Abyssinian, to the important office of Karna Dev II). This conquest is notable for superintendent of the stables. two reasons – first, he married the Raja‟s  Raziya was an excellent horsewoman who wife, Kamla Devi; and secondly, there only led the army herself. he acquired Malik Kafur, a eunuch, who later on rose to become a great military general. NOTE:  Then he captured Ranthambhor, Chittor and After Razia, the battle of succession continued in Malwa. Chittor was ruled by a Gahlot king, which the following rulers ruled in significantly: Ratna Singh whose queen Padmini  Muizuddin Bahram Shah (1240-1242) committed jauhar when his husband was defeated. Alauddin named Chittor as  Alauddin Masud Shah (1242 - 1246) Khizrabad, after his son. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 17

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 Malik defeated Yadavas of Devagiri (king a)He took radical preventive measure to prevent was Ram Chandra Deva), Kakatiya king rebellion. Pratap Rudra Deva I or Warangal, Hoysalas  Confiscation of the religious endowments of Dwarsamudra (king was Vira Ballala III) and free grants of lands. and Pandyas of Madurai (king was  Sale of liquor and intoxicants prohibited Maravarman Kulasekhara). He is said to b) Revenue Reforms: have reached as far as Rameshwaram where  Measured the cultivable land and fixed land he built a mosque. revenue accordingly; Biswa was declared to  He adopted Balban‟s policy of „Blood and be the standard unit of measurement. Iron‟ in tackling the Mongol menace.  A special post Mustakhraj was created for  Added an entrance door to Qutab Minar, the purpose of collection of revenue. Alai Darwaza and built his capital at Siri. c) Market control/Economic regulations  Adopted the title Sikandar-i- Sani.  The Sultan received daily reports of these  The first sultan of Delhi who initiated the from independent sources (spies). policy of associating Indian muslims with admin.  First Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated  Paper came to be used in India, in 14th religion from politics. He proclaimed ; century. “kingship knows no kinship”.  Amir Khusro introduced the musical forms  Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a Khyal, Qawl & Tarana. patron of learning and art. There were many  Khzain-ul-Futah →A. Khalji‟s conquests. great poets in his court. Both Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his MALIK KAFUR AMIR KHUSRO patronage. (1253-1325) He was an Indian A Sufi mystic and a THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY eunuch and slave who spiritual disciple of GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ (1320-25) became a general in the Nizamuddin Auliya of  Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the army of Alauddin Khilji. Delhi. founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty. This He is also credited with dynasty is also known as the dynasty of the That is the reason why being the founder of Qaraunah Turks as the father of Ghiasuddin Malik Kafur is both Hindustani Tughlaq was a Qaraunah Turk. sometimes called Hazar- classical music and  He was the first Sultan of Delhi who took up Dinari. Qawwali (the devotional the title of Ghazi or slayer of the infidels. music of the Sufis)  He liberalized Alauddin‟s administrative Kafur‟s invasion of He was associated with policies and took keen interest in the Pandya was the farthest royal courts of more construction of canals and formulated a south that any Muslim than seven rulers of famine policy. The judicial and police invasion would ever Delhi Sultanate. arrangements were made efficient. The reach in India. He created the fusion of Chehra and Dagh system introduced by the Indian Arabic and Alaudding was continued. Efficient postal Persian music. services were restored. He is credited to have  Built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and invented table and sitar made it his capital. and modified veena.  Had troublesome relationship with the sufi He was given the title saint, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia. Tuti-i-Hind (parrot of  Ibn Batuta, the Moroccon traveller, who was India.) in Delhi at that time, opined that his death His famous works was due to sabotage arranged by his son, include Tughlaq Nama Jauna Khan. (book of the Tughlaqs), Khazain-ul-Futooh. MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)  Real name was Jauna Khan. ALAUDDIN’S ADMINISTRATIVE  Regarded as the most controversial figure in MEASURES Indian history, because of his five ambitious  First Sultan to have permanent army – paid projects. soldiers in cash, imported horses, detailed  Increase in the land revenue in the Doab, description of each soldier (Chehra) and between Ganga and Yamuna in north India. each horse (Dagh) was kept (first time).

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 To have better administration of these  Was fond of slaves (had around 1,80,000 southern parts of the Empire, Muhammad slaves). moved the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in  Wrote a book „Fatuhat Firozshahi‟. the Deccan, renaming that city Devagiri as  Set up a separate dept. to maintain the Daulatabad. slaves.  He also had the idea of introducing token  Barani, the historian was in his court. He currency for the first time in India, modelled wrote two well known works of history: after the Chinese example, using copper Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandari. coins, backed by silver and gold kept in the  He formed Diwan-i-Khairat and built Dar- treasury. ul-Shafa or a charitable hospital at Delhi.  Muhammad Tughlaq planned an expedition Also introduced 2 new coins – Adha (50% of for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq. jital) and bikh (25% jital)  The plan for the conquest of Karajal (Kumaon hills) also met with a disastrous THE LATER TUGHLAQS end.  Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grand  During his last days, the whole of S. India son who took up the title of Ghiyasuddin became independent and three major Tughlaq Shah II. independent states – The Empire of  Ghiyasuddin was replaced by Abu Bakr Shah Vijaynagar, The Bahmani kingdom and in 1389. Sultanate of Madura were founded.  Abu Bakr was replaced by Nasiruddin  A new department for agriculture Dewan-i- Muhammad in 1390, who ruled till 1394. His Kohi was setup. son Alauddin Sikandar Shah ascended the  He knew Arabic and Persian languages. He throne briefly in 1394. was also an expert in philosophy, astronomy,  The vacant throne now fell to Nasiruddin logic and mathematics. He was also a good Mahmud Tughlaq. In his reign, Timur calligrapher. invaded India.  He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah. Timur’s Invasion  The famous traveller, Ibn Batuta came to He was a great Mongol leader of Central Delhi during 1334. He acted as the Quazi of Asia. He became the head of the Chaghtai Turks at the capital for 8 years. He has recorded the the age of 33. Before reaching India, he had already contemporary Indian scene in his conquered Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. He „Safarnamah‟ (called Rehla). reached Delhi in Dec. 1398. At that time, Nasiruddin Mahmud was the ruler. FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)  He constructed four canals for irrigation. THE SAYYID DYNASTY  Imposed some new taxes:  Khizr Khan (1414-1421) founded the dynasty  Kharaj: a land tax equal to 1/10 of and claimed to have descended from the the produce of the land (by Hindus prophet of Islam. only)  He helped Timur in his invasion, so he was  Jaziya: a tax by non-muslims (even given the governorship of Lahore, Multan & by brahmins) Dipalpur.  zakat: tax on property (@ 2.5%) (by  Khizr Khan‟s 3 successors – Mubarak Shah Muslims only) (1421-33)  Khams: 1/5th of booty capture in Muhammad Shah (1434-43) and Alauddin war. Alam Shah (1443-51) were incapable leaders.  Took steps to translate Hindu religious texts  Sayyid dynasty‟s 37 years remained troubled & Sanskrit books on music into Persian. with external invasions, internal chaos, etc.  Built new towns – Hissar, Firozpur,  Yahya-bin-Ahmed –bin-Abdullah-Sirhindi Fatehabad, Firozabad(the present day Firoz wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi (history from Shah Kotla in Delhi) and Jaunpur. Mahmud to Muhammad Shah of Sayyid  Set up hospitals. dug a number of canals, Dynasty). dams, mosques.  Repaired Qutab Minar when it was struck by THE LODHI DYNASTY lightening.  They were Afghans by race (considered the  Built his capital Firozabad and to beautify it, first Afghan dynasty of India) brought 2 Ashoka Pillars to Delhi one from Topara in Ambala & the other from Meerut. BAHLUL LODHI (1451-1489)

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 Conquested Jaunpur by ousting Sharqui  A no. of Sanskrit works – Rajatarangani, dynasty. Mahabharata, Koka Shastra - were translated into Persian. SIKANDAR LODHI (1489-1517)  Zai Nakshabi‟s Tuti Nama (a translation of  Real name was Nizam Khan. Noblest of the Sanskrit stories into Persian) was very three Lodhi rulers. popular.  Introduced the Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar‟s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated PROVINCIAL KINGDOMS fields. BENGAL  In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and  In 1342, Ilyas Khan founded a new dynasty. made it his capital.  Famous sultan was Ghiyas-ud-din Azam  Was a poet himself and wrote verses in who established friendly relations with Persian under the pen-name of Gulrukhi, China and encouraged trade and commerce. Repaired Qutab Minar.  The celebrated poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of Sri-Krishna Vijay, was IBRAHIM LODHI (1517-1526) patronized by the Sultans and was given the  Was defeated and killed by Babur in the I title of „Gunaraja Khan‟. Battle of Panipat in 1526. (with the support  Shankaradeva and Chaitanya belonged to of Thavladkhan) this time.  With this the Sultanate of Delhi ended. GUJARAT Administration, Society and Economy Under  Broke away from Delhi in 1397, under Zafar the Delhi Sultanate Khan who assumed the title of Sultan  The country was divided into iqtas which Muzaffar Shah. was distributed among the nobles, officers  His grandson Ahmed Shah-I, built a new and soldiers for the purpose of city, Ahmedabad. administration and revenue collection.  The next prominent ruler was Mahmud  Civil administration was headed by Wazir Begarha. In his reign, Portuguese set up a (Chief Minister), who supervised the factory at Diu. His court poet was the collection of revenue, the checking of the Sanskrit scholar, Udayaraja. accounts and the regulation of expenditure. His office was known as Diwan-i-wizarat. KASHMIR  The provinces were divided into shiqs under  Kashmir continued to be under its Hindu the control of shiqdars. The next unit was rulers up to 1339. Its first Muslim ruler was parganas, groups of hundred villages, Shamsuddin Shah. headed by chaudhary. MEWAR CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT (13TH -15TH  The greatest ruler of this house was the Century) famous Rana Kumbha Karan (1538-68). ART AND ARCHITECTURE Rana Kumbha built the famous victory tower  The use of arch and the dome is the special or „Vijaya Stambh‟ at Chittor to feature of the Muslim architecture. commemorate his victory over Mahmud  The Tughlaq built sloping walls called battar Khalji of Malwa. combining the principles of arch and the lintel and beam.

MUSIC  New musical modes and instruments like rabab and sarangi were introduced.  Amir Khusro introduced many Persian Arabic ragas. Also invented the sitar, Tabla.

LITERATURE  Udayaraja wrote Raja Vinoda on Mahmud Begarha.  Merutanga‟s Prabandha Chintamani.

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RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS  The real development of Bhakti took place in south India between 7th and 12th century. The THE SUFIS bhakti saints came usually from lower castes.  There were 3 chief orders of Sufis in India: The Chishti, The Suharawadi and the Silsilah Ramanuja (12th century) of Firdausi.  Founded a new school of Vaishnavism.  Every pir nominated a successor or Wali to  According to him, the way of Moksha lies carry out work. Khanqah was the place through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. where Sufi mystics lived.  The performance of duty without any selfish motive purifies the mind. He gave the 1. THE CHISHTI concept of Vishishtadvaita.  The Chisti order was established by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). His two main Nimbarkara disciples were Bakhtiyar Kaki and Shaikh  He was a worshipper of Krishna and Radha. Hamiduddin Sufi.  Others were Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Madhavacharya (1238-1317) Chiragh-i-Dehlvi, the historian Barani and  He said that release from transmigration can the poet Amir Khusro. be secured only by means of knowledge and  It was popular in Delhi and the Doab region. devotion.

2. THE SUHRAWARDI Ramanand (15th century)  It was popular in Punjab and Sindh.  First great Bhakti saint of north India.  Popular saints were Shaikh Shihabuddin  Worshipper of Lord Ram. Suhrawardi and Hamid-ud-din Nagory.  His followers were Ravidas, Kabir, Dhanna, Sena, etc. 3. THE FIRDAUSI ORDER Namadeva - Tailor  It was a branch of the Suhrawardi order and Ravidas - Cobbler (His 30 its activities were confined to Bihar. It was hymns are in Guru Granth popularized by Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya Sahib) who was a disciple of Khwaja Nizamuddin Kabir - Weaver Firdausi. Sena - Barber Sadhana - Butcher 4. QADIRI ORDER NANAK KABIR  It was founded by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani Nanak (1469-1539) was Kabir(1440-1518) was of Baghdad. It was popularized in India by born in the village of not only concerned with Shah Niamatullah and Makhdum Talwandi (now called religious reform but also Muhammad Jilani. Nankana in present day wished to change the Pakistan). society. 5. NAKSHABANDI ORDER He laid emphasis on the He composed Bijak,  It was founded in India by the followers of oneness or unity of God. Sabads, Sakhis, Mangal, Khwaja Pir Muhammad. It was popularized His concept of God was Basant, Holi, Rekhtal, in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah who came to Nirguna (attributeless) etc. India from Kabul in the last years of the and Nirankar (formless). The God, Kabir reign of Akbar. He used the name of worshipped was Hari, Ram, Allah and substanceless. 6. SHATTARI ORDER Khuda for God. Note:  Shah Abdullah brought the Shattari order to Guru Nanak preached The followers of Kabir India during the Lodhi Dynasty Muhammad the brotherhood of man. and Nanak founded Ghhauth of Gwalior was the most important independent religious saint of this order. communities, the  Tansen was the follower of this order. Kabirpanthis and the Sikhs. THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT  Among the Hindus, the Bhakti movement preached religion which was non-ritualistic Vaishnavism and open to all without any distinction of  Popular in north India. caste or creed. Chaitanya: (1485-1534) of Bengal travelled throughout India and popularized Krishna cult. „Kirtan system‟ was given by Chaitanya only. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 21

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Meerabai: (1498-1546) of Rajasthan was the  His political ideas, are contained in his follower of Lord Krishna. Telugu work „Amuktamalyada‟ (also Surdas (1479-1584): of western UP wrote lyrical Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit). poems on Radha and Krishna. Wrote Sur Sarawali,  Eight great poets of Telegu, known as „Ashta the Sahitya Lahari and the Sur-Sagar. Diggaja‟ adorned his court. Pedanna wrote Vallabhacharya (1479-1531), a Tailanga Manucharitam, while Tenalirama was the brahmana, advocated the worship of Krishna and author of Panduranga Mahamatyam. dedication of everything to Him alone.  Built a new city „Nagalapuram‟ and Tulsidas (1532-1623)Wrote Ram Charit Manas, decorated it with Hazura temple and Gitawali, Kavitawali, Vinay Patrika, etc. Vithalswamy temple. Narsingh Mehta: He is the author of Mahatma  Achyuta Raya followed him. A Portuguese Gandhi‟s favourite bhajan „vishnava jan ko‟. traveller Fernoa Nuniz came during his reign.  Sadasiva, the last ruler of the dynasty, was a puppet in the hands of his Pm, Rama Raya, who was an able but arrogant man.

 In 1565 Battle of Talikota was fought VIJAYANAGAR KINGDOM (1336-1580) between an alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur,

Golkonda and Bidar on one side and Founded in 1336 as a result of the political and Sadasiva on the other side. cultural movement against the Tughluq authority in  After that, Aravidu dynasty was found by the south. Rama Raya‟s brother, Thirumala.

THE SANGAMS (1336-1485)  Caesor Fredrick (1567-68AD) visited Vijaynagar after the Battle of Talikota.  The empire of Vijaynagar was founded by

Harihara-I and Bukka, two of the five sons of The Nayakar and Ayagar Systems Sangama. Harihara-I was the first ruler. The Nayakar: Under this system, military chiefs  The next ruler was Deva Raya-I. He were assigned certain pieces of land called amaram. constructed a dam across the river These chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue and Tungabhadra to bring the canals into the city administrative rights on their lands. to relieve the shortage of water. The Ayagar System: It involved the constitution  Italian traveller Nicolo Conti visited during of a 12-member officials group by the Centre to his reign (Also a Russian merchant, Nikitin). maintain administration at the village level.  His court was adorned by the gifted Telugu poet Srinatha, the author of Haravilasam. BAHMANI KINGDOM  There was a „Pearl Hall‟ in the palace where  The Bahmani Kingdom of the Deccan was he honoured men of eminence. the most powerful of all the independent  Devaraya-II (1423-46) was the greatest Muslim kingdoms that arose on account of Sangama ruler. the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate.  The inscriptions speak of his title  Alauddin Hasan, who took the title of Abul „Gajabetekara‟ i.e., the elephant hunter. Muzaffar Alauddin Bahman Shah, was the  He wrote „Mahanataka Sudhanidhi‟ and a first king of Bahmani Kingdom in 1347. commentary on the Brahma Sutras of  Bahman Shah selected Gulbarga as his Badaryana (Both in Sanskrit). capital and gave it the name of Ahsanabad.  Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited  Bahman Shah (1347-58) was succeeded by his court. his elder son, Muhammad Shah I (1358-75)  Sangama dynasty was replaced by Saluva  Mujahid Shah (1375-78) succeeded dynasty, which lasted for 2 decades. Muhammad Shah. During his rule, Raichur  Ultimately, a new dynasty called the Tuluva Doab was the bone of contention between dynasty (1503-69) was founded by Vira Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdom. Narsimha.  The next ruler was Muhammad Shah II (1378-97). THE TULUVAS  Muhammad Shah II was followed by his two  Krishnadeva Raya (1509-29) was their sons, namely Ghiyasuddin and Shamsuddin. greatest ruler. Portuguese traveller, However, their rule lasted for a few months Domingo Paes, writes high about him. only. The throne was finally captured by Berbosa also came as a traveller. Tajuddin Firoz Shah (1397-1422).  He was a warrior, an administrator and a patron of art and literature. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 22

ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

 The next ruler was Tajuddin‟s brother, THE MUGHAL EMPIRE Ahmad Shah (1422-36), who again had a fight with Vijaynagar Empire. BABAR (1526-1530)  Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son  His family belonged to the Chaghtai section Alauddin II (1336-58). of the Turkish race and were commonly  Humayun (1458-61) succeeded his father known as Mughals. Alauddin II. He was so cruel that he got the  He was invited to attack India by Daulat title of „Zalim‟ or the tyrant. Khan Lodhi (Subedar of Punjab), Alam Khan  Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) and Rana Sanga. Shah (1461-63). He was succeeded by his  Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of brother Muhammad Shah III (1463-82). Panipat in 1526. In this Babar used the Rumi Mahmud won Konkan, Goa, Orissa, Kanchi, (Ottoman) device of lashing a large number etc. Nikitin, a Russian merchant, visited of carts to form a defending wall with Bidar during his reign. breastwork in between to rest guns  Muhammad Shah III was succeeded by his (Tulghama system of warfare). son Mahmud Shah (1482-1518).  Defeated Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) of  The last ruler of the Bahmani Kingdom was Mewar in the Battle of Khanua in 1527. Kalim Ullah Shah (1524-27). Babar took the title of „Ghazi‟ after that.  After the breakup of the Bahmani Kingdom,  Defeated another Rajput ruler, Medini Rai five separate States of the Muslims came (of Chanderi) in the Battle of Chanderi in into existence. 1528.  Defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi brother of Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Ghagra in 1529.  His victories led to rapid popularization of gunpowder and artillery in India.  Died in 1530. Buried at Aram Bagh in Agra; later his body was taken to Aram Bagh, Kabul.  His memoir, the Tazuk-i-Baburi in Turki language is a classic of world literature. Also wrote „Masnavi‟.

NOTE:  After the Kushans, Babur was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian Empire, which provided stability since it was the staging post of invasions of India.

HUMAYUN (1530-40 AND 1555-56)  Built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.  Defeated the Afghan forces at Daurah in 1532.

 He was attacked by Sher Shah at Chausa

(Battle of Chausa) in 1539, but escaped.

 Here Humayun was saved by Nizam, a water

carrier (saqqa).

 But in the Battle of Kannauj (also called Battle of Bilgrama) in 1540, he was defeated by Sher Shah and had to flee.  Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer, helped him in this.  Gulbadan Begum, his half-sister, wrote Humayun-nama.

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ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

THE AFGHAN INTERLUDE Maharana Pratap Shershah’s Administration Pratap had to retreat into the Aravallis from  For administrative convenience, Shershah where he continued his struggle through the tactics divided his whole empire into 47 divisions of guerilla warfare. called sarkars, and sarkars into smaller parganas. In the field of central IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF AKBAR’S RULE administration, Shershah followed the  Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman Sultanate pattern. to visit Akbar‟s court.  His Land Revenue System is noteworthy as  Abolished Jaziyah in 1564 and the tax on he classified his land under 3 heads – good, pilgrims. The use of beef was also forbidden. middle and bad, and claimed 1/3rd of the  Believed in Sulh-i-Kul or peace to all. produce. Land was measured by using the  Built Ibadatkhana (Hall of prayers) at Sikandari-gaz (32 points). Todarmal Fatehpur Sikri. He used to conduct religious contributed greatly in the development of discussions there with: Purshottam Das revenue policy of Shershah. (Hindu), Maharaji Rana (Parsi), Harivijaya  Shershah introduced a regular postal service. Suri (Jain), Monserate and Aquaviva  Introduced the silver „Rupaya‟ and the (Christian). copper „Dam‟ and abolished all old and  In 1579, Akbar issued the „Decree of mixed metal currency. Infallibility‟.  Shershah improved communication by  Formulated an order called „Din-i-Ilahi‟ or building roads. The roads built by Shershah Tauhid-i-ilahi in 1581. Birbal, Abul Fazl and are called „the arteries of the empir‟. He Faizi joined the order. restored the old imperial road called Grand  His Land Revenue System was known as Trunk road from the Indus-river to Todar Mal Bandobast or Zabti System. Three Sonargaon in Bengal. salient features of Zabti system were –  Built his tomb at Sasaram in Bihar. measurement of land, classification of land  Malik Mohammad Jaisi composed Padmavat and fixation of rates. (in HIndi) during his reign.  Also introduced the Mansabdary System to organise the nobility as well as the army. AKBAR (1556-1605)  There were two ranks: Zat and Sawar. It  Bairam Khan coronated him at Kalanaur wasn‟t a hereditary system. when he was 14 years old.  First printing press in India – 1566  Bairam Khan represented him in the Second  Abolition of pilgrimage tax – 1563 Battle of Panipat in 1556 against Hemu  Abolition of Jaziya tax – 1564 Vikramaditya. Hemu, the PM of Muhammad  Declaration of Mahzar Nama – 1579 Shah Adil fo Bengal, was defeated. Hemu is  Intro. of Dahsala system - 1580 considered the last Hindu king of Delhi.  Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation JAHANGIR (1605-1627) with the Rajputs. Some of the Rajput princes  But soon, his eldest son Khusro revolted, entered into matrimonial alliances with him. which was suppressed.  All these activities paved the way for  The fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev, had friendship between Rajputs and Mughals. helped Khusro. (except Mewar)  His greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar  Won Gujarat in 1572. It was in order to to Persia in 1622. commemorate his victory of Gujarat that  The most important event in Jahangir‟s life Akbar got the Buland Darwaza constructed was his marriage to Mehr-un-Nisa, the at Fatehpur Sikri. widow of Sher Afghani in 1611. The title of  Fought Battle of Haldighati with Mewar Nur Jahan was conferred on her. forces on 18 June, 1576.  He also laid a number of gardens, such as  Raja Maan Singh conquered Bihar, Bengal the Shalimar and Nishat gardens in and Orissa for him. Kashmir.  In 1586, he conquered Kashmir and in 1593,  Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas he conquered Sindh. His last conquest was Roe (1615-1619) visited his court. Due to the at the fort of Asirgarh in Deccan. efforts of Sir Thomas Roe English factories were established at Surat and some other places.

 Pietra Valle, famous Italian traveller came

during his reign.

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ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

 Tobacco growing started during his reign. It  Shahjahan also expelled the Portuguese was brought by the Portuguese. from Hughli, as they were abusing their trading privileges. AKBAR’S NAVRATNAS  Made his son, Aurangzeb, the Viceroy of Abu’l-Fazl, the Wazir of Akbar and author of the Deccan in 1636. Akbarnama, an account of Akbar‟s reign. He also led  Aurangzeb built an effective Revenue System the Mughal imperial army in its wars in the Deccan. there (Murshid Kuli Khan was his dewan there). Faizi was the historial Abul Fazl‟s brother in  Ultimately, Aurangzeb took control and he Akbar‟s court. Akbar highly recognized the genius was made the prisoner in the Agra Fort, in him and appointed him teacher for his son and being looked after by his daughter, Jahan gave place to him among his decorative „Nav Ara, till his death in 1666. Ratnas‟. His famous work Lilabati, is on  His reign is considered the „Golden Age‟ of mathematics. the Mughal Empire.  2 Frenchmen, Bernier and Tavernier, and an Tansen, believed to be one of the greatest musician Italian adventurer Manucci, visited during of all times, was born in a Hindu family in Gwalior. his reign. It was believed that Tansen made miracles such as bringing rain and fire through singing the ragas TAJ MAHAL Megh Malhar and Deepak, respectively.  Taj Mahal, the eternal love monument, is

located in Agra. Raja Birbal, alias Mahesh Das, was a courtier in  Shah Jahan commissioned its constructions the administration of Akbar. He was a poet and as a mausoleum for his favourite wife, author whose wit and wisdom led the Emperor Arjumand Bano Begum, better known as Akbar to invite him to be a part o the royal court Mumtaz Mahal, in 1631. and to bestow upon him a new name – Birbal. Akbar also conferred on him the title of „Raja‟.  It was constructed in 22 years (1631-1653) by a workforce of 22,000. Raja Todar Mal was Akbar‟s finance minister,  Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi are who overhauled the revenue system in the kingdom. credited with a key role in the architectural He introduced standard weights and measurements, design of the complex. revenue districts and officers. His systematic  The main dome was designed by Ismail approach to revenue collection became a model for Khan. the future Mughals as well as the British. In 1582, Akbar bestowed on the raja the title of Diwan-i- AURANGZEB ALAMGIR (1658-1707) Ashraf.  Aurangzeb first defeated the Imperial army in the Battle of Dharmatt and then defeated Raja Man Singh was the Kacchwaha raja of a force led by Dara in the Battle of Amber. He was a mansabdar and a trusted general Samugarh. Thereafter, he entered Agra and of Akbar. He assisted Akbar in many battles crowned himself with the title of „Alamgir‟ including the well-known battle of Haldighati, (conqueror of the world). among others.  Under him, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, and the largest single state Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana was a poet and the ever known in India from the dawn of son of Akbar‟s trusted caretaker, Bairam Khan. history to the rise of British Power was Although a Muslim by birth, he was a devotee of formed. Lord Krishna.  In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur. Faqir Aziao Din was one of Akbar‟s chief advisors.  In 1679, he reimposed jaziyah. Also, Nauraj, singing in the court, and the practice of Mullah Do Piaza was among the Mughal emperor „jharokha-darshan‟ were banned. Also Akbar‟s chief advisors. forbade inscription of Kalima (the Muslim credo) on the coins. SHAHJAHAN (1628-1658)  The Mughal empire stretched from Kashmir  Shahjahan‟s policy of annexing the Deccan in the north to Jinji in the south, from the was quite successful. Ahmednagar was Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the annexed while Bijapur and Golconda east. accepted his overlordship.  Patronized the greatest digest of Muslim law in India, Fatwa-i-Alamgiri.

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ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

 He was called a „Darvesh‟ or a „Zinda Pir‟.  Babar and Humayun had a Prime Minister  He also forbade Sati. known as Vakil. The office of Vakil, was, however, discontinued after Bairam Khan. LATER MUGHALS /FALL OF THE  Wazir was the Prime Minister. MUGHALS  The territory of the empire was divided into Bahadur Shah (1707-1712) Khalisa (crown lands), jagirs (land granted  Assumed the title of Shah Alam I. Was also to nobles) and inam (land granted to known as Shah-i-Bekhabar. He made peace religious and learned men). with Guru Gobind Singh and Chhatrasal. Jahandar Shah (1712-13) MUGHAL BUILDINGS  First puppet Mughal emperor. He abolished Babar Jaziya.  Built two mosques: one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other in Sambhal in Mohammad Shah (1719-48) Rohilkhand.  Nadir Shah (of Iran) defeated him in the Battle of Karnal (1739) and took away Humayun peacock throne and Kohinoor diamond.  Laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at  He was a pleasure-loving king and was nick- Delhi. named Rangeela.  Built Jamali Mosque and the Mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi. Shah Alam II (1759-1806)  Humayun‟s tomb is called the prototype of  Shah Alam-II joined hands with Mir Qasim Taj Mahal. It was built by his widow Haji of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in Begum. the Battle of Buxar against the British in 1764. Akbar  Built Agra fort (in red sandstone). Akbar II (1806-37)  He also built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory)  He gave Rammohan in the title „Raja‟. he near Agra. In Fatehpur Sikri are the Panch sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to London to Mahal, Diwan-I-Khas, Diwan-I-Aam, seek a raise in his allowance. Jodhabai‟s palace and Sheikh Salim Chishti‟s KOHINOOR DIAMOND tomb. Buland Darwaza (53 m high) is  Kohinoor is a 105 carat (21.6 gm) diamond located here, commemorating the emperor‟s that was once the largest known diamond in conquest of Gujarat. the world.  Built his own tomb at Sikandra, near Agra.  It became part of the Crown Jewels of  Built the temple of Govindadeva at England when Queen Victoria was Vrindavan. proclaimed empress of India.  Most sources agree that the Kohinoor was Jahangir mined at Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh. It  With Jahangir‟s reign, the practice of putting was first owned by Kakatiya dynasty, but the up buildings in marble and decorating the Kakatiya kingdom under Pratapa rudra was walls with floral designs made of semi- ravaged in 1323 by Muhammad bin Tughluq. precious stones started. This method of  Ranjit Singh‟s successor, Duleep Singh gave decoration was known as Pietra Dura. the gem to Queen Victoria in 1851.  Nurjahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula  In 1852, under the personal supervision of at Agra. Victoria‟s consort, Prince Albert, the  Jahangir built Moti Masjid at Lahore and his diamond was cut from 1861/16 carats (37.21 own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore). gm) to its current 105.602 carats (21.61 gm), to increase its brilliance. Shahjahan  Built Taj Mahal Moti Masjid at Agra, Jama NOTE: The Sayyid brothers also known as King Masjid and Red Fort at Delhi. Shalimar Bagh Makers. at Lahore and city of Shahjahanabad.  Also built Mussaman Burz at Agra (where he MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION spent his last years in captivity), Sheesh  The entire kingdom was divided into suba or Mahal, etc. pranta, suba into sarkar, sarkar into pargana  He got the peacock throne built by Bebadal and the pargana into villages. Khan on which Amir Khusrau‟s couplet – „If

Compiled by R Rex Christopher 26

ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

there is a paradise on earth, it is here‟, COMMUNAL AND REGIONAL UPRISINGS inscribed on it. THE SIKHS Aurangzeb  Belong to a religious sect founded by Guru  Built Moti Masjid at Delhi and Badshahi Nanak (1469-1539). His main teaching were Mosque at Lahore. the faith in one true Lord, the worship of the  Built Bibi ka Makbara in Aurangabad. Name and the necessity of a Guru in the worship of the name. MUGHAL PAINTING  After his death, Guru Angad (1539- Humayun 52)became his successor. He invented the  He invited 2 Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali Gurumukhi script for the Punjabi Language. and Abdus Samad, who became his court  Guru Amardas (1552-74) was the next painters. guru. He reformed the institution of Langor Akbar and gave more importance to it. He divided  Organised painting in imperial karkhanas his spiritual empire into 22 parts called and also introduced European style. Manjis. Each Manjis was put under the  Daswanth painted the Razm Namah charge of a Sikh. (Persian Mahabharat)  IV guru, Guru Ramdas (1575-81) had very Jahangir cordial relations with Akbar. He laid the  Painting reached its zenith under Jahangir. foundation of Amritsar city. He dug a tank European paintings was introduced. (sarovar) and it exists at Amritsar. In the  Special progress was made in portrait midst of the tank, the Harmandir Sahib painting and painting of animals. Bishan (Temple of God) was constructed. Das was a master of portraits while Ustad  V guru, Guru Arjun Dev (1581-1606) Mansur specialised in animal painting. compiled the Adi Granth. He also completed  Use of „Halo‟ or Divine Lights started under the construction of Amritsar and founded Jahangir. other cities like Taran Taran and Kartarpur.  VI guru Guru Har Govind Rai (1606-44) MUGHAL LITERATURE defeated a Mughal Army at Sangrama. He  Khan Abdur Rahman translated Babur‟s transformed the Sikhs into military Tuzuk-I-Baburi from Turki to Persian during community, estd. Akal Takhtat the Golden Akbar‟s reign. Temple and held court there to conduct  Abul Fazal composed Ain-I-Akbari and secular matters. He himself took up the title Akbarnamah of Sachcha Padshah.  Abdul Qadir Badauni, who was in Akbar‟s  Guru Har Rai (1644-61) and Guru Har court wrote: Kitab-ul-Ahadish, Tarikh-i-Alfi Kishan (1661-64) were the VII and VIII and Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh. gurus respectively.  Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad Harawi wrote  IX guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664-75) Tabaqat-i-Akbari. revolted against Aurangzeb but was executed  Jahangir composed his memoir, Tuzuk-I- by him. He was beheaded at Delhi‟s Chandni Jahangiri (in Persian language), and Chowk in November 1675. The Sis Ganj patronized the valuable dictionary, Farhang- Gurudwara marks the site of his martyrdom. I-Jahangiri.  X and last guru, Guru Gobin Singh (1675-  During Jahangir‟s reign Hamid wrote 1708) (born in Patna) organised Sikhs as a Padshah Namah and Khafi Khan wrote community of warriors and called them as Muntakhab-i-Lubab. Khalsa (Baisakhi day, 1699). He summoned a big assembly of Sikhs at Anantpur and  Dara was a great scholar. He translated selected 5 person who came to be known as Upanishads and Bhagvadgita. He also wrote Panj Piaras. The Sikhs were given a distinct Majm-ul-Bahrain. dress and they were required to keep on  Mirza Md. Qazim wrote Alamgirnama. their person five things beginning with K,  Ishwar Das Nagar wrote Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri viz., Kesh, Kripan, Kachha, Kanga and Kara. He compiled a supplementary granth called „Daswen Padshah ka Granth‟.

 He declared that from now on Granth Sahib

should be treated as the Guru.

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ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

THE MARATHAS the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but  Rose to prominence under Shivaji (checked which formed part of the Mughal Empire. Mughal expansion in the South.)  Shahji was a military officer in the state of THE JATS Bijapur and he owned the territory of Poona  Suraj Mal (1756-63) took their state to glory. as a jagir. He is known as plato of the Jat tribe.  Ali Adil Shah, sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan to teach Shivaji a lesson in 1659. MYSORE  Then Aurangzeb sent Raja Jai Singh (of  In the second half of the 18th century, the Amber) who forced him to sign the Treaty of rise of Mysore under Haider Ali and Tipu Purandar in 1665. Sultan and their alliance with the French  Shivaji visited Agra with his son Sambhaji in was seen as a danger to the British power in 1666. There he was put on a house arrest. India.  He defeated a Mughal force in the Battle of  Mysore emerged as a powerful throne under Salher in 1672. Haider Ali who became the king in 1761.  He was crowned in 1674 at Raigarh and  He used western military training to assumed the title of Chhatrapati. He became strengthen his army. the sovereign ruler of Maharashtra.  In the I Anglo-Mysore War (1767-1769), Haider Ali faced the triple alliance of the MARATHAS AFTER SHIVAJI English, the Nizam and the Marathas.  After Shivaji, his son Sambhaji (1680-89)  As Haider Ali was a great diplomat, he succeeded throne (although a lot many bought off the Marathas and won over the supported his step-brother, Rajaram). Nizam and thus broke the alliance. The war  Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram in was brought to an end by signing of the 1689. Treaty of Madras (1769)  Shahu was released by Aurangzeb‟s  Hyder Ali died in 1782 during the II Anglo- successor, Bahadur Shah I. now he claimed Mysore war. His son Tipu Sultan carried on the government. His release led to the the war till 1784 when the two sides Maratha civil war between Shahu and concluded peace by signing the Treaty of Tarabai. In the civil was Shahu emerged Mangalore. victorious (Battle of Khed) with the help of  Tipu planted a tree of liberty at Balaji Vishwanath, the founder of the line of Srirangapatnam. Peshwas.  In the III Anglo-Mysore war (1789-1792), he  In the reign of Shahu, the Peshwa or Prime was defeated by the triple alliance of British, Minister, Balaji Vishwanath, virtually Nizam and the Marathas and had to sign the became the ruler of the state. From now Treaty of Srirangapatnam. onwards began the rule of the Peshwas who  He was defeated and killed in the IV Anglo- had their seat of power at Poona. (Shahu‟s Mysore war (1799) by Lord Wellesley. capital was Satara).  Seven Peshwas.  Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802 with the British, which gave the British effective control of not only the Maratha region but also of the Deccan and western India.  Consequently, several Maratha families became prominent in different parts of India.  Gaekwad in Baroda  Bhonsle at Nagpur  Holkar at Indore.  Scindia at Gwalior  Peshwa at Poona.

MARATHA ADMINISTRATION  Besides the land revenue, Chauth or 1/4th land revenue was the main revenue.

 Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10%

on those lands of Maharashtra over which Compiled by R Rex Christopher 28

ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

MODERN INDIA  The French East India Company was set in 1664, at the instance of a minister, Colbert, in the reign of Louis XIV. PORTUGUESE  They established their first factory at Surat  The Portuguese voyager Vasco da Gama in 1668 and at Masulipatnam in 1669. reached Calicut on May 17, 1498. At that  The foundation of Pondicherry was laid in time Calicut was ruled by a king named 1673 which, afterwards, became its capital. Zamorin.  The first Governor of Portuguese in India THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF BENGAL was Francisco Almeida.  The Mughal governor of Bengal, Murshid  He was followed by Alfonso d‟ Albuquerque Quli Khan, made Bengal virtually in 1503. He gave them new height. He independent of the Mughal Empire during captured Goa in 1510 from the Bijapur ruler. his reign (1717-1727) He also abolished Sati.  His son Shuja-ud-daulah succeeded him and  Nino-da-Cunha transferred the Portuguese ruled for 12 years. capital in India from Cochin to Goa in 1530  After his death, Alivardi Khan ruled till 1756. and acquired Diu (in 1535) and Daman (in  The result was the defeat of Siraj-ud-daulah 1559). (grandson and successor of Alivardi Khan)  Portuguese lost Hugly in 1631 during the in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. reign of Shahjahan.  The Battle of Plassey had great political  Crops introduced in India Potato, Tobacco, significance as it laid the foundation of the Pineapple and Maize. British Empire in India.  The alleged Black Hole Tragedy happened DUTCH during the reign of Siraj-ud-daulah in 1757.  Dutch East India Company was formed in  The Battle of Buxar was fought in 1764 1602. between the British forces (led by major  They set-up their first factory at Munro) on one side, and the triple alliance Masulipatnam in 1605. Their other factories of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab were at Pulicat, Chinsura, Patna, Balasore, Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh and Mughal Nagapattanam(In 1689 - capital), Cochin, emperor Shah Alam, on the other side. Surat, Karikal, Kasimbazar.  The importance of this battle lay in the fact  In 1608, factory at Devanampattinam. that not only the Nawab of Bengal but the Emperor of India was also defeated. ENGLISH  The Treaty of Allahabad followed (August  The English East India Company was 1765) in which the English got the Diwani formed in 1599 and was given the royal (or right to collect revenue) of Bengal and Charter by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 to thus became the master of the whole of trade in the east. Bengal (i.e. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa). The  In 1616, the Company established its first Dual Government of Bengal system followed factory in the south in Masulipatnam. In wherein the Company acquired the real 1633, it established its first factory in east power, while the responsibility of India in Hariharpur, Balasore (Orissa). administration rested on the Nawab of  The Company got the lease of Madras in Bengal. 1639 and built Fort St. George in Madras which acted as its headquarter on the ROBERT CLIVE Coromandal coast. Robert Clive is regarded as the true founder  Aurangzeb gave the Company the farman in of British Political Dominion in India. 1667 to trade in Bengal. In 1690, a factory was set up at Sutanuti village. NOTE: Raja Sawai Jai Singh ruled Amber from  In 1681 – built St. David fort @ Cuddalore. 1681-1743. He was the most outstanding Rajput king of this period. He built the city of Jaipur and DANES set up observatories at Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain,  The Danish East India Company was set in Mathura and Varanasi. He drew up a set of tables, 1616 titled Zij Muhammadshahi, for astronomical  They established settlement at Serampur observations. (Bengal) and Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu).

FRENCH

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ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

GOVERNOR GENERALS revenue collected to themselves while the British got a fixed share of 10/11 of the WARREN HASTINGS (1772-1785) revenue collected. The Zamindars were free  Brough the Dual Govt. of Bengal to an end to fix the rent. by the Regulating Act, 1773.  Deprived Zamindars of their judicial powers RYOTWARI SYSTEM and Civil and Criminal courts were  Introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. established. Lord Munro and Charles Reed  The First Anglo-Maratha War (1776-82), recommended it. which ended with the Treaty of Salbai  In this, a direct settlement was made (1782), and the Second Anglo-Mysore War between the govt. and the ryot (cultivator). (1780-84), which ended with the Treaty of  The revenue was fixed for a period not Mangalore (1784), were fought during exceeding 30 years, on the basis of the Hasting‟s period. quality of the soil and the nature of the crop.  As a great patron of oriental learning, he It was based on the scientific rent theory of founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal with Ricardo. William Jones in 1784.  He wrote introduction to the first English MAHALWARI SYSTEM translation of „The Gita‟ by Charles Wilkins.  Modified version of Zamindari settlement introduced in the Ganges valley, NWFP, NOTE: Sir John MacPherson was made the acting parts of Central India and Punjab. Governor General from 1785 to 1786.  Revenue settlement was to be made by village or estate with landlords. LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)  Did the Permanent Settlement of Bengal GEORGE BARLOW (1805-1807) (also called Zamindary System) in 1793.  First person to codify laws. The code LORD MINTO I (1807-1813) separated the revenue administration from  Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with the administration of justice. Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1809).  Police Reforms: Each district was divided  Charter Act of 1813 was passed. into 400 sq. miles and placed under a police superintendent assisted by constables. LORD HASTINGS (1813-1823)  3-Mysore war – Treaty of Srirangpatnam  The Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) was fought during his reign which ended with the Treaty SIR JOHN SHORE (1793 - 1798) of Sagauli (1816).

LORD WELLESLEY (1798 - 1805) LORD AMHERST (1823-1828)  Adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance – a system to keep the Indian rulers under LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1835) control and to make the British the  Carried out the social reforms like paramount power. Prohibition of Sati (1829) and elimination of  He defeated the Mysore force under Tipu thugs (1830). Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in  Made English the medium of higher 1799. education in the country (After the recommendations of (Macaulay). Subsidiary Alliance  Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him The states that accepted this policy were the the first Governor General of India. Nizam of Hyderabad, the ruler of Mysore, the Raja of Tanjore, the Nawab of Awadh, the Peshwa, the SIR CHARLES METCALFE(1835-1836) Bhonsle Raja of Berar, the Scindia, the Rajputs of  Abolished all restrictions on vernacular Jodhpur, Jaipur, etc. press (called Liberator of the Press).

LAND REVENUE SYSTEMS LORD AUCKLAND (1836-1842) PERMANENT SETTLEMENT  The most important event of his reign was  Introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and the First Afghan War, which proved to be a districts of Banaras and Northern districts of disaster for the English. Madras by Lord Cornwallis in 1793.  It declared Zamindars as the owners of the LORD ELLENBOROUGH (1842-1844) land. Hence, they could keep 1/11th o the  Annexation of Sindh Compiled by R Rex Christopher 30

ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

THE REVOLT OF 1857 LORD HARDINGE I (1844-1848)  I Anglo Sikh war CAUSES  Treaty of Lahore Political Causes  Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-1856) the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.  Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853  The policy of Doctrine of Lapse. (from Bombay to Thane).  Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First Economic Causes was from Calcutta to Agra)  Heavy taxation, evictions, discriminatory  Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and tariff policy against Indian products and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and destruction of traditional handicrafts that hit Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur(1852), Jhansi peasants, artisans and small zamindars. (1854) and Nagpur (1854) through it.  Established the postal system on the modern Military Discrimination lines through the length and breadth of the  Indian soldiers were paid low salaries, they country, which made communication easier. could not rise above the rank of subedar and  Started the Public Works Department. Many were racially insulted. bridges were constructed and the work on  They were also grieved because of the refusal Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of British to pay foreign service allowance of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta were also (batta) while fighting in remote regions such developed. as Punjab and Sindh.  Made Shimla the summer capital.  Started Engineering college at Roorkee. National Character of the Rebellion  Encouraged science, forestry, commerce,  Historians remain divided on whether the mineralogy and industry. rebellion can properly be considered a war of  In 1854, „Wood‟s Dispatch‟ was passed, Indian independence or not, although it is which provided for the properly articulated popularly considered to be one, particularly system of education from the primary school in India. to the university. Arguments against include  Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar‟s efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized by  The mutiny was put down with the help of Widow Remarriage Act, 1856. other Indian soldiers drawn from the Madras Army, the Bombay Army and the Sikh regiments;  Many princes and maharajas did not participate in the rebellion.

Religious Discrimination  British social reforms (widow remarriage, abolition of Sati, education for girls, Christian missionaries)  The introduction of Enfield rifle, the cartridge of which was greased with animal fat, provided the spark.  Inventions like railway and telegraphs, spread of Western education also promoted the cause.

OUTBREAK  On March 29, 1857, a soldier named Mangal Pandey attacked and fired at his senior at Barrackpur in Bengal (in 19th and 34th Native infantry).  On May 10, there was a mutiny of sepoys at Meerut (3rd native cavalry).  „March to Delhi‟ became the battle cry of the rebels. At Delhi, the Mughal emperor

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Bahadur Shah II was proclaimed the SOCIAL AND CULTURAL UPRISINGS Emperor of India. BRAHMO SAMAJ IMPORTANT PERSONS  Founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828.  Bakht Khan (captured Delhi, was from the  He earlier started Atmiya Sabha in 1814. Barreily unit of the army).  He gave enthusiastic assistance to David  Nana Sahib alias Dhondhu Pant (from Hare, who founded the famous Hindu Kanpur, along with Tantia Tope and College in Calcutta. Azimullah) Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh  Established a Vedanta College in which (declared her son as the Nawab of Awadh). courses both in Indian and Western social  Rani Lakshmibai, the widowed queen of and physical sciences were offered. Raja Gangadhar Rao of Jhansi (Tantia Tope  Other important leaders were Devendranath joined her and they defeated the Scindia of Tagor (father of Rabindranath Tagore) and Gwalior, but both were defeated by Sir Hugh Keshab Chandra Sen. Rose. She died on June 17, 1858, while  Keshab started Sangat Sabha, Prarthana Tantia was later captured and executed. ) Samaj and Brahmo Samaj of India.  Kunwar Singh and Amar Singh (Bihar).  Tagore‟s organization came to be known as  Maulavi Ahmedullah (First Awadh and then Tattvabodhini Sabha and Adi Brahma Rohilkhand). Samaj.  Devi Singh of Mathura.  Anand Mohan Bose started the Sadharana  Kadam Singh of Meerut. Brahmo Samaj  Justice M.G. Ranade founded the Prarthana SUPPRESSION Sabha.  The revolt was completely suppressed by the end of 1858. ARYA SAMAJ  Founded by Swami Dayanand (or, CAUSES OF FAILURE Moolshankar) in 1875.  Scindia of Gwalior, the Holkar of Indore, the  His motto was „Go back to the Vedas‟ & Nizam of Hyderabad, the Raja of Jodhpur, „India for the Indians‟. the Nawab of Bhopal, the rulers of Patiala,  Dayanand‟s views were published in his Sindh and Kashmir and the Rana of Nepal famous work, Satyarth Prakash. He also provided active support to the British. wrote Veda Bhashya Bhumika and Veda  The military equipment of the rebels was Bhashya. inferior.  Established a large number of educational  Comparative lack of efficient leadership. institutions in India, viz., Gurukuls, DAV  The modern intelligent Indians also didn‟t schools, etc. support the cause.  Also started the „Siddhi‟ movement to convert non-Hindus to Hinduism IMPACT OF THE REVOLT  Other prominent persons of Arya Samaj  The revolt was mainly feudal in character were Lala Hans Raj, Pt. Guru Dutt, Lala carrying with it some nationalist elements. Lajpat Rai, Swami Shraddhanand.  The control of Indian administration was passed on to the British crown by the Govt. RAMAKRISHNA MISSION of India Act, 1858.  Founded by Vivekanand (earlier, Narendranath Dutta) (1863-1902) in 1897, 11 years after the death of his guru Ram Krishna Paramhans.  Vivekanand attended the Parliament of Religion at Chicago in 1893.  He published two papers: Prabhudha Bharat in English and Udbodhana in Bengali.  Vivekanand‟s Quotes: All power is within you, you can do anything and everything.

 Irish woman Margaret Nobel (known as

sister Nivedita)popularized Ramakrishna

Mission after Vivekanand‟s death.

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YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT Samiti at Allahabad in 1914, to improve the  During the late 1820 and early 1830, there status of the suffering classes, reform emerged a radical intellectual trend among criminals and to rescue those suffering in the youth in Bengal, which cambe to be society. known as the „Young Bengal Movement‟.  Founded by Henry Louis Vivian Derozio RADHASWAMI MOVEMENT (1809-31). He was a teacher in Hindu  Founded in 1861 by a banker of Agra, Tulsi College in Calcutta. Ram, popularly known as Shiv Dayal Saheb  He also edited the papers, Hesperus and or Swami Maharaj. Calcutta Literary Gazette and was connected with India Gazette. DEVA SAMAJ  He urged the students to live and die for  Founded by Shiv Narain Agnihotri in 1887. truth. He also supported women‟s education and their rights. THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY  Founded by Westerners who drew VEDA SAMAJ inspiration from Indian thought and culture.  Called Brahmo Samaj of South. Started by  Madam H.P. Blavatsky laid the foundation of Sridharalu Naidu. the movement in US in 1875. Later, Col. M S Olcott of the US Army joined her. DHARMA SABHA  In 1882, it was shifted to India at Adyar  Initiated by Radhakant Deb in 1830. (Tamil Nadu)  Was opposed to reforms and protected  Annie Besant was elected its President in orthodoxy, but played an active role in 1907. She founded the Cental Hindu College promoting western education even to girs in 1898, which became Banaras Hindu University in 1916. Drain of Wealth Theory  R.C. Dutta and Dadabhai Naoroji first cited THE AHMEDIA MOVEMENT the drain of wealth theory. Naoroji brought  Started by Mirza Ghulam Ahmed in 1889. it to light in his book, title „Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India‟. R.C. Dutt blamed THE DEOBAND MOVEMENT the British policies for economic ills inhis  In 1866, the Deoband School of Islami book. „Economic History of India‟. Theology was set up at Deoband by Rashid  Drain of wealth began in 1757 after the Battle Ahmed Gangohi and Muhammad Qasim of plassey when the Company‟s servants Nanautavi to promote studies in classical began to extort fortunes from Indian rulers, Islam and moral and religious regeneration zamindars, merchants and common people of the Muslims. The school did not support and send home. western education and culture.  In 1765, the Company acquired the Diwani of Bengal and began to purchase the Indian SATYA SHODHAK SAMAJ goods out of the revenue of Bengal and  Founded by Jyotiba Phule in 1873 to fight exported them. brahmanic domination and to liberate low castes by educating them and teaching them LOKAHITAWADI their rights.  Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath  Jyotiba also started a school for Rao. It held its first session in 1887. untouchables and an orphanage for widows.  Its main focus was on abolition of polygamy  His books, Ghulamgiri and Sarvajanik and kulinism and it encouraged intercaste Satyadharma Pustak questioned the marriages. It also pledged to fight child traditional customs and beliefs of society. marriages. THE JUSTICE PARTY MOVEMENT SERVANTS OF INDIA SOCIETY  Dr. T.M. Nair, Sir Pitti Theagaraja Chettiar  Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915. and the Raja of Panagal formed the South  It did notable work in providing famine Indian Liberal Federation (SILF) in 1916 to relief and in improving the condition of the protest against the domination of Brahmins tribal. in government service, education and in the political field. SEVA SAMITI  The newspaper, justice was their main organ  Hridayanath Kunzru, a member of the for expressing views and opinions. Servants of India Society, organized the Compiled by R Rex Christopher 33

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SELF RESPECT MOVEMENT  Under Chakrabisai in 1846-48, 1855 and  The radical movement was launched by 1914 in Orissa‟s Khondmal area. Periyar or E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Tamil Nadu in 1925, to awaken non- NAIKAD REVOLT brahmins for overthrowing brahmanic  Under Roop Singh and Joria Bhagat in 1858- superiority. 1859 nd 1868 in Panchmahal area of  The movement organized weddings without Gujarat. involving the Brahmins and temple entry. KACHNAG REVOLT SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT  Under Sambhudaan in 1882 in Chaachar  Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar‟s movement area of Assam. worked for the upliftment of the untouchables by fighting for their BHIL RISING educational, legal and political rights and  Under Govind Guru in Banswara and encouraging them to throw off the Dungapur area of South Rajasthan. traditional caste duties imposed on them.  Ambedkar founded the Depressed Classes ORAON REVOLT Institute (Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha) in  Under Jatra Bhagat in 1914-15 in Chhota Bombay in 1924, a Marathi fortnightly Nagpur area. Bahishkrit Bharat in 1927 and the Samaj Samata Sangha in 1927. He also founded the THARO KUKI RISING Independent Labour Party.  Under Jadonang and Rani Gaidinliu in 1917-  The Scheduled Caste Federation, a political 19 in Manipur. party, was formed by him in 1942. CHAINCHU REVOLT  Under Hanumunthu in 1921-22 in Nallamala range of Andhra Pradesh. TRIBAL & PEASANT UPRISINGS OF 19-20TH CENTURY SANTHAL REVOLT  Under Sado and Kanhu in 1855-57 in CHAURA RISING Rajmahl hills.  Between 1768 and 1832 in Naanbhum and Bada Bhum area in West Bengal. MUNDA REVOLT  Under Birsa Munda in 1899-1900 in BHIL REVOLT Southern Ranchi.  Between 1818 and 1848 in Western Ghats. RAMPA REVOLT HO RISING  Under Rajan Anatayya in 1884 and Alluri  In 1820, 1822 and 1832 in Singhbhum and Sitaram Raju in 1922-24 in Andhra Pradesh. Chhota Nagpur area. RAMOSI REVOLT KOLI RISINGS  Under Vasudeo Balwant Padke (called  In 1824, 1827, 1839 and 1844-48 in the area Robinhood of Maharashtra) in 1822-29 in near Western Ghats of Gujarat and Western Ghats. Maharashtra. PEASANT UPRISINGS KHASI RISINGS MOPLAH REBELLION  In 1829-32 in Khasi mountain range in  In Malabar region. Due to oppression and Assam and Meghalaya. exploitation of the Muslim Moplah peasants of N. Kerala by the Hindu Zamindars SINGPO REVOLT (Jemmis) and British Government.  In 1830-39 in Assam ROMASI MOVEMENT KOL RISING  Under Vasudev Balwant Phadke in  Under Buddho Bhagat in 1831-32 in Chhota Maharashtra in 1879. Nagpur area. PABNA MOVEMENT KHOND RISING

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 In East Bengal‟s Pabna district in 1872-76.  Passed the Ilbert Bill (1883) which enabled due to oppression of peasantry by the Indian district magistrates to try European. zamindars. LORD DUFFERIN (1884-1888) BIJOLIA MOVEMENT  Indian National Congress was formed during  In Rajasthan in 1905, 1913, 1916, 192, his tenure.

LORD LANSDOWNE (1888-1894)  II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly VICEROYS OF INDIA holiday and stipulated working hours for (1858-Aug. 14, 1947) women and children, although it failed to address concerns such as work hours for LORD CANNING (1856-1862) men.  The last Governor General and the first  Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed. Viceroy.  Appointment of Durand Commission to  Mutiny took place in this time. define the line between British India and  The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Afghanistan. Madras were established in 1857.  Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861. LORD ELGIN II (1894-1899)

LORD ELGIN (1862-1863) LORD CURZON (1899-1905) LORD LAWRENCE (1864-1869)  Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in  Telegraphic communication was opened which official control over the Universities with Europe. was increased.  High courts were established at Calcutta,  Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) in two Bombay and Madras in 1865. provinces  Created the Indian Forest Department 1. Bengal (proper) 2. East Bengal & Assam. LORD MAYO (1869-1872)  Appointed a Police Commission under Sir  Started the process of financial Andrew Frazer to enquire into the police decentralization in India. administration of every province.  Established the Rajkot College at Kathiarwar  The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897-98 and Mayo college at Ajmer for the Indian led him to create the North Western Frontier princes. Province (NWFP)  For the first time in Indian history, a census  Passed the Ancient Monuments Protection was held in 1872 Act (1904), to restore India‟s cultural  Organised the Statistical Survey of India heritage. Thus the Archaeological Survey of India was established. LORD NORTHBROOK (1872-1876)  Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper Currency Act (1899) and put India on a gold LORD LYTTON (1876-1880) standard.  Known as the Viceroy of reverse characters.  Extended railways to a great extent.  Organised the Grand „Delhi Durbar‟ in 1877  ISt introduced to decorate Queen Victoria with the title  estd the dept of commerce & Industry. „Kaiser-i-Hind‟.  Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for LORD MINTO (1905-1910) Indians to acquire licence for arms.  The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the  Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act Morley Minto Reforms was passed. (1878). LORD HARDINGE (1910-1916) LORD RIPON (1880-1884)  Held a durbar in Dec, 1911 to celebrate the  Vernacular Press Act (1882) coronation of King George V.  Passed the local self-government Act (1882)  Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911);  Tooks steps to improve primary & secondary capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). education (on William Hunter Commission‟s  Gandhiji came back to India from South recommendations). Africa (1915)  The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting  Annie Besant announced the Home Rule child labour was passed. Movement. Compiled by R Rex Christopher 35

ANCIENT, MEDIEVAL & MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

LORD CHELMSFORD (1916-1921)  Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25,  August Declaration of 1917, whereby control 1945 with Indian National Congress and over the Indian government would be Muslim League; failed. gradually transferred to the Indian people.  Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946)  The government of India Act in 1919  Elections to the constituent assembly were (Montague-Chelmsford reforms) was held and an Interim Govt. was appointed passed. under Nehru.  Rowlatt Act of 1919; Jallianwala Bagh  First meeting of the constituent assembly Massacre (April 13, 1919) was held on Dec 9, 1946.  An Indian Sir S.P. Sinha was appointed the Governor of Bengal. LORD MOUNTBATTEN (MAR. 1947-AUG.  A Women‟s university was founded at Poona 1947) in 1916.  Last Viceroy of British India and the first  Saddler Commission was appointed in 1917 Governor General of free India. to envisage new educational policy.  Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan. LORD READING (1921-1926)  Indian Independence Act passed by the  Rowlatt Act was repealed along with the British parliament on July 4, 1947, by which Press Act of 1910. India became independent on August 15,  Prince of Wales visited India in Nov, 1921. 1947.  Moplah rebellion (1921) took place in Kerala.  Retired in June 1948 and was succeeded by  Formation of Swaraj Party. C. Rajagopalachari (the first and the last  Communist party was founded in 1921 by Indian Governor General of free India) M.N. Roy.  Kakory Train Robbery on Aug 9, 1925.

LORD IRWIN (1926-1931)  Simon Commission visited India in 1928.

 Dandi March (March 12, 1930)

 First Round Table Conference held in

England in 1930.

 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931) wa signed and Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn.  Martyrdom of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike (1929).

LORD WILLINGDON (1931-1936)  Second Round Table Conference in London IMPORTANT NATIONAL ACTIVITIES in 1931.  Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned INDIGO REVOLT (1859-60) seats to different religious communities.  In this, the peasants were forced to grow  Third Round Table Conference in 1932. indigo in their lands unwillingly by the  Poona Pact was signed European factory-owners.  Government of India Act (1935) was passed.  The anger exploded in Govindpur village of Nadia district (Bengal) under Digambar LORD LINLITHGOW (1936-1944) Biswas & Vishnu Biswas.  Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11  Others who played important role were provinces. They remained in power for about Harish Chandra Mukherje (editor of the 2 years till Oct 1939, when they gave up newspaper Hindu Patriot), Dinbandhu Mitra offices on the issue of India having been (writer of play, Neel Dapan) & Michael dragged into the II World War. The Muslim Madhusudan Datta (eminent Bengali poet- League observed the day as „Deliverance cum-play writer, who translated Neet Day‟. Darpan into English)  Cripps Mission in 1942.  The Govt. appointed an Indigo Commission in 1860 and removed some of the abuse of LORD WAVELL (1944-1947) Indigo cultivation.

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THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi movement, demanded special safeguards of  Formed in 1885 by A.O. Hume, an its community and a separate electorate for Englishman and a retired civil servant. Muslims.  Hume‟s main purpose was probably to provide a „safety valve‟ to the growing discontent among the educated Indians. SWARAJ  First session in Bombay under W.C.  In Dec. 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under Banerjee in 1885 (72 delegates attended it) Dadabhai Naoroji adopted „Swaraj‟ (Self-  In the first two decades (1885-1905), quite govt.) as the goal of Indian people. moderate in its approach and confided in British justice and generosity. SURAT SESSION OF INC  But the repressive measures of the British  The INC split into two groups – The gave rise to extremists within Congress like extremists and The moderates, at the Surat Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and session in 1907. Extremists were led by Bal, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal), along with Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K. Aurobindo Ghosh. Gokhale.  Controversy rose over the elected president, PARTITION OF BENGAL Ras Bihari Ghosh, as extremists didn‟t  By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a accept him. royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East INDIAN COUNCILS ACT OR MINTO Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal. MORLEY REFORMS (1909)  Rabindranath Tagore composed the national  Besides other constitutional measures, it song „Amar Sonar Bangla‟ for the occasion envisaged a separate electorate for Muslims. which was sung by people everywhere. This song was adopted as national anthem by GHADAR PARTY Bangladesh in 1971 after liberation from  Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das Pakistan. and Sohan Singh Bhakna.  The ceremony of Raksha Bandhan was  The name was taken from a weekly paper, observed on Oct. 16, 1905. Ghadar, which had been started on Nov 1,  The newspapers played a significant role in 1913 to commemorate the 1857 revolt. the movement. The main newspapers were  HO was at San Francisco. K.K. Mitra‟s Sanjeevani, S.N. Banerjee‟s Bengali, Motilal Ghosh‟s Amrit Bazar KOMAGATA MARU INCIDENT (1914) Patrika, B.B. Upadhyaya‟s Yugantar, Bipin  Komagata Maru was the name of a ship Chandra Pal‟s New India, Aurobindo which carried a shipload of Sikh and Muslim Ghosh‟s Bande. immigrants from Punjab to Vancouver, Canada. SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905)  Had its origin in the anti-partition HOME RULE MOVEMENT (1916) movement of Bengal. The leaders of Bengal  With the need being felt for popular pressure felt that mere demonstrations, public to attain concessions, disillusionment with meetings and resolutions were not enough Minto-Morley reforms and war-time and something more concrete was needed miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant readied to and the answer felt was Swadeshi and assume leadership. Boycott.  Started by B.G. Tilak (April, 1916) at Poona  Lal, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh played and Anni Besant and S. Subramania Iyer at the important role. Adyar near Madras (Sept, 1916).  INC took the Swadeshi call first at the  Objective: Self-government for India in the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K. British Empire. Gokhale.  Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with the demand for the formation of llinguistic MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906) states and education in vernacular language.  Setp up in 1906 under the leadership of Aga He gave the slogan: Swaraj is my birth right Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and and I will have it. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.  The Mahratta and Kesari of Tilak and Annie  It was a loyalist, communal and conservative Besant‟s New India, Commonwealth and political organization which supported the Compiled by R Rex Christopher 37

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Young India became the organs of the Home  C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their Rule movement. legal practice and Subhash Chandra Bose resigned from the Civil Service. LUCKNOW PACT (1916)  The Prince of Wales visited India during this  Both INC and ML concluded this Congress period. But he was greeted with empty accepted the separate electorates and both streets and downed shutters when he came jointly demanded for a representative (Nov. 17, 1921). government and dominion status for the country. CHAURI-CHAURA INCIDENT (1922)  The Congress session at Allahabad in Dec. AUGUST DECLARATION (1917) 1921, decided to launch a Civil Disobedience  After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was Movement. Gandhiji was appointed its announced which aimed at „increasing leader. association of Indians in every branch of the  But before it could be launched, a mob of administration for progressive realization of people at Chauri-Chaura (near Gorakhpur) responsible government in India as an clashed with police and burnt 22 police men integral part of the British empire. on February 5, 1922.  The Montague-Chelmsford reforms or the Act of 1919 was based on this declaration. SWARAJ PARTY (1923)  Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar ROWLATT ACT (MARCH 18, 1919) (called Pro-changers) demanded that the  This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to nationalists should end the boycott of the arrest and imprison suspects without trial legislative councils, enter them and expose for two years maximum. them. But the no- changers like Rajendra  Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was Prasad and Rajgopalachari adhered to the the first country-wide agitation by Gandhiji Gandhian program of boycott of legislatures. and marked the foundation of the Non The pro-changers formed the Swaraj party Cooperation Movement. on Jan.1, 1923, contested the elections and embarrassed the government by opposing its JALLIANWALA BAGH MASSACRE (APRIL measures. 13, 1919)  People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. SIMON COMMISSION (1927) Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919.  Constituted under John Simon, to review the  General O‟Dyer fired at people who political situation in India and to introduce assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, further reforms and extension of Amritsar. parliamentary democracy.  Rabindranath Tagore returned his  Indian leaders opposed the commission, as Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair there were no Indians in it. resigned from Viceroy‟s Executive Council  At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely after this. beaten in a lathi-charge.  Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it. REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES  The first political murder of a European was KHILAFAT MOVEMENT (1920) committed in 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar  Muslims were agitated by the treatment brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their done with Turkey by the British in the treaty target was Mr. Rand, President of the Plague that followed the First World War. Commission, but Lt. Ayerst was accidentally  Two brothers, Mohd. Ali and Shaukat Ali shot. started this movement, along with Maulana  In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at Mohani. It was jointly led by the Khilafat Stuttgart Congress (o Second International) leaders and the Congress.  In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki  On August 31, 1920, the Khilafat Committee threw a bomb on the carriage of Kingford, launched a non-cooperation movement. the unpopular judge of Muzaffarpur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT(1920) Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur  It was the first mass-based political Case) movement under Gandhiji.

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 In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col. William League Ghadar 1913 Lala San Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor of Party Hardayal, Francisco „India Office‟ in London. Tarak Nath  In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Das & Sohan Sanyal threw a bomb at Lord Hardinge at Singh Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case). Bhakna  They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Indian 1914 Lala Berlin Association/Army (HSRA). Independence Hardayal  They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori and Birendra bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow League Indian 1942 Ras Behari Tokyo railway line on Aug. 9, 1925. The National Army Bose conspirators were later arrested and hanged (Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla, Roshan Lal REVOLUTIONARY ORGANISATION IN and Rajendra Lahiri). INDIA  Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues shot dead Organisat Yea Founder Places Saunders (Asstt. S.P. of Lahore, who ordered ion r lathi charge on Lal Lajpat Rai) on Dec, 17. Mitra Mela 1899 Savarkar Brothers Poona 1928. Anushilan 1902 Gyanendrantah Midnap  Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt Samiti (I) Bose ur threw a bomb in the Central Assembly on Samiti 1907 Birendra Kumar Dhaka Apr. 8, 1929. Thus, he Rajguru and Sukhdev Anushilan Ghosh and were hanged on March. 23, 1931 at Lahore Samiti(II) Bhupendra Dutt Jail (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their Bharat 1907 Ajit Singh & Amba Punjab bodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Mata Prasad Ferozepur. Society  In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail Hindustan 1924 Jogesh Chandra Kanpur after 63 days fast to protest against horrible Republican Chatterji conditions in jail. Association Sachindranath  Meerut Conspiracy Case started in 1929 and Sanyal continued for four years against 31 Naujavan 1926 Bhagat Singh Lahore communists accused of conspiracy against Sabha the British sovereign. Hindustan 1925 Chandrashekar Delhi  Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed Socialist Azad the Indian Republic Army in Bengal. In Republican 1930, he masterminded the raid on Association Chittagong armoury. LAHORE SESSION (1929) THE NEHRU REPORT (1928)  On Dec. 19, 1929, under the President ship  After boycotting the Simon commission, all of J.L. Nehur, the INC, at its Lahore session, political parties constituted a committee declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to Independence) as its ultimate goal. evolve and determine the principals of a  On Dec. 31, 1929, the newly adopted tri- constitution for India. It remains memorable colour flag was unfurled and Jan 26, 1930 as the first major Indian effort to draft a was fixed as th First Independence Day, constitutional framework for India, complete which was to be celebrated every year. with lists of Central and Provincial subjects and fundamental rights. It suggested NOTE: dominion status for the country.  Rai Sahib Harvilas Sarda put forth a bill in the Legislative Assembly in 1928 with a view REVOLUTIONARY ORGANISATION to source prohibition of child marriage. The FORMED OUTSIDE INDIA bill became an Act in 1929 and its called the Organisation Year Founder Places Sarda Act of 1929. According to this Act, a India House 1905 Shyamji London girl below 14 or a boy below 18 cannot Krishna contract marriage. Verma  Bardoli movement (1928) was a movement Abhinav Bharat 1906 V.D. London against the payment of land tax, led by Savarkar Vallbh Bhai Patel. He got the name „Sardar‟ Indian 1907 Tarak Nath USA from here. Independence Das Compiled by R Rex Christopher 39

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DANDI MARCH (1930)  On Gandhiji‟s arrival in Bombay, the  Also called the Salt Satyagraha. Congress Working Committee decided to  Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his resume the Civil Disobedience Movement. In march from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1932, INC was declared an illegal 1930 for the small village Dandi to break the organization and all its leaders were salt law. arrested.  He pick a handful of salt and inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement. THE COMMUNAL AWARD (AUG. 16, 1932)  The salt satyagraha movement was taken by  Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and the divide and rule policy of the British. hero of the Vaikom Satyagraha, K. Kalappan, in Malabar. POONA PACT (SEPTEMBER 25, 1932)  The salt satyagraha sparked off other forms  In this, the idea of separate electorate for the of defiance. In the north-west, the Pathans depressed classes was abandoned, but seats under Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, popularly reserved to them in the provincial legislature known as „Frontier Gandhi‟, organized the were increased. society of „Khudai Khidmadgars‟ (Servants of  Thus, the Poona pact agreed upon a joint God), also known as „Red Shirts‟. electorate for upper and lower castes.  Harijan upliftment now became the FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1930) principal concern of Gandhiji. An All-India  It was the first conference arranged between Anti-Untouchability League was started in the British and Indians as equals. It was held Sept, 1932, and a weekly Harijan in Jan, on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss Simon 1933. commission.  He started the Individual Civil Disobedience  Boycotted by INC. Muslim League, Hindu on Aug 1, 1933. Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there. THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE (1932) GANDHI IRWIN PACT  Proved fruitless as most of the national  In this the INC called off the civil leaders were in prison. The discussions led disobedience movement and agreed to join to the passing of the Government of India the second round table conference. Act, 1935.  The government on its part released the political prisoner and conceded the right to NOTE: make salt for consumption of villages along The meeting of All-India Kisan Congress was the coast. held in 1934 in Lucknow under the Presidentship of  The Karachi session of 1931 endorsed the Sahajanand Saraswati. Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The Karachi session is also memorable for its resolution on THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935 Fundamental Rights and the National  Based on the Simon commission report. Economic Program. (The recommendations are mentioned separately in the Charter Acts at the end). SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE  The Congress rejected the 1935 Act and (1931) demanded the convening of a Constituent  In the Conference, Gandhiji demanded Assembly elected on the basis of adult immediate establishment of a full franchise to frame a constitution for an responsible government at the Centre as well independent India. J.L. Nehru described it as in the Provinces with complete control as „we are provided with a car, all breaks over defence, external affairs and finance. and no engine‟.  MacDonald ended the session with an address which announced the creation of two new Muslim majority provinces, North SECOND WORLD WAR AND THE West Frontier Province and Sindh, set up a NATIONAL MOVEMENT committee on franchise, finance and states  When the war broke out, Lord Linlithgow and held out the humiliating and the declared India to be at war without prior dangerous prospect of a unilateral British assent of the Central Legislature. Communal Award if the Indians failed to  The Muslim League observed this as the agree among themselves. Deliverance Day (Dec. 22, 1939).

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DEMAND FOR PAKISTAN were in Satara, Talcher, parts of eastern up  In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier and Bihar. Province, Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir be made the Muslims state within the NAVAL MUTINY (1945) federation.  A revolt took place in HMS Talwar on Feb  Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term 18, 1945 in Bombay due to racial Pakistan in 1933. discrimination unpalatable food and abuse  Muslim League first passed the proposal of after the arrest of B C Dutta who had written separate Pakistan in its Lahore session in „British Quit India‟ on the wall. 1940(called Jinnah‟s Two-Nation Theory).  Next day, HMS Hindustan in Karachi also  In December, 1943 the Karachi session of revolted. the Muslim League adopted the slogan-  Soon the revolt spread to other places also. „Divide and Quit‟. In Bombay, the mutineers hoisted the tricolour on their ship masts together with a AUGUST OFFER – AUG 8, 1940 portrait of S.C. Bose and shouted Jai Hind in  It offered (i) Dominion status in the the barracks. unspecified future; (ii) A post-war body to enact the constitution; (iii) to expand the RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA (1945) Governor-General‟s Executive Council to  He proposed that plebiscite should be held give full weightage to minority opinion. in contiguous districts of North West and  Rejected by the INC because there was no East where Muslims were in absolute suggestion of the national government and majority. because the demand for the dominion status  Jinnah objected as he wanted only Muslims was alreay discarded in favour of Poorna of North West and East of India to vote in Swaraj. It was accepted by the Muslim the plebiscite. League. THE INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY  The idea of the Indian National Army INA to THE CRIPPS MISSION-1942 liberate India was originally conceived by  The British govt. with a view to get co- Rasbehari Bose, who had fled to Japan in operation from Indians sent Sir Stafford 1915 and had become a Japanese citizen, Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to with the help of Mohan Singh, an Indian settle terms with the India leaders. officer of the British Indian army in Malaya.  Dominion status to be granted after the war.  S.C. Bose secretly escaped from India in Jan  Setting up a constitution making body for 1941 and reached Berlin. In july 1943, he India after the war whose members would be joined the INA at Singapore. elected by the Provincial assemblies and  Two INA headquarters were Rangoon and nominated by the rulers in case of the Singapore (formed in Singapore) Princely States.  In this, S.C. Bose gave the call „Dilli Chalo‟.  Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in  INA trials were held at Red Fort, Delhi. P.K. crashing bank. Sehgal, Shah Nawaz (commander of the INA battalion that had reached the Indo-Bruma THE REVOLT OF 1942 & THE QUIT INDIA front) and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon were put MOVEMENT on trial.  Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless  Nov. 12, 1945 was celebrated as the INA Day. Revolt.  The resolution was passed on Aug. 8, 1942, WAVELL PLAN (JUNE-JULY 1945) at Bombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan „Do or  The plan was that the Viceroy‟s Executive die‟. Council should be so reconstituted that its  J.P. Narayan, R.M. Lohia and Aruan Asaf Ali members, except the Governor General and started consolidating underground the Commander-in-Chief, were to be Indians networks. The most daring act of the (from various parties). Simla conference was underground movement was the convened in this regard, but was rejected by establishment of Congress Radio with Usha Jinnah. Mehta as its announcer.  Parallel govts. were set-up at various places. THE CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946) The first one was in Ballia in eastern UP  The new Labour Party PM, Lord Attlee, under the leadership of Chittu Pande. Others made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising of Lord Compiled by R Rex Christopher 41

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Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford  Two Commissions were appointed by the Cripps and A.V. Alexander) will visit India. British Government with Sir Cyril Redcliffe  Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan as chairman of both to see through the and instead a federal union consisting partition and fix the international Princely States was suggested. boundaries of the two nations to be.  Full autonomy would be enjoyed by the  Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home provinces in respect of all subjects other minister, used iron hand in this regard. By than the union subjects. August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few  The Union would consist of an executive and exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and a legislature. Junagarh had signed the Instrument of  Both Congress and Muslim League accepted Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and it. Pondicherry with the French.

INTERIM GOVT. CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT  Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim REGULATING ACT, 1773 government consisting of Congress  Subjected the Company‟s actions to the nominees was formed on Sept. 2, 1946. J.L. supervision of the British Govt. Nehru was its Vice-President and the  End of Dual government. Governor-General remained as its President.  Governor of Bengal to be the Governor- General of British territories of India. JINNAH’S DIRECT ACTION RESOLUTION  Establishment of Supreme Court in Calcutta.  It passed a „Direct action‟ resolution, which condemned both the British Government PITTS ACT OF 1784 and the Congress Aug 16, 1946.  Board of Control of six members (including  Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, two cabinet ministers) set-up to guide and 1947. supervise the affairs of the Company in India. FORMATION OF CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY  This act gave the British Government a  The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, measure of control over the Company‟s 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as affairs. its president. CHARTER ACT OF 1793 MOUNTBATTEN PLAN  Company given monopoly of trade for 20  On June 3, 1947 Lord Mountbatten put more years. forward his plan which outlined the steps for  Expenses and salaries of the Board of the solution of India‟s political problem. The Control to be charged on Indian revenue. outlines of the Plan were:  All laws were to be translated in Indian  India to be divided into India and Pakistan. languages.  Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a  It laid the foundation of govt. by written referendum in NEFP and sylhet district of laws, interpreted by courts. Assam would be held.  There would be a separate constitutional CHARTER ACT OF 1813 assembly for Pakistan to fram its  Company deprived of its trade monopoly in constitution. India except in tea and trade with China.  The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to This made the Company more of an join either India or Pakistan or even remain administrative body. independent.  A sum of Rs. 1 lakh earmarked annually for  Aug. 15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing education of Indians. over power to India and Pakistan.  The British govt. passed the Indian CHARTER ACT OF 1833 Independence Act of 1947 in July 1947,  End of Company‟s monopoly even in tea and which contained the major provisions put trade with China. forward by the Mountbatten plan.  All restrictions on European immigration into India and acquisition of land and PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE property in India by them were removed,  All political parties accepted the legalizing European colonization of India. Mountbatten plan.  Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of India; all powers, administrative

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and financial, were centralized in the hands GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935 of the Governor-General-in-Council. (1st  Provided for the establishment of All-India Governor General of India – Lord William Federation consisting of the British Bentinck) provinces and the Princely States.  A law member (without power to vote) was  Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g. added to the Executive Council of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Defence Governor General. Macaulay was the first were reserved for the Governor General). Law member.  The Federal Legislature (Central Legislature)  A law commission was constituted for was to have two chambers (bicameral) the codification of laws. Council of State and the Federal Assembly.  The Act threw open to all, irrespective of  It made a 3-fold division of powers: Federal religion, place of birth, descent and colour, (Central) Legislative List Provincial services under the Company. Legislative List and the Concurrent Legislative List. CHARTER ACT OF 1853  Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in  Legislation was treated for the first time as Provinces i.e., the distinction between separate from executive functions. Reserved and Transferred subjects was  Recruitment to Civil Services was based on abolished and full responsible government open annual competition examination was established, subject to certain (excluding Indians). safeguards.  The Act also provided for a Federal Court GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1858 (which was established in 1937 with original  This implied that Viceroy‟s Executive and appellate powers) to interpret the Council, which was so long composed of Constitution. A Federal Bank (the Reserve officials, would now include certain Bank of India) was also established. additional non-official members. Some of  Burma (now Myanmar) and Aden were non-official seats were offered to natives of separated from India and two new provinces high ranks. Thus, a minute element of Orissa and Sind-were created. „popular‟ participation was introduced in the legislative process.  The Executive Councils was now to be called Central Legislative Council. BRITISH EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND  Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of GROWTH OF MODERN EDUCATIONALs emergency. FIRST PHASE (1758-1812) INDIAN COUNCIL ACT, 1909 OR MORLEY-  The Sanskrit college at Varanasi by Jonathan MINTO ACT Duncan in 1792 for the study of Hindu Law  An element of election was also introduced and Philosophy. in the Central Legislative Council, but the official majority was maintained. SECOND PHASE (1813-1853)  Thus, communal representation was  The Charter Act of 1813 required the Co. to introduced. spend rupees 1 lakh annually for encouraging learned Indians and promoting GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1919 OR the knowledge of modern sciences in India. MONTAGUE-CHELMSFORD REFORMS  To cover up this defect in their policy, the  Dyarchy system introduced in the provinces. British took recourse to the so-called It was considered to be a substantial step „Downward Filtration Theory‟ which meant towards transfer of power to the Indians. that education and modern ideas were The Provincial subjects of administration supposed to filter or radiate downward from were to be divided into two categories: the upper classes. Transferred and Reserved.  Devolution Rules: Subjects of THIRD PHASE (1854-1900) administration were divided into two  The Educational Dispatch of 1854 was also categories – Central and Provincial. called Wood‟s Dispatch (after Sir Charles  The number of Indians in the Governor Wood, the then President of Board of General‟s Executive Council was raised to Control, who became the first Secretary of three in a Council of eight. State for India).  The Centre was now to have a Bicameral  It is considered as the Magna Carta of Legislature for the first time. English Education in India (forms a Compiled by R Rex Christopher 43

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landmark in the history of modern education VENUE, YEAR AND PRESIDENTS OF INC in India.)  Lord Ripon appointed Hunter YEAR VENUE PRESIDENT Commission(under Sir W.W. Hunter) 1885, Bombay W.C. Bannerji  It recommended that local bodies (distt. 1892 boards and municipalities) should be 1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji entrusted with the management or primary 1887 Madras Badruddin Tyyabji (first schools.) Muslim President) 1888 Allahabad George Yule (first English FOURTH PHASE (1901-1920) President)  Lord Curzon appointed a Universities 1905 Banaras G.K. Gokhale Commission under Thomas Raleigh (Law 1907, Surat, Rasbehari Bose member of the Viceroy‟s Executive Council) 1908 Madras in 1902, and based on his recommendations 1909 Lahore M.M. Malviya Indian Universities Act of 1904 was passed. 1916 Lucknow A.C. Majumdar (Re-union of  In 1910, a separate deptt. of Education was the Congress) established at the Centre. 1917 Calcutta Annie Besant (first Woman  The Saddler Commission was appointed by President) Lord Chelmsford to review the working of 1924 Belgaon M.K. Gandhi Calcutta University (2 Indias: Sir Ashutosh 1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu (first Indian Mukherji and Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed) woman resident) 1929 Lahore J.L. Nehru (Poorna Swaraj FIFTH PHASE: (1921-1947) resolution was passed)  Establishment of an Inter-University Board 1931 Karachi Vallbhbhai Patel (1924) 1937 Faizpur J.L. Nehru (first session in a village) HARTOG COMMITTEE (1929) 1938 Haripura S.C. Bose (a National Planning  Recommended the policy of consolidation Committee set-up under J.L. and improvement of Primary education. Nehru)  Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), 1939 Tripuri S.C. Bose war re-elected but worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee had to resign due to protest by after Gandhiji published a series of articles Gandhiji. Rajendra Prasad was in the Harijan. appointed in his place 1946 Meerut Acharya J.B. Kriplani SARGEANT PLAN OF EDUCATION (1944) 1948 Jaipur Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya  Universal and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6-11. NEWSPAPERS AND JOURNALS  High schools of 2 types: NEWSPAPERS JOURNALS 1. Academic 2. Technical and Bengal Gazette J.K. Hikki Vocational (1780) (India‟s first newspaper) Rast Goftar Dadabhai Naoroji (first newspaper in Gujarat) New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Bombay Chronicle Firoze Shah Mehta Hindustan M.M. Malviya Mooknayak B.R. Ambedkar Independent Motilal Nehru Essays in Indian M.G. Ranade Economics

Indian Mirror Devendra Nath Tagore

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PRE-CONGRESS NATIONALIST Organisations Year/Place Founder’s ORGANISATIONS Communist Party 1920/Tashkent M.N. Roy Organisations Year/Place Founder’s of India Landholder‟s Society 1838/Calcutta Dwarkanath Labour Kisan 1923/Madras Singaravelu Or Zamindary Tagore Party Association Congress Socialist 1934 Narendra British India Society 1839/London Williams Adams Party Dev, I.P. British India 1851/Calcutta Devendranath Association Tagore & Narayan and (Amalgamation of Radhakant Deb Minoo Landholder‟s Society Masani and Bengal British Forward Block 1939 S.C. Bose India Society) The Bolshevik 1939 N.D. Madras Native 1852/Madras Party of India Mazumdar Association Independence - B.R. East India 1866/London Dadabhai Labour Party Ambedkar Association Naoroji Indian National 1867/London Mary Carpentar

Association Indian Society 1872/London Anand Mohan IMPORTANT NATIONAL LEADERS Bose India League 1875/Calcutta Sisir Kumar M.K. GANDHI (1869-1948) Ghosh  The „Father of the Nation‟ was born at Indian Association 1876/Calcutta Anand Mohan Porbandar (Kathiarwar) on October 2, 1969. Bose and He married Kasturba in 1883. Surendra Nath  In 1893, he proceeded to Natal, South Africa, Banerji as the lawyer of a firm of Porbandar National Conference 1883 “ Muslims. Madras Mahajan 1884/Madras M. Sabha Viraghavacharya,  There he founded a political organization G. Subramaniya known as „Natal Indian Congress‟ and also Aiyar and P. started a newspaper called „Indian Opinion‟. Anand Charlu He formed Phoenix Farm near Durban in Indian National 1884 A.O. Hume 1904. Union  Returned to India on Jan 9, 1915.  In 1916, he founded the Sabarmati Ashram POST-CONGRESS NATIONALIST at Ahmedabad. ORGANISATIONS  Champaram Satyagraha (1917): There the ORGANISATION YEAR FOUNDER European planters force the cultivators to Federation of Indian 1927 G.D. Birla and cultivate indigo on 3/ 20th of their holdings Chamber of Thakurdas (called Tinkathia system). Commerce and  Gandhiji, with the help of Rajendra Prasad Industry (FICCI) and others, encouraged the peasants to offer Rashtriya 1925 Hedgewar Satyagraha. Swayamsewak Sangh  Ahmedabad Mill Strike (March, 1918): The All India 1932 M.K. Gandhi dispute was between the mill-owners and Untouchability the workers over the „Plague Bonus‟ which League the mill-owners wanted to withdraw once Hindu Mahasabha 1917 Revived By M.M. the epidemic was over. Malviya  Here Gandhiji first used the weapon of „Hunger Strike‟. LABOUR AND TRADE UNION  Kheda Satyagraha (1918): The peasants were ORGANISATIONS in extreme distress due to the failure of ORGANISATION YEAR FOUNDER crops and the government ignored their All India Trade 1920 N.M. Joshi and appeals for the remission of land revenue. Union Congress Roy Chaudhary (AITUC) DADABHAI NAOROJI (1825-1917) Indian National 1944 V.B. Patel  First to demand „Swaraj‟ from the INC Trade Union Platform (Calcutta session, 1906). Congress (INTUC)  Wrote a book „Poverty & Un-British Rule in India‟ (in 1901) in which he brought out the LEFTIST ORGANISATIONS connection between the draining of wealth Compiled by R Rex Christopher 45

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from India by the British and rampant  He was made the President of the Khilafat poverty in India. Committee in 1920. He became the  Also known as „Indian Gladstone‟ and President of the Congress session of 1923 at „Grand Old Man of India‟. Delhi.  Selected to „House of Commons‟ on Liberal  He led the Congress delegation during the Party ticket (First Indian to do so) Shimla Conference in 1945.  He was elected the member of the GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHALE Constituent Assembly in 1946. He was the  Gandhiji considered him as his political Education Minister in the Interim guru. Government and also Independent India‟s  He served as the President of the INC at its first Education Minister. Banaras session in 1905.  His book India Wins Freedom evoked much  Laid the foundation of Servants of Indian controversy. Society in 1905. KHAN ABDUL GHAFFAR KHAN (1890- BAL GANGADHAR TILAK (1857-1920) 1988)  Collaborated with Agarkar, and set up  Popularly known as Frontier Gandhi, institutions to give cheap education to Badshah Khan or Sarhadi Gandhi. people.  Founded an organization Khudai  First nationalist leader who tried to establish Khidmatgars. It was an organization of non- a close contact with the masses. violent revolutionaries which was also  Founded two newspapers – The Maharatta known as „Red Shirts‟. (in English) and Kesari (in Marathi)  He also published a newspaper, Pakhtoon.  Formed the Bal, Pal, Lal group of extremists  Ghaffar Khan vehemently opposed partition. and caused a split in the Surat Congress in  He was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1987 by the 1907. Government of India.  Founded the Home Rule League in 1916, and helped in ushering in the Lucknow Pact and SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE (1897-1945) the Reforms Act at the Amritsar Congress in  Popularly known as Netaji, was born on Jan. 1919. 23, 1897 at Cuttack.  Valentine Shirol described him as the  He passed the Indian Civil Services „Father of Indian Unrest‟. Examination in 1920, but left it on the  An erudite scholar. His books are „The Arctic Gandhiji‟s call of Non-cooperation Home of Vedas‟ & „Gita Rahasya‟. Movement.  He founded the Independence for India B.R. AMBEDKAR (1891-1956) League with Jawaharlal Nehru.  He was a jurist, a statesman, a social  In 1938, he was elected the President of the reformer and a leader of the depressed INC at its Haripura session and in 1939, he classes. was elected President of the Tripuri session.  He participated in all the three Round Table  He founded the Forward Blcok in 1939. Conferences. He signed Poona Pact with  In 1943, he took charge of Indian National Gandhiji in 1932. Army in Singapore and set up the Indian  He organized the Indian Labour Party, Provisional Government there. He gave the Scheduled Caste Federation and People‟s war cry of „Dilli Chalo‟. Education Society.  He addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the  He was the chairman of the Drafting Father of the Nation. He gave the slogan of Committee of our Constitution. „Jai Hind‟. He wrote his autobiography „The  From 1947 to 1951, he was a law minister in Indian Struggle‟. Nehru‟s cabinet. JAWAHAR LAL NEHRU (1889-1964) MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD (1890-1958)  He was the first Prime Minister of  He was born in Mecca in 1890. For higher Independent India and is known as the education he went to the Al Azhar University architect of Modern India. at Cairo.  At the Lahore session, under his President  He joined the INC during the Swadeshi ship was passed the Independence movement. resolution.  He began two weeklies, Al Hilaland Al- Balagh.

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 He was the author of the Doctrine of tragedy (Dec.3) Panchsheel, and believed in the policy of 1988 India‟s first remote sensing satellite IRS 1- non-alignment. A launched from Russia (Mar. 17.)  His works include The Discovery of India, 1998 India conducted total 5 nuclear tests Glimpses of World Hisotyr, A Bunch of Old 1999 Its first commercial telecom satellite Letters, The Unity of India, Independence INSAT-2 E and After, India and the World, etc. 2000 Successful test firing of „Dhanush‟ the naval version of „Prithvi‟ missile IMPORTANT DATES OF INDIAN HISTORY 2001 The pilotless target aircraft „Lakshya‟ AD inducted into the Indian Air Force (Jan.5), YEAR HISTORY Indo-Pak summit at Agra 1191 First battle of Tarain in which Prithviraj 2008 The Parliament of Kosovo declares Chauhan defeated Mohd. Ghori independence from Serbia (Feb.17); 1192 Second battle of Tarain in which Mohd. World‟s longest sea bridge opens spanning Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan. the Hangzhau Bay in the East China Sea to 1526 First Battle of Panipat in which Babar boost economic integration and defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and established development in the Yangtz River delta. the Mughal dynasty Cape Verde becomes the 153 rd member of 1556 Second battle of Panipat in which Akbar WTO ; the world‟s biggest atom smasher. defeated Hemu. 1565 Battle of Talikota in which Vijaynagar IMPORTANT BATTLES IN THE INDIAN empire is defeated HISTORY - AD 1576 Battle of Haldighati in which Akbar YEAR HISTORY defeated Maharana Pratap 712 Invasion of Sind by Mohd.-bin-Qasim 1600 English East India Company established 1191 First Battle of Tarain in which Prithiviraj 1757 Battle of Plassey in which the English Chauhan defeated Mohd. Ghori defeated Siraj-ud-daula, Nawab of Bengal. 1526 First Battle of Panipat in which Babar 1760 Battle of Wandiwash, end of French power defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in India 1539 Battle of Chausa in which Sher Shah Suri 1761 Third Battle of Panipat in which Ahmed defeated Humayun Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas. 1556 Second Battle of Panipat(Akbar) 1615 Rana Amar Singh of Mewar POST –INDEPENDENCE 1665 Treaty of Purandar YEAR HISTORY 1760 Battle of Wandiwash in which the English 1951 First Five Year Plan implemented forces defeated the French forces 1952 First General Elections held. 1761 Third Battle of Panipat in which Ahmed 1954 Panchsheel agreement between India and Shah Abdali defeated the Marathas China 1764 Battle of Buxar 1956 Life Insurance nationalized, State Reorganising Act comes into force. IMPORTANT WARS OF THE 20TH CENTURY 1969 Nationalization of 14 leading banks RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR (1904-05) 1972 Shimla Agreement signed  The conflict arising from the rivalry of 1973 Manekshaw named India‟s first Field Russia and Japan for control of Manchuria Marshal and Korea. 1974 Nuclear explosion of Pokhran (May 18) 1975 Indian Satellite „Aryabhatta‟ launched, FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-18) National emergency declared.  International conflict began between Austria 1980 India launches first satellite using its own and Serbia. satellite launching vehicle (July, 18)  An armistice was agreed in November 1918 1981 India launched APPLE, Khalistan activists and peace treaties were signed at Varsailles hijak Indian Airlines Boeing 737 to Lahore. (1919). 1983 Richard Attenborough‟s „Gandhi‟ wins 8 oscars. SINO-JAPANESE WARS (1931-1933) 1984 Rakesh Sharma becomes India‟s first  Two wars between China and Japan, spaceman (Apr.5), Bachendri Pal become marking the beginning and the end of the first Indian woman to scale Mt. Everest Japanese imperial expansion on te Asian (May 23), Operation Blue Star, mainland. Assassination of Indira Gandhi (Oct 31), SECOND WORLD WAR (1939-45) Rajiv Gandhi becomes PM, Bhopal Gas Compiled by R Rex Christopher 47

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 The axis-powers Germay, Italy and (after September 1940) Japan controlled most of Europe and much of Northern Africa, China and Asia.

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