The Han The was the second imperial dynasty of (206 BCE–220 CE), preceded by the dynasty (221–206 BCE) and succeeded by the period (220–280 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered a golden age in Chinese history. It was founded by the rebel leader Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the (9–23 AD) of the former regent . This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods: the Western Han or Former Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and the Eastern Han or Later Han (25–220 CE).

The emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the scholarly gentry class. The Han was divided into areas directly controlled by the central government using innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies, and a number of semi-autonomous kingdoms. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States.

The Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the (c. 1050–256 BCE). The coinage issued by the central government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the (618–907 CE).

The , a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BCE and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) launched several military campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries. These campaigns expanded Han sovereignty into the of , divided the Xiongnu into two separate confederations, and helped establish the vast trade network known as the Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean world.

The territories north of Han's borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic confederation. Emperor Wu also launched successful military expeditions in the south, annexing in 111 BCE and Dian in 109 BCE, and in the Korean Peninsula where the Xuantu and Lelang Commanderies were established in 108 BCE. After 92 CE, the palace eunuchs increasingly involved themselves in court politics, engaging in violent power struggles between the various consort clans of the empresses and empresses dowager, causing the Han's ultimate downfall. Imperial authority was also seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the and the Five Pecks of Rice Rebellion. Following the death of Emperor Ling (r. 168–189 CE), the palace eunuchs suffered wholesale massacre by military officers, allowing members of the aristocracy and military governors to become warlords and divide the empire. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, the Han dynasty ceased to exist.

At the beginning of the Han dynasty, every male commoner aged twenty-three was liable for conscription into the military. The minimum age for the military draft was reduced to twenty after Emperor Zhao's (87–74 BCE) reign. Conscripted soldiers underwent one year of training and one year of service as non-professional soldiers. The year of training was served in one of three branches of the armed forces: infantry, or navy.[198] The year of active service was served either on the frontier, in a king's court or under the Minister of the Guards in the capital. A small professional (paid) standing army was stationed near the capital.

During the Eastern Han, conscription could be avoided if one paid a commutable tax. The Eastern Han court favored the recruitment of a volunteer army.The volunteer army comprised the Southern Army (Nanjun 南軍), while the standing army stationed in and near the capital was the Northern Army (Beijun 北軍). Led by Colonels, the Northern Army consisted of five regiments, each composed of several thousand soldiers. When central authority collapsed after 189 AD, wealthy landowners, members of the aristocracy/nobility, and regional military-governors relied upon their retainers to act as their own personal troops

During times of war, the volunteer army was increased, and a much larger militia was raised across the country to supplement the Northern Army. In these circumstances, a General (Jiangjun 將軍) led a division, which was divided into regiments led by Colonels and sometimes Majors (Sima 司⾺). Regiments were divided into companies and led by Captains. With the accession of James the Sixth of Scotland to the English throne the wars died out in 1603. Chang'’an Western Han Army Commander 1 Any Professional Dates 206 BCE – 9 CE

Sub-Generals 1-3 Any Professional TERRAIN Coastal, Mountains, Forest

Internal allied General 0-1 Any Professional Camp Unfortified or Fortified :Poor or Average

WEAPONRY Characteristics Min Name Type Quality Shooting Protection UG Size MELEE Mandatory Optional Max Standing Army - Beijun 北軍 Battle , only Battle Experienced Light - - 0 Average Protected 4,6 before 100BC Formed Loose - - - 6 Cavalry Experienced Light Spear Shoot and Charge Melee Expert 0 Heavy Cavalry Average Protected 4,6 Drilled Loose Crossbow - - Dismountable 16 Nu - Best Missile Infantry Experienced - - Combat Shy 0 Average Protected 6,8 Troops Drilled Loose Crossbow - - Caltrops 16 Infantry - Polearm - Combat Shy 0 Ji - Best Close Fighters Average Protected 6,8 Drilled Flexible - - - Caltrops 16 Infantry - Polearm - Combat Shy 0 Average Protected Combined Best Drilled Flexible - - - Caltrops 8 6,9 infantry * Infantry Experienced - - Combat Shy 0 Average Protected Drilled Loose Crossbow - - Caltrops 16 Conscripted army - Nanjun 南軍 Cavalry Experienced Light Spear Shoot and Charge Melee Expert 4 Heavy Cavalry Average Protected 4,6 Formed Flexible Crossbow - - Dismountable 16 Nu - Conscript Missile Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 12** Average Protected 6,8 Troops Formed Loose Crossbow - - - 24 Ji - Conscript Close Infantry - Polearm - Combat Shy 6** Average Protected 6,8 Fighters Formed Flexible - - - - 24 Infantry - Polearm - Combat Shy 0 Average Protected Combined Conscript Drilled Flexible - - - Caltrops 12 6,9 infantry * Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Average Protected Drilled Loose Crossbow - - Caltrops 24

WEAPONRY Characteristics Min Name Type Quality Shooting Protection UG Size MELEE Mandatory Optional Max Mao Conscript Close Infantry - Long Spear - Combat Shy 0 Average Protected 6,8 Fighters Formed Flexible - - - - 8 Yan Conscript Close Infantry - Light Spear - Combat Shy 0 Average Protected 6,8 Fighters Formed Flexible - - - - 8 Optional Troops Cavalry Experienced - - - 0 Horse Archers Average Protected 4,6 Formed Flexible Bow - - - 18 Dependant State Cavalry Experienced Light Spear - Melee Expert 0 Average Unprotected 4,6 Cavalry Formed Flexible Bow - - - 12 Infantry - - - Combat Shy 0 Convict Labour troops Average Unprotected 8,9,10 Tribal Loose - - - - 10 Artillery Experienced - - - 0 Bolt Shooters Average Unprotected 2,4 Formed Loose Light Artillery - - - 4 Artillery Experienced - - - 0 Stone Throwers Average Unprotected 2,3 Formed Loose Light Artillery - - - 3 Infantry Experienced - - Combat Shy 0 Archers Average Unprotected 6,8,9 Skirmisher Bow - - - 18

NOTES

*Han Combined infantry TuGs consist of 1 front rank base of Ji (Polearm) armed troops and a 2nd and 3rd ranks of Nu (Crossbowmen). The bases from combined TuGs taken in this way deduct from the minima and maximum of the component troops. ** Mimimum only applies if any non- Cavalry bases are used. Eastern Han Army Commander 1 Any Professional Dates 25–220 CE

Sub-Generals 1-3 Any Professional TERRAIN Coastal, Mountains, Forest

Internal allied General 0-1 Any Professional Camp Unfortified or Fortified :Poor or Average

WEAPONRY Characteristics Min Name Type Quality Shooting Protection UG Size MELEE Mandatory Optional Max Standing Army - Beijun 北軍 Cavalry Experienced Light Spear Shoot and Charge Melee Expert 0 Yueji Guard Cavalry Superior Protected 4,6 Formed Loose Crossbow - - Dismountable 12 Infantry Skilled - - - 0 Shesheng Average Protected 6,8 Drilled Loose Crossbow - - Caltrops 8 Infantry Experienced - - Combat Shy 0 Nu Missile Troops Average Protected 6,8 Drilled Loose Crossbow - - Caltrops 16 Infantry - Polearm - - 0 Fubing Superior Protected 6,8 Drilled Flexible - - - Caltrops 8 Infantry - Polearm - Combat Shy 0 Ji Close Fighters Average Protected 6,8 Drilled Flexible - - - Caltrops 16 Volunteer army Cavalry Experienced Light Spear Shoot and Charge Melee Expert 0 Heavy Cavalry Average Protected 4,6 Formed Flexible Crossbow - - Dismountable 16 Nu - Volunteer Missile Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 12* Average Protected 6,8 Troops Formed Loose Crossbow - - - 24 Ji - Volunteer Close Infantry - Polearm - Combat Shy 6* Average Protected 6,8 Fighters Formed Flexible - - - - 24 Mao Volunteer Close Infantry - Long Spear - Combat Shy 0 Average Protected 6,8 Fighters Formed Flexible - - - - 8 Yan Volunteer Close Infantry - Light Spear - Combat Shy 0 Average Protected 6,8 Fighters Formed Flexible - - - - 8

WEAPONRY Characteristics Min Name Type Quality Shooting Protection UG Size MELEE Mandatory Optional Max Optional Troops Cavalry Experienced - - - 0 Horse Archers Average Protected 4,6 Formed Flexible Bow - - - 18 Dependant State Cavalry Experienced Light Spear - Melee Expert 0 Average Unprotected 4,6 Cavalry Formed Flexible Bow - - - 12 Infantry - - Combat Shy - 0 Convict Labour troops Average Unprotected 8,9,10 Tribal Loose - - - - 10 Infantry - Devastating Chargers - Combat Shy 0 Tribal Auxiliaries Average Protected 6,8,9 Tribal Loose - - - - 18 Cavalry Experienced Light Spear - Melee Expert 0 Tribal Auxiliaries Average Protected 4,6 Tribal Flexible Bow - - - 18 Artillery Experienced - - - 0 Bolt Shooters Average Unprotected 2,4 Formed Loose Light Artillery - - - 4 Artillery Experienced - - - 0 Stone Throwers Average Unprotected 2,3 Formed Loose Light Artillery - - - 3 Infantry Experienced - - Combat Shy 0 Archers Average Unprotected 6,8,9 Skirmisher Bow - - - 18

NOTES

** Mimimum only applies if any non- Cavalry bases are used. Xiongnu Army Commander 1 Any Instinctive Dates 250 BCE - 300CE

Sub-Generals 1-2 Any Instinctive TERRAIN Plains

Internal allied General 0-1 Any Instinctive Camp Unfortified or Mobile :Poor or Average

WEAPONRY Characteristics Min Name Type Quality Shooting Protection UG Size MELEE Mandatory Optional Max Cavalry Skilled Light Spear - Melee Expert 0 Best Cavalry Superior Protected 4,6 Formed Loose Bow - - - 6 Cavalry Experienced Light Spear - - 6 Heavy Cavalry Average Protected 4,6 Formed Loose Bow - - - 24 Upgrade Heavy Cavalry Experienced Light Spear Melee Expert - 0 Average Protected 4,6 Cavalry Formed Loose Bow - - - 1/2 Cavalry Experienced - - Combat Shy 32 Other Cavalry Average Unprotected 4,6 Formed Flexible Bow - - - 80 Upgrade Other Cavalry Skilled - - Combat Shy 0 Average Unprotected 4,6 Cavalry Formed Flexible Bow - - - 1/2 Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Average Unprotected 6,8 Tribal Loose Bow - - - 12 Foot Archers Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Average Unprotected 6,8,9 Skirmisher Bow - - - 18 Infantry - - - Combat Shy 0 Levy Toops Average Unprotected 8,9,10 Tribal Loose - - - - 10 Infantry - Devastating Chargers - Combat Shy 0 Tribal Auxiliaries Average Protected 6,8,9 Tribal Loose - - - - 27

NOTES Infantry - Light Spear - Combat Shy 0 Subjugated Di infantry Average Protected 6,8 Tribal Flexible - - - - 48 Infantry Experienced - - Combat Shy 0 Subjugated Di Archers Average Unprotected 6,8,9 Skirmisher Bow - - - 18 NOTES

The Xiongnu were a confederation of nomadic peoples who inhabited the eastern Asian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Chinese sources report that Modu , the supreme leader after 209 BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire. After their previous overlords, the , migrated into Central Asia during the 2nd century BC, the Xiongnu became a dominant power on the steppes of north-east Central Asia, centred on an area known later as Mongolia.

Han China started making preparations for a military confrontation from the reign of Emperor Wen, the break did not come until 133 BC, following an abortive trap to ambush the chanyu at Mayi. By that point the empire was consolidated politically, militarily and economically, and was led by an adventurous pro-war faction at court. In that year, Emperor Wu reversed the decision he had made the year before to renew the peace treaty.

Full-scale war broke out in autumn 129 BC, when 40,000 Chinese cavalry made a surprise attack on the Xiongnu at the border markets. In 127 BC, the Han general Wei Qing retook the Ordos. In 121 BC, the Xiongnu suffered another setback when led a force of light cavalry westward out of Longxi and within six days fought his way through five Xiongnu kingdoms. The Xiongnu Hunye king was forced to surrender with 40,000 men. In 119 BC both Huo and Wei, each leading 50,000 cavalrymen and 100,000 footsoldiers (in order to keep up with the mobility of the Xiongnu, many of the non-cavalry Han soldiers were mobile infantrymen who traveled on horseback but fought on foot), and advancing along different routes, forced the chanyu and his court to flee north of the . Major logistical difficulties limited the duration and long-term continuation of these campaigns. Firstly there was the problem of supplying food across long distances. Secondly, the weather in the northern Xiongnu lands was difficult for Han soldiers, who could never carry enough fuel. According to official reports, the Xiongnu lost 80,000 to 90,000 men, and out of the 140,000 horses the Han forces had brought into the desert, fewer than 30,000 returned to China. As a result of these battles, the Chinese controlled the strategic region from the Ordos and corridor to Lop Nor. They succeeded in separating the Xiongnu from the peoples to the south, and also gained direct access to the . Because of strong Chinese control over the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu became unstable and were no longer a threat to the . Xiongnu among other people in Asia around 1 AD.

Ban Chao, Protector General of the Han dynasty, embarked with an army of 70,000 men in a campaign against the Xiongnu insurgents who were harassing the trade route we now know as the . His successful military campaign saw the subjugation of one Xiongnu tribe after another. Chao also sent an envoy named to . was created the Marquess of Dingyuan for his services to the Han Empire and returned to the capital Luoyangat the age of 70 years and died there in the year 102. Following his death, the power of the Xiongnu in the Western Regions increased again, and the emperors of subsequent were never again able to reach so far to the west. Qiang and Di Army Commander 1 Any Instinctive Dates 315 BCE - 300CE

Sub-Generals 0 Any Instinctive TERRAIN Qiang - Mountains , Di - Coastal

Internal allied General 0-3 Any Instinctive Camp Unfortified or Mobile :Poor or Average

WEAPONRY Characteristics Min Name Type Quality Shooting Protection UG Size MELEE Mandatory Optional Max Cavalry Experienced Light Spear - Melee Expert 0 Cavalry Average Protected 4,6 Formed Flexible Bow - - - 18 Cavalry Experienced Light Spear - Melee Expert 0 Upgrade Cavalry Superior Protected 4,6 Formed Flexible Bow - - - 6 Infantry - Light Spear - Integral Archers 0 Best Infantry Superior Protected 6,8 Tribal Loose - - - - 18 Infantry - Light Spear - Combat Shy 0 Infantry Average Protected 6,8,9 Tribal Loose - - - Integral Archers 64 Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Average Unprotected 6,8 Tribal Loose Bow - - - 12 Foot Archers Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Average Unprotected 6,8,9 Skirmisher Bow - - - 18

Allies Xiongnu - any instinctive

NOTES

The Han dynasty also had to deal with the Qiang and Di on the western border. The had constantly been involved in skirmishes against the dynasty since the middle of Western Han dynasty. As the Eastern Han dynasty declined, the Qiang, nominal ancestors of modern Tibetans, began planning major invasions. Through spies and collaborators, the Han court knew about the situation and had to deploy soldiers near the border to fend off Qiang skirmishes and small- scale invasions. Although few major Qiang invasions were carried out, never successfully, such a military deployment constantly drained the treasury and was a cradle for ambitious militarists, the most famous of whom was (130s–192), the pretender to the Han court from 189-192. The more the Han court weakened through domestic problems. The were a frequent ally with the Han court against Xianbei and the Southern Xiongnu, although they also sometimes allied with the Xiongnu to fend off joint attacks by the Han and Xianbei. The Qiang were herders who lived in the highlands, the Di farmed in the river valleys and lived in wood frame homes with mud walls. Xianbei Army Commander 1 Any Instinctive Dates 90 CE -300CE

Sub-Generals 1-2 Any Instinctive TERRAIN Plains

Internal allied General 0-1 Any Instinctive Camp Unfortified or Mobile :Poor or Average

WEAPONRY Characteristics Min Name Type Quality Shooting Protection UG Size MELEE Mandatory Optional Max Cavalry Skilled Light Spear - Melee Expert 0 Best Cavalry Superior Protected 4,6 Formed Loose Bow - - - 6 Cavalry Experienced Light Spear - - 6 Heavy Cavalry Average Protected 4,6 Formed Loose Bow - - - 24 Upgrade Heavy Cavalry Experienced Light Spear Melee Expert - 0 Average Protected 4,6 Cavalry Formed Loose Bow - - - 1/2 Cavalry Experienced - - Combat Shy 32 Horse Archers Average Unprotected 4,6 Formed Flexible Bow - - - 80 Upgrade Horse Cavalry Skilled - - Combat Shy 0 Average Unprotected 4,6 Archers Formed Flexible Bow - - - 1/2 Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Average Unprotected 6,8 Tribal Loose Bow - - - 12 Foot Archers Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Average Unprotected 6,8,9 Skirmisher Bow - - - 18 Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Defecting Han infantry Poor Protected 6,8 Formed Loose Crossbow - - - 16 Infantry - Polearm - Combat Shy 0 Defecting Han Archers Poor Protected 6,8 Formed Flexible - - - - 8 Infantry - Polearm - Combat Shy 0 Poor Protected Defecting Han Formed Flexible - - - - 8 6,9 Combined infantry * Infantry Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Poor Protected Formed Loose Crossbow - - - 16 NOTES

*Han Combined infantry TuGs consist of 1 front rank base of Ji (Polearm) armed troops and a 2nd and 3rd ranks of Nu (Crossbowmen). The bases from combined TuGs taken in this way deduct from the minima and maximum of the component troops.

NOTES

The Xianbei were proto-Mongols residing in what became today's eastern Mongolia, , and Northeast China. Along with the Xiongnu, they were one of the major nomadic groups in northern China during the Han Dynasty and subsequent dynastic periods. They eventually established their own northern dynasties, including the founded in the 4th century AD by the Tuobaclan.

The records a memorial submitted in 177: Ever since the Xiongnu ran away, the Xianbei have become powerful and populous, taking all the lands previously held by the Xiongnu and claiming to have 100,000 warriors. … Refined metals and wrought iron have come into the possession of the Xianbei rebels. Han deserters also seek refuge and serve as their advisers. Their weapons are sharper and their horses are faster than those of the Xiongnu. Han Rebels Army Commander 1 Any Dates Red Eyebrow 17CE-24CE Yellow Turban 184CE-205CE

Sub-Generals 0-2 Any TERRAIN Coastal, Mountains, Forest

Internal allied General 1-3 Any Camp Unfortified or Fortified :Poor or Average

WEAPONRY Characteristics Min Name Type Quality Shooting Protection UG Size MELEE Mandatory Optional Max Conscripted army - Nanjun 南軍 under rebel leadership Cavalry Average or Experienced Light Spear Shoot and Charge Melee Expert 0 Heavy Cavalry Protected 4,6 Formed Flexible Poor Crossbow - - - 6 Nu - Conscript Missile Infantry Average or Experienced - Combat Shy - 8 Protected 6,8 Troops Formed Loose Poor Crossbow - - - 16 Ji - Conscript Close Infantry Average or - Polearm - Combat Shy 6 Protected 6,8 Fighters Formed Flexible Poor - - - - 16 Infantry Average or - Polearm - Combat Shy 0 Protected Combined Conscript Formed Flexible Poor - - - - 8 6,9 infantry * Infantry Average or Experienced - Combat Shy - 0 Protected Formed Loose Poor Crossbow - - - 16 Optional Troops Cavalry Average or Experienced - - - 0 Horse Archers Protected 4,6 Formed Flexible Poor Bow - - - 18 Dependant State Cavalry Average or Experienced Light Spear - Melee Expert 0 Unprotected 4,6 Cavalry Formed Flexible Poor Bow - - - 12 Infantry Average or - - - Combat Shy 0 Convict Labour troops Unprotected 8,9,10 Tribal Loose Poor - - - - 10 Infantry Average or - - Devastating Chargers Combat Shy 27 Peasant Rebels Unprotected 9,10 Tribal Loose Poor - - - - 54 Infantry Average or Experienced - - Combat Shy 0 Archers Unprotected 6,8,9 Skirmisher Poor Bow - - - 18 NOTES

*Han Combined infantry TuGs consist of 1 front rank base of Ji (Polearm) armed troops and a 2nd and 3rd ranks of Nu (Crossbowmen). The bases from combined TuGs taken in this way deduct from the minima and maximum of the component troops.

A Han Rebel army must have more Poor TuGs than Average ones

NOTES The or Chimei was one of the two major agrarian rebellion movements against Wang Mang's short-lived Xin dynasty, the other being Lülin. It was so named because the rebels painted their eyebrows red. The rebellion, initially active in the modern and northern regions, eventually led to Wang Mang's downfall by draining his resources, allowing Liu Xuan (Emperor Gengshi), leader of the Lülin, to overthrow Wang and temporarily reestablish an incarnation of the Han dynasty. The Red Eyebrows later overthrew Emperor Gengshi and placed their own Han descendant puppet, teenage Emperor Liu Penzi, on the throne, who ruled briefly until the Chimei leaders' incompetence in ruling the territories under their control (which matched their brilliance on the battlefield) caused the people to rebel against them, forcing them to retreat and attempt to return home. When their path was blocked by the army of Liu Xiu's (Emperor Guangwu) newly established Eastern Han regime, they surrendered to him.

The Yellow Turban Rebellion, also translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt in China against the Han dynasty. The uprising broke out in the year 184 during the reign of Emperor Ling. It took 21 years until the uprising was suppressed in the year 205.The rebellion, which got its name from the color of the cloths that the rebels wore on their heads, marked an important point in the history of Taoismdue to the rebels' association with secret Taoist societies.