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Understanding How Low-Level Clouds and Fog Modify the Diurnal Cycle of Orographic Precipitation Using in Situ and Satellite Observations

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Understanding How Low-Level Clouds and Fog Modify the Diurnal Cycle of Orographic Precipitation Using in Situ and Satellite Observations remote sensing Article Understanding How Low-Level Clouds and Fog Modify the Diurnal Cycle of Orographic Precipitation Using In Situ and Satellite Observations Yajuan Duan ID and Ana P. Barros * Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-919-660-5539 Received: 26 July 2017; Accepted: 30 August 2017; Published: 2 September 2017 Abstract: Satellite orographic precipitation estimates exhibit large errors with space-time structure tied to landform. Observations in the Southern Appalachian Mountains (SAM) suggest that low-level clouds and fog (LLCF) amplify mid-day rainfall via seeder-feeder interactions (SFI) at both high and low elevations. Here, a rainfall microphysics model constrained by fog observations was used first to reveal that fast SFI (2–5 min time-scales) modify the rain drop size distributions by increasing coalescence efficiency among small drops (<0.7 mm diameter), whereas competition between coalescence and filament-only breakup dominates for larger drops (3–5 mm diameter). The net result is a large increase in the number concentrations of intermediate size raindrops in the 0.7–3 mm range and up to a ten-fold increase in rainfall intensity. Next, a 10-year climatology of satellite observations was developed to map LLCF. Combined estimates from CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations) and CloudSat products reveal persistent shallower cloud base heights at high elevations enveloping the terrain. The regional cloud top height climatology derived from the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) shows high-frequency daytime LLCF over mountain ridges in the warm season shifting to river valleys at nighttime. In fall and winter, LLCF patterns define a cloud-shadow region east of the continental divide, consistent with downwind rain-shadow effects. Optical and microphysical properties from collocated MODIS and ground ceilometers indicate small values of vertically integrated cloud water path (CWP < 100 g/m2), optical thickness (COT < 15), and particle effective radius (CER) < 15 µm near cloud top whereas surface observed CER ~25 µm changes to ~150 µm and higher prior to the mid-day rainfall. The vertical stratification of LLCF microphysics and SFI at low levels pose a significant challenge to satellite-based remote sensing in complex topography. Keywords: mountains; clouds; orographic precipitation 1. Introduction In mountainous areas, low-level clouds and fog (LLCF) have significant implications on the regional hydrological cycle by affecting the diurnal cycle and spatial organization of precipitation and surface fluxes [1,2]. In cloud- or fog-dominated montane regions, cloud immersion and fog water are closely linked to ecosystem hydrology, nutrient budgets, and pollutant dynamics, as well as species distribution and abundance [3–7]. Based on National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) records between 1961 and 1990 [8], the Southern Appalachian Mountains (SAM) stands out in the continental US with dense fog frequently reported (>40 days/year at regional scale). The cloud forests of the SAM at relatively high altitude (above ~1500 m elevation) experience cloud immersion about 60–75% of the summer days, mostly occurring during morning hours [9]. In the SAM, and generally in tropical and mid-latitude montane cloud forests, frequent cloud immersion creates favorable conditions for direct Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 920; doi:10.3390/rs9090920 www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 920 2 of 33 foliar water uptake (the direct absorption of water through leaves), enhances root uptake by improving top soil moisture, and reduces incoming shortwave radiation and the amplitude of the diurnal cycle of canopy temperature. Water from cloud immersion and fog has been found to contribute significantly to the overall plant water budget in the SAM, up to 31% throughout the entire summer growing period, especially for high-elevation plants [10]. Moreover, LLCF also modulates available photosynthetically active radiation, enhancing photosynthesis and leaf conductance, thereby leading to improved carbon uptake and water conservation of plants [11,12]. Mapping LLCF and understanding their role in the water cycle of mountain regions is therefore a critical research need. Observations from raingauge and disdrometer networks in the SAM (Figure1) show a complex relationship with elevation and landform that does not fit the classical orographic enhancement conceptual model with terrain elevation [13,14]. Instead, in situ data show strong west-east variability with small differences between rainfall accumulations at low and high elevations at annual time-scales, but large differences under strong synoptic forcing from event to event depending on whether LLCF are present either at high or low elevations, that is the reverse orographic enhancement effect [15]. One distinctive feature of the SAM rainfall is the existence of a mid-day rainfall peak in all seasons, which is similar to that observed at mid-elevations in the forested slopes of the central Andes and in tropical cloud forests [1,14,16]. Prat and Barros [16,17] reported number concentrations of small drops in the inner SAM up to two orders of magnitude higher than the values used in common parameterizations of rain drop size distributions (R-DSDs, e.g., Marshall-Palmer distribution among others). They also documented robust ridge-valley differences in the seasonal climatology of R-DSDs with larger drop sizes at lower elevations. Wilson and Barros [18] found that the microphysics of the mid-day rainfall peak at paired ridge-valley sites in the inner mountain region are characterized by very large number concentrations of small drops and light rainfall intensity in the presence of thick fog at both locations (concurrently or not) with large increases in the number of large drops under moderate and heavy rainfall conditions. Concurrent bottom-heavy radar reflectivity profiles further indicated that these microphysical changes took place within the lower 500 m suggesting seeder-feeder interactions (SFI) between rainfall aloft and low-level fog. This hypothesis was tested by Wilson and Barros [18] using a raindrop dynamics column model [19–21] modified to include fog. Due to the lack of in situ observations, they synthesized fog spectra from the literature for their model experiments and showed that increased coalescence efficiency between precipitating clouds aloft and thick fog in the inner SAM could explain the observed increase in rainfall rate and DSD modification. The present study aims to generalize the quantitative understanding of how LLCF modify the diurnal cycle of orographic precipitation from local scales to regional-scale in the SAM using in situ and satellite observations. This encompasses characterizing SFI processes on the upwind slopes of the SAM with distinct hydrometeorology from the inner region, and the process chain by which the observed regional-scale organization of the diurnal-cycle emerges. The specific research objectives are two-fold: (1) to elucidate the physical mechanisms of rainfall amplification by LLCF at local scales, and (2) to elucidate the role of LLCF at regional-scale by demonstrating the spatial co-organization of the diurnal cycle of LLCF and orographic precipitation. First, microphysical observations of LLCF immersion are used to constrain a spectral model of rain dynamical microphysics to investigate how fast SFI can modify the R-DSDs on upwind slopes. Second, systematic analysis of satellite observations that enable mapping LLCF features during the observed all-season mid-day rainfall peak is conducted. Specifically, satellite observations from CALIOP (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization) on the CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations) satellite (www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/calipso), from CPR (Cloud Profiling Radar) on the CloudSat satellite (www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cloudsat), and from MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) on the Aqua satellite (https://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/) are used toward developing a satellite-based climatology and physical characterization of orographic LLCF regimes focusing on the Southern Appalachians (SA) using a general methodology that can be applied to mountainous regions elsewhere. A simple method to merge CALIPSO and CloudSat products was developed to improve Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 920 3 of 33 Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 920 3 of 33 applied to mountainous regions elsewhere. A simple method to merge CALIPSO and CloudSat products was developed to improve cloud base height (CBH) estimates and evaluated against ground ceilometercloud base heightobservations (CBH) estimatesin the SAM. and MODIS evaluated cloud against top, groundoptical, ceilometer and microp observationshysical properties in the SAM. are exploredMODIS cloud to map top, the optical, spatial and distribution microphysical of LLC propertiesF and arefurther explored describe to map various the spatial aspects distribution of LLCF characteristicsof LLCF and further over this describe region. various The paper aspects is organized of LLCF as characteristics follows. Details over of this satellite region. products The paper and surfaceis organized observations as follows. (fog measurements Details of satellite and products10-year ceilometer and surface observations), observations an (fog introduction measurements of the mergingand 10-year method ceilometer
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