Ube 2!*r

VOL. VI. JULY-SEPTEMBER, 1896. NO. 1

OPTICAL REFINEMENTS IN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE.*

of the Report Brooklyn Institute Survey, May-October, 1895.

I.

of the mediaeval understand why the deficiency of these cathedrals is so much a matter is ADMIRATION qualities so complacently tolerated of course nowadays that, all in modern buildings at once by archi- persons inside the pale of European tects and by the general public. civilization are expected to feel it and When Viollet le Due said "Our to for give expression to it, consequently streets are deserts thought ; they they all do it. How far this admira- have all the monotony of the desert tion is a matter of fashion and how without its compensating loneliness," far it is of the coldness of really felt is, however, an open he was thinking question. Historic associations and their strict symmetry, the monotony the romance connected with them will of their mathematical regularity and and carry people a long way in West- of their mechanically repeated minster or at Canterbury. The mechanically executed details. mediaeval cathedrals are, generally, Our modern architectural crime, for larger buildings than their modern which cries aloud to heaven repro- the copies, and in so far are calculated to bation, is deficiency ot picturesque. house are excite admiration by this fact of their An old barn or an old farm in a thousand times more interesting dimension, which is, of all elements York Post Office and a building, the most obvious and the than the New thousand times more interesting than most easily understood. It is, how- other which it ever, extremely doubtful whether the a good many buildings so fashionable to sneer at. finest qualities of the mediaeval cathe- is not quite of the is drals are those which generally excite This deficiency picturesque of our the warmest admiration. Otherwise largely an inevitable result but that is no reason it would be extremely difficult to social conditions, of Professor were taken Mr Tohn W. McKecknie, under direction *The photographs used in illustration by sect.ons an. and are its property. The plans, Goodyear, for the Brooklyn Institute, expressly to illustrate the subject under Professor Goodyear's direction, from surveys sup- drawings have been prepared by Mr. John W. McKecknie, ported by the Brooklyn Institute. RECORD COMPANY. All rights reserved Copyright, 1896, by THE ARCHITECTURAL

Vol. VI. 1. 1. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

and criticism are ineffective why it should not be recognized weapons them. To our whole deplored. against change In an old cathedral every capital, social fabric and to abolish the divis- ion of which every gargoyle, every finial, every labor, has separated the window, every statue, was an inde- architect from the master-mason, pendent creative effort of the indi- which has separated the designing vidual artisan. The designs were not clerk in a pent-up office from the passed over to the workman from an stone-cutter on his scaffold this is the architect's office. The workman him- impossible task which the critic must self created the design. set himself, who wishes to revive the Hence the infinite variety of virtues of mediaeval building. It is a mediaeval detail which is one grand fact of deep significance that William source of the picturesque character of Morris is a Socialist, that the works mediaeval building. Variety was an of Ruskin are brimful of economic inevitable result when every workman theories. Let these theories be good did his own designing in detail, from or bad, wise or foolish, the fact will the mere fact that many different stand that every true artist of our and the is also at heart a social workmen were employed ; day reformer, individual workman varied his own and it may be that he knows it best detail from one form to the next cor- who says the least about it. responding one for the same reason But there are other differences be- that he was himself the inventor of it. tween a mediaeval cathedral and a Hence creations like the fagades of modern church, besides the differences San Martino, at Lucca, or of San Pietro, in the matter of picturesque details. at Toscanella, to name two examples How rarely do we find any exact sym- out of hundreds, are practically impos- metry in those apparently correspond- sible things in modern art. Our ing parts which belong to the design facades are designed by an architect, of the mediaeval church as a whole. not only as a whole, but also as regards How frequently do we find variety in their individual parts. Even where the design of two corresponding spires the effort occasionally appears in and other irregularities of arrange- modern work, to manufacture artificial ment. Uniformity, even in the main irregularity in the original design, this features of an old cathedral, is rather manufactured irregularity will never an exception than a rule. have the spontaneous and unpremedi- It is the habit to explain such irregu- tated variety of the old creation. larities as the result of construction at Generally speaking, even the effort is different periods. But this habit of wanting. Given the effort, we still explanation really begs the question have to meet the difficulty that the as to how they have arisen. A cathe- stone-cutter, who works after the pat- dral was frequently two or three cen- tern which has been manufactured for turies in building, it is true, but it is him and not by him, will never give absurd to say that the facade of Dinan his cutting the sparkle, the force and or the choir of Mainz (before the the originality which distinguish the recent restoration) showed Gothic handiwork of the artist artisan of the pointed work on top of Romanesque Middle Ages. We have an analogous simply for this reason. If the senti- case in the contrast between the ment asking for uniformity had existed, inferiority of our modern marble could not the later architects have statues, which are rarely cut by the finished the building in the style pre- sculptor himself, and those more vital vailing when the building was begun ? ones of older art, on which the sculptor Admitting that one spire of the fagade himself did the cutting. at Tours is later than the other, as it It appears, when these facts are ex- naturally might be, is that any reason amined, that the admitted inferiorities why the second spire should not cor- of modern architecture are largely respond to the first, if the desire had inevitable results of changed social existed to make it correspond ? and that conditions, preaching and The fact is simply this, that the REFINEMENTS IN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE.

habits of successive architects corre- chitecture has been most sponded to the habit of potently any one given emphasized and most and that eloquently de- architect, any given architect scribed Mr. of the Middle by Ruskin, especially Age habitually intro- under the of heading the Lamp of Life duced any variation into his m the design Seven Lamps of Architecture. which was suggested either his by He has attributed it to a conscious fancy or of made for by changes plan purpose in some definite some definite cases, which cause. If, for instance, he has specifically described, while he had finished one spire and had a freely admitting that there is no hard chance to improve the of its design and fast line to be drawn in the ex- fellow, either because more and money amples he has cited between artistic more work on it were available, or be- and which cause praiseworthy work, achieves he discovered a defect which the element ot " life," or of the pic- might be avoided, or an improvement turesque, simply because it has not set which be might added, there was up a mistaken standard of mathemati- in the ethics of his nothing profession cal regularity and that work which or in the of his time which prejudices was consciously and would such definitely planned antagonize changes. to avoid the coldness of strict To understand an old cathedral we symmetry. must with the union in one begin per- There is, therefore, an element of son of the artist and the artisan. The irregularity often found in mediaeval from the picturesque variety springing building which corresponds very creative of the individual capacity closely to the style of decorative de- mason and the individual stone-cutter sign in modern Japanese art as re- ran all the The through building. gards the philosophy of the irregular architect himself was a master- simply quality. Clearly the artistic spirit of /. he was himself a mason,

for strict symmetry as regards the am about to publish will come from whole organism of the building, com- persons of artistic temperament already bined with the inevitable and natural appreciative of the picturesque quality results of leaving individual details to in mediaeval building, and especially the individual artisan. These last re- from those already predisposed to sults, of course, can only be imagined credit the artist of any period with as existing in social conditions which knowing fairly well what he is doing made of the artisan an artist having a and how he is doing it. creative capacity which to-day he has That the artist, in any field of art, attention to the wholly lost. pays very much why The century in which division of of his doing I consider rather doubt- labor has lowered the capacity of the ful, and in so far as my readers artisan class, in which machine-niauc prefer my facts to my explanations work has accustomed the eye to in- of them or to the assumption artistic uniformity of ornamental de- that these explanations represent any tail, in which the specializing of pro- definite theories of the builders them- fessions and occupations has made it selves I shall be well pleased. I be- difficult for the educated public as a lieve that every artist works largely mass to be thoroughly familiar with from intuition, from feeling, and from even the most elementary canons of experience. But if it be assumed that artistic taste, in which the habit of I have attempted to read into some slavishly copying old historic styles works of the Middle Ages a subtlety has crippled original design in archi- and a knowledge of which their builders tecture, is not very well prepared to were naturally incapable, this is an appreciate the vitality of mediaeval assumption which I should indignantly architecture at its full value. resent, not on my own account but on It is, moreover, a point of supreme theirs. importance as regards the inherent It is an untenable attitude which prejudices and deficiencies, both of exalts or concedes the beauties of the uninstructed and also of presumably fagades at Toscanella as equal to any cultivated modern taste that our archi- work in Italy, and which then at- tectural traditions, as a matter of strict tempts to explain the ground plans, historic continuity, are those of the late which I shall publish, as being oblique Renaissance in which this vital ele- because the architects did not know a ment and the picturesque quality were rectangle when they saw it, and as wholly lacking. None of the various having curves because they did not reactions against these traditions of know how to make a straight line. the cold and formal late Renaissance To say that the interior arches of date back of the last quarter of the these churches are of irregular size (in eighteenth century. All of these re- dimensions, which make oversight of actions have been artificial revivals of the fact impossible,) because the de- older historic barbarians or styles ; consequently signers were careless also of a necessarily formal character. workmen is to say that the fagades How utterly, the modern Greek temple are beautiful for the same reason, copies, for example, have been want- which is absurd. ing in all the most interesting traits All I demand is that the unfamiliar of the historic originals has been laid but beautiful buildings which I have bare by the discoveries of Pennethorne examined, such as the Cathedral of and Penrose, whose first publication is Troja, shall be considered as wholes as recent as 1851. and as works of inspiration through- I cannot, therefore, feel it advisable out, and that the new facts which I to announce my own discoveries re- shall present for buildings already garding the architecture of the Middle familiar and already admired shall be Age without this preliminary effort understood as having always con- to clear the way for such announce- tributed to the beauties which have ments. The appreciation of the im- been already conceded to exist. If cer- portance of the observations which I tain facts about them have been REFINEMENTS IN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE.

let us not hitherto overlooked, make speak definitely, as regards one coun- the mistake of separating these facts try in Europe. As far as six months' from the effects to which they are the time would allow me I have made a main contributors, of despising or neg- complete survey and examination of of all lecting the study unknown phen- the mediaeval buildings in Italy. are unknown. omena because they A This country is, however, undoubtedly ground plan is not in itself a thing of the one from which the given phe- beauty, sections of churches are not nomena have spread, as far as North- in themselves interesting, measure- ern Europe is concerned, and there- ments are not easy reading, photo- fore the one in which a systematic graphic details are not the buildings study of them should be first at- themselves, but if the results which tempted. They are largely or promi- they represent are an inspiration of nently of Byzantine origin. picturesque beauty in the given build- Among these phenomena I will ings, let us admit that the subject is specify the following : of the worth looking into. (a) The construction piers and vaulting of many mediaeval III. churches in a delicate curve, some- the some- I do not lay claim to any originality times leaning into nave, back from the of presentation or any discovery of times bending nave, a delicate facts as to the points so far discussed and in either case making return curve to the arch regarding mediaeval irregularities of transition There are construction. They have been abun- of the vaulting (Fig. i). no extant known to me dantly and eloquently presented by publications this feature in mediae- Mr. Ruskin, especially in his Seven which specify val It escapes the Lamps, and especially in the Lamp of buildings. easily are cer even when the observer is familiar Life. They are ideas which eye, with the fact and to recog- tainly felt by every true artist in some prepared it. The minimum amount of this way or other, and which may be half- nize deflection is about three inches, which heartedly professed by other men, means delicate masonry adjust- whose every stroke of work gives the very ment. When noticed by modern lie to such profession. as far as I am aware, As distinct from the mediaeval irreg- architects it has, referred them to thrust of the ularities so far considered there are been by the side of the piers other phenomena of construction aisle vault against the nave vault or arch, which have so far escaped the atten- supporting myself with the tion of science and of the History of have naturally prepared on this head before announc- Art which constantly es- evidence ; phenomena feature as a refinement in con- our notice when we are in the ing this cape mention here as one which were struction, and will buildings ; phenomena the case of the Cathedral of meant not to be seen or noticed, or instance where there are no side aisles not to be obtrusive. Vicenza, and where the curving piers face solic There are still other phenomena over 20 feet deep, been seen and misinter- chapel walls which have met in North which have been attributed to curving pier is frequently preted, cathedrals. .accident when there was no accident, European refinement analogous to attributed to careless (4) A which have been the and last and probably original when the was sub- more designing purpose it. // is nothing been consid- earlier form of tle, or which have the classic or less than the surriral of ered as local mysteries when they anc entasis in the Middle Ages have analogies all over Europe. half-column no means found in the engaged These phenomena are by face the Roman- amount of diffu- which occasionally universal. For the There are good cases ir localities in which they esque pier. San sion, for the of Fiesole, and in for the build- the Cathedral appear most frequently, Florence. The announce. or do not Miniato, at ings in which they exist entasis as exisl able ment of the classic xist, I am at present only FIG. I. PISA CATHEDRAL NAVE. * ' ^ ^^ Sh

FIG. 2. SANTA MARIA DELLA PIEVE AT AREZZO.

From a photograph ot the Brooklyn Institute Survey. Showing an outward lean or spread of the piers in a delicate curve. in the Middle Ages has been received bly derived from (a) and frequently with it a outward with surprise and incredulity by cer- connected ; leaning nave tain gentlemen supposed to be experts, and away from the nave of ihe to whom I had made the fact known piers, in phases grading from an exag- bend and before collecting the evidence now in geration of the backward hand. I shall therefore assume the continuing the curve, to others in which of the fact not to be generally known. I the leaning backward or spread line and not in a will simply add that 1 was taken last piers is in a straight summer to see a case of the mediaeval curve. This feature has been errone- the arch or entasis in San Giacomo, at Florence, ously ascribed to thrust of architects to whom 1 have by Prof. Giglioli, Director of the vaulting by it. There is a case at Natural History Museum of that city. mentioned good this lean the line* of Probably, therefore, I have not imag- Trani of against or feet 1 walls thirty forty deep. ined it. (See Fig. 1.) transept There are other cases of this lean (c) A refinement possibly or proba- FIG. 3. FACADE OF THE CATHEDRAL OF FERRARA.

Photograped by the Brooklyn Institute Survey to show the lean. REFINEMENTS IN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE.

solid ancient against chapel walls, to of 1895, taken up to and above the which the is a in San pier facing, first cornice, are conclusive as to and in San Eustorgio Ambrogio, at masonry construction. These meas- and in San at Pavia. Milan, Francesco, urements compel the assumption of a It also occurs in St Mark's, at double Venice, settlement, if any took place, and at Santa Maria della at one Pieve, sideways and one forwards, and Arezzo (Fig. 2), under conditions which make a theory of thrust impos- sible. In the latter church the out- ward leans amount to about fourteen inches deflection in a given pier, mak- ing a spread of over two feet in the upper nave at the springing of the arch. They are recognized as facts of construction by the local experts, who are not, however, aware of the existence of this spread elsewhere. They are known at Arezzo simply as a local mystery without analogies. There are other cases where thrust cannot be even suggested (by one who has examined the masonry), and I do not know of any case where thrust can be proven or indicated except in the unfinished part of the Siena Cathedral where an original curve has been exaggerated by a thrust, due to non- completion of the building. Cases can be shown in St. Mark's, at Venice, where the leans in the exterior vesti- bule and within the church are in opposing directions in one and the same wall, showing thrust to be impossible. of in vertical (d) A system bends lines in the exteriors of facades and choirs, differing from some of the in- terior pier bends in the fact that the lower part of the bend is always a for- ward lean toward the eye facing the wall, and never, as often in the case of the interior piers, a backward lean beginning at the base (as regards the eye of a spectator in the nave facing the The maximum cases of the pier). MASONRY OF THE HARC.ELU) forward lean are about fifteen inches. FIG. 4. TOWER, FLORENCE. There is a fine instance in the Pisa a constructed lean. Photographed Cathedral facade erroneously ascribed Showing by the Brooklyn Institute Survey. by Ruskin in the Seven Lamps to settle- ment. number of corroborative A settle- examined when the theory of a double cases have been carefully cornice ment is to the facade for indications of accident (Fig. 3.) applied the levels taken by Mr. McKecknie The considerations regarding a set- that the have settled tlement of the Pisa facade will be show fafademust in directions at one and first announced laterally opposite gone into at length. I of the same time. The difficulties this lean to be a fact of construction the asserts settlement for the in detail sceptic who in 1874. The measurements 10 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

FIG. 5 THE CURVE AT TRANI.

It extends down to the supporting columns and their bases, showing thrust to be impossible. Photographed by the Brooklyn Institute Survey.

Pisa facade are destined in the future nineteenth century common-sense to be somewhat amusing. mortals. Positive cases of lean by The survey of the south wall, near construction are the Baptistery of the angle of the fayade, compels one Pisa, the Bargello Tower at theory of settlement for the stripes of Florence (Fig. 4), and the Torre del the masonry, another theory for the Publico of Ravenna. (The intention pilaster capitals, another theory for in the case of the Leaning Towers at the arcades, another theory for the Bologna is, up to date, the only case cornice and another theory for the conceded.) Two cases of leaning masonry above the cornice. What towers in Pisa exhibit curves toward has misled Mr. Ruskin and many the perpendicular which are analogous another investigator is a deceptive to the curves of the leaning fagades. bend in the masonry stripes for which (/) Curves in plan of horizontal many analogous cases can be cited in cornice lines. Many correspond in Byzantine construction. delicacy to those known for antiquity (e) Occasional cases of leans in cir- (see ARCHITECTURAL RECORD for cular buildings or towers which are April, 1895), and I am positive that not due to accident, and tending to they are a classic survival. A very raise a question as to others in which fine case, where thrust is wholly out of the evidence for accident is not clear, question, is the cloister of the Celes- but simply presumptive, and based on tines at Bologna. It is the exact the supposed improbability that any counterpart of the court at Medinet building made by common-sense mor- Habou as regards use and place of the tals should be unlike those made by curve (see ARCHITECTURAL RECORD, REFINEMENTS IN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. II

FIG. 6. ARCHES OF THE FIESOLE CATHEDRAL.

the Institute Photographed by Brooklyn Survey The maximum diminution in spacing toward the choir is about eight feet.

April, 1895). Many other cloisters to many wholly regular curves, both in be quoted. plan and in elevation, corresponding (g) Curves in plan in the alignment in delicacy to those of Greek art, of columns and in clerestory walls are found in Italy will excite scepti- (see Fig. 5) will be specified in detail. cism and derision. I am prepared to Good cases at Fiesole, Genoa, Trani, meet both, and to furnish the evi- Ravenna (San Apollinare Nuovo), dence. A good case for a curve in etc. These curves degenerate in . elevation is the alignment of the the later Middle Ages into bends plinths supporting the columns in the which may easily be ascribed to care- north aisle of the Pisa Cathedral. The less building, when considered as iso- chances of accident in this arrange- lated cases. Such bends are more ment are 3,628,800 to one against probably careless constructions of the accident. which consists in earlier and more regular curves. (*) A refinement the arches near (h] Curves in elevation. There can increasing the size of be no suggestion of thrust for curves the main entrance of the church and or in elevation. There can be no sugges- diminishing either space, or height, tion of carelessness for an exact and both, in the direction toward the regular curve in elevation. There can choir, thereby giving to the building The be no suggestion of accident for an effect of greater dimension. take a curves which are invariably curves eye is disposed to large bay standard of size convex to the sky line. If accidental, near at hand as the why are not some curves concave to for all the others. Over thirty different in can be for the sky line ? The announcement that churches ttaly specified 12 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

in a this phenomenon. There is a good (k) A refinement which consists case in the Cathedral of Fiesole pavement sloping upward toward the with arches and (Fig. 6). Aside from announcements choir, nearly always which I have previously made, there capitals brought down to the horizon- is so far no publication of the fact tal level, and sometimes with capitals that these perspective illusions were and arches brought below the hori- common in mediaeval Europe. It was zontal level. The effect in either case suggested by a New York architect is one of perspective illusion. I can many years ago to whose attention specify eighty-five cases of this phen- I had brought certain cases of this omenon for Italian churches. The peculiarity in Northern Europe that slope varies from three or four inches the narrowing of arches toward the to over three feet. The church of choir was designed to strengthen the Santa Maria Ara Coeli at Rome, the church under the dome or against Capella Palatina at Palermo, the Cath- the arches of the transept. I shall, edrals of Siena and Orvieto are therefore, take pleasure in publishing among this list. This phenomenon a list of Basilicas having this peculi- has been overlooked by all publica- arity which have no transept, and tions up to date, as far as known to

LCVEL-LIf*'

FIG. 7. SAN PIETRO AT ASSIST.

Section showing a drop in arches of 2.60 (feet and decimals) and pavement rising 1.70. Survey and drawing by John W. McKecknie for Brooklyn Institute Survey. another list of churches in which the me. I can specify many interesting span narrows in the choir away from cases of oversight on the part of the dome or the transept arch. persons known to me of this pecu- (/.) A refinement analogous to the liarity. There is no reason why it last but applied to the second of the should not be noticed by tourists for two transverse arches which span the pleasure as easily as by experts, but nave of a church at the junction with it seems to have escaped the notice the transept. By dropping this second of both classes. This fact is quoted arch below the level of the first a con- for the Egyptian temples, and in them siderable increase of perspective isob- is supposed by Egyptologists to have tained. There are good cases of this the purpose of perspective illusion. scheme in the Cathedrals of Siena The evidence to be submitted tends (drop of five feet), Piacenza (drop of to show early Christian and Byzantine four feet), and Pisa (drop of three origin, as usual in all these re- feet), and in Santa Maria Novella finements. The sloping pavement can at Florence (drop of two feet). There be dated to the fifth century in San are no extant publications of these Sabina, at Rome. facts. (/) A refinement which consists in REFINEMENTS IN MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE. converging the walls of the church or a wider fact, which no doubt also has the piers and walls of the nave in many Northern illustrations (some of the direction of the choir. (Fig. which are 8.) already known to me). I Five cases are known to me in have Italy. collected thirty-six cases of these None have been previously noted curious by plans in Italy, and many of publication for Italy, but one case is them have been carefully surveyed. already known publication for Good by instances are found at Arezzo, Northern Europe. It is the Cathedral Bari, Toscanella, Viterbo, Cremona, at Poitiers mentioned by Fergusson. etc. Nearly all are oblique from the case of The maximum convergence is fagade as distinct from churches with in San Stefano at Venice, whose walls a deflected choir. narrow in toward the choir twenty- () There are many phenomena three feet in a of one hundred length which are most easily classed under and feet. thirty-three the general heading of symmetro- (m) A refinement which consists in phobia, or dislike of mathematical the church with an building oblique symmetry. This designation has the or twisted so as to plan, regulated advantage of avoiding optical theories the as to the mystify eye proportions or optical explanations, and may be of the and without building reveal- applied to many facts already cited ing itself as an obtrusive fact. Of under foregoing heads if other ex- all the phenomena quoted the one of planations offered, or to be offered, a deflected choir is the only one so should not satisfy the reader. This far known to science. There is no designation may be applied, for in- evidence in Northern Europe to sup- stance, to the oblique or twisted port the view that a deflected choir ground plans by any one wishing to represents the bending of the head of preserve an agnostic attitude as to ex- Christ on the Cross. On this point planations of curious facts. Mr. Rus- " " of lack of evidence see Notes and kin's conception of life in mediaeval Queries. The idea that a deflected building is 'preferable to the concep- choir represents the bending of the tion carried by the term "symmetro- head of Christ on the Cross may be phobia," which implies a negative a fancy of modern sentiment, or it attitude on the part of the medineval may be a tradition springing from the builder, whereas all the motives which explanation of some mediaeval builder tended to give variety to a building by who found it inconvenient to give his discarding symmetry tend also to this true reason. The evidence which I effect of "life." Some cases, like the seem have collected in Italy antagonizes bent column at Arezzo (Fig. 10), As I have this explanation, because there is no to be pure symmetrophobia. for later trace of this tradition in Italy, be- a long list of phenomena not been cited cause the phenomenon appears in description, which have many churches which have no tran- by Mr. Ruskin, and which do not come and which do not under of the classes so far men- sept consequently any " the Cross be- we will use the word sym- represent (see Fig. 9), tioned, " cause there are cases in which there metrophobia provisionally to desig- the is is no bend or deflection of the plan, nate them. This word, by way, of own as has but only an obliquity of the whole not one my coinage, some. It has long plan, and other cases where there is been supposed by to the features obliquity and where one side of the been applied irregular at church is longer than the other, but of Egyptian temples (for example, and in Egyptology no bending of the choir, and because Philae), originated in it. these cases merge into others which or with persons interested of simply show the curve in plan IV. columns or clerestory walls (one or The schedule, in spite of both), which is the earliest dated foregoing tentative and pre- phase century at Ravenna). In its length, is wholly (sixth a condensed state- other words, the deflected choir of liminary. It is ment much elaboration and Northern Europe is only one phase of needing FIG. 8. GROUND-PLAN OF SAN STEFANO AT VENICE.

The walls narrow in 23 feet in 133 feet. The nave narrows in 16 feet. Survey and plan by John W. McKecknie for Brooklyn Institute Survey. FIG. Q. GROUND-PLAN OF SANTA MARIA BELLA PIEVE AT ARFZZO. and --Survey plan by John W. McKecknie for Brooklyn Institute Survey. The church is deflected 15 feet from the normal line. i6 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. development, and is a mere hint of the refinements by Pennethorne, Hoffer actual facts, which have to be specified and Penrose. It is well known that for about one hundred and thirty-three all the studies of mediaeval architect- churches, many of which need careful ure lie wholly within the limits of description and all of which need very our own century and that they date abundant explanations in rebuttal of mainly after 1825 or later, whereas suggestions of accident, carelessness, those of the Greek temples date indifference and the like. from the middle of the eighteenth I in This schedule is, however, suffi- century. have shown THE RECORI> ciently definite and explicit to permit article already quoted that the Par- of my announcing the general main thenon had been surveyed and care- fact of what I conceive to be an epoch- fully examined during nearly a cen- making discovery in the study of tury, before the discovery of its mediaeval architecture. As distinct curves, leaning faces, irregular spac- from views hitherto held by the most ings, and other optical refinements, enthusiastic students of the Middle which were first published by Penrose Ages, I shall be able to prove that, in 1851. The beginning of the study apart from the beautiful variations of of mediaeval cathedrals is, as a matter detail due to artisan skill, and apart of fact, fully seventy-five years later from the picturesque effects of gen- than the beginning of the study of eral due to a noble Greek and in the last organism contempt temples ; if, for mechanical regularity, there was in years of the nineteenth century, we mediaeval building a definite system of are still ignorant of some of the most optical and perspective illusion very interesting traits of many important largely, but not universally, practiced cathedrals, we are only repeating the a definite system of very subtle cal- experience of history that discoveries culation of optical effects a definite come gradually, and that the wisdom system of masonry refinements and a of all the ages has not been conquered definite system of survivals of some of in a day. the most remarkable architectural re- That the attainments of past ages finements of classic antiquity. I shall have been forgotten and lost sight of be able to prove, moreover, that the and have had to be rediscovered is no facts, in so far as they are made mani- unfamiliar thing. A most telling in- fest for Northern Europe, move from stance is that of the Greek refine- Italian influence; that in Italy they ments just cited whose existence had move from the Italo-Byzantine cen- disappeared from the memory and ap- tres, and that the facts are most nu- parently from the records of man until merous for the period and buildings of once more brought to light in the the Byzantine-Romanesque. Dates are nineteenth century. established for the curves, the sloping The success of the Survey in Italy pavements and the converging walls was much indebted to the favorable which carry them back to the earliest disposition of the Italian Ministry of extant buildings of Christian archi- Public Instruction, as represented by tecture. Signor Ricchiardi. I obtained from The germ of these discoveries goes him the extraordinary favor of a carte back to measurements which I made blanche permit to take measures and at Pisa in 1870, and which were pub- photographs in church interiors lished in Scribners Magazine for throughout the country, and to photo- August, 1874, under the title of "A graph in all Government museums. Lost Art." For this concession I have to be grate- I claim that the study of mediaeval ful, in the first instance, to the in- architecture stands to-day where that fluence of the Smithsonian Institution, of the Greek temples stood before the as represented by Professors Langley discoveries of the Greek architectural and Goode.

Wm. H. Goodyear. (To be Continued.) FIG. 10. CHOIR GALLERY OF SANTA MARIA DELLA PIEVE AT AREZZO.

Showing a bent column, Photographed by the Brooklyn Institute Survey.

Vol. VI. -1. -2. FIG. II. MEDIAEVAL SURVIVAL OF THE CLASSIC ENTASIS, CATHEDRAL OF FIESOLE. Photographed for Brooklyn Institute Survey, by John W. McKecknie. s s

- ffi O u H

II

LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CATHEDRAL OF VAISON. From de Lestc> rie

FRENCH CATHEDRALS.

Part VII.

THE CATHEDRALS OF PROVENCE. III.

cathedral of Vaison is gener- cathedral, quite outside the town, in THEally conceded by French archae- the fields. Both in situation and in ologists to be one of the oldest in general external form it has a some- France. It is a singularly interesting what striking resemblance to the structure, almost homogeneous in de- basilicas without the walls of Rome. a re- sign, yet bearing obvious marks of It is, perhaps, only superficial having been built at different intervals semblance, but it is a comparison sug- of time, considerably separated from gested by no other church in France. each other. Its walls, though contin- The cathedral is small, and nothing uous, show various sizes and finish of survives of its group of buildings save stone, and are clearly referable to dis- the church and the cloister. Alone in tinct epochs. But the interest of the the fields outside the town, it seems than the cathedral is more than purely anti- more like a deserted chapel quarian. cathedral church of a once flourishing As you drive into Vaison on top of city. cathedral is the stage from Orange for there is Though the plan of the the tenth no other way of reaching this seques- almost certainly as early as trated little town unless you hire a century, it is a three aisled church, thus much conveyance of your own, a most un- with three apses. It is than the cathedrals necessary expense you see nothing more complicated and as well as several of the city and its cathedral until you of Avignon Aix, with are almost there. Then you see the other Provencal cathedrals single date with the ut- ruins of the chateau arising above the naves, whose may, be in the High city, for small as the place is, most confidence, placed there are two parts, a Low Vaison and eleventh century. are the a and on The most ancient parts High Vaison ; presently, Those of the aisles aie very turning a corner, there is a small low apses 22 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD, small, and semicircular both within but their small irregular capitals tes- nave is to their dates. and without ; that of the tify slightly varying larger, and semicircular within, and In the first two bays small windows enclosed within a heavy rectangular are cut into the vault. mass without, which is probably a The aisles, as in all ancient churches later addition. Each is preceeded by in Provenge, are extremely narrow. a deep rectangular bay, built of larger They have elliptical tunnel vaults, stone that has no junction with the which, rising on the outer walls at a stone of the apse walls, and appears point below the apex of the arches to to be later in date. The same con- the nave, are returned on the inner struction is seen in the semidome of side a short distance above them. the nave apse, which is therefore a re- Double archesof similar shape separate building, but still earlier than the the bays, and the enclosing walls have western parts of the church. This double pointed wall arches, slightly central apse is an extremely interest- lower than those between the nave ing structure. Its wall of rough ash- and aisles. There are no windows in lar work has an internal arcade of five the north aisle, but the south aisle is round arches resting on columns of lighted by small round-headed win- unequal length, the short ones being dows, which, however, do not occupy pieced out below, and all evidently the space of the older windows, now taken from an earlier edifice. The blocked up, but clearly discernable in capitals, which are well cut and re- the stone work. The nave is lighted semble the work of the fourth and by small round-headed windows cut fifth centuries, and reproduce the into the vaulting. Corinthian motif, are of various mate- The little blocked-up windows of rials is of black of the aisles are traces of the edifice of ; one marble, two white, two of cipolin, and the sixth is the tenth century, rebuilt by Bishop a restoration. Larger columns, pieced Humbert. Like the present building, at the top, carry the pointed arches it had a nave and aisles. It was six that open into the rectangular bays, bays long, the nave being formed by a which have pointed tunnel vaults, succession of short arches carried on slightly higher than the semidome. piers, some of which are encased in It is known that the cathedral was re- the present piers, while others have built by Bishop Humbert in 910, and been removed. The absence of ex- the rectangular bay may belong to ternal buttresses corresponding to the that time, the semicircular portion older bays shows that the church was being earlier. covered with a wood roof without The nave is a short one of three vaults. The church was the same size bays, each of slightly differing dimen- as the present structure, the alterations sions which give a peculiar form to its and changes having, singularly enough, plan. The third, which immediately been confined to the- ancient dimen- precedes the choir, has an octagonal sions. The present form of the cathe- dome. Its construction is of the dral is that of a church of the middle usual type, with small pendentives with of the eleventh century, to which period the symbols of the Evangelists, but the nave and aisles clearly belong. unlike other Provencal domes it does Though small, low and plain, almost not rise above the roof of the cathe- deficient in ornament, and exhibiting dral, and is actually slightly lower than only the simplest architectural con- the pointed tunnel vaults of the other struction, the interior of the cathedral bays. The double piers of the vault of Vaison has a real charm of sim- arches have as capitals, a fine narrow plicity and antiquity. Against the classic band, which is continued as a wall of the nave apse, in its primitive string at the base of the vault. The place in the centre of the sanctuary arches opening into the aisles are behind the high altar, is the ancient relatively low, with considerable wall episcopal throne. It is now much

above them ; like the the seat arms are space nave injured ; and intact, arches they are double and pointed, but the columns that once supported FRENCH CATHEDRAL*.

PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL OF VAISOX.* From de Lesleyrie

*Black shading ind cates construction to the later prior Xlth. century ; hatchings indicate the additions and present state of cathedral.

the latter have partly disappeared. It placed over the insignificant porch. is attributed to the sixth century, from The side walls are almost as simple, which also dates the altar of St. but the outline of the church, viewed Quenin, which now serves as the high from the southeast, is extremely altar, a work of extraordinary interest, pleasing, and almost picturesque. The considerably restored. aisle wall, in which the various periods The exterior of the cathedral is of its construction are distinctly vis- quite as interesting as the interior, ible, is strengthened by four plain but- though the west front is featureless tresses, with sloping tops, which like save for a panel with Corinthian-like all the buttresses of the cathedral, capitals and a triangular top piece save those of the central apse, are ad- CATHEDRAL OF VAISON EAST END. CATHEDRAL OF VAISON THE CLOISTERS.

CLOISTER. CATHEDRAL OF VAISON NORTH SIDE, WITH RESTORED 26 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

EGLISE ET CL01TRE DE VAISON. ditions made in the repairs of the the central apse. The tower, a square eleventh century. The windows are solid structure, is behind it, rising a small and frameless, and the wall is short distance above the nave roof. crowned with a dentiled cornice, above Over a freize and cornice similar to a freize of flowing foliage with those of the north aisle is a crowning rosettes. Both the cornice and the member, later than the lower part. It carved band project over the but- has two round arches on the east and tresses. The clearstory of the nave west faces, and a single one on the rises above the modern red tiles of the others, with widely spaced battlements aisle roof. Like the lower wall it is above. plain, with short buttresses and a cor- The cloister, built in the eleventh nice, formed of a series of narrow flat century, is on the north side of the bands separated by a delicately carved cathedral, and fills all the side, save a egg-and-dart ornament, with dentiles small part at the west end, where the above. The first two bays have each aisle wall is strengthened by buttresses a small window with carved arches as on the south wall. The freize, how- and flutted twisted columns. ever, is much more interesting, and The aisle wall is continued irreg- consists of a series of conventionalized ularly beyond the last buttress. leaves, partly the original stones, partly Though the whole of the east end is restorations, and partly lost in some without ornament, except the small places. Below is an inscribed band of buttresses on each side of the apse the eleventh century with the names windows, the varied levels and shapes of the early bishops of Vaison. The of the roofs, and especially a stairway nave clearstory repeats the features of rising just behind the roof of the south the south side, though there are no cor- apse and leading to a narrow arched responding buttresses in the aisle wall opening in the eastern gable of the below. The columns of the clearstory nave clearstory, produce a somewhat windows are plain, with several new picturesque effect, with utter frank- ones ness of construction. The nave clear- The cloister is small, and completely story has its side cornice returned restored, the work being still in pro- across the end, with a chanelled gress under the direction of M. Revoil. pilaster above supporting the apex of Restoration here, as is usual in France, the roof. means almost an entire rebuilding, and The apse of the north aisle has been little of the original structure now re- built up to a height almost equal to mains, much of it having been de- FRENCH CATHEDRALS. stroyed before M. Revoil began his with enriched arches, serve as entrances work, and the side next the cathedral to the quadrangle. The walks have never having been built, or least de- round tunnel vaults, forming cross stroyed to the foundation. It is a vaults at the corners, but part of the rectangle, of which the north and north walk has rude cross vaults. The south sides are longer than the east or whole cloister is extremely severe in west, the difference in width being its architecture, though a good deal taken up in the piers. The arcade of its present effect is doubtless due to consists of groups of three round the fact that most of the original cap- arches carried on double columns itals of its columns have disappeared. standing on a low base-wall. On the Some, indeed, never having been cut, quadrangle side the arches of each bay but left in the solid block. But its are enclosed in a single plain round sobriety is eminently in keeping with arch, not repeated within, where each the architecture of the cathedral, group is separated by heavy piers, dec- whose distinguishing characteristics orated with diagonal or vertical lines are, however, of the greatest interest, col- in of the or, on the corners, with applied making it, some respects, one umns. There are four bays on each side, most notable in France, though one of and on the north the two central ones, the smallest. Barr Ferree. fr THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. resembling to some extent the system of this hospital was Chancellor Rau- generally adopted at the present day. lin, counsellor of Philip the Good, Two main buildings extend in the Duke of Burgundy. To insure a reve- form of a set-square along two sides of nue for the establishment, the Chan- cellor it vine- a spacious court-yard (Fig. 2). These endowed with some buildings contain two large common yards, which it still possesses and from wards, but the beds are placed longi- which are produced the well-known tudinally upon a wooden floor which is Volnay, Beaune and Pomard wines. Every year, after the vintage, these wines are sold at auction and the prices realized, which often reach 1,000 francs per cask, serve as a basis for determining the value of the high- class wines of the district. In the Middle Ages the hospitals nearly always consisted of a long room with windows on either side. At

une Iron Knocker- raised on each side above the flag- stones of the ward. The ceilings of these wards are in wood and have that pointed-arch form which seems best suited to insure ventilation and facili- tate the cleaning of the walls. The wards are on one floor only, and they are reached through an exterior cov- ered gallery, which is visible in the view of the court-yard here given. It should also be stated that this hospital is one of the finest specimens existing in France of civil architecture of the middle of the fifteenth century. Its gateway on the street is original, Fig. 4. Hospital de Tonnerre View of a elegant and picturesque. The pat- terns of the carved woodwork, the one end was the chapel, separated sculptured stone, and the wrought- from the rest of the room by a grating iron thereof are often copied. An of iron, wood, or in some cases even of idea can be formed of the elaborate- stone. We have a very fine example ness of the locksmith's work from the in the Tonnerre Hospital. But what knocker, of which we give an illustra- gives special value to this relic of the tion (Fig. 3). The generous founder past is the manner in which the beds MODERN HOSPITALS IN EUROPE.

were arranged, each in a sort of cub- dating from the first half of the four- icle, above which and running round teenth century, one of the best exam- the walls of the ward was an elevated ples of this architecture, and we think gallery whence it was easy to see it worth while to reproduce a lateral everything that went on. The ac- elevation of the eastern side of this companying perspective view conveys edifice. (Fig 5). an exact idea of one of these cubicles We will not prolong our investiga- tions into the it seems to us (Fig. 4). past ; In mediaeval times, France, like more to the purpose to deal with the Italy, indulged in great luxury in the present. matter of hospital construction. In After Orsini's attempt on the life of France, this lavishness was chiefly ex- Napoleon III., the imperial govern- ternal. The Lepers' Hospital at Tor- ment undertook the task of providing and toir, the main parts of which still sub- Paris with a Grand Opera House, that the sist, offers in its principal building, it decided at the same time THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. old general hospital, the Hotel-Dieu, with the large ones that run parallel should be rebuilt upon a new and more to the long central court-yard, to allow extensive plan and that every improve- between them courts or gardens hav- ment suggested by experience and hy- ing an open outlook on one of their genic science should be adopted, so as sides. The reader can judge of this to make the new hospital a model of from the plan (Fig. 6). perfection. The architect, a man of Just when the heaviest part of the talent, brought all his powers to bear work was completed, the war broke on the work, but he paid more regard out. Building operations were sus- to the rules of architecture than to the pended for a couple of years, and upon laws of health. Besides, he was re- their resumption partial satisfaction quired to provide for such a large was given to the critics and to the number of beds that it was difficult to wishes expressed by medical men. Of keep within the allotted space without the three floors of wards, one was sup- piling up at least three tiers of wards. pressed. The height of the build-

Fig. 6. Plan of the New Hotel-Dieu, Paris.

The plan did not differ much from ings was limited to two stories, between the system of buildings placed at right the basements and the attics, thus- angles to each other around a large diminishing the number of patients central court-yard. It was, in fact, in provided for, and at the same time in- an elongated form, the plan adopted creasing the amount of light and air. for the Ospedale Maggiore at Milan. The large court-yard was left un- did not fail to criticize this it its Hygienists touched ; retained grass plots system severely, for two reasons, and flower beds, and the buildings bor- namely : the excessively large number dering it kept their monumental pro- of patients collected on one spot, and pylseum. The perspective view given the unsatisfactory arrangements of in Fig. 7 will convey an idea of this superposed wards. The architect, court-yard. however, had taken care, in planning Important improvements were made the smaller buildings which are lateral in the interior. The ceilings of the MODERN HOSPITALS IN EUROPE. 33

wards were given the form of an arch, states of Europe, as well as France the corners were rounded, and the herself, enlightened by the results of walls oil-painted and polished. Fre- the costly experiment made in Paris, quent cleaning was thus rendered easy. applied themselves with contagious The proximity of the Seine allowed ardor to the reconstruction of their of all the drainage being led into it. old hospitals and the erection of new The hospital was all the purer, but the ones, upon new models, profiting by Seine became so much the more con- all the mistakes committed, and in taminated. most cases transferring the new estab- What had been built was in part lishments to the country, beyond the demolished a of of ; large amount money centres population. was expended, and yet, after all, the It was in this way that the new hos- degree of perfection aimed at was by pital at Edinburg came to be erected. no means attained. It is one of the most interesting that A short time afterwards, the various we could possibly show our readers.

Vol. VI. 1. -3. 34 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

The ground had a somewhat steep pital in Great Britain as worthy of not a drawback on The finest in London slope. This was ; being copied. since its the contrary, it was an advantage for is St. Thomas' Hospital, of the drainage, and the architect turned transfer to the right bank the It to the river a it to good account. Over this irregu- Thames. presents archi- line of are larly shaped piece of ground the long large buildings. They tect distributed ten principal build- very high, as it was necessary to econo- mize and the wards are conse- ings, several minor ones, and premises space, is the for the staff, with a court-yard in the quently superposed. This weak middle. All the buildings, except feature in all hospitals erected in the those devoted to teaching, machinery, heart of populous districts (Fig. 9). and the laundry, are connected with The Herbert Hospital at Woolwich each other by passages, although they shows us a better arrangement, al- have large spaces between them though the ward buildings have two planted with flowering shrubs. (See floors.

Fig. 8. Royal Infirmary, Edinburg.

is of plan, Fig. 8). All these buildings are The Norwich Hospital impos- in the traditional Scotch and the on which it is style ; gables ing aspect, plan in mingled brick and stone, and built has something to recommend it. numerous square windows. The whole At the ends of the buildings there are is an original example, albeit not the projections in the form of hexagonal first one, of hospitals with detached towers. buildings. As far back as the end of The English hospitals are very care- the last century this arrangement was fully constructed. Their internal ar- applied at Plymouth (England). It rangements are excellent, the working has taken more than fifty years to be- is perfect, and every imaginable me- come generally adopted. With the ex- chanical contrivance is utilized to ception of Paris, where space is scarce facilitate the service. The architects and routine rules supreme, the system have exercised all their skill and in- is now followed almost everywhere. genuity to produce this result. We are unable to point to any hos- The Berlin Civil Hospital was con- MODERN HOSPITALS IN EUROPE. 35 structed between 1866 and 1874, for ing the pass underneath the floors and accommodation of 600 patients. impart a portion of their The architects were Messrs. heat by ra- Gropius diation This is and the principal Schmienden. It was wisely de- m the object heating of hospitals cided to erect it outside the in city, We think it will the Friedrichshain not be uninterest- Park. Besides the to run ing over briefly the theoretic chapel, the subsidiary buildings and the requirements which had to be com- offices, it consists of ten distinct build- plied with by the architects of ings, connected with each the other by Berlin in In hospital regard to heating passages. addition, there are two and ventilation. small in a buildings, corner of the 1. Every ward must be at a ground, which are reserved for con- kept temperature variable at will between tagious cases. This is one of the 15 and 18 Reaumur. most perfectly in organized hospitals 2. From 10 to is existence. 15 sufficient for Fault, however, is found the doctors' and nurses' rooms, and with it because the buildings have 10 for pro- the corridors and staircases.

Fig. 10 Civil Hospital General Plan.

which jections, interfere with the cir- 3. The heat of the whole building culation of the air, and exception is must be central. also taken to there being two floors of 4. The heated air, upon reaching wards. We shall show further on that the wards, must not be at a tempera- in the system of M. Toilet, the French ture higher than 44 Reaumur. engineer, these defects are avoided. 5. The heated air must contain a The Berlin Hospital is in brick, which proper quantity of moisture. appears to be the most sanitary ma- 6. The patients must be able to terial that can be used. If it were warm themselves at any time, either possible, without too great an increase at a stove or an open fire. (This con- in the cost, to employ bricks that are dition does not seem to us particularly glazed on one of their sides, the clean- hygienic.) be ing problem would be solved, as it 7. The air of the wards must would be easy to wash the outside renewed in all seasons at the rate of walls almost daily. The heating is 100 cubic meters per hour and per effected by means of hot water. The bed. In case of need, it must be pos- twelve pipes which supply each build- sible to change it at double this rate. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

8. The fresh air must be admitted angles are rounded, and that a slope from the outside in such a way as not is given to the ceiling in order to fa- to inconvenience the patients. cilitate the ascension of the vitiated air air. 9. The speed of the at its points This indicates that the outlet of entrance and exit must not exceed through the gratings was considered 60 centimeters per second, if the insufficient. patients would be incommoded by the The two buildings reserved for con- draught. tagious diseases are specially interest- 10. The gas-lighting must be so ing. We reproduce plans of the two arranged as to assist the ventilation, upper floors and of the basement (Fig. and the products of combustion must 13, 130 and 13^). The reader will be carried off. remark the nurses' rooms projecting 11. The air-holes must not be in from the centre of the posterior contact with the ground, etc. fagade, and also below the level of the In order to meet these conditions, ground, the cellars where the heating the fresh air is brought into the wards apparatus is situated. The principal through special pipes at about 5% ward contains eight beds. Its width feet above the floor, and the vitiated is 32 feet, and its superficial area 843

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Figs, ii and n a. Hospital, Berlin Floor Plan of a Pavilion. air is drawn downward by the effect of square feet, or say 105 square feet per the heat radiated from below and bed. Its height is 16 feet 5 inches, passes out through gratings placed and its capacity 520 cubic yards, or 65 at the bottom of the lateral walls, be- cubic yards per bed. The small wards hind each pair of beds. The open fire- with two beds have an air space of 78 places complete the ventilation. cubic yards. The degree of heat required appears The buildings face the west. to us too high. It is much lower in The objections brought against French hospitals. this establishment, and which we In order to these think are well abridge details, founded, are : the super- we here three give plans, viz.: A gen- position of the sick wards, and the eral a of the base- plan (Fig. 10); plan angular projections which intercept ment of one of the buildings (Fig. n), the longitudinal circulation of the out- and a of the first floor plan of the side air. The edifice, however, is well same building (Fig. no). We also constructed, the material used being reproduce a section (Fig. 12) showing an excellent kind of brick called Mett- the form of the ceiling of the first lach bricks, which have also been em- floor. It will be observed that the ployed for the vaults, and for the MODERN HOSPITALS IN EUROPE. 37 paving in the contagious building and the The walls are whole edifice is built of thick : the style of the brick in the civil decoration is severe. The hospital, there are hospital is rooms where the surrounded an sick or injured can by open space of larg-e sit or extent. play converse, which is an inno- The same architects, Messrs. Gro- French pius and also Schmienden, constructed In the at Dresden which con- Berlin, between 1873 and a hospital, 1878, sists partly of old military hospital to buildings and partly accommodate 510 of there sick or wounded. This new, are verandas at the ends also is located the newly erected wards on to which,

T'

Fig. 12. Hospital, Berlin Transverse Section of a Pavilion. outside the city. We give a plan of it on fine days, nine beds can be wheeled, (Fig. 14) which shows that the system thus placing them practically in the of detached buildings has been applied open air. in the most thorough fashion. The The Heidelberg hospital, like those principal wards have only sixteen beds, of Edinburg and Berlin, is composed and the others six, three or two. The of a number of detached buildings buildings cover nearly two-and-a-half scattered over a large park, but con- acres, and the grounds are about fifty nected with each other and with the acres in extent. The air space per bed administrative centre by covered pass- is about forty cubic yards on an ages. averag The windows are double, The military hospitals at Konigs. Fig. 56.

Figs. 13, 13 a and 13 b. Hospital for Contagious Diseases, Berlin Floor Plans.

Fig. 14. Military Hospital, Berlin. MODERN HOSPITALS IN EUROPE. 39 berg and Custrin are laid out on the standing parallel to each other, and same plan, as indeed are all the new all of them having two projections at military hospitals in each Germany. end, which are not calculated to The most curious of all German facilitate the circulation of the out- is hospitals the new civil hospital at side air. These buildings, as well as Hamburg. The old general hospital, those for the service of the hospital, however great the talent displayed in are connected by covered ways. In its construction, had always been re- Figs. 15 and 150 we give the general garded as unhealthy. The mortality plan and the plan of a patients' build- there, the most scru- notwithstanding ing. An excellent feature is that the reached pulous cleanliness, 14.70 per wards consist of only one floor above cent, that is to cent more say, 3.60 per the underground basement. This is not than obtains in the Paris hospitals. quite the ideal arrangement which, as The new at is one hospital Hamburg we shall see, has been realized in a

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Figs. 15 and 15 a. The New Hospital, Hamburg Plan of a Pavilion. of the largest in Europe. It has few French hospitals, but it is a nota- room for 1,500 beds, which is not con- ble improvement in German hospitals. ducive to salubrity. It covers, how- The buildings form three series. ever, an area of nearly 45 acres, Those of the first series are intended to for those of the second equal 145 square yards per patient. 33 patients ; It is situated about three miles north series for 15, and those of the third This di- of the city. The buildings, generally series for six patients only. small speaking, face the southeast, which vision into large, medium and seems to be the best direction that buildings seems to have been adopted could have been chosen. This hos- by the architect with a view of ex- of the external pital comprises 83 detached buildings, citing the movement of the including 10 sheds for epidemic dis- air by varying the dimensions The most eases. It contains 55 separate build- vertical surfaces. important this hos- ings for the accommodation of improvement introduced into in the mode of patients, all being built in brick and pital consists heating. Fig. 16. Hospital, Antwerp General Plan.

Fig, 73. Facade.

Fig. 17. Hospital, Antwerp Principal Elevation

Fig. 18. Hospital, Antwerp Plan of a Hall. MODERN HOSPITALS IN EUROPE. 41

This is effected the circulation by of hospital was-opened, another has been steam through pipes placed beneath built at Antwerp which may be con- the mosaic which floors, are thus sidered as one of the most curious of raised to a temperature of 20 Centi- its kind. We give its ground-plan grade. It is, in fact, a trial on a large (Fig. 16), face-plan (Fig. 17) and the scale of the system of of a heating by plan ward (Fig. 18). The front which is the most whole- is of a radiation, varied and original character. some of not the all, although cheapest. The architect has given play to his in- In spite of its great cost, it is to be ventive powers while adhering closely that this will hoped system be applied to Flemish architecture of the last to all hospitals built hereafter. An- couple of centuries. He has enriched other improvement introduced in con- it with color by the use of stone and this consists in structing hospital the bricks. But it is in the plan that we use of eleven-inch bricks instead of find most originality. The references wood for the sheds for dis- epidemic accompanying it sufficiently explain eases. Wood is the inflammable, easily purpose of each of the buildings. attacked by humidity, dilatable under They cover 13,000 square yards, the the influence of the a latter, and con- ground covered by the whole hospital genial dwelling place for insects, being 65,000 square yards, or say 26 microbes and rodents. 'When wooden acres. There is thus an area of 35 hospitals have been in use for a con- square yards per bed. This, however, siderable time, there is but one way of is only apparent; if the area is calcu- disinfecting them, namely, by burning lated upon the wards occupied by the them down, which operation is not patients, it is found to be much less. always free from danger. In France,the Renaissance converted It is to be regretted that the archi- the feudal tower of defense into a tect of this hospital, which is planned tower of ornament, as, for example, in and constructed with much care, the Chateau of Chambord. The Bel- should have been obliged to crowd the gian architect has transformed it into beds so close together, and should a tower of charity. Is this transfor- have placed the lavatories and water- mation a wise one ? It assuredly closets in such near proximity to the gives the whole edifice an air of sick wards. It would have been better originality which borders on singular- to separate them from the wards by ity. This is perhaps one of the least two doors. qualities required in a hospital. On In Belgium the hospital question has the other hand, if we compare the received great attention. Formerly, round form with the rectangular form that country, with its dense popula- of equal area, we find that twenty beds tion, had scarcely any but old hos- contained in the circular ward are it is from each other at the foot pitals ; numerous, true, and note- separated worthy on account of their architec- by only 5 feet 9 inches, whereas twenty ture and the tnany works of art that beds contained in a rectangular ward they contain. The new hospital at would have a space of 7 feet between Ghent, which was erected in 1864 after them. The circular form is conse- of the designs of M. Paul, marked a dis- quently unfavorable to the spacing of tinct step forward. The building has the beds. Not only the capacity ventilation also is smooth walls, without projections at the wards, but their The the ends, a single floor of beds, welt- inferior in a circular building. of sole advantage of these "towers of arranged offices, plenty air, ample " the is that space, vaults to support the floors, charity in general economy of all the numerous bath-rooms, sitting-rooms they allow of the separation the sick wards for the nurses and also for the doctors, accessory rooms from This is no hot-water heating system, steam en- themselves. something, but it seems to us that this gines and centrifugal ventilatiors doubt ; for changing the air of the wards at 16 system should be reserved epi- even then it would be or 17 Centigrade by means of a sys- demics, and to screens, so as to tem of underground pipes. Since this necessary place THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

Its prevent the patients from seeing their loted to a special class of disease. fellow sufferers. great defect is the superposition of the " " It was not without difficulty that wards. The Traders' Hospital only the author of these very original de- covers 34,500 square yards of ground, built signs, Mr. Baukelman, succeeded in the area upon being 2,175 square to hold getting them adopted. They have yards. It was designed sixty not been followed anywhere else. patients. The architecture is very As at Ghent, ventilation is obtained simple, but evinces great care. The mechanically by insufflation. This buildings have two stories. The one in method, which is based on that used devoted to surgical operations is, in mines, has never given satisfaction. particular, arranged in the most com- The other accessory arrangements plete manner and possesses every ap- at the Antwerp hospital are of the pliance that its purpose demands. most perfect character. The most curious of the three is St. The total cost amounted to about Elizabeth's Hospital. It belongs to 9,000 francs per bed. the Red Cross Society, which suffi- There is nothing to be said in re- ciently indicates its use. It serves gard to Austrian hospitals, nor in re- chiefly for wounded soldiers and as a gard to those of Switzerland, all of special training school for nurses. them being built according to old- There are, however, certain wards for fashioned plans, the point of departure the accommodation of civilians, and of which is the Ospedale Maggiore of also for confinements. It occupies an of Milan, viz., buildings intersecting each elevated position on the right bank other at right angles and enclosing the Danube, fifty yards above the vast two stories of level of the and is built on the de- court-yards ; wards, river, grouped around a central point con- tached system. The various buildings taining the offices, the apartments of have only one floor above the the and a whose in several have staff, chapel belfry basement ; fact, is usually the culminating feature of only a ground floor resting upon un- the edifice. derground cellars. A number of The system has also been followed buildings still remain to be erected. in the erection of the numerous hos- St. Elizabeth's Hospital might be re- pitals of the city of Paris, even the garded as one of the best in existence newest ones. There is, however, one were it not for the absence of connect- remark to be made. The French gov- ing passages between the various ernment having been for the past buildings, which increases the work of fifteen years avowedly atheist, the the staff. Most of the wards contain chapels have been abolished, or at from two to six beds. There are two least closed. Those in course of con- large wards with room for thirty-four. struction were left unfinished, or else The air space for each patient has have been put to other uses. Off- been calculated at eighty-eight cubic springs of Christianity, the hospitals yards. In the principal buildings each of Paris have repudiated their pa- bed is computed to have cost 4,268 ternity and broken, in these latter florins, while in the secondary ones the days, the tie which bound them to the cost only amounts to 316.60 florins. In source of their existence. consideration of its twofold character Buda-Pesth, the capital of Hungary, of hospital and training school, we possesses three new hospitals. St. give here a bird's-eye view of this in- Stephens' Hospital was opened in stitution (Fig. 19). 1883. It comprises eight large de- To the examples already given we tached buildings, premises for the will add the Copenhagen Hospital. staff, a chapel in the centre, and The subjoined perspective view (Fig. divers subsidiary edifices, the whole 20) will suffice to convey an idea of being spread over a superficial area of its general scheme. It will be observed fifteen acres. It can accommodate that the architecture of the detached 656 patients. A peculiarly of this buildings is extremely simple. The hospital is that each building is al- buildings have only one floor. The Fig. 19. St. Elizabeth Hospital, Buda-Pesth.

Fig. 20. Hospital, Copenhagen PerspectiveView.

View. Fig. 21. Civil and Military Hospital, Montpellier Birdseye 44 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

Fig. 23. Hospital, Montpellier Transverse Section of a Pavilion. removal of the vitiated air is effected familiar to everybody by pictures of in two in the Kremlin. But in addition to this ways ; by draught-chimneys some buildings, and in the others by civil hospital Moscow possesses a kind of fan (reuterdack) consisting another, exclusively military, which is of glass plates worked by motive unique of its kind. The buildings power. It is calculated that the air is composing it have nothing remarkable changed at the rate of 148 cubic about them, but in summer time these yards hourly per head. The various edifices are emptied and the sick or buildings have no connecting pas- wounded inmates transferred to tents sages. This hospital is reserved ex- erected in an immense and well-wooded clusively for epidemic and contagious park, redolent of resinous odors. This diseases. Apart from the Leper houses open-air treatment has given such of the Middle Ages and the Lazaret- excellent results that it has been ex- tos, it is the first establishment of this tended to most of the military hospitals kind founded in Europe. of Russia those at Riga, St. Peters- Russia has paid a great deal of at- burg, etc. but for tents, wooden huts tention to the matter of her hospitals. have been substituted. They can thus Moscow has two, which would be be used in winter. We shall show models of architecture and intelligent further on that M. Toilet, the French en- arrangement if they had not been gineer already referred to, has replaced planned according to the old-fashioned these wooden huts by sheds in brick systems of agglomeration and of and iron, the use of which materials buildings intersecting each other at does away with the defects of the right angles. The Baschruschin Hos- wooden huts without diminishing their pital presents a handsome facade, advantages. above which gleams one of those ori- Generally speaking, the newest hos- ental campaniles with small globe, the pitals in Germany and the North of original form of which has been made Europe present the plan of a quadrila- 5fe:

I "I i i

Fig. 24. Hospital, Montpellier Elevation of a Pavilion.

Fig. 25. Montpellier Hospital for Contagious Diseases.

Pavilion. Fig. 26. Hospital, Montpellier Plan and Elevation of the Autopsy , THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

their clientele teral, open in front. Their regular and take long trips out and symmetrical distribution gives of town. It would be particularly them an appearance which is impos- awkward in Paris, where the means of ing but dull. The wards are numer- locomotion are slow and inadequate, ous and contain from two to thirty and where, too, the leading medical beds each. For protection from cold, men often divide their time between the connecting passages form part of lecturing, attending their wealthy the body of the edifice. This arrange- patients and giving consultations. The ment, however, must tend to the pro- evil would not be greater if the lectur- pagation of disease. The ventilation ing and practising were divided among is in many cases imperfect, and there a larger number of doctors, of whom is an insufficiency of light. The wards there are so many who lack neither are often superposed, and have low knowledge nor earnestness. The ceilings. The narrow court-yards keep means of rapid locomotion tend to in the heat, but do not facilitate the increase around populous centres, and circulation of air. even in the outskirts of Paris, crowded In hot countries the conditions are and ill-served as they are, healthy totally different. In Italy great spots can be found, spacious enough progress has been made. To many for the establishment of parks where old hospitals detached buildings have hospitals could be properly isolated. been added, consisting of a single floor Under the Second Empire, as also and connected by exterior passages. under the old Monarchy, efforts were The Broni Hospital, which was inau- made to transfer the hospitals beyond gurated in 1893, is formed of a long the city. central gallery, to which are joined, The Salpetriere Hospital, which was on each side, at right angles, a series built in the seventeenth century, con- of four buildings. First comes that stitutes the largest establishment of containing the offices and the premises the kind in Europe. It has room for for the divided into two which is an staff, parts ; 6,000 beds, agglomeration then four sick wards, and, lastly, the out of all proportion to its present servants' quarters on one side and the central situation. At the time it was building for contagious diseases on the founded, fields surrounded it on all other. Between the two is the chapel. sides. All these buildings are separated by The Bicetre Hospital is, so far, still large flower beds, unenclosed at their in the open country. It was caused to outer end. This arrangement, in spite be erected by Louis XIII. upon the of its relative superiority over old site of an ancient castle. This hos- systems, is not altogether perfect. pital was the first one ever built for In Spain and Portugal the greater disabled soldiers. Since the construc- number of the hospitals are located in tion of the Hotel des Invalides by old religious edifices. At Madrid, Louis XIV., the Bicetre Hospital has, however, a new hospital is being however, been a part of the general erected after the system named after hospital service of Paris, and has been M. Toilet. turned into an asylum for the aged and The City of St. Petersburg has the insane. It contains no less than started on the road of progress by 2,800 beds, which is far too great a putting into practice a general prin- number to be collected in one place. ciple which ought to be adopted in The Second Empire, in its turn, every great city of the world. No transferred beyond the city various more big hospitals within the city charitable foundations, such as the " " limits, but only depots for urgent Incurables," the Petits Manages" " cases, the patients being removed to and the Sainte-Serine," admission to large establishments advantageously the last-named of which has to be paid located in the country. This is an for. If the revenues and endowments " excellent system for the patients, but of the "Assistance Publique were not it is one which is very inconvenient deviated in part from their true des- for the doctors, who have to leave tination by political exigencies, or MODERN HOSPITALS IN EUROPE,

absorbed by unnecessary expenses, future hospital shall be on Paris would be able in a few placed years to ground that is imitate permeable, easily Saint-Petersburg and trans- drained, in an open situation and pro- port her hospitals from the heart of videJ with good potable water. The the to a distance of four or five city area of the ground should increase miles into the pro- country, utilizing the gressively with the number of old as patients buildings merely depots and provided for. for Thus, 100 patients, consulting rooms. 120 square yards per patient may be We have now come to the very while for 600 sufficient, patients 175 kernel of our subject, and will deal square yards per patient are necessary, with the most con- which is hospitals recently equivalent to saying that for structed in France. These embody all a hospital intended to accommodate the introduced into 600 improvements patients, 22 acres, or say 108,000 architecture the last hospital during square yards, are required. It is evi-

Fig. 27. Hospital, Epernay.

quarter of a century. The type dently well-nigh impossible to find adopted represents an entirely new pieces of ground of this extent in cities, system. We do not mean to say that and the consequence, therefore, of such all the elements are new. We have a principle is to relegate large hospi- shown that the idea of detached build- tals to a distance from populous places. ings dates from the last century and The various buildings should not be that it has been put into practice in large. They ought to have only one the of all the hos- floor should not contain more construction nearly ; they should be pitals erected in Europe within thirty than 50 patients each, and or forty years. This system would be divided into wards accommodating incomplete if it did not rest upon a from two to twenty patients each. wards and series of applied hygienic principles There should be day night a which have been, so to speak, estab- wards, so as to allow of complete in the lished and codified by experience. The change of air. The air space to be increased first of these principles is that every wards ought progres- 48 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

sively with the number of beds. There modern hospitals by rounding off all should be 52 cubic yards for two beds, the corners, covering the walls with a and 85 cubic yards for each pair of paint, called enamel paint, which beds if there are twenty beds in the makes a polished surface, and also by ward. The sick or injured should be reviving the pointed-arch style of divided into classes of maladies, as is ceiling, of which such judicious use already done in a few new hospitals, was made in the Middle Ages, from among others in St. Stephen's Hospi- the twelfth to the seventeenth 9611- tal, Buda Pesth. Of course, the build- tury. This ceiling question is very ings containing the laundry, kitchen, important. The use of iron simplifies etc., must be at a distance from the it. In these days, when the germ sick wards, and the same remark theory of disease has made* such re- applies also to the apartments of the markable progress, hospital archit^c- doctors and the hospital staff. The ture must adapt itself to the laws laid various buildings should be well spread down by hygienic science. To drive over the ground, but it should at the into the upper parts of the infected same time be easy to pass from one to wards all those tiny atoms, ambiant another. An important matter is that and invisible, which propagate dis-

Fig. 28. Hospital, Epernay Elevation of a Pavilion. of the point of the compass which the ease; force them to depart thence buildings should face. This can only into the open air without giving them be settled on the spot, after the usual a chance of hanging on to any ledge direction of the wind has been ascer- or projecting point such ought to be tained. A good rule is to profit by the architect's principal aim. The the wind for the carrying away of all ogival form is the one that most facili- miasmas. To facilitate this work of tates the expulsion of these dangerous nature it is desirable that the out- guests. Experience has also taught side walls should have a smooth sur- that, to attain this result, nothing face, and there should be no parts should be tolerated on the ground out jutting from the main block; for floor, beneath the sick wards, except instance, no wings at a right angle. open galleries, freely swept by cur- artistic effect The may suffer, but the rents of air, while above, in the attics, result from a sanitary point of view there must be the most complete ven- will be an ample compensation. tilation, unimpeded either by parti- Inside, this rule as to smooth sur- tions, store-rooms or sleeping apart- faces is still more imperative. It has ments. already been followed in several The architect's precautions should MODERN- HOSPITALS IN EUROPE. 49

further still. The choice of build- go prison. Architectural relief and orna- ing materials is of great importance. mentation being practically Well-burnt bricks are better than precluded, we must fall back on coloration. anything else. It requires ten years With enameled bricks nothing is f6r a wall built of Paris limestone to easier than to produce coloration of a become and it thoroughly dry, always light and varied character. But this to the air. gives passage Bricks, is a detail which we need not dwell vitrified or are nearly so, always dry. upon at length here. Mortar are not but if joints so, proper The first application of the Toilet cement is used the walls will be dry system was made in the erection of within a In the year. every European military hospital at Bourges, al- bricks are now made it had country having though been utilized previously one of their sides like earthen- glazed for a few barracks. The Bourges ware. Those are the most suitable hospital is situated in a healthy spot material for the exterior walls. The quite in the country. It faces the south-

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Fig. 29. Hospital, Le Mans General Plan. fire-hose can then make short work of west, and was planned to contain 260 all the microbes that may have taken beds. The area of the ground is 5 7, 400 lodgings there. Any diminution in square yards, or 265 square yards per the average death rate, however patient. The area built upon is 6,000 slight, would be a full reward for the square yards, and the cost of erection extra outlay. amounted to 22 francs per square yard. We have by no means enumerated The collective wards contain 28 beds all the improvements that ought to be each. Each bed occupies a space of an air effected in hospital construction. The 9 square yards, and has space foregoing outline of them was neces- of 63 cubic yards. All the conditions not sary in order to make clear the ideas proposed by M. Toilet have by which have guided M. Toilet in the any means been carried into effect, yet been such that the erection of some hospitals that may be the result has in which is a cited as models. I ought to mention Bichat Hospital, Paris, the has one other point. A hospital should be branch of Hotel-Dieu, copied features of the bright; it should not wear the air of a some of the essential Vol. VI.-l.-4. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

structure of Bourges. This little hos- centre, 240 square yards in area, serves old is of all as a covered and pital, fomerly an barracks, court-yard promen- the hospitals of the great capital the ade. In war time it could accommo- one where the mortality is lowest. But date the wounded, if it were closed in as it still belongs, owing to its plan, to with canvas or glass. Fig. No. 22 is a the ancient system of parallel build- reproduction of the face plan of one of ings surrounding a court-yard enclosed these buildings. It shows also the on three sides, we think it preferable lateral galleries forthe accommodation to cite the civil and military hospital of the attendants. The section (Fig. at Montpellier, where the Toilet system 23) conveys a good idea of the value has been applied in its entirety. At of the system. Below, the open, arched Montpellier we still meet with parallel gallery, and above, the ogival-shaped buildings, it is true, but they are so ward, with ventilator and chimney for placed as to facilitate the natural air- the escape of the vitiated air. To ing of the gardens which separate complete the picture, we give the plan

Fig. 30. Hospital, Le Mans Lower Section of a Hall. them. The enclosure itself presents of a sick ward (Fig. 24) where, accord- the of a aspect garden (Fig. 21). ing to needs, either one or two rows of This hospital is located outside the beds can be front placed ; plan and town and faces in such a direction that view of the building for contagious the morbid emanations are car- never cases (Fig. 25), and plan and lateral ried citywards. The grounds cover elevation of the building containing 22 and the acres, edifice has room for the dissecting and lecture rooms 610 beds. The ward buildings are of (Fig. 26). one uniform with type, only a single The Montpellier Hospital is an floor, and are raised about 12 feet annex of the Paris School of Medicine above the on a ground series of ellip- and Surgery. There has been added tical arches a floor in supporting brick a maternity section, with special in- and iron. These arches are occupied firmary, court-yards and gardens, and at only either end, and there is a free a separate entrance. In the construc- circulation of air over two-thirds of tion of these the same principles have their surface. The open part in the been followed. MODERN HOSPITALS IN EUROPE.

the are or united Finally, subsidiary buildings together by passages, and contain- connected one with another and with ing only a limited number of beds. These ideas are at the ward buildings by covered pas- length being carried into practi- cal effect. The sages, where the air is always kept authorities have thought fit to draw attention to them in fresh. a special man- ner by placing before the of the The total area covered all the eyes public, by near the entrance to the Exposition, a plan amounts to of the civil buildings 15,850 square new and military hospital at Mont- yards, or about 23 square yards per pellier, which is, above all other establish- patient, being almost double the space ments of the kind, the one where these ideas have been they occupy in their wards. The floor most thoroughly worked out in accordance with area of the wards in use may be esti- the plans of M. Toilet, the engineer." mated at 21,500 square yards, or nearly Since that time the same has 36 square yards per patient. There system been utilized for the new at. are, besides, 92,000 square yards of hospitals Saint the St. court-yards and gardens, or 150 per Denis, Havre, Jacques the Auban-Moet Hos- head. The cost, including the price Hospital, Paris, and Almshouse at of the ground, was 2,250,000 francs, pital Epernay (Fig. 27 and the at Le Mans being 165 francs per square yard of 28), hospital and the one at buildings, say 3,680 francs per patient. (Figs. 29 30), Bone, and the of San In the official report of the Univer- Algeria, Hospital Juan de Dios at which contains no sal Exposition of 1889 we find the fol- Madrid, fewer than 800 beds. lowing lines : Various improvements as regards " In the of of place buildings consisting matters of detail have been made in several which offer floors, great disadvantages, these but the as facilitate the dissemination of morbid constructing hospitals, they essential features of the remain germs and the propagation of certain diseases, system Its there have been substituted detached edifices, unchanged. value has now been either isolated altogether one from another proved by experience. Alphonse de Calonne. DR. WILLIAM THORNTON. DR. WILLIAM THORNTON, ARCHITECT.

architects connected with the this place he and James Madison were of THEearly development Washing- neighbors for eight years. ton were men of interesting Benj. Ogle Tayloe says: *"He personality and architectural talent. had a well-earned reputation for let- Dr. William a West In- ters . Thornton, and taste; . . he was a wit, dian, was one of the first as well as a painter and a poet." Dunlap,t whose one of the most interesting of these work was published only a short time pioneers of the profession. after Thornton's death, says: "He His family were prominent among was a scholar and a gentleman, full the Friends in England. His parents of talent and eccentricity,a Quaker, by moved to the Island of Tortola, in the profession a painter, a poet and well West Indies, in 1761. Here Thornton acquainted with the mechanics, arts; was born May 27th of the same year. his company was a complete antidote At this period either Thornton's father to dulness." or uncle was Governor of the Island. Thornton's duties brought him into When five years old Thornton was close relation with such eminent men sent to England to be educated. He of his day as Washington, Madison, studied medicine under Dr. Feld, then Jefferson, Randolph, L'Enfant, Adams, with the noted Dr. Brown of Edin- Hamilton and Fulton. He was inti- burgh. In that city he graduated in mate socially with the Tayloes, Car- medicine in 1784. His studies were rolls, Stuarts, Van Nesses, and others continued in Paris. who were the features of political and In the latter city an intimate friend- social life at the federal capital in those ship was formed with the noted days. Countess Beauharnais, a relative of The acquaintance with Washington Empress Josephine's first husband. ripened into such an intimacy that his She was an authoress and held a fa- home was the president's familiar re- mous salon. sort when in the federal city. Thornton traveled extensively on The "National Intelligencer," of the continent of Europe with Count March 29th, 1828, as well as the Co- Audriani, the naturalist. After which lumbian Institute and the Coloniza- he came to this country and formed tion Societies in memorials on his a temporary residence in Philadelphia. death, pay a high tribute to his ability In 1790 he married the daughter of good fellowship and philanthropy. So- Mrs. Ann Brodeau, a successful school The American Philosophical the teacher of Philadelphia. Mrs. Thorn- ciety* conferred Magellanic gold medal him in Dec. I792 as a dis- ton, who was born in England, was a upon : for his book on written lan- lady of culture, and an artist of some tinction ability, which is proved by a miniature guages. an author he wrote a treatise on of her husband in the possession of As Mrs. Kennon. After their marriage the elements of written language, in Philadelphia, they returned to Tortola, where Thorn- which was published title of Cadmus. ton had an interest in the estate of in 1793, under the review of Cad- his father. There is an extended Review" of the In 1793 he moved to Washington mus in the "Monthly as well as a note in reference to city, where he lived until his death, in date, an article on teaching the dumb. 1828. He left no children. ^ He papers on medicine, He found it necessary to take a published house in Georgetown. Some years *In Memoriara Tayloe, p, 98 afterwards he to F Street, " moved 1331 tDunlap, Art and Design," N. Y., 1834. opposite the present Ebbi'tt house. At $Trans. American Philos. Society. 54 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

and Mrs. astronomy, philosophy, finance, gov- of a painting by Thornton, ernment and art as well as on lan- Kennon, at present the owner of Tu- guage. dor house, in Georgetown, who knew According to the "Science Record," Thornton in her childhood,has a mini- him. in June, 1810, he published a long de- ature of Washington painted by fence of Fitch as the inventor of the Mr. Charles Hoffman, of Frederick, application of steam to navigation. Md., and Mrs, Miller, of Washington, This pamphlet was reprinted in the have pieces of his work, among them Patent Office Record, in 1850, and is being a portrait of the Countess of considered an official document of Beauharnais. value. He was noted for both philanthropy As an inventor he claimed, accord- and bravery. Brissot says: "From con- ing to Tayloe, to be the first to apply versations with Thornton, although steam to boat propulsion. He was as- his exterior denotes not the Quaker, sociated with Fitch in his experiments yet he professes their principles and on the Delaware before Fulton com- practices their morality." ^Brissot gives menced his on the Hudson. quite a lengthy account of Thornton's Brissot describes Fitch running a efforts to colonize the negroes in Af- boat from Philadelphia to Trenton in rica; he went to the expense of sending 1789 by steam and notes the fact that an agent to Africa to locate a colony, thousands witnessed the event. Unfortunately,this vast scheme was not In his pamphlet (1810) Thornton accomplished. He became actively in- claims that Fulton was indebted to terested in negro colonization as early him for valuable suggestions, as Ful- as 1789, and was until his death a ton saw Thornton's drawings when he member of the American Colonization visited the patent office in 1806. As Society. early as 1788 Rumsey applied for a When the British captured Wash- patent on steamboats, which conflicted ington, in 1814, an officer ordered a with the invention of Fitch. This was gun turned on the Patent Office Build- proved by Fitch winning the case. ing. Thornton rode up and jumped off Fulton's first patent was not issued his horse in front of the gun demand- until 1809. ing: "Are you Englishmen or Goths Thornton claimed that Fulton's and Vandals? This is the Patent death was due to worry caused by the Office, the depository of the inventive strength of his pamphlet. While in genius of America, in which the whole America the first time Thornton was civilized world is concerned. Would engaged to build steamboats to navi- you destroy it? If so, fire away and let gate the Mississippi (before 1790). the charge pass through my body."t This scheme fell through for lack of By this effort the patent records were financial aid. Thornton seems to have saved. Thornton carried the Patent had greater faith in the future of Office records to his farm in the steamboats than Fulton, who offered country, so that none were lost. He to bet the former that a boat could also placed a guard at the navy yard never go more than 5 miles an hour, and capitol during the evacuation. t while Thornton expected a speed of Several instances are on record 12 miles. where in attempting to protect a wife Another invention which has re- from a brutal husband he, in turn, cently been revived was the conver- found it necessary to defend himself sion of sawdust into planks. against both wife and husband. Thornton received patents for im- Among his papers are his commis- provements in steamboats, steam- sion as Lieut-Captain in the War of boilers and condensers. Fernando 1812. Fairfax gave him 2,000 for a quarter One of his most intimate friends interest in his patents and manufactur- was John Tayloe, the owner of the ing companies. As an artist, Thornton was more *Brissot, Citoyen Francais, Vol. I, p. 245. From note in Toner collection. than an amateur. Tayloe mentions +The Patent System of the United States, by L. H. a head of Jefferson, as a Campbell. by King, copy t Private letter. DR. WILLIAM THORNTON, ARCHITECT. 55

Octagon house, probably the most Congress, the President and the public noted of race horses in producer this offices of the United States Govern- country. Thornton also and ment." kept All their work was subject to raised race horses. He fine imported the approval of President Washington. animals from and Barbary England. *The first commissioners appointed, His account books show a num- quite Jan. 22d, 1891, were Thomas Johnson ber of blooded stock that are valued and David Carroll, of Maryland, and at more than horses $2,000 apiece. By David Stuart, of Virginia. benevolence he is said to and have lost On Sept. 1 6th, 1794, Thornton re- large sums of money. ceived this commission from Presi- There are three that things connect dent Washington: ... "I hereby Thornton intimately with the history appoint said Wm. Thornton one of the of Washington city and country, the Commissioners for surveying the and where the excellent character of District of Territory accepted . . . his work places the people under obli- for the permanent seat of the Gov- to him. gation ernment of the United States, . . . First, for his artistic capacity and with all authority to proceed accord- skill in producing the best scheme for ing to law. a capitol, which forms the nucleus of "Given 1 2th day of Sept., 1704, of the present structure. Second, for his the Independence of the United States general culture, breadth and capacity the Nineteenth." as one of the Commissioners of the "George Washington, District, which is shown in the exe- "by Edw. Randolph." cution of the magnificent ideas of There is nothing in the records to Washington and 1'Enfant as to show the time that the Commissioners streets, his own and Hoban's ideas were expected to devote to their du- as to public buildings and grounds. ties. This matter was probably left to Third, for his mechanical knowledge their own judgment, and they must and executive ability. The Patent have had considerable time to attend Office, which has fostered and encour- to private business. aged the inventive ability of the coun- The salary of a Commissioner was try began under his management. sixteen hundred dollars per annum. a member of THORNTON AS A COMMISSIONER OF THE After Thornton became the board of commissioners, a decided DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. improvement is evident in their writ- business The Superintendent of Public Build- ten proceedings and in the which were intro- ings and Grounds has quite a number forms and contracts of volumes, embracing early letters duced in connection with the streets, that were in concerning the formation of the Dis- bridges and buildings in the trict of Columbia, the laying out of their charge. As they appear after his Thorn- Washington City, and the erection of records appointment, for the im- the Federal Buildings, as well as a ton should have the credit complete record of the proceedings provement. Thornton was of the Commissioners, from 1792 to The ability of ap- 1802. preciated by his contemporaries. Andrew who was doing the The history of Thornton's connec- Ellicott, field work in out the city, sent tion with the City and Public Build- laying a letter in Thornton's ap- is to be found in these volumes rejoicing ings of the streets in the of pri- pointment for the good and in letters possession former and buildings, saying: "The vate parties. commissioners were totally ignorant By act of Congress, Jan. 4th, I79A Thorn- and an easy prey." He warns the President was authorized to ap- be on his Washington, a commission to survey the Dis- ton to guard. point the Presidency, and out a before retiring from trict, purchase, adopt lay States are says: t"I think the United plan for the Federal City, and prior interested in the continuance of you to the "ist Monday in December suitable to Vol , 1800, they were provide *Proceedings of Commissioners, 1701, pa. buildings for the accommodation of tOW letters. Feb. 37th, 1797 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

in the service, therefore I should re- two commissioners write, Feb. i8th, gret if either of you (Thornton, Scott 1797: "Dr. Thornton has long had in or White), by resignation should de- contemplation to lay before the execu- prive them of assistance which I be- tive such a one." lieve you are able to give." In 1801 the Commissioners of the Thornton's education and disposi- District became offended at some re- tion caused him to take an active part port of Congress which reflected upon in all the duties of the commissioners, their management. By request, a com- which consisted in supervising the sur- mittee of Congress examined their veys for the District boundary, the accounts and it was proved that the streets of the city and the subdivision commissioners had served with perfect of the squares into lots and the loca- integrity. tion of Federal buildings. The pre- An act, May 1st, 1802, abolished paration of maps and their reproduc- the office of the commissioners, their tions, obtaining plans for the Federal principal duties being complete, and and the arrangements for temporary the President appointed Thomas Mon- buildings and bridges, laying out roe to perform a part of the duties of grounds, the opening of quarries, the commissioner. brickyards and kilns, lime-kilns, the cutting of lumber, and the obtaining THORNTON AS AN ARCHITECT. workmen for brickmaking, quarrying, stone-cutting, as well as brick and He early displayed a talent for stone masons, carpenters and laborers. drawing. When a lad at school in ^Workmen, at this period, were ob- England, he showed his uncle two tained by advertisement and negotia- five-pound notes, asking him to select tion from England, Scotland, France the one which was best engraved; and different parts of this country. this proved to be the one young The commissioners let all contracts Thornton had just copied in pen and and supervised the foremen who ob- ink.* tained the material When or where from the quarry, Thornton prose- kiln or forest, and who superintended cuted his architectural studies is not the work on streets, buildings or recorded. It has been asserted by bridges. In all cases we find Thornton some writers that he was simply a dil- insisting on the necessary grandeur letante in the profession. The only of scale. He puts himself frequently way in which we can judge of his at- on record as opposed to some of the tainments is by an examination of his narrower views of other members of work, and a knowledge of the estima- the board. tion in which he was held by his con- *The commissioners, on July 2oth, temporaries. His drawings show skill in 1795,^ made building regulations for draftsmanship, as well as education the city. It would be fair to assume and refinement in design. His exe- that Thornton, being the architect on cuted work compares favorably with the commission, was the prime mover the best of the period, in design and and preparer of these construction. was trusted in a regulations. He pro- The commissioners obtained and fessional capacity during long periods disbursed money, bills for even the by such astute men as Washington, most trifling objects being submitted Jefferson, Madison and many others. for their approval. They attended to Adolf Cluss, in an address in 1869, the sale and other negotiations in the calls him an amateur. T. H. B. La- connection of transfers of lots. trobe, in an address delivered before Thornton was delegated to nego- the American Institute of Architects tiate a loan in Philadelphia and another in Washington, in 1881, states that later on in England. In both cases he Thornton had only two weeks' study was successful. in the profession. Trumbull gives him In answer to a letter from Washing- the credit of having studied three ton concerning a National University, months. To have accomplished so

*Proceeding$ of Vol. Commissioners, i, p. 407. *Science Record, 1872. Parlor Q>rntt<

0/d Colom&J Work The TVloa Mansion 0. C. Quill 1800

OCTAGON HOUSE COMPLETED IN l8oo.

OCTAGON HOUSE. OCTAGON HOUSE PARLOR MANTEL. Wm. Thornton, Architect. DR. WILLIAM THORNTON, ARCHITECT.

OCTAGON HOUSE MANTEL IN MADISON'S HOUSE. Wm. Thornton, Architect. much with so little study, he must an idea of the exterior of this building have been a truly remarkable man. as it appeared in 1793. Vir- THORNTON'S PRIVATE ARCHITECTURAL Montpelier, Orange County, ginia, the country residence of James WORK. Madison, was another piece of Thorn- ton's which in Washington erected a building on work, dignity,simplicity and refinement North Capitol street, between B and compares favorably with some of the best modern resi- C streets, Washington, D. C, which dences In a letter to Mrs. M. H. at the present time is known as the Hillman House. Dr. Thornton was the Smith, September, 1830, President Madison *"The of architect and superintendent, as shown says: only drawing letters of The ex- my house is that by Dr. Wm. Thorn- by ^ Washington. it is without the now j ak- terior of the building has been altered ton, wings a of it." Mont- and additional stories have been added. ing part (See Fig. 5, home of The interior Some of the interior work still remain? pelier Madison.) of has been remodelled out intact and shows the skill and refine- Montpelier of all semblance to its self. ment of the architect in detail. (See original Figs. 3 and 4.) An old sketch gives *Writings of Madison, Vol 4. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

The Octagon house, Washington Tayloe being wealthy, could have in- City, one of the most interesting old dulged his taste in such things. residences in this section of the coun- *This house is interesting also from try, was built by John Tayloe and com- its historical associations. Madison pleted in 1801. Gep. Washington took having occupied it after the White a lively interest in its erection as it was House was burned by the British in by his advice that the owner of the 1814. Octagon selected Washington for his The Tudor House, Georgetown, D. home. Thornton was the architect.t C, was built about 1810, by a Mr. (Fig. 6 Exterior view of Tayloe's Peter. Although an imposing old Octagon house.) structure, the work does not compare This house on the exterior is simple with that shown in the Octagon and dignified, being built of brick, House. with sandstone trimmings. The en- The interest in this house centers in trance porch had stone columns with the fact that one of Thornton's original Ionic caps. The plan is peculiarly in- sketches for both plan and elevation teresting. It can be easily understood are still in existence. (See Figs. 13 and from the illustration. (Fig. 7. Plan of 14.) The exterior of this house is very Octagon house.) nearly in its original condition. In the

^^*kk2iJ^*'*^ Tudor Place Ground Plan. Wm. Thornton, Architect.

The interior work, such as mantels, plan will be noticed the elliptical form cornices, pilasters and doors, were rich, of room which Thornton first used in elaborate, refined and thorough in his plan of the Capitol. While the ex- their construction. They are still in an terior of this house is an improvement excellent state of preservation, al- on the sketch, the alterations in plan, though the house has been indifferent- probably to save money, is decidedly ly cared for for many years. (See Figs. inferior to the original. 8 and 9, mantel in parlor; 10, mantel There are several of Thornton's in bedroom; n, detailed measured sketches for private houses in my pos- drawings.) session. The doors and trimmings in this THORNTON'S PUBLIC ARCHITECTURAL house are The on mahogany. figures WORK. the parlor mantel are so good that they must have been made by some of He made Jefferson a desien for the used the rattle- the noted scultpors of that dav. possi- Va-Mace, in which he bly Canova, or Thorwaldson; John snake as the principal feature, because

*See Article by Author on Octagon House, American Hn Memoriam, Tayloe. Architect and Building News Vol.Vl. 1 5. ii I ii

1 1 ill |

Modified Elevation of the Capitol North Wing Completed Under Thornton's Supervision.

II I III! 11 i i !W

Thornton's Competitive Design for the President's House Modified View of Wing.

I I

II I I II |

View. Competitive Design for the President's House, Made in 1792 Rear

(IP. .! 'I I

ii i i II l|l II Til 1.Mm,,.....-,.,.-,- - i

Competitive Design for the President's House. 1702 Front View. DR. WILLIAM THORNTON, ARCHITECT.

it is peculiarly is American, peaceful design, it will be until hurt or aroused for readily seen that this self-defence, could not have been and only strikes after prepared for any giving warning! other purpose. He made an elaborate scheme for a This as can sketch, be seen by the il- Washington monument, a description lustration (Figs. 18 to 20), shows a and rough sketch of which are wHl among executed wash drawing of his private papers. The sketch good pro- shows portion, dignified and a mound of massive simple in its natural boulders, treatment. The alternate flap (Fig on and around which are grouped 19), suggests a decidedly many typical and natural improved figures, form for the wings. Washington surmounting the whole. It is difficult to understand the plan THORNTON'S COMPETITIVE of the DESIGN FOR building from the elevations, it is clear THE PRESIDENT'S HOUSE. although that official, pri- vate and social duties were each in- the of Among drawings Thornton's tended to have an apartment to them- which Mr. Edward Clark has loaned selves. is me, evidently his design for the It is difficult to compare this plan

SIMS a Thornton's Sketch Plan of the Capitol, Washington, D. C.

President's house. Thornton wrote with the present structure, of which from Tortola to the commissioners at only the central portion has been that date, 1792, stating that he had erected. The central portion of Thorn- made designs in conformity with the ton's design will compare favorably advertisements soliciting competitive THE CAPITOL OF THE UNITED STATES. plans for the President's house and Capitol. In an answer to this letter, Decidedly the most interesting p.'ece Nov. 1 5th, 1792, the commissioners of Thornton's architectural work was state that the plan for the President's the successful design for the Capitol. palace had already been selected. An advertisement solicited competi- This design of Thornton's conforms tive plans for the Capitol and Presi- with the requirements of the advertise- dent's house, in March, 1792. During ment which suggests a central build- July of the same year, plans were sub- ing and wings, built of brick and stone. mitted. None was found suitable for Knowing that Thornton made such a the former building. In July, Thorn- 68 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

ton wrote to the commissioners that efforts was to induce President Wash- he had not heard of the competition ington to allow him to change certain in time to prepare his drawings, but features which he considered im- as the first drawings submitted would proper. He was curtly notified to at- most probably not fill the require- tend to the duties for which he had ments, he requested that his designs been employed. As he seems to have might be examined. On December been unable to accomplish this end, 4th, the commissioners requested he resigned, but was re-employed on Thornton to send his plan of the Capi- making special agreement to confine tol to the President. The period be- himself to superintendence. He retain- tween July and December was given ed the position until 1798. by the commissioners and Washing- James Hoban was employed as su- ton to the consideration of the modifi- perintendent of the Capitol, in addition cations of the plans submitted, Mr. to his duties at the President's house, Hallet, whose plan was most success- whenever the Capitol was without its ful, working under the direction of the separate, superintendent. Hoban and commissioners. They waited three Thornton seem to have been ex- weeks after the expiration of the time cellent friends, as each attended to his Hallet promised his modifications and proper duties. Hoban's duties at the requested Thornton to send drawings White House prevented his employ- to the President at the same time. Feb. ment, except in an emergency. 7th, 1793, the commissioners state the Thornton's actual connection with general satisfaction of the President, the Capitol ceased when the office of themselves and others in the plan of commissioner was abolished in 1802. Thornton. Washington says: "Grand- Latrobe was appointed by Jefferson to eur, simplicity and convenience seem take charge of the Capitol. Just be- so well combined that I do not doubt fore Latrobe's appointment, Thornton it will meet the commissioners' appro- objected to changes which Jefferson bation." wished to make, saying: *"They would April 1 5th, 1793, Thornton received not be in accordance with his (Thorn- a formal notice of the acceptance of ton's) plans of the Capitol." Whether his plan, for which he received $500 this persistence in adhering to his own and a building lot in the City of Wash- ideas was the cause of his further ser- ington. vices in this connection being dis- Thornton would not agree to devote pensed with, there is nothing to show. his whole time to superintending the Although his advice was not asked work, and Stephen Hallet, George in connection with changes, he still Hadfield and James Hoban were em- took a lively interest in the slur La- ployed at different periods as superin- trobe cast upon the plan, design and tendents. workmanship of this building, and Hallet, almost as soon as he re- wrote an effective answer to Latrobe's ceived his appointment, endeavored to private letter to Congressmen (a engraft upon the work his own ideas. printed document) in which the facts For this reason he was discharged. To stated by Thornton are proved either prevent further attempts of this kind bv the documents on file in the office was probably one of the reasons why of Commissioners of Public Buildings President Washington appointed and Grounds, or by letters in the hands Thornton one of the commissioners of private individuals. (Sept. 12, 1794). The commissioners Government documents prove the had full power over the Federal build- following facts in reference to Thorn- ings, and as Thornton held this posi- ton's connection with the Capitol. His tion until 1802, he was able to prevent design was selected in a second com- further tampering with his design for petition. This design was modified that length of time. Hadfield was ap- principally to make it cost less, and use pointed to take Hallet's place, special some less daring methods of construc- note being made of the fact that he tion than were suggested in Thornton's was only to act as superintendent. In of this spite warning one of his first *Old letters in the hands of private parties. DR. WILLIAM THORNTON, ARCHITECT. 69 original sketches. The modified de- the issue of the first patents Jefferson, sign made Thornton was com- by Secretary of State; Knox, Secretary ot menced and carried out until the abo- War; and Randolph, Attorney Gen- lition of the board of commissioners, eral would hold special conferences. In without J practically any change. Many 793> this law was changed, putting the were made to this matter attempts modify in the hands of the Secretary of Hallet in a foundation for a State. In plan. put May, 1802, President Jeffer- centre in of the contem- son square place appointed Wm. Thornton a clerk, dome. plated When Thornton was ap- at $1,400 per year, to take charge of pointed commissioner, Washington patents. At one period he was given requested him to see that everything $2,000 a year as Superintendent of was rectified so that the building Patents, at the same time acting as would conform to the original plan. Justice of the Peace, being entitled to Thornton at this time drew another certain fees, a Commissioner of Bank- elevation and restored the dome on ruptcy and a member of Levy Court the plans; he made new sections and He was the first to have charge of pat- other drawings some of which he ents. His salary, with other positions, thought improved the appearance. was supposed to be $2,400. Madison When Thornton retired from the urged Congress to give him this work the old north wing was com- amount for his patent office work. this is the of In pleted, portion the build- 1810, Thornton moved models, ing in which is situated the Supreme records, etc., into Blodgett's Hotel. Court. The foundation of the rotunda The government had purchased this was nearly if not completely laid and building, located on the north side the foundation and basement walls of of E Street, between 7th and 8th the old south wing were in place (pres- Streets. Into the east end of this build- ent Hall of Statuary). ing the Patent Office was moved. The Latrobe complains in his private let- U. S. Patent and Postoffice remained ter that he must necessarily conform in this building until the fire of 1836. the exterior of the (old) south wing In the Blue Book of 1821 Thornton with Thornton's (old) north wing. La- is recorded as Superintendent of Pat- trobe made changes in the Hall of ents. Mr. Campbell says: "During his he Representatives (this is neither the many years of superintendency, present Hall of Statuary or of Rep- freely exercised his discretion in issu- resentatives), which were decidedly in- ing patents. ferior to form shown in Thornton's "In a communication to the Secre- of Thorn- plan. tary State, Jan. i6th, 1818, and limitations of This room was destroyed by fire in ton defined equities as and luminously 1814. a reissue concisely been done court or The central portion was not com- as has ever by any text writer." pleted for years afterwards, but from From Thornton's grew the the plans and descriptions extant it practice Act of for the must have been largely on the lines July 3d, 1832, providing of a* defective Thorn- laid out by Thornton in his accepted reissue patent. ton held this office until his death, plan, with the exception of the semi- 1828. circular western porch. March 28, When the present Patent Office was OF THORNTON AS SUPERINTENDENT being erected, Mrs. Thornton re- PATENTS. quested Robert Mills, the architect, to either a niche or bracket in the When the 'Board of Commissioners put building for the reception of a bust of was Thornton was placed in abolished, Thornton, because he had done so of The first charge issuing patents. much for the good of this department occurred in 1790. patent legislation No notice seems to have been taken of The Secretaries of war. State and to this request. Attorney General were authorized a half In 1873, Mrs Adelaide Talbot, It is stated that over grant patents.* niece of* Thornton, presented to the Patent Office the of Thornton. *Patent System of the United States. L. H. Campbell. portrait THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

It hangs in a place of honor in the and Representatives. The President of Commissioner's room. the United States, members of the Thornton is buried in the Congres- cabinet, and of Confess, followed his sional Cemetery, under a tomb similar body to the grave. On his tomb is in form to those erected to Senators chiseled his motto,"Deo Spes Meo." Glenn Brow n AUTHORITY IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.

the revived interest in arch- claiming to be the voice of alleged au- and with the knowl- WITHitecture, thority, and ready at the earliest oppor- of it that has come within edge tunity to enforce their views by law. these latter years to the inhabitants of Two causes, one general and one the United there States, have come in- special, yet closely connected, are dis- numerable notions, more or less wise, cernible. One is the general reaction- more or less persistently expressed, ary tendency observable in this coun- each one demanding some restriction try to forsake the ideas of the upon the doings of architects in order founders of the Republic, that gov- to suit the views of its especial advo- ernment should be reduced to a cates. minimum; that it was the privilege The restrictions are either statutes of the members of a free govern- enacted or demanded, or deference to ment to do what constituted for each certain ideas expressed with the bold- of them the pursuit of happiness, ness of authority, and tending always whether others regarded it as moral or toward the use of legal force to main- immoral; that only to repress attacks tain them. upon this freedom should govern- Outside of building laws, which are, mental organizations be used. For- ninety-nine hundredths of them, poli- saking all this, the tendency of the ticians' tools for party aggrandize- moment is to make the acts of each, ment, special enactments are continu- however clearly non-aggressive, sub- ally demanded. Chief among these is ject to the censorship of the mobile the law to limit the height of buildings vulgus. and the law to regulate their height The special cause is the growing by that of adjoining buildings, so as to number of those who obtain their edu- secure as far as possible a uniform cation in Europe; who, carried away the older height of all the buildings in a street. by the grace and charm of laudablv Not less important is the bill to give civilization, admirably and their politicians the power to prevent archi- wish their friends to share pleas- to that end would erect in a tects from practising at all, based, 1 ure; and presume, upon the well-known igno- moment here what a thousand vears would build rance, incompetence and dishonesty of has there slowly ripened; with what sticks architects, and the and in- for us a dreamland intelligence be obtain- ccntaminability of politicians. Add to and canvas and paint may construct for us thankless these the various art commissions able ; would with Dutch foil and upon statuary, paintings and so on, ones, a diadem a sunset with lanterns that it is proposed to establish, that in quartz sparks, some cases have been established, and colored glass. to the very last point we perhaps without legal power, vet For up THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

may hold with this Europeanizing qualled Greek has done, pushed an school, agree with them, admire architectural style a style in the high- them, love them. They are true and est and best sense, the reasonable sincere lovers of the worthy, the beau- adornment of a logical system of con- tiful, the refined. struction to the extremity of perfec- They say, and they say truly, that tion. American architecture is for the most But, admitting all this, what shall part barbarous. They show, and it is we do to advance ourselves to the undeniable, that our public works of plane of the more developed nations? art, statues and parks, are mostly mon- Will it suffice for us to set up for strous. ourselves as the ultimate authority, Let us acquaint you, they say, with methods and ideals that they have better things, such as you yourselves, evolved? Is it possible for us to graft when you come to know them, will upon the thousand branchlets of our admit to be better than what you have growth a new species of fruit? And, hitherto done. if it be possible, are we sure that culti- However much we may be disposed vation and selection of the seed of our to deny, fair and candid dealing will proper stock may not perhaps excel in compel us to admit all that these men quality the scions offered? charge. We are as a nation, half-baked The supremacy that I have spoken and barbarous. Moreover,we are com- of as achieved by France in architect- in this commercial ural the of the mercialized, , age, development, perfecting beyond any other country. Others Gothic style, the only style besides the have traditions, feudal and ancestral, Greek that ever reached perfection, or ethical and religious, that mit- was achieved not by the methods of igate the asperity of a purely the schools, but by cutting loose from commercial of the ecclesiastical regime, . traditions of the methods noblesse oblige, for both prince schools that then ruled, and rejoicing and peasant, of affection for an- in the spring breeze of a newly found cient landmarks, monuments and cus- liberty. It was not by churchmen, but toms, that do much to maintain the by laymen, by the people of the free harmony of a past time through the cities, that the culminating glories of present chaos of transition. But here French architecture, during the latter there is no consideration for the mass part of the thirteenth and the earlier of us but dollars and cents. part of the fourteenth centuries were If a building is handsome, that is to built. Since then, although the new say if it is costly and elaborate, we care discovery of antiquity and the decline not for logic or beauty, we do not even of religious ecstacy made the Renais- know, most of us, what beauty means. sance inevitable, nothing but the It is indeed astounding to discover genius of the French people has pre- how far among us the aesthetic sense is vented it from degenerating into a atrophied. It is as though in cookery mere ossification. we had lost the sense of taste as in of French ideals, ; per- For,, judging- haps we might indeed be thought to even of modern French ideals, too have lost that also, were it not for the much dependence must not be olaced distinct appreciation that we show of upon their champions here. The re- French cookery. duplication of classical colonnades, the So our lack of a sense of beauty has frontispieces of pilasters and cornices, evolved for us an atmosphere which tier upon tier, in unexceptionable reacts to still further dull us to beauty. Ionic or .Corinthian orders, perfect How, from an entourage of tenement enough in their way, but a little weari- houses and elevated railroad skeletons, some after we have seen them several shall an artist emerge? thousand times, these are not by any Although other nations may excel means the ideals of the most conserva- in particular points, yet for aesthetic tive French school. On the contrary, sense, the French are first. In archi- they know as well as anybody what tecture, especially the French once did, logic and good sense mean in design, what no other nation but the une- but an unfortunate spirit of cbauvin- AUTHORITY IN ARCHITECTURAL 73 ism leads them to copy themselves over and over again in the details of en reSU dn n a desnidation whichTT l- u V ut what is nothing but their innate French peculiar to them is the construction of their good taste saves from failure. lofty building of which we have It is to be regretted that I on several occasions" am unable given to obtain illustrations to show characteristic specimens In th what I order of ideas mean. Let me try to describe one they have known how to typi- answer to new cal instance. needs with novel inven- as a Serving- support to the spring- SK of a pV^^present both good certain arch in the Palais de proportions and a certain majesty in their Justice, in Paris, is a hybrid Ionic mass." of capital, a pattern often seen the volutes i.teur des Architectes Nos. r'i-, 2 . ,, springing perpendicularly p. 9 , ,893. from the and necking joining each Nor is this a note of other a single approval by horizontal band just above on the the the contrary, habitual attitude necking. Above this is a detached of the French press joins to its expres piece of a hybrid sions of architrave The disapproval of the horrors whole stands a corbel that upon of hollow we -do perpetrate, an quarter circle outspoken profile, bearing in the wonder at, and admiration hollow a of, great sculptured female head Al- gifts beneath. though the profiles are refined in and the Thus, speaking of American in- carving and modelling excellent, such teriors, another writer remarks: "Our a curious compound cannot be re- fellow architects in the United States garded otherwise than as debased have a knowledge of comfort of which art. we are absolutely ignorant" Many similar instances On serait might be volontiers tente de croire qu' une race aussi to absorbee par les affaires et le brought warn us not to sit too hum- commerce est entierement depourvue du sens artistique. bly at the feet of 11 n'en est any master. More- rien; les Americains sont mieux doues sous ce la race no rapport, que anglo-saxonnr pure Leurs pein- over, amount of can tres authority justi- hgurent avec honneur a nos expositions, et Ton such entendre peut fy decorations as the chanter une miss de New York ou de Washing- familiar fes- ton sans se^boucher les oreilles. Quant a' 1' architecture. toon, the mask and au milieu d the escutcheon imitations de tous les styles, on rencontre sou- as vent une tentative * * intellectually tolerable. heureuse, originale. Mais ce qui leur est propre, c'est la construction de Somewhat leurs hautes revived in our self-es- maisons, dont nous avons donne, a plusieurs des teem the reprises specimens caracteristiques. Dans cet ordre by discovery that we too have d idees, a des besoins nouveaux ils ont su r^pondre par some little des creations taste, some little intelli- nouvelles, qui, par leur originalite et present- Let ent souvent des proportions heureuses et une certaine gence. us ask ourselves whether majeste dans leur masse. we have La Construction i not abased ourselves too Moderne, July 1803. much, whether there may not be vir- More noteworthy yet is the attitude tues hidden under our uninviting ex- of the French critics of the World's terior, seeds of flowers yet to bloom. Fair, at Chicago. In that, all of the We are encouraged in this view bv large buildings, except one, were the expressed opinions of French avowedly designed upon the system writers themselves. Says a contempo- supposed to be inculcated by the rary French periodical, speaking of Ecole des Beaux Arts; and embodied Americans and American art: "One some of the principles which the law is be might willingly tempted to think now to be invoked to force upon us, that a race so absorbed by business such as the uniformity of the line of and commerce would be entirely de- cornice. prived of artistic sense. It is not so; One great building stood apart, the the Americans are better endowed, in Transportation Building, done bv the this respect, than the pure Anglo- gifted Sullivan, a man of original Saxon race. Their painters appear thought in other directions as well as with honor at our exhibitions, and one in architecture. may listen to a girl from New York or In general effect it might be said Washington sing without stopping his to approach Romanesque, the especial ears. As for their architecture, in the antipathy of the advocates of French midst of imitations of all styles, one methods, so far as the presence ot 74 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. round arches and a total avoidance of to take the place of the architectural * * * Renaissance detail counts; but the grandeur of a barbarous age. detail was something by itself, elabo- We walk upon heaps of bones, we lean rated by the peculiar invention of the upon piles of rubbish, we build only designer, and as individual as Richard- with broken fragments." son's was in its in "* * * way. Moreover, Que de foi<, dans un siecle civilise, on n' a un color this qu' manoeuvre savant pour remplacer 1' architecte also building stood apart. * * * giandiose d' un siecle barbare ! Nous marchons Eschewing the general whiteness, sur des ossements, nous nous appuyons sur des decombres, * * * " nous ne batissons avec des debris ! Arsene which is held to be most suited to the q' Houssajfe, Quarante-unieme Fauteuil." conventional Renaissance type, it boldly strove for a brilliant external There are at the bottom of all social color treatment, all the outside detail development two principles of action, imitation and initiative both of them being enforced by the richest painting. ; Yet the French critics picked out means for gratifying desire, the one this heterodox building for commen- by the sure and tried course of what has dation, and sneered at the rest of the been done before; the other, risk- failure buildings, unconscious of the flattery ing on the chance of greater of French orthodox design that a sin- success. Although alarmists are for- cere attempt at imitation might be ever warning us against novelties, justly held to imply. pointing out the risk, minimizing the Estimating ourselves then, not by possible gain, yet experience shows our own opinion of ourselves, which is that it is actually safer to be too prog- more than modest, but by the opinion ressive than too conservative. Nations of those whom we have recognized as have perished over and over again worthy of our greatest esteem and of from conservatism, never yet one from all the encomiums of their champions, progressiveness. we find, when we consult the authori- Still the two principles of action sur- ties themselves, and not the cham- vive, the one conservative, holding uo pions, that the authorities admire in always the past as the model, perplexed us the very things that their champi- with fear of change, striving for the ons condemn. Our highbuildings which most part to use the dead force of the Continentalizers want to suppress, majority to resist change; on the other by law, are picked out by actual, live the advanced guard, seeking, like the Parisian critics as one of our few vir- Greek, to hear or tell some new thing, tues. Our interiors, although not dis- the progressive misunderstood, re- tinguished by those marks of a clear jected by academies and institutes, intellect in design, pilasters and pedi- sometimes crushed, but, if he survive, ments transplanted from exteriors, are always leading the way to a future yet again praised for the embodied better than the past. spirit, the highest praise for any What chance is there that an design. academy will receive an Ibsen, that a All through it is for our breaking conservatory will recognize a Wagner away from precedent, our direct shoot- or an institute a Corot? ing at new targets, that we are ap- Against such organizations the new plauded, and we begin to think that idea must always struggle. And one our crudity may be but the crudity of reason why the French are less op- boyishness, as becomes our youth, pressed by their institutions, is their that recklessness and vigor and frank- profound confidence in themselves, ness and courage and everything most which leads them finally to accept and removed from grandmotherliness may glory in the new idea which has been be a better foundation for the coming able to assert itself. The French ideal manhood than the powders and pe- is not the past, it is the present, their rukes, the cocked hats and dancing own present, hence they suffer less master's graces of Versailles. than would a nation constitutionally "How often," says Arsene Hous- less progressive. saye, the noted antagonist of scholas- Excellent as may be the ideals held ticism, "How often, in a civilized age up by any school, lofty as may be their there has been but a clever handling standard, we shall always do well to AUTHORITY IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 75

reserve our own deepest admiration ideas of its time, how can the archi- for the man that advances that ideal or tecture of this strange, heterogenous, raises that standard by little or much, chaotic, anomalous nineteenth century, rather than for him who contents him- culmination of a great past, vestibule self wim mere of a new coniormity. and more glorious future, be So the that organizations have other than strange, chaotic and anom- achieved the greatest celebrity are alous? How, in the absence of the uni- those that have continually accepted fying idea that is to come, can it be and assimilated men of new ideas, al- other than a more or less skilful state- though always resisting them to the ment of the fact that men know now last. Thus the French Academy re- the whole world. fused for a time to long admit de Mus- Only twice in the brief history of set and at last the Hugo; yet admitted world so far, has a great idea given them, as it now tries to keep Zola out, a soul to stones; once when the Greek but will doubtless soon do itself the worshipped the beauty of the present, honor of accepting him. Yet the once when Christendom worshipped ranks of French literature are filled the beauty of a fancied future. with great names which the academy The third time it will come no doubt, has rejected, from Pascal to Theophile but its coming will not be accelerated Gautier. The influence of such an by school methods nor by academic academy in conserving the past is restraints, these will only delay it. trifling, compared with that of an or- Along with the inevitable variety is ganization which undertakes to in- an equally inevitable crudity. lust at struct as well as to recognize merit. present we care very little for beauty, American architecture is doubtless we are striving for material advance. open to severest criticism, but its faults We content ourselves with the rough- are not those which legislation or au- est imitation of the adornments that thority can correct. past ages devised. Just so, as Graeco- In the first place, all over the mod- Roman ideals and arts declined, did the ern world architecture is necessarily world labor through a long period of heterogenous a mixture of many and material struggle, while its art was but often discordant styles. How can it a rough reminiscence of the past. be otherwise and yet be truthful? In Political and social problems now the past the architect of Cologne trav- press upon us, and the exigency for- eled as far as Amiens, saw there the bids the calmer artistic study of a more greatest and best that men had devised, stable period. and could but copy, with what im- Yet, in the midst of the clamor provements he might hope to add. where is it that we see most promise Nowadays, in photographs, if not in of the future? Is it in such "manoeuvres savants" actual travel, we roam over the known world; we are as familiar with the pa- as the typical modern French "hotel in the if less godas of India, the temples of Japan, particulier," or freer, sym- Er- as with the theatres and palaces and metrical, homes that such men as the London churches of Spain and Russia and nest George plant amid of Is it in the Mexico. All history, past and current, monotony ugliness? is at hand. modern French villa or the country best American architects Persia and Assyria we have dug up house thatthe the and now wander through their ruins. delight in? Is it in such a design as French Greece and Rome are as familiar to us recently exhibited permiated correct and studied, but as Boston and Philadelphia: The Fo- Ecole project, the rum and the Via Sacra as the Avenue cold and definitelv ugly, or in ap- similar of French des Champs Elysees and the Court of proximatelv design a the Louvre. bred American architects for country which was ex- What can we do but reflect our house at Greenwich, time.which showed minds in our deeds? How can we hibited at the same and in addi- build without betraying our world equal studv, equal polish, of beauty, instead knowledge? If the historical styles tion instead ugliness, charm. have each represented the events and of coldness, 76 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

Two kinds of restraints upon archi- An Institute of Architecture in New tectural practice a temporary wave uf York, drawing its membership, not reaction is bringing with it : The one, from a licensed and ticketed assort- that which expresses itself by attempt- ment of its own graduates, but from ing to impose its standards upon the brilliant spirits that it might gather others by law, that is by force; the from within or from without, such an other, which contents itself with advo- Institute broadly conducted, might cating its standards by voice, pen and add refinement to progress and could example. do little damage to originality. Against the first, for men who know Such an Institute might well be- what the free life means, there can be come, and might well deserve to be- nothing but war. Unfortunately for come, a model for all future schools, themselves there are too many Ameri- establishing its classes, its prizes, its cans who have not learned the su- medals, as worthy goals for the punils preme dictum of freedom, to go their of the architectural schools through- own way and let others eo theirs, who out the country. are still held by the spirit of domina- For such an Institute, abjuring the tion which enjoys compelling others ways of politicians, preaching eclecti- do its own fancies. cism rather than chauvinism in de- Against the second, no one can have sign, catholicity rather than provin- any fair quarrel, except in so far as it cialism in sentiment, there could be tends always to assimilate its methods none surely but admirers and well- to the compulsory methods of the wishers everywhere. former. John Beverley Robinson. ARCHITECTURAL ABERRATIONS.

THE SALVATION ARMY BUILDING.

construct a for building the or nosier or more discordant. It uses of the Salvation TO Army is un- would be hard for anything to exceed to incur a it in doubtedly strong vulgarity. And yet it may be to temptation perpetrate an architec- that the qualities which the edifice tural aberration. Consider is what the shows are not at all to be imputed to "basic of the the principle" organization architect. We have not the pleas- in question, so far as that principle ure of knowing him by any other of can be in Is it his expressed building. works, but it may be that he is not that, in order to regenerate a perfectly aware of the value of refine- man's spiritual nature, you need not ment, of the value of harmony, of the improve him in any other respect? He value of repose, and that he might needs no more mental culture, no show these qualities in a structure more social culture than is already in which in his professional judgment the possession of the humblest. He offered proper scope for them. He does not even need a change of linen may have been doing himself a con- or an application of soap and water. tinual violence in composing this More specifically, the method of the front, just as he does a momentary society is to vulgarize religion in order violence to the sensibilities of every to convert the vulgar. The same vul- cultivated passer who is forced to look garity and foolishness that appear in at it. In that case, his work is success- the "knee drill" and the big drum ful nearly to the point of triumph, as should appear in the fagade of a build- in any other case it is a dismal failure. ing devoted to the uses of the Army. But in any case whatever it is clearly Really, suppose that by inadver- an aberration. tence the Army had applied to an ac- We are not doing psychology, it is complished architect to design a true, but architectural criticism, but building for it,would he not have been nevertheless the question keeps recur- justified in concluding that duty to ring, in considering the front, whether his clients, and fidelity to his problem the architect "wrought in a sad sin- forbade him to design anything re- cerity" this painful front, or whether fined and quiet and harmonious, and he was a satirist in masonry, and did it required him- to design something on purpose. One reason for taking coarse and noisy and discordant. As the former and less flattering view is a conscientious artist should he not that it would have been practicable cause the thing to reek of vulgarity? for the architect to make the satire so Now, nobody will dispute that the much more broader, and the work so ex- actual building what the Salvation- much more outrageous, without even while ists in their military-religious jargon citing the suspicions, nay, would doubtless call the "headquar- increasing the enthusiasm of his cli- the other hand is the ters" of the Army fulfils these req- ents. But on uisites. Nothing could well be cruder consideration that perhaps he could fe^MlfesB+r-vU H r 5L53I** 1 * ~^Z^M1 ffipT^if F A Jl^fll e

nil EC TGEF

THE SALVATION ARMY BUILDING.

West of Sixth Avenue, New York City. A UTHORITY IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN. 79

'

when they are obvious imitations of large arches at the sides turned more expensive en- things, thereby tween abutments that are manife hancing their vulgarity, do cost yet inadequate to contain them are money. But still he has overlooked amples of feebleness to be some of pretending very inexpensive ways mak- strength, which are the front unhappily too ing more loathsome. The common to excite the resentment they contrast of color, for example, might deserve. But there is a peculiar and have added much to its outrageous- individual infelicity in the treatment ness without increase of expense. His of the central entrance, with the pro- basement is a mild gray and his face super- jected and battering sides of its structure a tepid buff a timid com- enclosing wall, the superfluous and bination that has been employed in preposterous corbels of the transom many inoffensive buildings, and that become a balcony, and especially the is in itself inoffensive. entirely For absurd little suggestion of mediaeval the same he have money might made military architecture in its a red basement and a crowning good strong member, become another ostensible gamboge in his brickwork, interspers- balcony. The silliness and vulgarity it with other violent crudities of of ing this are much enhanced by its exe- color. In the matter of he cution in form, too, sheet metal. This feature, in has behaved with moderation. The conjunction with the row of quatre- middle part of his building, for ex- foils of ecclesiastical Gothic in the bal- is the ample, mere series of tiers of cony below, is an architectural version cells in which the steel-frame con- of what we have already called the mil- struction issues. Left naturally alone, itary-religious jargon of the archi- such a it would not be series, though tect's clients. The military pretension or impressive, attractive, or artistic, is still more completely developed at would have been quiet and inoffen- the top, where nothing could exceed and he has left it sive, very nearly the absurdity of the crowning parapet, alone. True, he has broken in upon or its inappropriateness to the com- the repose it would have had by pro- monplace shop-front it crowns, with jecting the centre of it, between the its barbicans and its crenellations and main entrance at the bottom and the its loop-holes, from which the be- tile-roofed tower at the top. Trrs seiged Salvationists must be imagined projection undoubtedly has the result to pour physical melted lead upon of distorting the effect of quiet pro- their spiritual besiegers. At the cen- duced by the expanse of wall. This tre the military pretense is lost sight result is enhanced by the grouping by of, unless the lonely apartment in the twos of the openings on the flanking tower be conceived as the sentry box walls instead of leaving them equally of the watcher on the walls of Zion. spaced, and also by the long corbels Perhaps, after all, the architect was introduced at the top of the central right, considering him as a satirist, in projection to carry a balcony which is confining the nonsense to the begin- apparently not a balcony. But upon ning and the end of his composition, the whole, in this middle of five stories, and allowing the central part to ap- which seems- to be intended for rental, pear as a commonplace, baldly utili- the architect has not lived up to his tarian shop-front. Thereby he has privileges, but has produced a piece made it possible for persons not con- of wall, which, far from being the out- nected with the Salvation Army to rage upon decency, we had a right to take quarters in the less shameful parts expect, is only a rather huddled,rather of the building without exposing vulgar and still very dull piece of themselves and their business to ridi- work. cule, while at the two extremities he But at the top and bottom we admit has held up his clients in their true 8o THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

light. Also he has produced a front domestic architecture in New York which in its general aspect is quite City of forty years ago, vulgarized sufficiently vulgar and absurd. To see only by the signs, and shudder at the how vulgar and absurd, compare it transformation that has come over with what is visible of its neighbor to Fourteenth street between 1856 and the right, which is a specimen of the 1896. Vol. VI. 16. 1

NEW BOOKS.

London Churches the Seventeenth and of Eigh- are especially noteworthy. S. Paul's Cathedral teenth Centuries. A selection of the most is well of unusually lighted, course ; but to remarkable ecclesiastical buildings, includ- still, these views ing St. Paul's Cathedral, erected within and produce of the interior under the around the ancient city walls between the dome from two different points of the south aisle and from the of years 1630 1730, designs and nave looking westward, of the northwest Inigo Jones, Sir Christopher Wren, Nich- chapel, of the choir aisle, of the choir the olas Hawksmoor and James Gibbs. A series stalls, Bishop's throne with the iron which of sixty-four plates, and numerous other splendid gate illustrations. forms the south With historical and descrip- entrance to the choir, and finally tive H. F. S. accounts, by George Birch, the organ case, is to achieve something admirable A. London : B. T. Batsford. 1896. Folio, in the of There is a fine in- xvii way photography. pp. , 165. terior view of S. Catherine Cree; four views of S. This book is noteworthy as being a nearly ex- Stephen, Walbrook, besides one of the dome haustive treatment of an For important subject. taken vertically from below; two of S. Mary-at- convenience it may be considered as consisting Hill, one of S. James, Garlick Hithe; two, more of two twelve a number of in detail parts ; first, plates, than for general effect, of S. Lawrence, text illustrations, and twenty-four folio pages less Jewry; one of S. Nicholas Cole Abbey, one of S. those illustrations, all devoted to S. Paul's Cathe- Swithin and one of S. Bride, two of S. Clement dral with text text ; second, fifty-two plates and Danes, about the name of which interesting illustrations proportionately devoted to thirty-five church authorities differ, as there are those who of the minor churches of the metropolis, with insist that it should read S. Clement's Danes, some remarks upon a score of those not thought that is to say the Danes of S. Clement, and worthy of more ample treatment. This division eleven more interior views of equal importance into two chief parts is worth insisting on, be- taken together, besides some pictures of curious cause the importance of the cathedral is so much details which carry with them general views of greater than that of all the small churches in greater or less extent. In all this series of pic- London of the epoch covered by this volume, tures taken within doors, an unusually extensive even when taken in the aggregate and pre- series as any one who knows architectural books the artist sented together, for comparative study, as will admit, there is no sign of having here. The cathedral is one of the three or four met with serious difficulties, nothing of import- in made and most important structures, artistically speaking, ance lost darkness, nothing ugly of and shade of the years since the decline of the early and unsightly by disagreeable effect light in minor details the original Renaissance, but no importance at all except where uncompro- thrown a or a font, which comparable to this can be predicated of the mising shadow by pulpit from a window must churches, singly or collectively. receives light single only, what comes within it. There The large plates are of surprising importance. needs swallow up interior views in half-tones Mr. Charles Latham, the photographer, is well are two or three given the text which should be mentioned known to those who have studied on the spot the in the body of of illustration. architecture of the south of England and who as showing the general wealth at all have needed the aid of an artistic and skilful One of these, on p. 132, without being to understand and is a maker of architectural views and details, but pleasing is easy really To return to the ; even his previous record seems to be surpassed valuable picture. large plates the font cover in the church of Allhallows, Bark- by these extraordinary pictures. The interiors NEW BOOKS.

to the smaller and it is there- ng, a piece of carving in oak of Grinling Gib- regard churches, is best in these bons' time, if not certainly by his hand, is as fine fore fortunate that we get what to meet churches when we so much of the as a piece of decorative art as one is likely get steeple with in an architectural book, and the wrought- rises above the roofs around. The spire of S. iron sword rests and hat-racks of 1726 and fol- Bride, Fleet street, and that of S. Leonard, and lowing years are even more important to the Shoreditch, and S. Giles-in-the-Fields, student as being more unusual and more stimu- that of Christ Church, Newgate, and that of S. and that of S. lating in their character. These are plates 63 Magnus, London Bridge, Mary- rise and 64, and form a sort of appendix to the book, le-Bow, and that of S Stephen, Walbrook, but other such minor objects of ornamental art clear of all surrounding buildings. it of S. Garlick not a occur in many of the plates, and here again That James, Hithe, very must be mentioned that the text furnishes us lofty or aspiring structure, is dominated by the of S. Paul's five hundred with small prints, photographic and other, of great dome yards away sword rests, hat stands, fonts and font covers, to the northwest. Beyond the steeple of S. Clement is seen the and pulpits, and even large and semi-architectural Danes great irregular altar pieces like that at S. Vedast's Church. unorganized mass of the London Law Courts, Admiration has been expressed above of the with its courts and gardens seen in bird's-eye in case brilliancy of these interior photographic views. view. The photogragher might this in have obtained a view from below from It will be urged that the glass the London ; namely, those courts and but churches is not generally very rich or dark and very gardens ; preferred that the interiors are thoroughly lighted, as thor- wisely, to remain in the air among the steeples as the of London allows and and not to break into his or the oughly atmosphere ; system destroy that is true, but how about the atmosphere of Lon- uniformity of his plan with regard to the don ? This brings us to the question of the ex- steeples in question. That of S. Vedast Foster terior views and to the fact that these show a is a little overpowered by S. Mary-le-Bow seen uniformly gray sky, a dull and smoky air, a a quarter of a mile distant. Finally, the complete absence of the effects of sunshine. churches of S. George, Bloomsbury, S. Martin- These pictures are nearly all of steeples, as in-the- Fields, and S. Mary-le-Strand, are given indeed the steeples are the pride and glory of complete, at least as far as one point of view the admirers of and these allows and so is Christ special Wren, yet ; Church, Spitalfields, pictures of the upper air, where spire shows though this is too hideous to be allowed so fine beyond spire in fortunate groupings, with the a plate. dome of S. Paul's, perhaps, looming hazy in An article in the last number of this journal, the far distance, have in them fully as much the and devoted to Mr. Daniell's interesting book effect of pale and generally diffused light as on London City Churches, has said what needed that of the interiors themselves. And the con- to be said about those buildings, considered as clusion is that this is the photographer's art architectural monuments, with one exception. his fine art, or one phase of it. Just as the se- The steeples, however low their average of size lected point of view is generally most fortunate and dignity, contrast with those of the continent and conveys strongly the idea of infinite trouble in being nearly all of the refined and severe taken and of innumerable difficulties overcome, rather than of the fantastic variety of the later just so the reduction of all these photogravures revived classic. The strong existing tendency to the same gray uniformity gives a strong idea toward building in the "high Roman fashion," of a deliberate choice of effect having con- or in what the designers suppose to be that trolled them all. It is curious to see that no fashion, leads towards churches as well as view of either flank of S. Paul's has been ob- civic buildings, and students of church architec- tainable. There is, indeed, among the large ture in the columnar style may certainly learn a view of the south from these left them Wren Gibbs plates transept from the examples by r southwest. One of the same transept from and Hawksmoor. S. George's, Bloomsbury, the southeast, with a little of the south aisle has been stripped of the strange monsters which and the great south chapel showing beyond, once gave a heraldic character to its odd pyra- has not been given us in photogravure, and mid, but the lovers of classic architecture will the half tone is inadequate. The flanks of the prefer it as the restorer has left it. Including church are of course almost inaccessible to one this one, there are a dozen towers given in these who must have a few yards of distance for his plates, all crowned with spires or lanterns, all point of view. The same conditions exist with classical in detail without barocque extravagances NEW BOOKS. 89 and all of study. To these be added worthy may sculpture, carefully distinguished from what is at least one steeple, which is given in a what is only inferred, suggested, and what is sup- small elevation in the text that of S. Antholin, posed. The tone of careful and conscientious Budge Row. is agnosticism admirable and most praiseworthy. The text illustrations include of Bold plans nearly suggestions, which as the discussion goes all the and the towers of churches, several ; but on become more and more assumption, the sections of the churches and other constructional truth apparent of the theory growing continually are uncommon. Architects will drawings very into positive truth in the eyes of its advocate, for it would be curious regret this, to know how may have their place in detail works on individ- these and barrel these ual groined vaults, cupolas monuments of art, or on separate schools. and are out of wood and are pendentives, shaped They dangerous even there ; but without plaster and hung from the roof timbers. On them progress in research would be more diffi- the other hand, what is more in cult. important Even there ; even in the books of archae- London churches than their sham vaults, ologists addressing archaeologists we have too their namely, monuments and memorial much of quiet assumption that what seems prob- are rather tablets, given freely, and often with able is certainly true. In the hand-book ad- carefully drawn details, such as sections and dressed to the student at the beginning of his profiles of their mouldings. The fine oak carv- studies and to the public of persons interested ing, too, which in some cases decorates the who are only students for the occasion, this tak- apparently constructional parts, is illustrated in ing things for granted is to be most carefully

some of the and avoided it is plates drawings. ; and yet in just these hand-books To turn now to the monograph on S. Paul's that we find the almost universal dogmatic as- Cathedral it is not and does not sertion and the rare of uncer- ; long profess suggestion any to be technical, but it is full of interesting facts tainty. The value in a book for beginners of and contains some valuable suggestions as to this tone of tentative explanation is seen by con- plan and design. The serious fault of S. Paul's, trast in the confidence the reader may feel in the one unforgivable sin committed by its de- positive assertions when they are made. For signer, namely, the erection of the second story instance, in the description, pp. 254-258, of the with a second order concealing the clear-story two statuettes generally assumed to be copies of and denying the fact that there is a clear-story the lost Athena Parthenos, the lost gold and to see rising above aisle-roofs this the author does ivory slatue of Phidias, it is a satisfaction not mention, absorbed as he is in consideration that here the author's unwillingness to be cer- there of the interior. This interior, which is really tain disappears, and to infer from this that one of the finest things in neo-classic art, Mr. is reason enough for the universal agreement statuette and the Birch judges wisely and writes of critically. He that both the Varvakeion however puts his finger on the one serious fault it has, Lenormant statuette are really copies, " So the four subsidiary arches of the dome, where wretched in artistic style, of the masterpiece. the arch breaks into the entablature, dividing in the account, pp. 157-160, of the painted and the fol- it up into detached pieces." Otherwise his limestone sculptures found in 1884 the confirmation warm praise of the interior everyone can sym- lowing years on the Acropolis, of the restorations made pathize with, and it is not necessary to look too by the present author is a to every closely into his restatement of the queer argu- by putting together fragments, help Mr. Gardner ments that Englishmen are fond of about the student. It is clear gain that have indorsed them. superiorities of the London church over S. should of Peter's at Rome. That the interior, in its nave In his careful and reserved way treating Mr. Gardner is of the best modern and aisles, choir and transept, is really far finer attributions, and he is of this school in the as a piece of refined architecture than the in- school equally of the novel facts which terior of S. Peter's, judged in the same way, can frank acceptance established. Thus the account of the hardly be questioned. are fairly statues in extraordinary collection of painted some of the Acropolis Museum at Athens, A Hand book Greek Sculpture. By Ernest of which were found in 1882-3, some in 1884, and Arthur Gardner, M. A. Macmillan & Co., is as decided in its London, and 66 Fifth avenue. New York. the greater number in 1886, chromatic character 1896. Pp. xvi., 268. Price, $1.25. expression of the entirely asked of the a brief of these as could be Here is at last what has been needed ; sculptures advocate of polychromatic sculp- account of what is really known of Greek most hearty NEW BOOKS. ture, ancient or modern. He is talking of tion like this requires that what seem errors sculptures worked in soft and coarse-grained are to be looked for. Accordingly there " stone, and he says : The surface of this coarse is to be found in the third of the divisions stone was always covered by a thick layer of above described, that the assumed relation of paint, and thus the sculptures executed in it are sculpture to architecture would have to be re- to be distinguished from those made in any ma- considered very carefully before it would com- terial meant to show. As the color has to a mend itself to the student of decorative archi- great extent disappeared, what we now possess tecture or of architecture and sculpture taken must be regarded merely as the core upon which together. There is, for instance, page 36, the the visible surface was to be overlaid. Before curious assumption, that not only Greek archi- judging artistically of any such work, we must tecture does generally avoid sculptural decora- restore in our imagination, with the help of the tion, but also that it ought to do so, in all " vestiges of color that still remain, the varied those parts of a building, which are essentfal thus polychromy of its original state. When to its structure or stability. In the columns for considered, it resembles work in glazed or example, and the architrave which rests upon enameled brick or in painted terra cotta, rather them, we See the fundamental forms of Greek than in stone or marble with architecture to these in any sculpture ; and weaken appear- which are is we familiar." That, now, exactly ance by carving is clearly inappropriate." In accurate. The few pieces of full colored sculp- this passage there are indications of a very ture which have been made in recent times, questionable view of the whole subject. The such as the monument to the Prince of Kohla- very next sentence mentions the Assos Epistyle pore and the chromatic busts by Charles and the Ephesus columns as exceptions to this " Cordier, cannot be said to be familiar." assumed general rule. Now in these cases the The heads of the Hydra in the Hercules relief sculpture is in relief upon the broad surface of were as brilliant a green when first found as a the marble lintel and the lower drums of Chinese vase. The beards of the marble columns it is not in sunken Typhon's immense ; three heads were of a gorgeous blue in 1884 and panels but projects from the main exterior face perhaps are so still. And on page 161 we come which would have been the usual flat or rounded upon the suggestion that this blue is intended as surface of the architectural member but for these a "conventional substitute for black;" and unusual reliefs. In either case can these added this will do very well because it is not improb- embossings be said to weaken the member which able that a solid black over a surface as large as they adorn. It is of course a fact that the work- that of these beards and of the horses men- ing parts of a Greek building are less often tioned Mr. Gardner would have been felt to the by richly sculptured ; exceptions being mainly be a deformity in a chromatic design. The the richer Ionic and the Corinthian capitals " fascination of the subject leads us away from which do not come within the limits of sculp- " our theme and on to the painted marble statues ture as Mr. Gardner is using the term. It is found also on the Acropolis and in the same equally a fact that sculpture in relief is applied years which are mentioned above. Mr. Gillieron chiefly to metopes which have no constructional made admirably careful water-color drawings of work to do and that sculpture in the round is these their is or ; resemblance really startling and chiefly set up in the panels of the pediments one or two have been published in the Antike on the edge of the roof, standing upon the Denkmaeler while a nearly complete set is to be geison and the acroteria as upon shelves. The found in the Boston Museum af Fine Arts. The distinction between this absolutely free sculp- account of these and the critical examination ture of the pediments and the roofs and the to given them occupies the ten pages, beginning relief-sculpture of other parts does not seem to at and this is first rate it is page 164 ; artistic criti- have struck Mr. Gardner and yet essential. cism as well as archaeology. The necessary examination into the question, The introduction, containing 44 pages, is de- how far the Greeks used architectural sculpture voted to the discussion of the sources of our at all, has been avoided by Mr. Gardner, and and monumental to the while this is a natural and obvious in knowledge, literary ; expedient materials and to a brief processes ; summing up the attempt to write a small book on a very of the different characters and of the different great subject it is none the less to be regretted. associations of Greek and to the small us deals with sculpture ; The volume before only chronological division of the subject. Now, it the introductory matter, as above described, and is in such preemptory statement as an introduc- with early sculpture down to the time of Phidias. NEW BOOKS.

The text stops abruptly in the middle of Chapter slightly modified. Even when it was a III. spacious The second part is to comprise all the and a many-windowed manor-house, it was rest of the story, including Grseco-Roman still the building of country-side traditions and and it is sculpture, to be hoped that a somewhat untraveled simplicity. The architecture of volume will be larger given. The one subject colonnades and classical in which of proportions, Grgeco-Roman sculpture in the hands of so the country mansion seems to put on a London a critic is to be judicious looked for look is impatiently, that of the court noble, a member of the and is needed as what has never yet been given privy council, the man with the traditions of the to the student. followers of William the Conqueror. This may be fanciful as a enough theory of origin, though Rhode Island Houses. An indeed there are Early Historical and suggestions within it: but it is Architectural Study by Norman M. Isham, truth that the simple two styles exist side by A. M., Instructor in Architecture, Brown side, as late at least as the of the University, and Albert F. Brown, architect. early years eighteenth And it is Preston and Rounds, Providence, R. I. century. simple truth that Small both these 1895. quarto ; pp. 100, and 60 styles came to this country, and that as plates serving appendix. relics of both are still to be found here. The The Old Colonial architecture, of which so earlier to manifest itself was the more popular much is said and written, is a somewhat and elegant purely traditional style, and this because it and town-bred It has a deal of style. great was the humbler and poorer houses that were added decoration ; porticos of columns, rows of bQilt. at the pilasters, pediments roof-gables and It is these houses it is this ; simple and tra- frontons over doors and windows and ; indoors ditional style which Messrs. Isham & Brown a handsome show of ornament modelled in very have reported upon in the volume before us, or carved in wood. It is, in a plaster short, adding to our slight knowledge of American modification of the more elegant style of the early building the contents of an admirable time of or even in some cases of George II., an monograph on one little corner of the country. earlier than that. It is traditional in style only The oldest Rhode Island houses are of the forty the sense that its of way working and its manner years from 1636 to 1675; there are only two of of design were brought from England by men them, one in Providence and one in Cranston. who had used it there. It is really the archi- There are only five left of the last quarter of the tecture of the London studios a reflex of all ; the seventeenth century. In of these, alterations work of professional architects. have been made which change the original char- There is, however, another Old Colonial acter very greatly, or else they are in ruins. Alf which is traditional in a truer sense. The very contain masonwork and woodwork worthy of clever writer who has furnished the account of that close and accurate study which our authors, English architecture for Planat's Encyclopedic with the aid of Mr. Edward Field, the Record de ^architecture et de la construction insists Commissioner of Providence, have given to upon the radical difference which he finds be- them. The drawings are minutely careful, tween the native English architecture which plotted and figured with obviously ideal accu- lingered on long after the Middle Ages through racy; and small perspective sketches of parts of " " the reigns of the Stuarts and into the teacup the framing, ironwork, sashes and chimney top, times of the Hanoverians which was handed are put in on the margins or are on separate down from father to son and for which no archi- leaves. In all this there is nothing of the Pal- tect made plans between this native and tradi. ladian architect or of the architect of any sort, then tional building, and the sophisticated and self- as the seventeenth century knew that being, and her colonies. conscious art imported from Italy in the volumes newly recognized in England in the of Palladio. The first, he thinks, was the build- Here are the posts more nearly square in one ing of the conquered English and the latter the main, broadening out to twice their width have the ends of to art of the Norman conquerors; that is to say, of direction where they girders into a of cor- their descendants in each case. carry, the posts spreading out pair are the The half-timbered house with overhanging bels where they are needed. Here at the lower upper stories, gables, wooden corner posts of the overhang, shaped verge-boards, " " or small and narrow windows grouped in threes end into a graceful enough drop pendant. of kinds and of and fives, and deep enclosed porches; this was Here is chamfering many many it moulded with elaboration the lingeiing mediaeval and purely English feel- sections, some of with ing showing itself in the mediaeval forms but and nearly all of it worked spirited stops. 92 NEW BOOKS.

In short, here is the English house-carpenters this small quarto. It is to be hoped that the traditional work shaped out of mediaeval forms work will be pushed on by the same enthusi- by passing through the century of Elizabeth and astic students. They have given us here what James, but mediaeval still in its shapes and we take to be the most important contribution ways. With this is a little ornamental mason- so far made to the history of American art, and work, admirable chimney tops with decoration in it will be a pity if their work stops here. brick pilaster-like breaks and simple stepped-out caps. A Text-Book of the History of Architecture. A. D. F. A. Pro- Then come the houses of the third period em- By Hamlin, M., Adjunct fessor of Architecture in the School of bracing the first quarter of the eighteenth cen- Mines, Columbia College. Longmans, one in one in North Provi- tury; Providence, Green & Co., New York. 1896. Pp. xxv., one in where the famous elm illustrations in the text. dence, Johnston 441 ; 229 Price, tree is, immortalized by the Autocrat, and one in $2.00. Buttonwoods where there ought to be some good To the student outside of the class-room it trees. These houses are somewhat larger; one may well appear that the chief value of this of them has and book is in its tables of monuments and dates formidably high sharp gables ^ but the same system of building with all the and its brief lists of books preceding the differ- larger timbers exposed indoors goes through ent chapters. That is to say, it will appear on them all. first examination to be a book of reference " The chapters on Construction," and on the rather than a book to read. This, however, will " Relation of Colonial Architecture to English be a mistaken idea and one that the reader of Work" explains precisely how the American clap- this notice is advised not to entertain. boarded exteriors are to be accounted for. The Some of us are convinced that the history of old houses were built at first as their models in art is more likely to be written as it should be England had been built, the timber framing written, by Americans than by the scholars of showing on the exterior and the spaces between any European nation. The monographs will the timbers filled with rough brick and mortar of course be by Europeans, in almost every there masonry or with "wattle and daub," but the instance. In Europe are the traditions ; sun of the summer shrunk the timbers and the are the scholarships, the Professorships and the cold and snow of the first winter found en- the habit men of some easy Fellowships ; among trance, and clapboards were called for. leisure of devoting their time and energies to Chapters V. and VI. deal with the towns of specialized study. Few are the Americans who Newport and Narragansett, which have not been come into the field of scholarship prepared to dwelt on in the previous pages; and some larger vie with their brothers of Western Europe in houses are described here, of which one at this matter of minute and continued research. least is quite a mansion in its exterior effect and But in the way of summing up the conclusions its accommodations. and the making history out of detached his- Plate I. gives a curious record in eight figures torical facts, the American has an advantage, of the development of the Rhode Island plan, which is greater than at first sight seems possi- in two directions, out of one-roomed houses with ble, in his capacity of treating with equal com- end one of these the line of the researches of men of all chimneys ; along parative respect chimneys in the outer wall becoming more and nationalities. It is strange, but it is true, that more elaborate with fireplaces and flues; the very few books published in Europe are free other through the well-known New England from vexatious instances of national pride inter- middle-chimney house, with its staircase in the fering with the historical sense. The tendency front lobby and backed up by the great stone which leads to such phrases as "Our History," mass of the chimney. Plate II. is a curious "with us, it has not been so," "we were map of Providence as it was in the seventeenth enabled to repel the invasion," and the like, century, with the names of the residents ap- recurring again and again in the gravest his- pended to their houses, some of which houses torical works and in all languages, is an example

are preserved in the plates of this book. In a of the nationalizing spirit to which we refer. pocket of the cover is an almost equally attrac- In treatises on architecture this is as prominent tive map of the State of Rhode Island at an and as visible as in political and social history, unnamed early date. and nothing is more ludicrous than the never- Enough has been said to show how inter- ending troubles of the would-be historian of esting and how valuable a book we have in architecture to explain to his readers, assumed NE W BOOKS. 93 to be his that after all countrymen, and in spite cluding some and some plans measured details, of everything his and their country leads the but made of generally up photographic views,' field. The nation of Western only Europe has an inherent value which is not to be mis- which be free from this curious taken. may supposed The selection of buildings is indeed ambition is the Swiss and the Swiss nation, very good. There are not as many interiors as of architecture we are to could be history European yet wished, but there are some which it is receive. really a pleasure to see in a popular book of this Mr. Hamlin's text shows the un- very neatly kind. It is hard to make them tell in small biased kind of which we from judgment expect photographic process plates. It seems that to the future American historian of art. It is not provide a good interior view for a book recourse that he is indifferent what nation or must be had to merely large and costly plates, such as people is proved to be the inventor of this those described in another page as illustrating or that, his of Mr. Birch's style unprejudiced largeness book, or else drawings made by view enables him to see the essential tendencies hand in which of course the draughtsman's per- at work in each epoch and every land. The sonality comes between the builder and the few words allowed to each branch of the sub- student. Thus the views of the interiors of S. as treated in this small book are the ject very Sophia at Constantinople, S. Mark's of Venice, right words nearly always. It would make our and S. Peter's of Rome, are of little avail to the readers if there were here the laugh printed student, but the Basilica of S. Maria Maggiore statements which we mark as perhaps erroneous, and the Cathedral of Pisa have simpler interiors so few they are and so trivial. Such brief treat- which the lack of distinctness does not so ment can never be very interesting reading, at greatly injure, and the vaulted roof of Henry least to the comparatively uninformed reader, the Seventh's Chapel, as a large-scale detail is but such readers may be advised safely to learn easy to render and is a very useful illustration. by heart each chapter on European architecture The exterior views serve their turn well. It is and then look at all photographs they can find, pleasant to find among them several fine build- belonging to that epoch, with the certainty that ings which are not known as well as they should these will have a new meaning to them. As to be, such as the south front of Hatfield House, the architecture of the far East, the subject has which is certainly one of the best pieces of as yet been too little studied to make it safe to Renaissance designing, properly so-called, in all write hand-books about it, and as to the Mo- the North of Europe, the admirable Town Hall hammedan architecture treated in Chapter XII., at Antwerp, and the Paris Pantheon, so given as Professor Hamlin perhaps overrates its import- to show its windowless walls. There are some ance. In India only is Mohammedan architec- Spanish examples too, which, though less un- ture of any great comparative value. known than they were fifteen years ago are still should be and the in- less familiar than they ; terior of San Juan de los Reyes at Toledo is well- A History of Architecture for the Sttident, be chosen on account of its Crajtsman and Amateur. Being a Com- worthy to interesting parative View of the Historical Styles from management of the central tower as seen from the Earliest Period. By Banister Fletcher, within. This should be compared with thesim- F. R. I. B. A., Professor of Architecture in lar and better known example of Burgos Cathe- King's College, London, and Banister F. and these two are in 114 and Fletcher, A. R. I. B. A.. Instructor in the dral, plates given Architectural Studio, King's College, Lon- US- don. With 115 plates, mostly Collotypes, The text of this work is arranged rather for and other illustrations in the text. B. T. reference than for reading. A large part of it is Batsford, London. 1896. Imported by elaborate between Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Small devoted to comparisons styles. is made on the octavo, pp. xvi., 313. Price $4.50. Announcement page facing page that each is considered in five different This is a small and thin hand-book, swelled one, style as to the Influences, to ways ; first, Geographical, by the insertion of 115 plates on thick paper Socio-Political the form of one of those "dumpy" bibles Geological, Climatic, Religious, it and Historical, which have shaped ; second, which Englishmen loved in the seventeenth Character as to the in as to its Architectural ; third, century. The plates are really of importance which serve as examples of it; fourth, any estimate of the book, for although such Buildings, each with other ; four and as to the Comparison of stales collotypes as can be printed on a page and as to the Books which may be consulted. one-half by seven inches cannot be wholly satis- fifth, and subtile in- The reduction of a complex theme, factory, yet a series of well-selected pictures, 94 NEW BOOKS. such as the critical history of architecture, to a savages have a perfect right to lay side by side series of brief and positive statements, brings patterns which show a continuous gradual diver- with it this danger, that statements will often be gence from the perfectly well marked human made which cannot be perfectly maintained face to figures which have but little resemblance This danger is greatly increased when much is to the first, and which seem, when taken made of the influences of race, climate and separately, not to be derived from natural forms religion. The working of these influences is so at all. The case is different when the triangles very hard to trace and is so tempting to the bold in a complicated geometrical pattern are stated theorizer, that the student should always be to be copies of a garment used by the women. warned against architectural conclusions founded Once in the hands of a decorative designer, one upon such non-architectural reasoning. triangle is much like another. The use of this figure may be in any given case suggested by a garment or the shape of a fish, or by the spaces left Evolution in Art, as Illustrated by the Life- between blades of a shark-tooth or Histories of Designs. By Alfred C. Had- weapon, by Professor of the interstices in a while the don, Zoology, Royal College zig-zag ; zig-zag of Dublin Mem- Science, ; Corresponding itself comes natural and unbidden to every idle ber of the Italian Society of Anthropology, man who has drawn two nearlv parallel lines, on etc. With 8 plates and 130 figures in the the sand or elsewhere, and who scrawls between text. London: Walter Scott, Ltd., 1895. Imported by Charles Scribner's Sons, New them. York. xviii. Pp. , 364. Price, $1.25. The truth is that study of decorative art and This volume is one of the Contemporary its origin is as yet in its infancy, and is likely to Science Series, edited by Havelock Ellis. It remain there until persons having a practical consists of an introduction and four principal knowledge of decorative design shall devote divisions, which, in their turn, are subdivided. themselves to the scientific study of it. The Thus the first of the main divisions is devoted to fact well known to all students of fine art that the art of British New Guinea, considered as an the arts which appeal to the eye are nearly example of the method of study to be followed, always misjudged by students in other depart- and this part of the book is subdivided as ments, greatly retards advance in the branch of follows: Torres Straits and Daudai under consideration. The I., ; II., anthropology literary III., IV. and V., Other geographical subdivi- student and the scientific student insist on judg- sions Relation of the decorative art to the works of that fine art which to the ; VI., ing appeals ethnology of British New Guinea; and VII., eye from literary and scientific standpoints. Note on the scroll designs of British New They are not to be blamed, for it is rarely seen Guinea. The second main division is entitled that a master of the graphic and plastic arts, " The Material of which Patterns are Made," one knowing their theory in practice well, writes " and the third and fourth are, respectively, The with any fullness, or indeed gives any attention " Reasons for which Objects are Decorated and whatever to research in the mysteries of primal " The Scientific Method of Studying Decorative decorative art. It fails to interest him, just as Art." The purpose and intent of the book is the rudest compositions in verse fail to interest obviously and avowedly to approach the study the enthusiastic student of the loftiest poetry. of anthropology through the investigation of Occasionally and incidently the man who knows those ornamental patterns and those rude works of and lives with that art which is the most representative art which savages not of the highly developed and most stimulating may lowest condition produce in great abundance. turn to consider the earliest gross and It is found that certain figures in ornamental feeble strivings of undeveloped humanity, patterns resemble certain objects, necessarily but continued and comparative study of them well known to the savages who have produced is not his to undertake. Those who accumulate those patterns. There is then the natural dispo- facts relating to this novel subject of study and sition on the part of the investigator to infer that who reason upon them are nearly always persons those figures are copied from the objects in to whom fine art is a sealed book. This, question. Now, this inference is of different indeed, is indicated in the Introduction, where degrees of reasonableness in the different cases it is stated that the facts are collected in large " given. There can be no doubt, when a part of numbers by missionaries and others or seen the human face is indicated by strongly marked in large ethnographical collections." Therefore, lines, what those indications mean, and the for years to come books will be written wh'ch, scientific students of pattern-designing among like this one, are full of suggestion, but which will NEW BOOKS. 95 mislead at times by assuming as true that which very magnificent, nor its minor churches advanced student of very every decorative and rich in architectural design or in art knows to be false or sculpture representative extremely This is made up for, very largely, by the fact improbable. This book and Mr. Balfour's that they are not restored. No where , will the interesting little treatise, "The Evolution of student find a larger Decorative amount, proportionately Art," are important and f praise- absolutely unaltered and at the nearly uninjured worthy attempts laying foundations of a work. Round arched and early Gothic is to be which to study may prove be, in the future, found in great abundance; central and later mainly scientific or In mainly philosophical. Gothic also with all their strange and the meantime its are quaint proceedings scientific in experiments in vaulting and attempts at their the getting character, pursued along lines of direct decoration sculptured at small cost. Moreover, observation and of facts and comparison that is all this is found in a country, which abounds well. in stone, fit for delicate cutting and solid building, and most of it is intact and unre- The Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland, stored. The authors of this book have treated the Earliest Christian Times to the from their Seventeenth subject as a series of Century. By David Macgib- monographs ; long or bon and Thomas Ross. Edinburgh: David short, according to the importance of the Douglas. 1896. Vol. I., pp. xiii., 483. subject in each case. Thus, Dunfermline The authors of this book are also the authors Abbey Church has " nearly thirty pages devoted of The Castellated and Domestic Architecture to it with no less than " twenty-six illustrations, of Scotland in five which came means of volumes, out by which, with a little comparing and three or four and is years ago, one of the most referring backwards and forwards, an excellent idea interesting and valuable of modern books on of the whole with its building almost architecture. Mr. is Macgibbon by himself the unique buttress system is to be had. The first " author of The Architecture of Provence and illustration those among referred to is a general the which of Riviera," was published in 1888, and plan the buildings of the Abbey; several of which is a book to class with Butler's the cuts of the "Coptic give parts subordinate buildings Churches of and a Egypt" and Jackson's "Dalmatia, reference on page 256 sends us back tp The Quarnero and Istria," as a product of per- the work on Castellated and Domestic Architec- sonal and ture for the Palace experiences minute observation. which was intimately con- These octavo volumes printed in large type and nected with the structures of the Abbey. In like and in the manner the church in illustrated, yet sufficiently light hand, celebrated song and story, as have a peculiar value to busy students; especially St. Magnus' Cathedral at Kirkwall, is described in when illustrated as fully as those of our present twenty-four cuts and a propor- authors. Architects in particular not gifted tionate number of pages of text. Whether with much leisure for patient and long con. we take Sir Walter Scott's view of the town of tinued archaeological studies should find books Kirkwall, as held in 1805, that Kirkwall was " of this form peculiarly valuable for who fair," or his opinion as held in 1814, after he reads or can read the pages of a folio ? The had seen it, " mere fact that there is never a table free to And needs must I stare When I think that in verse I have once called \\.fair; receive it the value of a folio as destroys except 'Tis a base little borough, both dirty and mean There is to hear and there's to be seen.' a book of plates. nothing naught Of these octavo volumes, then, devoted to the we shall not find it hard to appraise the cathedral personal study of architectural subjects, eleven That, indeed, is a thing upon which Sir Walter have been cited was not to he lived and and Messrs. Macgibbon & Ross highly qualified speak ; are preparing to give us three or four volumes died before the dawn of the archaeological day. more; and those upon a subdivision of the his- The church is really a very interesting piece of tory of architecture which many of our readers Romanesque and Transitional architecture with will think more immediately interesting than Gothic vaulting of a simple type, but of an any of those which have been mentioned. The epoch nearly a century later than that of the only drawback to Scottish ecclesiastical architec- walls which it surmounts and with a most inter- ture, as a matter of pressing need to all students, esting central tower in its original condition. is the fact that it has never been very splendid Some of those famous abbeys which we asso- are the nor in the highest sense of the word original. ciate rather with England, and which of all mediaeval to No single style of the last importance has ever best known buildings many originated in Scotland, nor are its cathedrals travelers and many lovers of the picturesque 96 NEW BOOKS.

in architecture, are really "over the border." architecture is followed by the Norrnan, that is These, of course, are treated with proportionate to say the Romanesque style, and that by the care in the book before us. Thus Kelso Abbey Transition style. The perfected and the later Church is treated in twelve cuts and an interest- Gothic are left for future volumes, although, of of text and this affords an the treated in this ing chapter ; oppor- course, buildings volume tunity to say that these ruined monastic build- contain many fragments of later architecture. ings have never had justice done them by the There is a separate series of papers on the archaeologists. No one will suspect us of wish- very early churches of the Orkney and the ing to depreciate the admirable work done by Shetland Islands, made up from plans and Edmund Sharpe, but what he has done leaves drawings, made forty years ago by Sir Henry Dry- still undone the much needed exact survey and den. There is a similar treatise on the earliest measurement and exact setting down of the ecclesiastical buildings of Scotland, derived from ruins as they stand. Let the future give us if it the studies of the late T. S. Muir, and attention will, complete excavation and thorough result- is especially called to these as the work of research what is needed now and without an of enthusiasm and ing ; antiquary extraordinary delay is a trustworthy record of what exists trustworthy devotion. The fact is insisted on above ground and within reach of a tape- that these very early buildings have suffered very measure and the camera- lucida. This work is greatly since ihe drawings and measurements in the way of being done by Messrs. Macgibbon in question were made from them. An introduc- and Ross, as may be seen in the monograph of tion gives an account which is well worth reading, Kelso and in those devoted to Dundrennan, of the evolution of European architecture during Jedburgh, Kinloss and Dryburgh. about 400 years, namely, from 1050 to 1450 That which has been described is a part of the A. D., the years of the Romanesque architec- body of the work, and of this it should be said ture, the development of Gothic and its it to be in a sense chrono- that appears arranged changes ; English examples being always to logically. The transition from Celtic Norman preferred. Russell Sturgis.