DIFFUSIONO FMIL KA SA NE WFOO DT OTROPICA LREGIONS : THEEXAMPL EO FINDONESIA ,1880-1942 . Promotoren:Dr .J.G.A.J .Hautvast ,hoogleraa r ind e leerva nd e Voeding end eVoedselbereiding . Dr.A.M .va nde rWoude ,hoogleraa r ind eAgrarisch e Geschiedenis. ^J/O^IOV v| 0^^

ADELP .DE NHARTO G

DIFFUSIONO FMIL KA SA NEWFOO DT OTROPICA LRESIGNS : THEEXAMPL EO F INDONESIA, 1880-1942

PROEFSCHRIFT TERVERKRIJGIN GVA ND EGRAA DVA N DOCTOR IND ELANDBOUWWETENSCHAPPEN , OPGEZA GVA ND ERECTO RMAGNIFICUS , DR.C.C .OOSTERLEE , INHE TOPENBAA R TEVERDEDIGE N OPDINSDA G 9SEPTEMBE R 1986 DESNAMIDDAG S TEVIE RUU R IND EAUL A VAND ELANDBOUWUNIVERSITEI TT EWAGENINGE N

1-• • I * <° -' r V BIBL10THEEK DKR 1AHDBOITWHOGFSCHOOL 1FAGENINGEN ^ /vjNu'l^v,!oH$

STELLINGEN

1. Geziend ebeter ehoudbaarhei dva n zuremel konde r tropischeomstandighede n ishe t jammer dat zuremel k alsonderdee lva nd e gezondheidszorg nda e onafhankelijkheid van Indonesie geennavolgin gmee rheef tgevonden . Dit proefschrift.

2. Bijhe tgeve nva nee noordee l overd eplaat sva n zuivel inontwikkelings - landenword t inNederlan d onvoldoende aandacht geschonken aanhe t feitda t men temake nheef tme tmelkgebruikend ee nniet-melkgebruikend evolken .

3. "Deheersend e omstandigheden inDa re sSalaa m (eni nmeni gsta di n andere ontwikkelingslanden)make nd e combinatieva nwer ke n moederschap totee nva n zwoegen.Dez e combinatie isnauwelijk s mogelijk zonderee ntoevluch t teneme nto tee nniet-op-moedermel k gebaseerde zuigelingenvoeding.Mel kva nd e koei s inonvoldoend e mateaanwezi ge nmoeder smake ngebrui k vanwel kmelkproduc tda t ookmaa rbeschikbaa r is.He thelp tnie tdez eoplossinge ndi edoo r de omstandigheden zijnopgeleg dva nd ehan d tewijze nal sieman d vanhe tprojec t suggereerde.E rzij n zeer reeele tegenstrijdigheden ind edoelstellinge nva nWesters eactiviste ne n de behoeftenva nDerd eWereldvrouwe ndi eme td ehard e realiteiten vanhe t levenworde ngeconfronteerd . Eenieder diehe t ernstig neemte ndez e realiteitenwi lverbeteren ,ka ne rnie taa nontkome n omdez e tegenstrijdigheden onder ogen tezien" .

Bantje,H. ;Yambi ,O .Influence so ninfan t feeding inDa re sSalaam . Food andNutritio nBulletin , 1983,5 ,no .3 ,p .10 .

4. Degenenui td egeindustrialiseerd e landendi ed e oplossingva nd e huidige over-e nondervoedingsproblematie k vand ewerel duitsluiten d ofhoofdzake - lijkbepleite ndoo rmidde lva nproducti eva nplantaardi gvoedse ldiene nbi j hetvolgend e even stilt e staan:

"Verscheidene (vanonze )voorouder s zouden zich inhu n graf omdraaienal sz ewiste nda tsommig egroepe nn uvoo r een vegetarisch dieetdurve npleiten .Allermins tui tprincip e gingen zijimmer sal svegetarier sdoo r het leven.Z eware n hetui tnoodzaak ,gewoo nomda tvlee se n zuivelvoo rhe n een onbetaalbare luxevormde n ".

Vandenbroeke, Ch.Vlaams eKoopkracht ,gisteren ,vandaa g enmorgen .Leuven , Kritak, 1984,biz .269 .

li.*.'i. 5. Voedselhulp aanontwikkelingslande ne n socialeuitkeringe n inNederlan d hebben enige overeenkomsten.D ebeid emaatregele nlosse nd eoorzake n van het probleemnie t opdoc hmake nhe t levenva nd ebetrokke n personen minder ondraaglijk.

6. Het isnoodzakelijk , geziend ehuidig ewereldvoedselsituatie , het concept vanvoedselhul p tevervange n door voedselsamenwerking. Immersdonor -e n ontvangende landen hebben temake nme thaas tondraaglijk e economische en sociale lastenva n eenondoelmatig evoedselproductie , zodat verdere samenwerkinggebode n iso mhe tproblee mva n over-e nonderproducti e op te lossen.

7. Deme tBelgie ,Frankrij k en Italievergeleke n eenvoudige Nederlandse keuken isnie t zo zeerui the tCalvinism et everklare n alswe l eensword t beweerd. Eenonderliggend e oorzaak isd e afwezigheid inonz e strekenva n een rijke hofcultuur met eenovervloedig e voedselaanvoer enee ngering e bekommernis voor deprimair e zorgen omhe tdagelijk s bestaan.

8. Gezien hetbelan gva n zolan gmogelij k zelfstandig kunnenwone nva n de bejaarde mens, ishe t tebetreuren ,da t ind e studie "Ouderworde n ind e toekomst"gee naandach t isgeschonke n aand e zogenaamde rijdendewinkel s met primaire levensbehoeftene n instellingen metwarm emaaltijdbezorgin g aan huisal sonderdee l van (gezondheids)zorgvoorzieningen.

Ouderworde n ind e toekomst, scenario's over gezondheid en vergrijzing 1984-2000.Leidschendam ,Stuurgroe pToekomstscenario' s Gezondheidszorg, 1984.27 2pp .

9. Het overvloedige Nederlandse voedselpatroon valtnie t alleen af te leiden uitd e brutoverbruiksgegevens ,voedselconsumptieonderzoek ,he t aantal verschillende artikelen opd e schappen ind e supermarkten,maa r ookui t de stortvloed van kookboeken. Zo zijnee n 670-tal kookboeken uit binnen-e nbuitenlan d voorradig in een grote boekwinkel ofdirec t leverbaarwaaraa n nog een 200 titels toegevoegd kunnenworde n ophe t gebied vanwijn ,dranke nme t en zonder alcohol ,

'Gebaseer d opkookboeke n 1984-1985,Katalogu sScheltema , Holkema& Vermeulen, Amsterdam. 10. De aanwezigheid vanomvangrijk eetnisch eminderhede nme thu n sterke culinaire tradities inNederlan d heeftee nverrijkend e invloed opd e Nederlandsekookkunst .

11. Inverban dme td emaatschappelijk e implicatiesva nd eproblematie k rond over-e nondervoeding ,ka n sociaalwetenschappelijk onderwijs en-onderzoe k naard evoedin gva nd emen snie tgehee llo sworde ngezie nva nd e fysiologische behoeften.

12. Internationaliseringva nhe tonderwij saa nd eLandbouwhogeschoo l isee n goede zaak.Ui tculturel ee neconomisch eoverweginge nmag internationali­ seringnie tte nkost egaa nva nhe t regulierewetenschappelij k onderwijs in deNederlands e taal. Lodewijk deRae t (1870-1914),Vlaam s statisticus eneconoom ,wee s inverban d metd enoodzaa k vand evernederlandsin gva nd eGents eUniversitei to phe t feit,da tee nwetenschappelij k elitenie tgevorm d ind eNederlands e taal onmachtig iskenni se n techniek onder grote lagenva nd ebevolkin g te verspreiden.

13.Va nd everschillend evorme nva nonderwijsvernieuwin ge n-veranderin g sedert de invoeringva nd emammoetwet ,heef the tdagonderwij svoo r volwassenen het meestbijgedrage n aanee nverder eemancipati eva nvrouwen .

14. Het succesva nd eglasba kval tmed et everklare ndoorda te rvoo r de gebruiker een ludiekgenoege naa nverbonde n is:doo r hetwegwerpe nva n het glaswerkwerk tme n zichtbaar enhoorbaa rme eaa nee npositiev e daadvoo r het milieue nwellich too k ind ehoo pda td e rondspattende schervengelu k zullen brengen.

ProefschriftAde l P.de nHarto g Diffusion ofmil k asa ne w food totropica l regions:th eexampl eo f Indonesia, 1880-1942.

Wageningen,9 Septembe r1986 . From the point ofvie w ofpolitica l economy, gourmandism isth e common bond which unites thenation s of theworld , through the reciprocal exchange of objects serving fordail y consumption. (Jean-AnthelmeBrillat-Savarin , 1755-1826). ABSTRACT denHartog ,A.P . (1986),Diffusio no fmil k asa ne w food totropica l regions: theexampl e of Indonesia,1880-1942 .

Theproble mwa sanalyse d ofwh yan dho wmil k andmil k products spread from industrialized countrieswit ha dairyin g tradition totropica l countrieswit h no such tradition.Thi s interdisciplinary studyuse s the socialsciences , nutritional sciencesan d socialhistor y ina napproac h toth ediffusio no f food.Earl y inth e colonialperiod ,th eDutc hbega nproducin g freshmil k on Java for theirow nneeds ,bu tb y the1880' ssweetene d condensedmil k products were being imported. Itwer e these condensedmil k products that reached part of the Indonesianpopulation .Th e studydescribe sho wthi scam eabout ,i n particular for infant feeding,an d the importanceo f the sweetened skimmil k question.Mil k andmil k products,onc ea nexoti celement ,graduall y became Indonesianized. Ina postcrip t (1945-1985)referenc e ismad e to Indonesian effortsafte r independance tocontinu e amil k industrybase d onbot h imports and locallyproduce d freshmilk .

Freedescriptors :agricultura l history,foo dhabits ,condense dmilk ,foo d policy,nutritio n policy, fooddiffusion ,foo d innovation,infan t feeding, milk-usinghabits ,tropica ldairying .

Cover:Hug o F.F.Alber s

CIP-GEGEVENSKONINKLIJK EBIBLIOTHEEK ,DE NHAA G

Hartog,Ade l P.de n

Diffusion ofmil k asa ne w food totropica l regions:th e exampleo f Indonesia,1880-194 2/ Ade l P.de nHartog .- Wageningen: StichtingVoedin g Nederland ProefschriftWageningen .- Me tbibliogr. ,samenvattin g in hetNederlands . ISBN 90-70840-14-6 SISO633. 9UD C [658.86/.87:637.14](594)"1880/1942" Trefw.:distributi e ;zuivelprodukte n ;Nederlands-Indi e ; geschiedenis. CONTENTS

Listo ftable s xi Listo ffigure s xii Abbreviations xv Glossaryo fselecte dterm s xv Preface xvii Acknowledgements xvii

1TH ESTUD Y 1 1.1Ai mo fth estud y 1 1.2Methodolog y 2 1.3Framewor ko fth estud y 5

PartI CHANGIN GFOO DHABIT SAN DTH EARRIVA LO FCONDENSE DMIL K 7

2SOM ETHEORETICA LCONSIDERATION SO NCHANGIN GFOO DHABIT SAN DTH E PLACEO FMIL KI NTH EDIE T 9 2.1Mil kan dnon-mil kuser s 9 2.2Europea nexpansio n 14 2.3Technologica linnovation san ddiffusio no ffoo d 15

3A NE WFOO DFO RURBA NCONSUMERS :CONDENSE DMIL K 24 3.1Foo dpreservatio ni nconnectio nwit hlon gdistanc etranspor t 24 3.2Th earriva lo fcondense dmil k 31 3.3Consumer so fcondense dmil k 34 3.4Condense dmil ki nth eNetherland s 37 3.5Dutc hexpor tan dth equestio no fsweetene dcondense dski mmil k inth eUnite dKingdo m 46

PartI IDIFFUSIO NO FMIL KAN DMIL KPRODUCT ST OINDONESI A 59

4DAIRYIN GAN DTH EUS EO FMIL KI NTROPICA LREGION S 61 4.1Diffusio no fmil kt oSout hEas tAsi a 61 4.2Milk-usin gpopulation si nIndonesi a 64 4.3 Indonesianan dEuropea nfoo dpattern s 66 4.4Maintainin ga milk-drinkin gcusto m 72 4.5Infan tfeedin gan dco wmil k 76 5A DEMAN DFO RFRES HMIL KAN DTH ERIS EO FMODER NDAIRYIN GUNDE R TROPICALCONDITION S 79 5.1Beginnin go fmoder ndairyin g 79 5.2Fres hmil ksuppl y 83 5.3Centra lMil kDepo t 92 5.4Alternative st ofres hco wmil k 99

6MIL KPRODUCT ST OINDONESI A 103 6.1Expor to fmil kproduct st otropica lregion s 103 6.2Th earriva lo fcondense dmil ki nIndonesi a 104 6.3Mil kproduct san dth eIndonesia npopulatio n 107 6.4Ho wt oreac hIndonesia nconsumer s 121 6.5Chil dCar eCentre san dMil kKitchen s 124 6.6Marketin gactivitie so fth econdense dmil kindustr y 132

7TH ESWEETENE DSKI MMIL KQUESTIO N 150 7.1Governmen tpolic yo nfoo dan dnutritio n 150 7.2Nutritionist sup-in-arm sagains tski mmil k 158 7.3Reluctanc eo fth egovernmen tt oregulat eth eimpor t ofsweetene dcondense dski mmil k 167 7.4Th epoin to fvie wo fth econdense dmil kindustr y 175 7.5Othe rreaction s 178 7.6Responsibilitie so fth econdense dmil kindustr y 182

8POSTSCRIPT :MIL KI NMODER NINDONESI A1945-198 5 184 8.1Genera l 184 8.2 Freshmil kan dmil kproduct s 185 8.3Mil kconsumptio n 188 8.4Mil kan dinfan tfeedin g 190 8.5Concludin gremark s 191

9 SUMMARYAN DCONCLUSION S 193 9.1Genera l 193 9.2Concludin gremark s 199 SAMENVATTING 201

APPENDICES 1Regulation sregardin gsweetene dcondense dski mmil ki nth eworld' s marketsabou t1924 . 207 2Th enumbe ro fdair yfarm san ddair ycows ,mil kproductio nan dsal e ofmil ki nth eRegenc yo fBandung ,1935 . 210

NOTES 213

ARCHIVES 239

BIBLIOGRAPHY 240 LISTO FTABLE S

3.1 Amounto fmil kpreserve di nmil kproduct si nth esumme ro f 1917a tth ereques to fth eDutc hGovernmen tfo rth ebenefi to f awinte rstoc k1917/18 . 43 4.1 Foodpattern so fa kampun gdwelle ran da Dutc hcolonia lhousehol d inIndonesia ,Java ,aroun d1880 . 71 5.1 Numbero fdairie san dcow si nth eResidenc yo fBatavia ,1933 . 86 5.2 Cattleo ndair yfarm so nJav aan dth eoute rprovinces ,1925-1938 . 87 5.3 Kindo fdairie st ob efoun di nJava ,1920-1940 . 89 5.4 Estimatedmil kproductio nan dsal ei nlitre spe rda yi nth e Regencyo fBandung ,1934 . 97 6.1 Priceso fcondense dmilk ,loca lmil kan dmil kfoo di nth emai n townso fJav ai n1883 . 105 6.2 Theinde xo fmil kimport san dothe rEuropea nfoods ,base do n importvalu ei nguilders ,fro m190 0til lth eoutbrea ko fth e FirstWorl dWar ,Netherland sIndies . 106 6.3 Priceo fmil kproduct san dfres hmil ki ncent si nBatavi a in1937/38 . 114 6.4 Importo fmil kproduct st oth eNetherland sIndie si n100 0kg , 1928-1938. 118 6.5 Theimpor to ftinne dmil kt oJav abetwee n1928-193 8expresse d inpercentag eo fth etota limport so ftinne dmil kt oth e NetherlandsIndies . 119 6.6 Kindso fsou rmil kdistribute dfro mth emil kkitchen ,Medica l Schooli nWeltevreden ,t oth eConsultatie-Bureau xo fBatavia . 129 6.7 Estimatedmonthl yturnove ro fvariou skind so ftinne dmil ki n10 3 tokosan dwarung si nth eregio no fKrawang ,Wes tJava ,expresse di n numbero fpackin gcases ,1939 . 148 7.1 Theestimate dquantit yo fprotein san dfat sobtaine dfro mcertai n foodstuffson ecoul dbu yfo r2. 5cent so r1 goban g- th epric eo f aneg g- i nBatavi ai n1938 . 164 7.2 Typeo ffeedin greceive da thom eb yinfant s(0- 2year so fage ) beforeadmittanc ewit hxerophthalmi at oth echildren' s department,Centra lCivi lHospital ,Batavia ,1935-1938 . 174 7.3 Formso fxerophthalmi ai ninfant s(0- 2year so fage )an dthei r feedingreceive da thom ebefor eadmittanc et oth echildren' s department,Centra lCivi lHospital ,Batavia ,1935-1938 . 174 8.1 Thenumbe ro fdair ycattl eo fsmal lholder san dcommercia l enterprisesi nIndonesia ,1979 . 186 8.2 Milkproduction ,consumptio nan dannua lgrowt hrat e1961-196 5 and1973-197 7average si nIndonesia . 187 8.3 Milkconsumptio n (inmil kequivalents )i nlitre spe rcapu tpe r yearo fvariou shousehol dexpenditur ecategorie si nJava ,urba n andrural ,1981 . 189 Xll

LISTO FFIGURE S

2.1 Ageneralize dmode lo ffou rmai nelement so fdiffusio no fa ne w foodfro mon esociet y (A)t oanothe rsociet y (B):1 .geographica l diffusion;2 .socia ldiffusion ;3 .adoptio ni nth efoo dpattern ; 4.th espac eo ftime . 20 2.2 Ageneralize dmode lo fsocia ldiffusio no fne wfood si nlat e colonialSout hEas tAsi aan dth emai nchang eagencies . 22 2.3 Ageneralize dmode lo fadoptio no fa ne wfoo dint oth efoo dpatter n andit smai nlimitations . 23 3.1 Thefirs tmil kcondenser yi nth eNetherland s (1882),th eN.V . Hollandiai nVlaardinge ni na pictur efro m1884 . 40 3.2 Volumean dcompositio no fDutc hdair yexpor ti n100 0tons , 1906-1940. 45 3.3 Destinationo fDutc hexpor to fsweetene dcondense dmil ki n100 0 tonnes,1920-193 9 (meanso f5-yea rintervals) . 46 3.4 Destinationo fDutc hexpor to fsweetene dcondense dski mmil k in100 0tonnes ,1920-193 9 (meanso f5-yea rintervals) . 47 3.5 Destinationo fDutc hexpor to fevaporate dmil ki n100 0tonnes , 1920-1939 (meanso f5-yea rintervals) . 48 3.6 Rulesfo rth elabellin go fcondense dmil ki nth eUnite dKingdo m in192 3an d1927 . 52 4.1 Populationswit ha traditio no fusin gbuffal omil ki n Indonesiai nlat ecolonia ltimes . 66 5.1 Placeswit hmajo rdairyin gactivit yi nJav ai nth eyear s 1920-1940. 88 5.2 Meadowo fth eVill aLuci awit hdair ycows ,Salatiga ,Middl eJava . 91 5.3 Milkingshe di nBandung . 91 5.4 DrB .Vrijburg' sdair yfar m"D eFriesch eTerp "i nth eearl y 1930's,Pengalengan ,sout ho fBandung . 93 5.5 Thedair yfar m"D eFriesch eTerp "ha da distributio noffic ei n Bandungfro mwher eeac hmornin gcoole dunpasturize dmil kwa s distributedi nbottles . 93 6.1 Advertisementsfo rtinne dmil kproduct saime da tth eEuropea n consumer. 108 6.2 Advertisementaroun d193 6fo revaporate dmilk ,a tinne dmil k usedexclusivel yb yEuropea nconsumers . 109 6.3 Abrochur eo ninfan tfeedin gbase do nsweetene dcondense dmil k aimeda tth eeducate dIndonesia nmother . 110 6.4 Advertisementfo rth eus eo fsweetene dcondense dmil kfo rinfan t feeding,Si nP onewspaper ,June ,1936 . Ill 6.5 Advertisementfo rsterilize dmil kindicatin git sus efo radults , SinP onewspaper ,June ,1936 . Ill 6.6 Importo ftinne dmil kt oth eNetherland sIndie si n100 0kg , 1928-1938. 120 6.7 Weighingo finfant si na Hygieni cCentre . 125 6.8 Ademonstratio nbarro wo fth eDepartmen to fPubli cHealth . 125 6.9 Advertisementfo rsweetene dcondense d (full-creaman dskim )mil k ona deliver yva ni nBatavia ,aroun d1935 . 140 6.10 Advertisementfo rsweetene dcondense dmil kan dsterilize dmil k ona deliver yva ni nPalembang ,1936 . 141 6.11 Promotiono fcondense dmil ka tth epasa rmala mi nBatavia , April,1939 . 142 Xlll

6.12 Advertisementfo rth eFrisia nFla gcooker yboo karoun d193 7 directeda tEuropea nconsumers ,showin gK oth eco wo fth e promotionfilm . 143 6.13 Posterso nchocolat emil kaime da tIndonesia nconsumers ,1936 . 147 7.1 Labelfro ma ti no fsweetene dcondense dski mmil kindicatin g itsus ei ncoffee ,tea ,coco aan dfo rhousehol dpurposes .Thi s revisedlabe lstate si nbot hDutc han dMala ytha ti ti sunfi tfo r infantfeedin gan dtha ti tha sbee nrevitaminized ,1939 . 177 7.2 Labelo fsweetene dcondense dmil kindicatin git sus ei ninfan t feeding.Instruction sar epartiall yi nMalay ,1940 . 177 ABBREVIATIONS

A.R. Min.v . Kol. AlgemeenRijksarchie fMinisteri eva n Kolonien. A.Z. MelkhygienischWeekbla dAlgemee n Zuivel enMelkhygienisc h Weekblad. C.C.F. Cooperatieve Condensfabriek Friesland. F.N.Z. Federatie Nederlandse Zuivel H.v.d .Vr . Handelingen vand e Volksraad. M.v .0 . Memorieva nOvergave . Verb.no . Verbaalnuinmer

GLOSSARY OF SELECTED TERMS

Dairy products Category of preserved milkwhic h includes cheese,butte r and ghee (seeals omil k products). Diet Theway san d total of foods consumed bya population . Evaporated milk Concentrated full-creammil k product (unsweetened).Whe n reconstituted withwate r itcome sclos e toco wmilk . Food Solid and liquid substances thatar eperceive d as edible bya population. Food control The lawan d organizationwhic h governs the production, handling andmarketin g of foodwit h the object of protecting thehealt h of the consumer and of protecting him against fraud. Food habits Theway s inwhic h apopulatio n in response tocultural , economic and ecological pressures chooses,consume s and makesus e ofavailabl e foods (adapted from Margaret Mead). Food innovation The actual process ofho wa ne w food isadopte d in the food patterno f apopulation . Food labelling Anywritten ,printe d orpictoria l matter relating toan d accompanying the food. Food pattern The, fora population , specific combination of foods consumed and ideasan dvalue so n this food. Lactose intolerance Malabsorption ofmil k due toa deficienc y of the intestinal enzyme lactase (see further Chapter 1, p.12). Milk Inthi s studymil k refers toco wmil k unless otherwise stated. Milk products Category ofprocesse d milkwhic h includes various products sucha s sweetened condensed milk, sweetened condensed skimmilk ,evaporate d milk, sterilized milk and dried milk (seeals odair y products). New food Food that isperceive d asne wb y apopulatio n and which isno t amodifie d orprocesse d formo f analread y known food. Sour milk Milk where themil k sugar or lactose hasbee n converted into lactic acid by the action of acid forming micro organisms. Sterilized milk Full-cream sterilized milk product. Sweetened condensed Concentrated full-creammil k productwit h the admixture milk of sugar. Sweetened condensed Concentrated milk product prepared from skimmil k with skimmil k theadmixtur e of sugar. Itdoe sno t containvitamin s A and Dwhich ,togethe r with thebutterfa t from themilk , have beeneliminated . It isa dangerou s food for infant feeding,particularl y because of the lack ofvitami n A. Toko Shop inIndonesi a ofdifferin g sizewit h agrea t range ofarticle s forsale . Traditional food Food that isconsidere d bya populatio n tob epar to f their own foodpattern , regardless of itsplac e of origin. Warung Smallope n shopo r stall inIndonesi awit h avaryin g rangeo f theprimar ynecessitie s oflife . PREFACE

This study has itsorigi n ina projec t entitled "Improvement of Food and Nutrition Programmeswit h reference todair y food aid". The aim of thedair y food aid projectwa s toassis t staff of nutrition projects improve the nutrition ofvulnerabl e groups inarea s ofAfric a and Asia. For thispurpose ,practica l field guideswer e prepared on theus e of Dried SkimMil k and local foods,an d sent forus e tostaf f of nutrition projects.Needles s to say these field guides stressed the importance of local foodsan d considered food aid only asa temporary means of overcoming local food shortages. Thedair y food aid projectwa s carried outb y the Netherlands Nutrition Foundation inclos e collaborationwit h theDepartmen t of Human Nutrition of theAgricultura l University,Wageningen . Itwa smad e financially possible bya grant from theNetherland s Interprofessional Organisation for Dairy Products (HetProduktscha p voor Zuivel). Fieldwor k was carried out insom eAfrica n andAsia n countries in connection with thepreparatio n and evaluation of the field guides,particula r attention being given to theplac e ofmil k inth e local foodhabits .Thre e types of communitieswer edistinguished ; communitieswit hn o tradition ofusin gmil k and which are mainlybu tno t exclusively situated inth ehumi d tropics, traditional milk-using communities,an d those communities wheremil k isno t traditionally part of thedie tbu twher e however someacceptanc e has foundplace . One aspectwhic h emergedwa s that freshmil k andmil k products in regions with nomilk-usin g tradition had beenpresen tmuc h longer thanha d been thought,datin g back to the colonial erawhe n Europeanswit h their dairy tradition had large tropical regionsunde r their control. Invie w of this itwa s felt tob eo f importance toparalle l thedair y food aid projectwit ha study on the origin and early diffusion ofmil k and milk products to those tropical regionswher e therewa sn o tradition ofmil k usage, inparticula r Indonesia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I should like towarml y thank all those kindpeopl e and institutions that helped me tocomplet e this study.Hos to fal l Iwan t toaffectionatel y thank Frida for theeffectiv e helpan dunfailin g encouragement which she always managed togiv e me,despit e her ownmuc hdemandin g professional duties and family responsibilities.M y thanksals og o toKatelijn e enRosanne .Furthe r it isver ygratifyin g tom e thatm yparent shav ebee nabl e towitnes s this publication. Itha sbee n saidman y timesbefor eb y others,bu t itca nno tb e saidenough , thatan y study ispossibl eonl ywit h thehel pan dwor k ofothers .I a mmuc h indebted toal l thoseworkin g inth eDepartmen to fHuma nNutritio no f the Agricultural University,Wageninge nfo rcreatin g the stimulating environment whichmad e an interdisciplinairy studyo fnutritio npossible .I woul d especially liket othan kMr sJ.C.M.M .Nooij-Michel san d DrsS.K .Kroes-Li ebot h social science researchassistants ,wh ohelpe dm e findingm ywa y inth e almost endlessnumbe ro fdocument san d filesan dwh oprovide dm ewit hmateria l that had escapedm y attention.Likewis eman y thanksar edu e toth e secretariat and inparticula rM rM.B.A .va nLeutere nwh omad e thenecessar y administrative and technical arrangementsan dwh o succeeded inputtin gm ymanuscript s (and there weremany ) ina norderl ywa yo n thewor dprocessor .Al l threewer e instrumental inhelpin gm e toaccomplis hm y study. I should like toexpres sm y thankst oProfesso rJ.G.A.J .Hautvast ,o f the HumanNutritio nDepartment ,fo rth ehel pan d encouragementsh e gavem e in undertaking thistyp eo f studyan d toProfesso rA.M .va nde rWoude ,o fth e Agricultural HistoryDepartment ,wh oguide dm e through thecomple x fieldo f socialhistory , forwhic h Ia mver ygrateful .Thank sar e alsodu e to IrJ.S . Wigboldus forhi scontructiv e criticisman dhelpfu l suggestionso n thehistor y and sociologyo fagricultur e and livestock inSout h EastAsia . I receivedmuc hhel p fromMr .B.A . Scholtewh omad e theconversio no f the texto n thedisce t toth eprogramm e of theprinte r possible,fro mMr .C .Rijpm a and hiscolleague s for thegraph san dmaps , fromth e staffo f the photographic unit, and from the staffo f thelibrarie so f theAgricultura l University, particularly theBiotechnion ,Leeuwenborc h and theCentra l Library.Her e Iwan t to thank the studentswit hwho m Ihav eha d thepleasur e ofworkin gwit h for their ideasan dview so n the studyo fnutritio n inbot h the industrialized and developingcountries . Form y studyo fmilk ,mil kproduct san d tropical countries Iow emuc h to those involved inth eprojec t "Improvemento f foodan dnutritio n programmes with reference todair y foodaid" ,an d toI rJ.C.T .va nde nBerg ,exper t in tropical dairy. TheCooperatiev e Condens Fabriek,Frieslan d kindlyallowe dm e to study archivalmateria lconcernin gthei ractivitie si nAsia ncountrie si nth eyear s beforeth eSecon dWorl dWar .Man ythank sar edu eher et oD rI rJ.M.P . Papenhuijzen,Directo ro fResearch ,M rH.A .Verkley ,Publi cRelations ,an dM r P.J.Hondem aan dM rP.J .Baggelaa ro fth eCC FArchives .CC Fals ogav em e permissiont oreproduc eillustration skep ti nthei rarchives . Specialmentio nmus tb emad eo fth elat eD rJ.H .d eHaa san dMr sJ.H .d e Haas-Posthumawh oshare dwit hm ethei rextensiv eknowledg ean dexperienc ei n nutritionan dchil dwelfar ei nlat ecolonia lan dearl yindependen tIndonesia . Myfirs tknowledg eo nfoo dan dnutritio no ftha tperio dbega nwhil eI wa sstil l workingwit hFA Oan dha dth eopportunit yo fmeetin gpeopl elik eD rA.G .va n Veen,th elat eD rI rG.J.A .Terr aan dth elat eD rH.A.P .Oomen . Helpreceive dfro mth estaf fo fth eAlgemee nRijksarchie f (Ministerieva n Kolonien),De nHaa gwa smuc happreciated ,Mr sM.C .Rigg-Lyal lB.A .Dip .Ed . kindlyassiste dm ei ncorrectin gm yEnglis htext .Finall ym ythank sg ot oth e Foundation"Fond sLandbou wExpor tBurea u1916/1918" ,als oknow na sLEB-fonds , forprovidin gm ewit ha gran tt osuppor tthi spublication . Mythank sals og ot oth eman ypeopl ewho mI hav eno tmentione db yname ,bu t withoutwhos ehelp ,thi sstud ycoul dno thav ebee ncompleted .

REFERENCES- Prefac e

Hiel,A.M.M. ;Hautvast ,J.G.A.J. ;de nHartog ,A.P .L'Alimentatio nde s JeunesEnfants ,guid epratiqu epou r1'utilisatio nde saliment slocau xe td u laitecrem ee npoudr ee nAfrique .Wageningen ,Fondatio nNeerlandais ed el a Nutrition (NIW),1982 .7 5pp .

Ibid.Youn gchildre nan dsupplementar yfeedin gprogrammes :a fiel dguid eo n theus eo floca lfood san ddrie dski mmilk .Wageningen ,Netherland s NutritionFoundatio n (NIW), 1984.10 4pp .

Valdecanas,0. ;Bouman ,W. ;Ruiten ,Th. ;Hautvast ,J.G.A.J. ;de nHartog , A.P.A fiel dguid efo rth eus eo floca lfood san ddrie dski mmil ki n nutritionprogramme si nAsia ncountries .Wageningen ,Netherland sNutritio n Foundation (NIW), 1983.4 1pp .

vand eBriel-va nIngen ,T. ;de nHartog ,A.P . (Eds).Leidraa dzuivel - voedselhulp.Wageningen ,Nederland sInstituu tvoo rd eVoedin g (NIW),1984 . 67pp .

Ibid.Guideline sfo rdair yfoo daid .Wageningen ,Th eNetherland sNutritio n Foundation,1985 .5 4pp . 1.TH ESTUD Y

1.1 Aim of the Study

A greatvariet yo f foods,suc ha sbread ,biscuit s andothe rwhea t products,al l sortso f sweets,tinne dmea tan d fish,condense dmil k and milk-powder, icecreams ,bee r and softdrinks ,comin g fromth e industrialized countrieso fWester nEurop ean dNort hAmeric a are increasingly accepted inth e regionso ftropica lAfric a andAsia . Inmos t of these countries foodsar eno wproduce d locally,bu t stillmuc ho f the rawmateria l has tob e imported fromabroad . It isobviou s that these new foodshav eeconomic ,socia lan dnutritiona l consequences for the consumer and thecountr ya sa whole .Thi si sparticularl y thecas ewhe nmos to f the food cannotb eeasil yproduce d inth etropic sbecaus e ofecologica l conditions (e.g.whea t or milk). Processed foods,i nth e senseo f industrially processed,hav eno w found a placeamon g the traditional foods inth edie to f thehighe r andmiddl e income groupso f tropicalAfric a andAsia .T oa certainexten t the low income consumer,particularl y iflivin g inurba nareas ,ha sals o incorporated someprocesse d foods intohi sdiet ,an d income isth e limiting factor inconsumin gmore .Wit h anexpenditur e ranging from 60-70% of income on food for survival only,ther e islittl e room left forothe r foods. Nevertheless there issom e competitionbetwee n foodsneede d for survival sucha s the staple foodan d foodswhic h satisfyothe rneeds . The basiso f thepresen tdiffusio nan dacceptanc e ofprocesse d foodst o tropicalAfric a andAsi awa s formed longbefor e theWorl dWa r IIproces so f decolonization and theemergenc e ofmoder n states.I twa s formed inth eer a ofmoder n colonization. The aimo f the study istwofold . (1)T ocontribut e toth eknowledg e and insighto fth eearl y stageso f the process ofdiffusio n of foods,i nparticula r processed foods fromth e industrialized countries todevelopin g countries,wit h particular reference toth e latecolonia ltimes . (2)T o showwh yan dho wmil k andmil kproducts ,initiall ydevelope d to satisfyconsumer so f the industrialized countries,sprea d into tropical regionswit hn otraditio no fmil kusage ,i nparticula r Indonesia,an d thenutritiona l and socio-economic consequenceso f this. Thehypothesi s istha t theorigi n of thepresen tus eo fmil k andmil k products intropica l countries sucha s Indonesia canb e found inth e 19th centurywhe nWes t Europeannation swit ha dair y traditionbrough thug e territoriesunde r theiradministratio n and control.Mil k isa highl y perishable productwhic h cannotb etransporte d over longdistance swithou t a foodpreservatio n technique.Moder n technologyan d the inventiono fmil k condensing inth emiddl e of the 19thcentur ymad emas s transporto fmil k technicallypossibl e tothos earea swher e ecological conditionsmean t that milk had notdevelope d asa traditional food. Several aspectswer eexamined . (1)Th e earlydevelopmen t ofmil k condensing inEurop ean d the Netherlands and theexpor to fcondense dmil k toothe rcountries . (2)Whe nan dho wcondense dmil k and othermil k productsarrive d in Indonesia,th econsumer san d the relation toeffort sb y theDutc h to beginmoder ndairyin gunde r tropicalconditions . (3)Th emai n change agenciesan d thewa y inwhic hmil k andmil k products werediffuse d inth e Indonesian society,it sexten tan d its limitations. (4)Th evie wo f thehealt hauthoritie san d thecolonia l Government onmil k imports. (5)Th e policyan dmarketin g effortso f thedair y industry to reachth e localpopulation . (6)Th enutritiona l and social significance ofearl ymil k imports for the localpopulation .

1.2 Methodology

This study isa cross-disciplinar y approachbase d on the social sciences,nutritiona l sciencesan d social history.Th e introductiono fa new food ina tropical country isanalyse d froma social scientific point ofvie wan dwithi na socialhistorica l perspective.Becaus eo f the complex natureo f thedevelopment ,diffusio nan dadoptio no fa ne w food,th e study islimite d tomil k andmil k productswithi n the contexto fon eparticula r country,Indonesia . -3-

Milk products,an d inparticula r condensedmilk ,wer e selected fora varietyo freasons . (1) Milk isa highl yperishabl eproduc twit ha short shelf-life.I tcanno t be transported over longdistance swithou t some formo fprocessing . Modern technologyan d the inventiono fmil k condensing inth emiddl e of the 19thcentur ymad emas s transporto fmil k technicallypossible. (2) TheNetherland s isa dairyin g countryan dha sbee na majo r exporter of dairyan dmil k products fora long time.Mil k isconsidere d asa n essential elemento f theDutc h foodpattern ,an dwher e theDutc h established themselves theywante d tomaintai nthei rmilk-usin ghabit . TheDutc han dothe rWester nEuropeans ,lik eth eBritish ,whil e staying inth e tropicsmad eeffort st odevelo p tropicaldairyin g tomee t their demand formil kdespit eunfavourabl eecologica lconditions . (3) Milk isa n important food for infantsan dyoun g children.Whe n breast-feeding failso r isgive n fora ver y shortperiod ,mil k and milk productsar egoo dalternatives ,provide d theyar eproduce d and givenunde rwell-controlle dhygieni c conditions.Wit h the riseo f the moderndair y industrya t theen do f the19t hcentur y inEurope , physiciansan d nutritionists stressed the importanceo fhig hqualit y milk asa popular food.A s a result,educate d Europeansbecam e convinced thatdairyin gwa sa nabsolut enecessit y formaintainin g goodhealt han d thatn oalternativ e approacheswer epossible. (4) Another equally important reasonfo r focussing the studyo nmil k productswa s thatexpor t totropica l countries isno whighl y criticised.A t theen do fth e 1960'ssom enutritionist san d non-governmental organizationswer eworrie dabou tth e infant food promotionactivities ,particularl yo fmilk-powde r asa substitute for breast-feeding.Jelliff e introduced theter m "Commerciogenic Malnutrition".

The study focusseso n theexampl eo f Indonesia for the following reasons. (1)Indonesi awit ha fewexception sbelong s largely tothos e regionswher e therewa sn omilk-usin g tradition.I nth ebeginnin g ofth e 16th century when theDutc hestablishe d themselves in Indonesia,ther ewa s no traditiono fmil kusag edespit e theHind u influence from India,a countrywit h strongdairyin gtraditions . (2)Indonesi awa s colonizedb y theNetherlands ,a country inwhic hdairyin g playsa n important rolei nit seconom yan d foodpattern . (3)Ther eha sbee na long standingnutritio n research traditionan d 2 interest inth enutritio no fth epopulatio nb y thehealt hauthorities . When the scienceo fnutritio nwa s still init s infancybasi c research onberi-ber i (VitaminB lo rThiamin edeficiency )begu n in188 6b y scientists sucha sEijkma nan dGrijns .Interes t inth enutritio no f the localpopulatio n culminated inth e creationo fa Nutritio n Institute (Instituutvoo rd eVolksvoeding ) in1934 .

Theperio d of timecover db y this studycomprise schiefl y the period 1880-1942.A s an introduction someattentio n isgive n todairyin g inth e earlycolonica l era.Aroun d 1880th eexpor to f sweetened condensedmil k and othermil k productsha ddevelope d tosuc ha nexten t thatth eproduct swer e known,a t leastb yEuropeans ,i nvariou spart so f thearchipelago .A t the same timea modes tbeginnin gwa smad e to introducemoder ndairying .Wit h theJapanes e occupationo f Indonesia in194 2th eextensiv edealing s of the Dutchwit hdairyin g came toa standstill.However ,dairyin g andmil k importsa ssuc h resumed after theWar .A n outline inth e formo fa postcript isgive n for theperio d 1945-1985o n the Indonesianeffort s to continue thedevelopmen t of themil k industry.

Thedat a collected forth e studywer e obtained fromth e following sources. (1)Publishe dmateria l inth e formo f studies,reports ,scientifi c and popular articleso nagriculture ,livestock , foodan dnutritio n in variousprofessiona l andnon-professiona l Dutch language journalso f Indonesiadurin g thecolonia l era.Th eCentra l Libraryo f the Agricultural Universityo fWageninge nha sa nextensiv e collection in this field, inparticula r forth eyear s1880-1940 .Som e complementary datawer e obtained fromth eRoya lTropica l Institute inAmsterdam . (2)Materia l onmarketin g ofmil kproduct s inth e formerNetherland s Indies available inth earchive so f the "Cooperatieve Condensfabriek Friesland" inLeeuwarden .Thi scover sth eperio d1929-1940 . (3)Materia l available inth eStat eArchive s of theMinistr y ofColonies , TheHague , (AlgemeenRijksarchief ,De nHaag ,Ministeri eva nKolonien , 1901-1945). Informationwa sals oobtaine d from informantswh oha d lived in Indonesia during the colonial eraan dwh oar e conversantwit h foodan d nutrition matterso f theperiod .O fparticula r importancewa sa nextensiv e interview with the lateDr .J.H . deHaa s (1900-1985)an dMrs .J.H . deHaas-Posthuma , inAugus t 1980.Bot hha dbee nactivel y involved inth e infant careo f the Indonesianpopulatio n inth e 1930's. The study isbase d ondat aavailabl e inth eNetherlands ,nearl yal l of it inDutch . Itha showeve r itslimitation sa sthes edat a inth e first instance reflectDutc h reactions toan d interpretations ofth e Indonesian society.

1.3 Framework of the study

The study consistso f twoparts ,a firstpar tdealin gwit h changing food habitsan d thearriva l of condensedmil k anda secondpart ,th e coreo f the study,o n thediffusio n ofmil k andmil k products toIndonesia .

Part I,Changin g foodhabit san d thearriva l of condensedmil k

This sectionbegin swit h sometheoretica l considerations on changing foodhabit s and theplac e ofmil k inth ediet .Referenc e isgive nt o technological innovationsan d foodhabit s (Chapter 2). This isfollowe d by an analysis of thearriva lo f sweetenedcondense dmil k inth emiddl e of the 19th century for theurba nconsume r inEurop e andNort hAmerica .Th e social andnutritiona l aspectsar ediscussed ,a sar e theexpor to fmil k products fromth eNetherland st oothe rcountrie s (Chapter3) .

Part II,Diffusio no fmil k andmil k products to Indonesia

The settingu po fdairyin g and theus e of freshmil k are analysed in chapter 4an d chapter 5.Firs t theearl y influenceo f the Indian subcontinento ndairyin g inth e Indonesianarchipelag o isdiscussed . This isfollowe d bya studyo f thedesir e ofEuropean s tomaintai n their habit ofusin g milk,b ybeginnin gdairyin gunde r tropical conditions.I nchapte r 6 theearl yexpor to fmil kproducts , particularly sweetened condensed milk isdiscussed .A n analysis isgive no fwh yan dho w it reached Indonesians whower e not traditionally consumers ofmilk .Likewis e the roleo f the health institutionsan d themarketin g activitieso f the condensed milk -6-

industryar ediscussed .Thi s isfollowe d byth e sweetened skimmil k questionwhereb y thenutritional ,politica l and foodmarketin g aspects are looked into (Chapter 7). Ina postcrip t (Chapter 8)a noutlin e isgive n on milk anddair ydevelopmen t inmoder n Indonesia covering theyear s 1945-1985. Finally,summar yan d conclusionsar epresente d inChapte r 9. PartI ,CHANGIN GFOO DHABIT SAN DTH EARRIVA LO FCONDENSE DMILK . 2. SOMETHEORETICA L CONSIDERATIONSO NCHANGIN G FOODHABIT SAN DTH EPLAC EO F MILK INTH EDIE T

2.1 Milk andnon-mil k users

Looking atth epresen t foodhabit so f thepopulation so f theworld ,a distinction canb emad ebetwee npopulation swit ha lon g standingdair y traditionan d thosewher edair yan dmilk-usin g habitswere ,unti l recently, absent.Thos ewit hn otraditio no fmil kusag e are theautochthoni c inhabitantso f theAmerica ncontinent ,population so fhumi d tropical Africa,Sout hEas tAsia ,th eFa rEas tan d theautochthonou s inhabitantso f Australia and thePacifi c Islands.However ,th e foodhabit so fa society areneve r staticbu talte r eitherwit hchange si nth e socio-economic system ofwhic h they forma part ,o ra sa resulto fexterna l influences.Foo d habitsca nchang e forth ebette ro r forth eworse . Thequestio nw e shouldb easking ,a sMargare tMea d proposed, isno t only 2 "Howd ow e change foodhabits" ,bu t "Howd o foodhabit schange" . It is witha knowledgeo fexistin g trendsan do f the interrelationo f foodhabit s withothe rdevelopmen t trendstha ton e canhop e tointroduc e those changes which, froma nutritiona lpoin to fview ,ar edesirabl ean dnecessary . In those regionswher e there isn omilk-usin g tradition,th e attitude towardsmil k ischanging . Europeans introduceddairyin g and the localproductio no f freshmilk , and stimulated the importso fmil k products,firs tcondense dmil k and later,milk-powder .A tpresen tmil k productsan d alittl e freshmil k are available for theuppe r andmiddl e classeso fhumi d tropicalAfric aan d SouthEas tAsia .Furthe rmil k productshav ebee nmad eavailabl e through foodai dprogrammes . Thisbring su s toth equestio no fwha t constitutesa traditional food. The term referst oth eperceptio no fa populatio n thata food is indigenous and considered asa n integralpar to f thediet .Th e time factor isals o importanta sman y foodsonc ealie nar eno wconsidere d tob e indigenous.Ho w Irishar e the Irishpotatoe san dho wEnglis h isEnglis h tea?Thes e foods originating fromdifferen t ecological zonesar eno wpar to f thenationa l diet.Coffe e islikewis e sucha n integralpar to f the foodhabi to f the Dutch and otherWester nEuropean s thatnobod y considers ita salien . Milk alongwit h itsuniqu e sugar lactosean d theenzym e lactasewhic h allows itsdigestio nappeare dwit h the firstmammal s 500millio nyear sago . -10-

The onlymil k consumed byearl yma nwa shuma nmilk .Afte rhavin gbee n breast-fed he lived from fruitgatherin g andb yhunting .

Thehabi to fpopulation s tomak eus eo fmil k asa food gradually developed 10.000year sag o inth eneolithicum ,whe nma n started to cultivateplant san ddomesticat e animals forhi s food supply.Domesticatio n took placea sa response tonatura l ecosystemsan d led totw o generalized agricultural systems:see dagriculture ,dependen t primarilyupo n seed reproduced cropplants ,an d rootan d tuberagricultur e orvegeculture , 5 dependentmainl yupo nvegetativ e reproduction. Seedagricultur e appears to represent the indigenousmod e ofagricultur e inth edrie r tropicsan d sub-tropicso f theOl dan dNe wWorlds .Roo tan d tuberagricultur e ismos t highlydevelope d asa n indigenousagricultur e inth ehumi d tropical lowlandso fAmerica ,Sout hEas tAsi a andAfrica .I nth ehighland s of the Andeswit ha cool temperate climate,roo tan d tuber agriculture isbase d on potatoesan d somemino r rootcrops .Saue rpoint sou t thatwit h the development of the twoagricultura l systemsdifferen t kindso fanimal swer e domesticated. With avegecultur e system thedo g (Canisfamiliaris) ,pi g (Sus scrofa), fowl (Gallusgallus) ,duc k (Anasplatyrhynchos )an dgoos e (Anser anser) weredomesticated , allmor eo r lessbein gkep twithi n thevillage .A swit h theplan tcultivation ,th edomesticatio n canb e attributed toth ecar ean d artso f thewome nwh omanage d thehousehold . With seedagricultur e however,whic hdevelope d inth eMiddl e East,her d animalswer edomesticated .Cattl e raisingan dpastoralis mar e closely connectedwit h seedagriculture .Pastoralis maros e from seed agriculture andwa spractise db ypeopl ewh o lived onth emargin s ofagriculture . The pastoralistsdi dno tbrea k their relationswit h the farming communities fromwher e theyoriginated .Eve n inpresen tday spastoralist shav e close tieswit h farming communities for their livelihood. It ispossibl e that dogsma yhav ebee n the firstanimal st ob edomesticated .Bot h sheep (Ovis sp)an d goats (Capra sp)wer e keptb yproto-Neolithi cpeople so f theMiddl e Eastaroun d 9000B.C .Cattl e (Bossp )an dpig swer e reared slightlylater , probably theybecam eassociate dwit hma n through the raidingo f these 8 crops. Mixed farmingbega nver yearl y inth eMiddl e East.Stubbl e leftafte r reaping the cerealswoul d haveprovide d good grazing foranimal swhic h would intur nhav ebenefitte d thecrop swit h theirmanure .I t ismos t -11-

likely thatthe ywer e firstvalue d forthei rmea tan dhide sthen ,a s they becamemor edocile ,fo rmilkin gan d finally,a spac k anddraugh tanimals . Commoncattl e orBo stauru sdescen d fromwil d aurochs,Bo sprimigenius . Ina studyo nth eantiquit yo fdairying ,Simoon scome st oth e conclusion thatprobabl y representations ofdair y scenes inMesopotami a canb e found around 3200-3100B.C . (inUru k times).Althoug h therear e some questions aboutdating ,evidenc edoe sno t support thevie wtha tdairyin g in g Mesopotamiawa solde r than inEgyp to r theSahara . Dairying,compare d with otheruse so f cattleb yman ,wa sa relative latedevelopment .A t the beginning ofdomestication ,th eanimal ssecrete d justenoug hmil k tofee d their ownyoun go rver y littlemore .Smal l childrenma yhav e sometimes shared themil k ofa goa to rew ewit h theanima lyoung ,bu t thiswa sno ta basis tostar tdairying . Domesticationo fher danimal s sucha sth egoat , the sheepan d inparticula r theco war eassociate dwit h ceremonial practices. Theco wwa soriginall ya sacredanima luse d inmoo ncult s inth eMiddl e East,thei r horns symbolizing thecrescen tmoon .Milkin g and castration 11 were part of fertility rituals. Manmus thav eha da strongmotivatio n to domesticate thecow ,sinc eth ewil dauroch swa sa powerfu l intractable animal. Inorde r tohav ea supply forsacrificia l purposes,th eanima lwa s kept ina captive state.Economi cuse so fth eanima l sucha smil k for food would thenhav ebee na by-produc to fa domesticatio nprimaril y religious in 12 origin. There issom eevidenc e ofdairyin g inMiddl e Europe among the 13 Bandkeramik or Linear potterycultur ea searl ya s 5300B.C . Oneo f thedescendant s of theBo sprimigeniu si sth eBo snamadicus , which inhabits SouthernAsi a and theArabia n Peninsula.Th e zebuo r theBo s indicusma yhav e descended fromth eBo snamadicus ,whic hwa s first 14 depicted in Indiamor e than600 0year sago . Most likely the zebuwa s domesticated inWester nAsi aan dno t inIndi aa s isofte n thought tob e the case. 15

Dairyingma yhav ebee n introduced toth e Indian subcontinent rather late,aroun d 1500B.C. ,b y the Indo-EuropeanAryan swhe n they invaded and settled inth enorthwes t inwha t isno w thePunjab .Mos t likelydairyin g and theus e ofmil k asa food spread from theMiddle-Eas t and North-Africa toEurope ,Wester n and EasternAfrica ,Centra lAsi a and the Indian subcontinent. 1 ft Inth ehig hmountain so fCentra lAsi a theya k (Bos grunniens)play sa n important role indail y lifea sa pac k and draught -12-

animal,a sa supplier of leather,o fhai r forth emakin g of ropesan d canvas,an d ofmea tan dmilk .Generall y speakingdairyin gdi dno t reach South EastAsia ,th ecountrie so f the FarEas t (China,Japa n and Korea), 17 humid tropicalAfric a and thepre-Columbia n civilisations ofAmerica . These regionsma yb e characterised as thosepart so f theworl dwhic hhav e nomilk-usin g tradition.Becaus e of theabsenc e of cattle,dairyin g and milk usewa sunknow n inpre-Columbia nAmerica .Th e indigenous livestock of the civilisations of theAndes ,th e illam a (Lamaglama )an da lpac a (Lama pacos),wer euse d aspac k animalsan d forwoo lan dmeat .Probabl y theus e ofbutter ,sou rmil k and cheesemus thav equickl y followed the regular milking ofanimals ,fo rb yacciden t alone thesedair yproduct smus t have occurred againan d again.Fermente d milk has surelybee n consumed byman y peoples from theearlies tNeolithi c times,bu t little remainsa sdirec t 18 proofo f this. Fermented milk and cheesemakin gwer e obvious practical meanso fpreservin g a surpluso fmil kwhe n itcoul dno tdirectl yb euse d or distributed.

Cowmil k isb y far themos t importantmil k ofmammal sbein guse da s food byman .Les sextensiv e isth eutilizatio n ofgoa tan dew emilk . Inth e Indian subcontinent themil k of thebuffal o (Bubalusbubalis ) iswidel y used.Othe r kindso fmil kuse d are camel (Camelusbactrianus )dromedar y (Camelusdromedarius )i nCentra lAsia ,th eMiddl e Eastan dNort hAfrica . In CentralAsi a themil k ofmare s isals oconsumed .A well-known fermented maremil k producto f the steppeso fCentra lAsi a isth eKumis so f theKaza k pastoral peoples.Sinc ea mar e gives littlea ton emilking , theyar e often 19 milked sixo rmor e timesa da yan d Kumiss isnearl yalway sa luxury food. Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)milkin g isfoun d among theSaam io f northern Scandinavia and someo f thepeople so f the taigaan d tundra zones 20 ofnortheaster n Siberia sucha sth eTungus . Themilkin g of reindeer by the Saami isderive d fromth e Scandinaviandair y traditions.I t iso f interest tonot e thatno tal l thosewh okee p reindeerus emilk .Ther e isi n actual facta largegeographica l gapbetwee n themilk-usin g Saamenan d the other reindeer-keeping peopleso f theBaika l regiono f Siberia.Mos t likely thedomesticate d reindeerwa s firstadapte d fordraw n sledges in imitation 21 of thedog-draw n sledge andonl y later for ridingan dmilking . Iti s It known that sometimes themil k ofth eas s (Equusasinus )wa sused . 22 Despite thediversit y ofdifferen tmilks ,co wmil k hasbecom e themos t important forman .However ,thi sdoe sno texclud e the fact that in some -13-

regions other typeso fmil k may be ofgreate r significance. Studies carried out in the 1960s focussed attention onproblem s related tomalabsorptio n of milk among populationswh ower e not traditional milk users,b y lactose intolerance. Primary lactose intolerance results froma napparentl y normal decrease inth eactivit y of the intestinal enzyme lactase and canoccu r between the 23 ageso f twoan d fiveyears . This condition ispresen t in 75-80% of the world population and canpossibl yb eascribe d to the fact that among these peoples milk isno tuse d after infancy.However ,youn g children can usually tolerate a certain intake of lactose as ispresen t inbreas tmilk . Small butnevertheles s significant quantities ofmil k other thanbreas t milk taken throughout theda y canb e tolerated byolde r children and adults as well. It should be remembered that the interpretation of symptoms of discomfort associated withmilk-drinkin g and intolerance isno t easy. Intestinal infectionwhic hofte n results inmalnutritio n may sometimes 24 cause temporary secondary lactose deficiency. In those communitieswher e sanitary conditions arepoor , intestinal infections anddiarrhoe a are common.Studie s carried outo n lactose intolerance suggest there isa geneti c basis forprimar y lactose intolerance among thosewit hn o tradition ofmilk-drinking . Probably during a late evolutionary development dairying populations developed a tolerance overman y generations by theus e of alactose-ric h diet inth e form of cow milk. It isbase d on the presence ofhighe r levelso f the enzyme lactase in 25 adultman . Despite theprevalenc e of lactose intolerance,th ehabi t of making use ofmil k has spread incontemporar y times into the traditional non-dairying regions of theworld . Populations who are truly intolerant to milk can often tolerate small butnevertheles s significant amounts of it. Also, indair y products sucha s the fermented kinds ofmil k and cheese the lactose isalread y partially degraded. Until 1500 thepeopl e of theworl d could be clearly divided intomil k andnon-mil k users.Thi swa sn o static situation,an d very gradually, dairying expanded. Thediffusio n of a food toothe r partso f theworl d is not a simple linear process.Ne w foodsma y beadopte d but disappear after a certain period and even sometimesmay appea r again.Chin awhic hha s always been regarded as a society of traditional non-milk users isa goo d example. It seemshowever , thatafte r theHa nperiod , inth eyear s 200-1000A.D . the customs of thenomad s on the northern border with their dairying traditions became intermingled withChines e customs.Mil k anddiar yproduct swer e then -14-

adopted by theuppe r classes.Thi schang emus thav ebee ndu e toth e close relationbetwee n thearistocrac yo fNort h China and thenobl e familieso f theborde r nomads. Most likelymil kusag edisappeare dwit h thedeclin e of the influence of thenomad s and the increaseo fpopulation , followed by competition for landbetwee nma nan d cow.I nthi scontex t a rejection of milk mayals ob e seena sa wa yo fdifferentiatin g theChines e habits from thoseo f theborde rnomads ,b ywhic hmean sthe ycoul d remain independent 27 for their food. Another example isth e Indianpenetratio n intoSout hEas tAsi a during the firstmillennium ,whe n theus eo fmil k as foodan d for religious purposeswa s introduced.Apparentl y onlya ver y limitedpar to f the society adopted theus eo fmil k and itdisappeare d quicklyafte r thedeclin e of the 28 Indian influence. A seconddiffusio n ofmil k intoarea swit hn o milk-drinkingtraditio n tookplac edurin g theperio d of European expansion.ltseem s thata strongdair y tradition isnecessar y for maintaining themilk-usin g habit inwha tar eunfavourabl e ecological zones fordairying .

2.2 European expansion

Althoughdairyin goriginate d inth eMiddl eEast ,Wester n Europebecam e anare awit h a stronghabitua lus eo fmil k andothe rdair yproduct s as integral partso f thediet .Wit h theWester n Europeanexpansion ,whic h increased rapidly inth e16t han d 17th centurieswhe nEurop ebega n to "discover" theworld , thehabi to fusin gmil k spread intoothe rareas . Through trade,conques tan dmigratio n over thepas t 400years ,th e spread ofdifferen t foods fromthei r original zonet oothe r regionsha sbee nver y extensive.Maiz e (Zeamays) , "Irish"potatoe s (Solanumtuberosum) , sweet potatoes (Ipomoeabatatas) , cassava (Manihotutilissima) , cocoa (Theobroma cacao), tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum), limabean s (Phaseolus lunatus), ground nuts (Arachishypogaea )an d turkeys (Meleagrisgallopav o gallopavo) were introduced intoEurope ,Afric aan dAsi a fromth eAmericas .Product s like rice (Oryza sativa), tea (Camellia sinensis), sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum)an d several fruits spread fromSout han d SouthEas tAsi a to 29 other tropicalan d semi-tropical regionso fth eworld . It isinterestin g tonot e that inman y countries these important foods are sodeepl y rooted that thepeopl e consider thema s indigenousan d not foreign. InAfrica ,abou t 45%o f themajo r cultivated food plants -15-

originated from theAmericas . On theothe r hand themas smigratio n from Europe toAmeric awa s accompanied by the spread ofwhea t (Triticum sp)an d dairying. Present-day NorthAmeric a inherited thedair y traditions of North-western Europe,whil e inLati nAmeric a dairying is lessusua l as the Hispanic settlersha d lesso fa dairyin g tradition.Th e spread of dairying inLati nAmeric a wasmainl ydetermine d by the extent towhic h the pre-Columbian civilisationswit h their non-dairyin g traditionswer e still present and byecologica l conditions.Humi d tropical zonesar e less favourable tocattl e raising. British and Irish settlers introduced dairying intoAustralia . Dutch settlers took dairyingwit h them to the Capeprovinc e of SouthAfric a in the 17th century. Here they settled inth e territories of the hunters-gatherers the IkungBushmen .Ther e theyals o came into contact with theHottento t and Bantupastora l peopleswh oha dmilk-usin g traditions. The spread ofdairyin g and theus e ofmil k accompanied European settlers who considered milk anessentia l parto f their foodhabits .Howeve r humid tropicalAfrica ,Sout h EastAsi a and the Far East remained basically untouched by theEuropea n expansion of the 17than d 18th century as far as dairyingwa s concerned. Tradewa s thedrivin g forcebehin d this expansion and only a fewEuropean s settled thereo n amor e permanent basis. The situation changedwhen ,afte r themiddl e of the 19thcentury , the industial revolution and technological innovations infoo dprocessin g meant thatmil k could bepreserve d in largequantitie swit h along-lastin g keeping quality. At the same time the European colonial powerswer ebringin g most ofAfric a andAsi aunde r their direct administration soa s totak eou t rawmaterial s and toexpor t their industrialproducts .

2.3 Technological innovations and diffusion of food

The complex phenomenon of the industrial revolution causedmajo r changes in food habits.I tbega n inEnglan d andbetwee n 1760-1860 transformed the country from anagricultura l and trading nation to the leading industrial nation of that time.Belgium , especiallyWallonia ,wa s the first of the countries of thecontinen t ofEurop e tobecom e industrialized. Technology, although present inpre-industria lmethod s of foodprocessing , expanded rapidly. It is stillno t fullyunderstoo d why the industrial revolution began in England rather than inothe r European countries.I t isastonishin g to see -16-

the suddenproductio nboo mo f industrial goodsa spar to f the English technological revolution.A t theen d of the 18thcentur yan d into the 19th centuryearl ymas sproductio nwa sabl e todevelo pwithou t bottleneckso r breakdowns. The transformation of thepredominantl y agricultural andartisa n economy ofWester nEurop e intoa nurbanize d industrial society createdne wdemand s for food. Itals o led toa nagricultura l revolutionwit ha n increase of foodavailabilit y sotha teventuall ymas spovert yan dhunge r disappeared. Thesewer eno t the resulto f the industrial revolutiona s isofte n believed,bu twer e in factalread y characteristic ofpre-industria l Europe. 32 Itwil l always remaina poin to fdiscussio na st owhethe r modern technology changesfoo dhabit so rwhethe r foodhabit schang e technology. Thisbring su st oth equestio no f technological innovation. Technological innovation resto nth eavailabl e technical and scientific knowledge and onne wdemand s froma changing society.Fo r fourne wdemand s canb edistinguished .

(1)Chea p food for theworkin g class living inth e fastgrowin gcities . (2)Luxur y foods fora ne wdevelopin g and expandingurba nmiddl eclass . (3)Food stha tca nb ebette r keptan dpreserved ,becaus eo fa n increasing distancebetwee n foodproductio n centresan d theconsumers . (4)Food stha tca nb eeasil y stored andprepare dunde r newhousin gan d workingconditions .

Are inventions the resultso f thewor k ofon eperson ,a geniu s ina certain field,o r the resulto fa sequenceo fa numbe r of smaller inventions?Th e theoretical discussions on inventions focuso ntw o differentapproaches ;on e iswha t Flinncall sa "heroic"approach ,th e 34 other beinga "systematic"approach . The "heroic" schoolo f thoughtemphasize s the roleo fth e individual inventor.Schumpete r puts lessemphasi so n the inventor assuc hbu tmor e so on theentrepreneur ,thank s towhos e leadership the inventionma yb epu t intopractice ,th eactua l innovation. "Aslon ga sthe yar eno t carried into practice, inventionsar e economically irrelevant.An d tocarr yan y improvement intoeffec t isa task entirelydifferen t from the invention of it, and a task,moreover , requiringentirel ydifferen t kindso faptitudes . Although entrepreneurs ofcours ema yb e inventors justa s theyma yb e capitalists theyar e inventorsno tb ynatur eo f their functionbu t by -17-

35 coincidence andvic eversa" . The "systematic"schoo lo f thought sees inventiona sth e culminationo f a regular process.Representative so f thiswa yo fthinkin gwer e the sociologistsOgbur nan dThoma san dGilfillan . Theypoin tou tth e dependence ofa n inventionupo n itsconstituen t elements.Thes ear e in turn eachdependen to n their constituentelements ,an d soon .Indeed ,th e inventiono fcondense dmil k byGai lBorde n (1856)wa sdependen t onNicola s Appert's inventiono f foodpreservatio nb yhea ttreatmen t ina permanen t sealed container ofglas s (1806). Itwa sBrya nDonki n (1812)wh omanage d to change thebreakabl e glass for tinned containers.I ti sno t somuc h the work ofon edetermine d individual,bu tth ecultur eo f a society that produces the invention;necessit ydoe sno tautomaticall y lead to invention. 37Supporter so fth e systematic approach see the inventionso f the industrial revolutiona sbein ggenerall y thewor k ofartisans .The y 38 pointou t that industrialistswer equit e ofteno fhumbl eorigin . It iso f importance tonot e thatman y inventionswer eneve r actually applied.Ther e isa timela gbetwee na n inventionan d itsadoption , althoughwit h thedevelopmen t ofmoder n communication this isprobabl y shortened. From the sociological pointo fvie w iti smor e important tokno w when the invention isgenerall yapplie d (innovation)tha n it ist okno wth e 39 timeo f the inventiona s such. An invention isno ta nuniqu eeven tbu t in most cases it isa sequence ofa numbe r ofbigge r and smaller inventions. It isno t justified tospea k for instanceo f the inventiono f condensed milk ormilk-powder .

A number ofprecondition s are required beforea n inventionbecome s adopted and a commercial success.Buchana nbelieve s therear e threemai n 40 conditionsneede d for creating a favourableenvironmen t forinnovations . (1)Ther emus tb e "keygroups "withi na societyprepare d toconside r innovations seriouslyan d sympathetically.Thi swa s trueo fBritai nan d later ofothe rWester nEuropea n countrieswhe na ne windustria l middle classwa swillin g tocultivat e newideas .Societ yappreciate d the labour of the inventoran d gavehi mhonou r and respect. (2)Innovation shav e tomatc h socialneeds .A s fara s food technology is concernedw ehav e alreadymentione d thenee d forprocesse d foodsfo r the growingurba npopulations . (3)Closel y linkedwit h this isth etransitio n froma traditional toa modernpatter no f culture.I nth emoder npatter no f culture changeis , -18-

inprinciple ,positivel y appreciated.A societywhic hbelieve s inth e possibility of improvementb ymean so f change,i sprepare d toloo k into 41 thepossibilitie s ofchang ean d to rate ita t itstru evalue . Inthi s context,ther e isa nappreciatio n ofne w ideasan dproduct so f science and technology.

Industriallyprocesse d foodswer eoriginall ydevelope d tomee t theneed s ofurba n consumers inWester n Europe andNort hAmerica .Wit h themoder n Europeanexpansio n after themiddl eo f the 19th century,processe d foods reachedAfric a andAsia . Inhi sstud yo ndiffusio n of innovation Rogers distinguishes fourmai nelements . (1)Th e innovationwhic hma yb ea n idea,practic e orobjec t that is perceived asne wb y itsadopter . (2)Th e channelsb ywhic h the innovation iscommunicated . (3)Th e timeo rduratio n involved inth ediffusion . 42 (4)Th e social system inwhic h thediffusio noccurs . Likewise theproces so fdiffusio nan dadoptio n ofa n innovationwil l involve two levels; a4geographica 3 l diffusionwhic h isth e spread of the innovation from itsplac eo forigi n toothe rpart so f theworld ,an da socialdiffusio nwhic h isth e rate inwhic ha technique orproduc t is adopted amongvariou s groupso f the society.A s fara s theadoptio no fa n innovation isconcerned , severaladopte r groups that canb e classified are the earlier adopters,earl ymajority , latemajority ,an d the so-called 44 laggards. Thequestio no fwh oadopt sa n innovationearlie r or later cannotb eanswere d onlyb y findingou t the innovativeness of individuals or groupso fa society.Th ediffusio n ofa n innovation isa selective process and notal lgroup s canb eequall y reached.Th e rateo fadoptio n depends alsoo n thedegre e ofacces swhic hpotentia l adoptersma yhav e to resources 45 sucha s income,forma l educationo rland . Ina studyo n themechanis m of food innovations,Wiegelma ndistinguishe s twobasi c typeso f food innovations;a nexpensiv e innovationan d an 46 emergency innovation. Expensive food innovationsar e firstadopte db y the upper classo fa society.Throug h close contactan d imitation they often movedow n the social scale toth e lower classes.Thi sproces swil l be strengthened inperiod so f increasing prosperitywit h improved production andmas s transport techniques.Finall y the foodwil l lose itsexclusiv e character andbecome sa par to f thedie to f the lower classes.Thi s iswha t ingenera l termshappene d and still ishappenin g inAfric a andAsi awit h -19-

imported foodsfro mEurope .Typica lexample sar ebread ,biscuits ,mil k 47 products andbeverage s sucha sbee r and softdrinks . Thedeman d is continuously expanding andbecaus e these foodshav ebecom e sucha n integral part of the localdiet ,shortage sca nb e thecaus eo fhardshi pan d 48 complaints. Onth eothe rhan d innovationsma yals ooccu r intime so f economicdistres s and the foodma ygraduall ymov eu po n the social scale andb e adoptedb y thehighe r classes.Becaus eo fpopulatio npressur e and increasing food scarcity cassava andmaiz ewit h theirhighe ryield shav e replaced indigenous cereals sucha s sorghuman dmille t inAfrica . InAsia , maize gradually replaced someo f the riceo n the island ofJava ,afte r 1880 49 becauseo fproblem swit hth e food supply. In regionswit ha food deficiency theuppe r classeswer e alsograduall y forced toadop tmaiz e in theirdiet .

The following generalized modelo fdiffusio no fa ne w food fromon e society toa nothe r society ispresente d inFigur e 2.1.I tcomprise s four main elements;th egeographica l diffusion,th e socialdiffusion ,adoptio n into the local foodpattern ,an d theelemen to ftime . Thediffusio no f food fromon e society toanothe r is,i nmos t cases,no t a one-wayprocess .Ofte na counte r flowo fne w foodstake splac e simulta­ neously.Becaus e of itspossibilitie san d limitations foradoptio n iti s necessary in studying fooddiffusio n totak e intoaccoun t the form ittook . Isi t inth e formo fplant san d animals,o ro f food commoditieso ro f processed foods?Technologica l innovations in foodprocessin g andmas s transportmean t that largequantitie so f foodswer e nowavailabl e far beyond their original ecological zones.I tbega nwhe na colonia l elite wanted tomaintai n theirow n foodhabit sb y importing someo fthei r plants and animals for localproductio nan d consumption.Differen t ecological conditionsmean t thatno tal l European foodscoul db e sufficiently produced locally.Mil k isa typicalexample .When ,aroun d 1860,mil k processing in the formo fmil k condensing becamea fact,i twa s then possible toshi plarg equantitie smil k toth emil k deficient regionso f the world. Inthes e regions the rejectiono fmil k graduallyweakened . Commenting onChin a inpresen t timesGood ywrites :"Face dwit h thatke y products ofearl y industrial cooking,namel y condensed sweetenedmilk ,th e attitude ischangin g rapidly". -20-

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A generalized model ofth e socialdiffusio no fne w foods inlat e colonial SouthEas tAsi a and itsmai nchang eagencie s ispresente d in Figure 2.2.Foo dplant san danimal swer e inth e first instance imported by theColonia lGovernmen tan d European firms for thedevelopmen to f European dominated agriculture.O nth ewhole ,preserve d andprocesse d foodswer e importedb yEuropea n importing firmsan dChines ewholesal e tradersan d middlemen,an dwer edistribute d tobot hEuropea nan d local consumers.A gradual diffusiono fne w foodstoo k place fromth ecolonia l elite toth e localpopulation . Inthi scas eth eearl yadopter swer e themoder n local elitewh ower e inclos e contactwit h thecolonia l administration and Europeanenterprises .Fro mther ene wfood swer e furtherdiffuse d tourba n wage earners,cas hcro p farmers,plantatio nworker s andeve n larger groups within the society. Inthi sproces sa wid evariet yo f institutionsacte d intentionally andunintentionall y aschang e agencies;agricultura l extension services,Europea nagricultur e and animalhusbandry , European oriented school systems,th emilitary ,publi chealt h servicesan d the retail outlets (tokos,warungs ,pasars) . Many of theseagencie swer eb ynatur eno tprimaril y concernedwit h food for the Indonesianpopulation ,bu tnevertheles s theyacte d as food innovators. Someo f theagencies ,a t least inprinciple ,di d have food innovations for thebenefi to f thepopulatio n ason eo f theirobjectives . Agricultural extension servicesma yhav epromote d thecultivatio no f cassava ormaiz ebecaus e ofpendin g food shortages,an dhealt h servicesma y havepromote d certain foods for infant feeding.Needles s to sayth e importing firmsan d "retailoutlets "sol eai mwa s tosel l thene w foods.O n theothe r hand,th eDutc h language school,an d themilitary ,althoug h food innovationwa sno tpar t of their objectivesnevertheles s acted as food innovators.

Onemajo r elemento f fooddiffusio nwhic h shouldb e studied isth e adoptiono fne w foods into the local foodpattern .Figur e 2.3 isa generalized model of theadoptio no fa ne w food intoth e foodpatter n and itsmai n limitations.Th e adoptiono fa ne w fooddepend so nho w it fits intoth ediet ,wha t the foodpreparatio ntechnique sa thousehol d levelare , whether there isa neconomi c need fora ne w food,an dals owhethe r it contributes toth eprestig e of itsadopter .I n factthes emai n factorsar e a cluster ofvariable sal l influencing foodadoption .Ho w for instance a new food fits into thedie tdepend so nth e culturalacceptabilit y of the -22-

Figure 2.2 A generalized model of social diffusion ofne w foods inlat e colonial South EastAsi a and themai n changeagencies .

a. Food plants and animals b. Preserved andprocesse d foods _ + European importing firms Colonial government and European importing firms Chinesewholesal e traders and middlemen 1 V. I y a Change agencies European and Change agencies Indo-European consumers

Agricultural extension 1 Modern local elite Tokos,warungs , 3 and local agriculture Pasar 1 European agriculture Urbanwag e earners, Public-Health and animal husbandry cash crop farmers, Services plantation workers

\ School system -•*- Greater categories of -«- Military the population / \ -23-

food, itstaste ,it s suitability asa staple food or complement to the staple, its suitability asa snack,o r for special occasions, its suitability for special categories sucha s infants,children .Th e adoption ofa ne w food into the foodpatter n isofte n limited,howeve r desired the foodma ybe .Fou rmai n limiting factorsca nb edistinguished ; ecological limitations for localproduction , limitations for local food processing, import restrictions,an d limitations of thepurchasin g power of the population.

Figure 2.3 A generalized model of adoption of ane w food into the foodpatter n and its main limitations.

Ecological limitations for local production

culturally acceptable cheaper than local food acceptable taste higher production rate asa staple food than local foods complement to the staple food shortage food health need as a snack for special occasions for special categories, a e.g. children Fits into the diet Economic need

Adoption of a newfoo d 8 Fits into preparation Prestige HA technique at household level - requires fewer possible - modern I changes in food preparation - properous 5 - duration of the preparation - poorman' s food - fuel needs

Purchasing power limitations

Not all food innovations canb e classified as either anexpensiv e or an emergency innovation. Beer and later,th e carbonated beverages or soft drinkswer e indeed expensive food innovations.Th eexampl e of condensed milk is somewhat different. Itwa sa nexpensiv e food innovation forAfric a andAsia ,bu t itals oha d anaspec t ofemergency . Somemother s started to use condensed milk for infant feedingwhe n theywer e not ina positio n to give or to continue with breast-feeding.Apparentl y condensed milk was adopted to sucha nexten t that,i nth e 1930's, somehealt h authorities in tropicalAfric a andAsi a grewworrie d about its inappropriate use. -24-

3.A NEW FOODFO RURBA NCONSUMERS :CONDENSE DMIL K

3.1 Foodpreservatio n inconnectio nwit h longdistanc e transport

Asa perishabl eproduct ,mil k assuc hcanno tb e transported over long distances or over alon gperio do f time.A surpluso fmil k that isno t required for immediate consumption should bepreserve d inon ewa yo r the other likebutter ,cheese ,curds ,o ryoghurt .Unti l recentlymil k was unsuitable asa food for travellers.Th edryin go fmil k products isno ta 19th centurynovelty . Isha s for instancebee ndon e fora lon g timeb y the Mongols,an d inMongoli a todayther e areman ytype so fmil k curds. They are notonl yeate nafte rpreparation ,bu tar eals odrie d and prepared for storage for lateruse .On e ofth emos tcommo nmean so fpreparatio n ist o let themil k setunti l thecrea m risesan d then skim itoff .Th emil k is thenboile dunti l acur dbegin st o form,afte rwhic h thewate r canb e removed.Butte r and sugarar e thenadded . Inth e 13thcentury , travellers tocentra lAsi a liketh eFlemin gWille mva nRubroe k and theVenetia nMarc o Polo reported thepreparatio no fdrie dmilk .The yobserve d that theMongol s useddrie dmil kwhe ndurin gwinte r the supplyo f freshmil kwa s limited,o r 2 took itwit h themwhe ngoin go na nexpedition . Inth e 19th century the supplyo fmil k posedman yproblem s for the fast growing citieso fWester n Europea sdistance sbetwee nproducer s andth e consumers increased.Th eurba nmil k supply inth emiddl e of the 19th centuryha d twosources . (1)Tow ncowkeeper swh o kept their cows insheds ,half-undergroun d densan d cellars.Th eanimal swer ebrough t intothei r shedsa s soona s theyha d calved andwer emilke dunti l they randry .The nthe ywer e soldan dne w cowsbought .Th ehygieni c conditionso f these towndairie swer e appalling.Drummon dan dhi sassociate s givea sexample so fLondo nan d Manchesterwher e cowswer e keptan dmilke d inshed swit hn o ventilation andwhic hwer e full of filth. Inth ecit yo fAmsterda mmor e thana thousand cowswer e keptan dmil kwa s onsal e for thegenera lpublic . The cattlewer e fedwit hha yan dgrass ,potat opeels ,ol d bread and 4 leftovers fromrestaurants . (2)Mil kvendor swh o camedail y from the countryside tosel lmil k at the doorsteps ofth eurba n consumer.Th e shareo f thesemil kvendor s inth e totalurba nmil k supplywa sprobabl ymor e important inth e smaller towns. For a large city sucha sth eLondo nmetropolita n area,th e -25-

developmento f railwaysmad e itpossibl e tobrin g inmil k inlarge r quantities from the ruralarea st oth eurba n consumers.I nth e Netherlands the situationwa s somewhatdifferent .Majo r citieslik e Amsterdaman dRotterda mwer e relatively smaller in size,bu t the existing systemo fwaterway s allowed amodes tbul k supplyo fmil k by boat.5 Apart from theunhygieni c aspectso f themil k being supplied toth ecities , foodadulteratio nwa s commonpractice .Waterin gdow n themil k and removing the fatwa sver y common.Mil k ofa goo dqualit ywa sexpensiv e and outo f reacho f theworkin gclass . Anothermas sdeman d for food came fromth emerchan t fleet,th enav yan d thearmy .Th enatur eo f thevoyage smean t thatmuc hemphasi sha d tob e givent ofood stha tcoul db epreserve d fora longtime .Apar t fromgrits , wheat flour,drie d peasan dbeans ,typica lpreserve d foodso nboar d of 17th and 18th centuryDutc hEas t Indiamenwer ebacon ,salte dmeat ,stoc k fish, sauerkraut and ship'sbiscuits .Als odair yproduct s sucha sbutte r and cheesewer e takeno nboard .Chees ewa s coatedwit ha thi nlaye ro f tar to prevent flies from laying their eggs. Because of the suffocatinghea t of the ship'shol d foodsdeteriorate d quickly.Standard so fgenera l hygiene on board and thato f thevictual swer e considered evenb y contemporaries as poor.Armie sa twa r did nottak e sufficientquantitie so f foodwit h them and often roamed thecountrysid e asa swarmo f locusts.I t isobviou s that milk asa perishabl eproduc twa sno ta suitableprovisio n for thearm yo r navy. Inorde r tosatisf y thedeman d ofpassenger s itwa sno tuncommo n tohav e somecow so nboar d for freshmilk .Thi swa s oftena nuissance ,fodde r had be takeno nboar d aswel l and instorm ywhethe r limbscoul d easilyb e broken. Thehygieni c andnutritiona l conditionso nboar ddecline dwit h the durationo f thevoyage .Th equalit yo fwate r and fooddeteriorate d and fresh foodwa s lacking. Inth e long run,th edie tusuall y consisted of ship'sbiscuit san d dried or saltedmeat .Scurv ywa sno tuncommo no nboard . It isno t surprising tonot e that theauthoritie swer e concernedwit h food supplyan d foodpreservation . (1)Th e DutchUnite d East IndiaCompan y (VOC)throughou t itsexistenc e issued anumbe r of regulations concerning thepreservatio n of the victuals. Foods sucha spea stake no nboar d had tob ewel l dried,an d meatan d baconha d tob e salted andpickle d again fromtim e totime .I n order topreven t scurvy,lemo n juice,tamarind ,horse-radis h (Armoracia -26-

rusticana)an d scurvygras s (Cochleariaofficinalis )wer eused . Small livestock like sowsan d sheepwer e takeno nboard . Sometimeso nth e poopdeck , smallvegetabl e gardenswer ekep twit h lettuce,cres so r o parsley. In1652 ,th eDutc hEas t IndiaCompan yestablishe d a refreshing stationa tth eCap eo fGoo dHope .A vegetable gardenwa s a keptther e for thebenefi t of sick sailors. Notonl y lemonsan d d 10 orangeswer e cultivated butals ohorse-radis h and scurvygrass .

(2)Th eBritis hAdmiralit y showedmuc h interest inth eproblem so f scurvy. In 1753Jame sLind ,a nava l surgeon,publishe d hisclassi cbook , "A Treatise of Scurvy". Itwa sLind' svie w thatorange san d lemonswer e thebes tantiscorbutics .Howeve r ittoo kman yyear so fendles s discussions before theAdmiralit y accepted the recommendations ofLin d and othermedica ldoctors .I n179 5 itdecide d toadop t lemon juice as theprincipa l antiscorbutics,an d rationswer e issued after the sixth week atsea .

(3)Anothe r example ofa majo r concernwit h food supplywa s the settingu p (inth e 18th century)o fbakin g establishments inth edockyard s at Deptford, Portsmouth and Plymouth for theBritis hNavy . Thiswa s to ensurea nadequat e supplyo f ship'sbiscuit s since thedeman d rosever y sharply inwartim e and then fellbac k justa sdrasticall y once peace returned.

When the Frenchconfectione r NicholasApper t (1749o r 1752-1841)wa s experimenting inhi s factoryo n thepreservatio n ofvegetables ,fruit san d meat,Europ ewa s ina stat eo fwar .Durin g theNapoleoni c eramas s transfer ofpeopl e took place inth e formo farmie sal l over Europe.Napoleo nwa s well awareo f the importance ofa goo d and efficient food supply;henc e his dictum, "Anarm ymarche so n its stomach".Arm y andnav yauthoritie swer e onceagai n interested inmethod so fkeepin g food fresh.Apper tdevelope d a methodwhereb y aglas s jar filledwit hmea to rvegetable swa s carefully sealed after asmuc hai r aspossibl ewa s removed.Thi swa sdon ebefor e the jarwa sheated . It iso f interest tonot e thatApper t believed that itwa s theai r thatcause d the spoilage,an d soglas swa s chosena s themateria l leastpenetrabl e byair .Jar so fglas swer e alreadybein guse d by housewives of thewell-to-d o classes for storingpickle san d other 12 delicacies.Th e jarswer e closedwit hglas slid san dwa xo rglue . -27-

Appert alsouse d the samemetho d topreserv emil k inbottles .Th e French Navy, impressed byhi swor k awarded hima priz e of 1200 0 francs.Despit e thissucces s thene wpreserve d food inglas scoul dno teasil yb eutilize d ona larger scale.Apar t fromquestion so f tastean dpric e therewer e two other problems.Sealin g thewid emouthe d jars,whic hwer e filledwit h fish, poultryo rmeat ,wa s inpractic ever ydifficult .I nhi sboo k on food preservationpublishe d in181 0Appert wrote : "Iti schiefl yo n thecorkin gtha tth e successo f theproces s depends".12 Jarso fglas sar ebreakabl e andwer e thereforeno t fit for large-scale suppliesunde r the transportcondition so f thattime .

Britain's interest infoo dpreservatio nma yb e illustrated by the fact thatAppert' sboo kwa s translated intoEnglis han dpublishe dwithi na yea r inLondon .Drummon dan dhi sassociate smentio n that in180 7a somewhat similar processwa suse db yth eEnglishma nThoma sSaddingto n for preserving , .. 14 fruits. Problemswit h the fragilityo fglas s jarswer eeventuall y overcomewhe n inEnglan dAppert' smethod swer e adapted totin-plat e canisterso r cans. The firstpaten t forusin g tin-platewa s takenou t in181 0b y Peter Durand, 15 but there isn oevidenc e thath e took part inth ebusines so f canning. Themakin g of tin-platedate sbac k toth e 14thcentur ywhe n Bohemia and southernGerman yalread yha d a flourishingdomesti c industry. Ironbar s were forged andhammere d intothi niro nsheets ,whic hwer e rinsed and then dipped inmolte n tin,thu sprotectin g thethi niro nsheet sagains t corrosion. From thismaterial ,i nth ecour so f time tinsmithtil s formed and 18 soldered all sortso fdurabl ehousehol dutensils . Inth e 18th century twopropertie s of thetinne d container becamehighl y appreciated by itsusers .I nth e firstplac e compared toearthenware ,ti n waseasil ydecorate d bypain to rvarnish ,s otha t coloursan dmotif smad e ita nappealin g product.Secondly ,tinne d containerswer emor e suitable for 19 storing certainkind so f foods. From173 0on ,th eBritis hdominate d the tin-plate industry.Thi sdominatio n lastedunti l theen d of the19t h 20 century. Inth eNetherlands ,prio r toth eIndustria lRevolution , tinsmiths could be found inal lmajo r citiesusin g tin-plate imported from Germany.Th e 18th century tinsmithsmad e cannisters,boxes ,jug san d funnels. Cannistersan dboxe swer e generallyuse d tostor edr yan d therefore lessperishabl e foods like tea,coffe ean d spices,an d sometimes -28-

alsooil-ric h foodssuc ha schocolat e tabletsan d oils.O nboar d ofships , 21 tinned boxeswer euse d tostor ebrea d and ship'sbiscuits . By theen d of the 18thcentur y tinned containers for foodwer e sometimes sealed by soldering. In177 5a consignmen t of salmonenvelope d inshee p fatan d also 22 put into sealed tinswa s sent toth eEas t Indies. It isobviou s that without a technique of sterilization the contento f the tinswer e often tainted.Th eBritis hNav yals ocontribute d totechnologica l innovations in the field of foodpreservatio nbecaus eo f itshig hdemand s for food supplies inperiod so fwa r andbecaus e of itstas k of safeguarding the 23 empire. Invie wo f thewid e spreadus eo f tinnedcontainer st ostor e food it is not surprising that itwa s soon regarded asa possibl e alternative for food preservation inglass .I nEnglan d itwa sBrya nDonkin ,partne r of the firm JohnHall ,wh o realized thattinne d containers couldb euse d insteado f glass.Afte r sometria lan derror ,a factory for thepreparatio no f tinned foodwa sestablishe d around 1812i nBermondsey .Th eAdmiralit ytoo k supplieso f thesepreserve d foods to formpar to f themedica l store for distribution to sickme nan d also forus ea s rationso n exploratory expeditions. According toMorri s (1958)th edevelopmen t of thecannin g industry around 1850wa s characterised by some importantdifficulties .Th e manufacturer Goldner,wh o canned foods inMoldavi a aswel l as inEngland , wasaccepte d asa contractor toth eAdmirality .Whe na larger contractwa s granted Goldner tried tofulfi l thiscontrac twithi n theagree d time.H e obtained permission tosuppl y the soups inlarge r cans thanthos e originally specified.Unfortunatel ymuc ho fthi sconsignmen twen tbad .Th e resulting inquiryb ya Roya l Commission showed that thechang eo f canha d been ill-advised.Th e situationworsene dwhen ,i n1850 ,4 9tonne so f Goldner'stinne dmea twa s condemned.A correlationwa s tracedbetwee n the introduction of large tins (4-15kg )instea d of thecommo none s (1-3kg ) and the sudden increase inspoilage .Th e troublewa s ascribed toth e difficultyo feliminatin g air fromsuc hlarg e containers,an d to inadequate cooking.Wit h ourpresen tknowledge ,ther e isn odoub t thatGoldner' s 24 processha dno t sterilised the innermost layerso f themeat . TheGoldne r dramaha d a longnegativ e effecto nth epopularit y of tinned foods,an d consumers regarded these foodswit h suspicion. Inth e 1860'sth eattitud e of theconsume r towardstinne d foods changed. The cattle epidemic of 1863-1867 inEnglan d stimulated ademan d for cheap -29-

tinnedmea t coming fromAustrali a and theU.S .a sa substitute for local 25 freshmeat . From 1868onward , first inth eUnite d States and later Europe,can swer e generally superseded bymachine-cu t types. InChicag o and Cincinatti giantmeat-cannin g firms likeP.D .Amou r emerged. The product was notver y appetizing, big, thick and clumsy red tinswhic h on opening disclosed a large lumpo f coarse-grained leanmeat ,fibrou s intexture , with a large piece ofunpleasan t looking fato non e side of it.However , it was cheap. InEnglan d the imported tinned meat cost sevenpence a pound, which was approximately half thepric e of local freshmeat . Forman yyear s the flavour of tinned foods leftmuc h tob edesired . On the other hand, it should be realized that for instance tinned peas and salmonwer eusuall y sold to consumers on theAmerica n prairies or in the urban slumso fManchester ,wh oha dn o access too rperhap sha dneve r eaten 27 the fresh product. InGermany ,preserve d vegetables,mea t and fish changed between 1870-1914 from rare foodsuse d by travellers and rich 28 people topopula r foodsamon g theworkin g classes in thecities . Although theNetherland s inth e firsthal f of the 19th century was economically and technically farbehin d itsneighbourin g countries, there were nevertheless some small-scale modern food preserving factories.Th e demand formoder npreserve d foods inglas san d tinswa sdetermine d by the needs of theurba n populations,b y the supply ofprovision s for the 29 merchant navy,an d increasingly also forWester n foods inth e colonies. Likewise theDepartment s ofWa r and Colonies became important customers of thene w food-preservation industries. InAmsterda m somevictualler s like Alberdingk Thijm &C ower e engaged insmall-scal e food preservation in containers of glass and tin .Thi s firmwhic h existed from1830-1870 , preserved foodsb y the "removal ofoxygen" ,probabl y by following Appert's method. Glasswa s themos tpopula r material formakin g containers and for hermetically sealing jarso fpreserve d foods, fora ver y long time during the 19th century.Onl y for long-distance shipmentswa spreferenc e given to tins. In the last parto f the 19th century however most of the preserved 32 foodswer e packed in tins. Themetho d ofprocessin g tinned foods remained basically the samedurin g the 19th century.Afte r the food and liquid were put into the tinb yhand ,a small tinplat ewit h apinhol e in itwa s soldered over theopening . The tinan d itsconten twer e thenboile d until steambega n toescap e through thepinhole .A drop of solder wasplace d over thepinhole ,an d the cooking of the food continued until theprocessin g was -30-

completed.Th e tinswer e furtherprovide dwit ha nembosse dmeta l or apape r label. The successful applicationo fone-colou r lithographyo n tinplate s inth e 1870'san d thato f thechrom olithograph y inth eearl y1890' smad e itpossibl e tohav e elegantpicture so n thetin s inorde r toattrac tth e attentiono f the consumer. A further improvementwa s the replacemento f ironb y steel inth emanufactur e of tin-plate,givin ga muc h lighter and harderproduct . Inth eearl ybeginnin g of the20t hcentur ya ne wmetho d of food preservation intin swa sdeveloped .Th e SanitaryCa nCompan ywa s formed in NewYor k in190 4an d began tomanufactur e the so-called sanitary tinca na s itexist s today.Thi ssanitar yo ropen-to p tin,wa s constructed duringa completelymechanical ,doubl e seamingoperatio n that required no soldering, a rubber compoundholdin g the lock-and-lapsid e seams together.Th e topo f the containerwa s completelyopen ,th eli dbein g crimpedo n automatically after the tinwa s filledwit h food. Thanks toth ewor k ofLoui sPasteu r (1822-1895)an dRober t Koch (1843-1910) inth e fieldo fmicrobiology ,problem s confronting theproces s of canning could bebette r dealtwith .Th eproces so fassimilatin g this knowledgewa s slowan d fora long time sterilizationmethod swer e arrived atentirel yb y trialan d error.Losse sdu e tospoilag e bymicro-organism s remained high.A t theen d of the19t hcentur ywor k atth eMassachusett s Instituteo fTechnolog y inBoston ,U.S.A . on themos t satisfactory processing timesan d temperatures fordifferen t foodsbecam emor ewidel y known.

Twomajo r developments,th e riseo f theliqui dmil k industryan d the condensedmil k industry,helpe d inth e supplyo fmil k after 1850.Th e growtho f freshmil k output fordirec t consumptionwa sno tonl ydependen t ona wealthie r population inth egrowin g cities,a bette r hygiene an increase inth eyiel d ofmil k per cowan da n increase inth enumbe r of cows.Th e spread of railwaysallowe d farmers inEurop e tosel l theirmil k indistan t cities.Further ,th e liquidmil k industrywa sdependen t onth e provisiono f adequate roads for takingmil k fromth e farms to railway stations,o npasteurisation ,o nmethod so fkeepin gmil k cool intransi tan d on the riseo fwholesal e organizationswhic h collectedmil k from farmers 37 and resold itafte r treatmentt o retailers. With the increase inth e supply of freshmil k thecondense dmil k industrywa sestablished , preservingmil k inth e formo f sweetened condensedmilk ,evaporate d milk -31-

and sterilized milk.Thes emil k products had certain advantages over fresh milk.The y could be transported overmuc h longer distances and could be stored for a longer period.Besides ,i na timewhe n freshmil k was frequently adulterated, tinnedmil k wasofte n a safealternative .Th e main disadvantage was thato ftaste .

3.2 The arrival of condensed milk

NicolasApper t succeeded not only inpreservin g milk inbottle s but also inpreparin g adrie d milk product intable t form.Afte r his invention several attemptswer emad e topreserv e milk byevaporatin g thewate r and 38 keeping theproduc t inseale d bottles or tins. Thisproduc twa s far from 39 being attractive to the consumer.Tw omai ndifficultie s were encountered. The prolonged heating converted some of themil k constituents such as proteins and calcium salts into insoluble substances.O n reconstitution withwater ,thi smateria l formed a sedimentwhich wa sdislike d by the consumer.Anothe r difficultywa s thatpreserve d milkwa s liable to decompose on storage.This , thoughunknow n at the time,wa sdu e to the survival ofhea t resistant micro-organisms. Until the 1860'sth evictuallin g authorities and the consumer had little interest inthi s type ofproduct .Thi sdespit e the fact that theAmerica n Gail Borden considerably improved the technique of condensing milk. In 1853 heapplie d for apaten t ofhi smetho d inth eUnite d States.Thi swa s at firstno t accepted. In185 6however ,th ePaten tOffic e accepted the 40 originality ofhi s claiman d granted apatent . The air inth e tinsuse d forpackin g the finished productwa spartiall y evacuated bya nairpum p before the tinswer e hermetically sealed.Despit e the fact that the patent granted toBorde n claimed "producing concentrated sweetmil k by evaporation invacu owithou t theadmixtur e of sugar or other foreignmatter" ,Gai l Bordenmanufacture d condensed milk,whic hwa s sweetened. Adding sugar before condensingwa snecessar ywhe nusin g Borden's technique,becaus e ahig h concentration of sugar inhibits bacterial growth. Theproductio n ofunsweetene d condensed milk remained aproblem . In the early 1880's,Joh nB .Meyenber gdevelope d ametho d of preserving milk without theadditio n of sugar.Th ebasi cprincipl e of theproces swa s the preservation ofunsweetene d condensed milk byhea t sterilization, by steaming under pressure. -32-

The introductiono fcondense dmil k toth econsume rwa sa slowprocess . Inth eUnite d States,Gai lBorde nmad e a firsteffor t toproduc e his improvedproduct ,th e sweetened condensedmilk ,o na commercia l basis in 1856.Th e story istha th e firstbecam e interested inpreservin g milkwhen , during a roughcrossin g fromLondo n toth eUnite d States,h ewa s confronted by theproble mo f immigrantbabie swh o couldno tb e fedwit hmil k asal l the cowso nboar dwer e seasick. His firstmil k condensery in Walcottville,Connecticu twa sa failure,bu t in185 7h emad ea ne weffor t atBurrvill e a fewmile sdistan t fromhi s first factory. Morris (1958)state stha t thecondense dmil k industrywa s established at about the sametim ea s the factory systemo fbutte r and cheesemaking , althougha searl ya s in183 5a Britis hpaten tha d been takenou tb yNewton . 42 In184 9Horsfor dprepare d condensedmil k byaddin g lactose. Condensed milk couldno wb e introduced ona limite d scale toth emai neconomi c and urban centre of theUnite d States inth e19t hcentury ,Ne wYork .Becaus e of financial restrictionsan d also the lacko fa railwayconnectio n between the locationo fhi s factoryan dNe wYork ,Borde n looked forbette r opportunities.Wit h the financial supporto fJeramia hMilbank ,a condensery ona mor e extensive scalewa sestablishe d atWassaic ,Ne wYor k in1860 , operatingunde r thenam e ofNe wYor k CondensedMil k Company. Thedeman d for condensedmil kwa sa t first limited,bu tdurin g the AmericanCivi lWa r (1861-1865)i twa s introduced ona large scale.Th earm y had tob e fedan d firmswer e contracted by thegovernmen t tosuppl y food. This gave theNe wYor k CondensedMil k Companya chanc e toprovid e ten thousand of soldierswit hpreserve dmilk . Incombat ,i nth ecamp san d barracks,an d inth ehospitals ,peopl e learned toappreciat e that condensed milkunde r verydifficul t circumstances isa tast yan dnourishin gproduct . TheCivi lWa r contributed toa further popularizing of condensedmil k and 43 tinned foods ingeneral . InEurope ,th eUnite d StatesConsu l inSwitzerland ,Charle sA .Pages , togetherwit hhi sbrother sGeorge ,Willia m andDavi d established a small condensery,th eAngl o SwissCondense dMil k Company inCha mb yLak e Zug in 1866.Durin g theWa r of Secession,Charle sPage ,a wa r correspondent for theNe wYor k Tribune,wrot e anumbe r ofarticle spointin g out the healing effects of condensedmil k for thewounded .Th eAnglo-Swis s Condensed Milk Company grew rapidly.I n the 1870's itha d three factories inEnglan d and later inNorway ,German yan d theUnite d States.I n190 5 theAnglo-Swis s CondensedMil k Companyamalgamate dwit hanothe r giant,th e Societe Farine -33-

Lactee Henri Nestle. In186 8Henr i Nestle had launched amil k food for sale inSwitzerlan d atVeve y andLausann e and inGerman y inFrankfurt-am-Main . The tinned milk foodwa s based onconcentrate d milk mixedwit h flour for use asa bab y foodwhe n amothe r could not feed her child herself.Workin g classmother s could not afford tobu y cowmil k nor could they feed their infants under hygienic circumstances. Infantmortalit ywa sver yhig h in Europe at this time. When amothe r could notbreast-fee d her child itwa s difficult to find cowmil k ofa goo dquality .Nestle' smil k foodwa s used inman y countries of Europe,an d in 1873 500 000 tinswer e being sold annually. A new element inth edevelopmen t of condensed milkwa s the introduction ofbran d names. The consumer had beenunabl e todistinguis h between milk supplied bydifferen t traders.Thi s changedwit h thepreservatio n ofmil k in tins. Themanufacturer s of condensed milk introduced abran d name by which the consumers could easily recognize theproduct .

By 1900 anumbe r of large companieswer e operating; theAnglo-Swis s Condensed Milk Companywit h itsbran d Milkmaid,Nestl ewit h Nestle Condensed and,o n the other sideo f theAtlantic , theNe wYor k Condensed Milk Company with thewell-know n Eagle brand, theHelveti a Milk Condensing Company and thenewl y established Pacific Coast Condensed Milk Company with the brand known asCarnation . Condensing proved both commercially and technically a successful method ofpreservin g milk. Throughout the 19th century,effort swer emad e topreserv e milk by a drying process.Th e firstpaten t fordrie d milk-powder was granted in England in1855 .Grimwad e invented aproces swhereb y sodium carbonate was added to freshmilk , and further evaporated ina nope n steam-jacket pan to a doughlike consistency.Afte r adding cane sugar,th edoug hwa s pressed to a ribbon between rollers,drie d further and finally ground intopowder . The alkali was added tomak e the caseinmor e soluble,th e sugarwa s added to 46 cause granulation inth e final stages. A later improvement was theus e of vacuum pans instead of openpan s for evaporating themilk . In188 3 another form ofdrie d milk was invented byWillia m Horlick. Thismalte d milk was placed on theUnite d Statesmarke t in1887 .I tconsiste d ofdrie d milk with a proportion ofmal t extract andwhea t flour.Th e convenience, nutritive value anddigestibilit y ofmalte d milk-powder attracted favourable 47 attention from themedica l profession. Driedmil kwithou t any additions appeared on theAmerica n market in189 8an d patentswer e taken out for -34-

various typeso f film (roller)drier sa tabou t the sametime .Spra ydrier s followed and togetherwit h improvedmethod so fpackaging ,th equalit yo f themilk-powde r continued toimprove . Inspit 48 eo f theseefforts , milk-powder washardl yuse da tdomesti c level.Th e impacto fmilk-powde r wasver y limited on theworkin g classes inEngland ,preferenc ebein g given 49 tocondense dmilk . Milk powderwa suse d for industrial purposes.Aroun d 1910,th emai nuser s of thisproduc t inEurop ewer e thebiscui t factories (skimmilk-powder )an d the chocolate industry (partially skimmil k or full-cream milk-powder). Somemanufacturer s issued cookerybook swit h recipeso nho wt oprepar e 50 various foodsan ddrink susin gmilk-powder . Themedica l profession sometimes recommended theus eo fmilk-powde r for infantfeeding ,no t so mucha t thedomesti c level,bu tmor eunde r controlled conditions sucha s in mother and childcentres . During the1890' si nFranc e ina numbe r of citiesth e "Gouttesd e lait" and the "consultationsde snourrissons "wer edeveloped ,chil d health centreswhic haime d at reducing infantmortalit yb ymean so feducatin g the mothersan db yproviding ,o nmedica l indication,mil k ofa goo dqualit yt o infants.Differen t kindso fmil kwer euse d inthes e centres,pasteurize d 51 and sterilized milk and laterals omilk-powder . These centres stressed the importance ofbreast-feedin g andmad eus e ofothe rmil k onlywhe n the motherwa sno t ina positio n tobreast-fee d her child.Th eNetherland s followed theFrenc hexample ,an d the firstZuigelinge n Consultatie Bureau or Child HealthCentr ewa sestablishe d in190 1 inth eHagu eb yDr . Plantenga.N ous ehoweve rwa smad eo fmilk-powder .

3.3 Consumerso f condensedmil k

Whower e theconsumer so f condensedmilk ?A sha sbee nalread y discussed thedevelopmen to f condensedmil kwa s connectedwit hattempt s toprovid e large institutions sucha sth enavy ,merchan t fleetan d armywit hpreserve d milk.Thi swas ,however ,no teverywher e thecase .I nGermany , for instance, Teuteberg (1981)mention stha tth earm yprovision so f theGerma n troops in 52 France inth eyear s 1870-1871di dno t includemilk . This isquit e remarkable as theseprovision s forth earm yi nFranc ewer edesigne d on purpose tob e anexemplar y combination ofdesire dfoods . The supply of freshmil k totown san dparticularl y tolarg eurba n settlementspose dman ydifficulties .Mil k ofa goo dqualit ywa s at first -35-

expensive and outo f reacho f theworkin g classes.I nEngland ,th emai n industrialized nationo fEurope ,condense dmil k cameont oth emarke t in considerable amounts round 1870.A sa relatively cheapmil k product its consumption rapidly increased. Itwa s toa largeexten tuse d for feeding 53 infantsan dyoun g children. For thepoore r urbanconsumer s condensedmil k was notonl ya cheape r kind of goodqualit ymilk ,bu t itcoul d alsob e better stored.Th e importance ofcondense dmil k for infant feedingma y be illustrated by the fact that inth e1880' sNestl eacquire d an enviable place on theBritis hmarket ,thank st oa publicit y campaigndirecte d at 54 mothers and stressing thevalu e ofcondense dmil k for infant feeding. In order to reachpoo r consumersa cheaper productwa sbrough t onth emarket , condensed skimmilk . Removing fat frommil k alsomean s removingth efa t solublevitamin s A (Retinol)an d D (Calciferol).Thi swa so f courseno tknow na t the time.I t was only in 1913 thatMcCollu man dDavie spublishe d their experiments pointing out that some fatscontai na substancewhic h is indispensible for themaintenanc e of life.Thi swas ,a sMcCollu m stated,a surprising discovery sinceu p totha t time itwa sbelieve d thatal l fatswer eusefu l innutritio n only asa fuel in food. In191 7Bloc hdescribe d caseso f Xerophthalmia inDanis h infantswh ower e fed ondiet sbase d on skimmil k during theperio d 1912-1916. Denmark had a substantial butter export to England and foreconomi c reasons the skimmil kwa suse d in institutions like infanthomes .I n192 2McCollu man dhi sassociate sdemonstrate d the existence ofa second fat-soluble vitamin.I twa sname dvitami nD andwa s 57 shown tob eessentia l for thenorma lossificatio n ofth eskeleton . It isobviou s that condensed skimmil kwa sno ta n ideal food for infants and children,particularl y those frompoore r households living in overcrowded quarterso furba nareas .Ricket s (VitaminD deficiency) prevailed among thedweller so f slumsan d crowded suburbs.Eve nearlie r somephysician sha d notbee nplease dwit h theus eo f condensed skimmilk . In187 5 inEnglan d DrDaly ,writin g inth eLancet ,pointe d out that although children grew fato n thismil k and lookedwell ,h eha d reasont o think that theirvitalit ywa s reduced "belowpa r toa ver y dangerous CO degree". In189 4 theSelec tCommitte eo n FoodProduc tAdulteratio n discussed thematte r fully.Shortl yafterward s legislationwa s introduced, making itcompulsor y for containerso fcondense d skimmil k tocarr y a label clearly showing itscharacte r and stating that itwa sno t suitable forth e feeding of infantsan dyoun gchildren . 59 -36-

England was inthi s respect ahead of other nations. InPar t II,Chapte r 5 Idiscus s thequestio n of the suitability of condensed skimmil k for infant feeding. Thequestio nwa s raised in theNetherland s Indies inth e 1930'san dprovoke d sharpdiscussion . Despite thewarning ,mother s in England continued tous e this type ofmilk ,partl y out ofpovert y and partly from ignorance. Condensed milk,whethe r skimmed ornot ,remaine d aproduc t for householdswhic hwer e not ina positio n tobu y freshmil k ona dail y basis. In 1896 themargarin e manufacturer Vande nBer g established amil k condensery inRotterdam.Th e larger part of itsproductio n was sold toth e British andGerma n industrial cities.Condense d milk wasparticularl y used by those living inth epoore r neighbourhoods,wher e the supply of fresh milk was limited. InLondo n sweetened condensed milk was cheaper than freshmilk ,whe n diluted to the same consistency, and itals o kept longer whichwa s an importantmatte r inhouse swit hn o larders.Condense d skim milk was even cheaper and therefore muchuse d for infant feeding. Besides,man y families had never tasted freshmilk ;a sWetha mwrote ,the y took theirmil k already sweetened outo f tins "thick or thin"accordin g to their family income. Aswel l as inth e larger industrial townsan d cities,condense d milk was also extensively sold invillag e shops.A s around 1900 inman y English 64 villages the supply of freshmil kwa s still limited. Tins of condensed milk were even seeno n farmer's tables.Grocerie s formed the retail outlet for condensed milk. Inth epopulou s neighbourhoods of the cities the cornershop played ake y role inth e food supply.Her e customers could buy on tick after careful judgement by the shopkeeper as towhethe r orno t the suppliantwa s reliable ornot .Th ever y poor never fell intodebt ;nobod y allowed theman y credit.Payin g on thenai l theybough t inminima l quantities. Roberts,bor n inSalfor d sluma s the sono f acorne r shopkeeper, describes theappreciatio n of tinned foodsa t the turn of the century as follows:

"Amongu s therewa s still agrea tdea l ofprejudic e against canned beef and boiled mutton in tins (not shared by thever y poor), though fifi condensed milk and tinned salmonwer e readily accepted".

Consumerswer euse d to the sweet tasteo f the condensed milk. In188 5 in -37-

theUnite d States,Meyenber gmanage d successfully toproduc e a preserved milk productwithou t theadmixtur e of sugar.Thi sunsweetene d variety of condensed milk became knownunde r the name evaporated milk. Itwa s tob e a long time before consumers grewt oappreciat e it.Gradua l perfection of equipment andprocessing , together with the control ofviscosit y and heat stability greatly improved itsproperties .Thes e developments practically eliminated the cooked flavour,th e objectionable darkening of colour and the instances of fat separation and curdiness.

3.4 Condensed milk inth e Netherlands

In theNetherland s the industrial revolution took placemuc h later than inEngland , Belgium, Germany and France. Itwa s also farbehin d its neighbours in industrial technology. Until after themiddl e of the 19th century,nearl y all knowledge on industrial production had tob e obtained CO elsewhere. It is still apoin t ofdebat ewhe n industrialization began, but theperio d 1890-1920 ismos t likely. On theothe r hand, Dutch agriculture at thebeginnin g of the 19th centurywa smoder n and very productive and had anett o exporto f agricultural products. Poverty, which may have been less than inothe r countries,wa s nevertheless widespread, particularly among labourers inth e citieso f theprovince s of 71 North and South Holland and inth e regionsbetwee n the great rivers. Between 1870an d 1910,th e income of labourers increased. In185 0a working classhousehol d inAmsterda mwa s spending about 70%o f its income 72 on food,bu tb y 1900 thispercentag e had fallen to 50%. An economic 73 revival of theNetherland s occured whichwa sbase d on three factors.

(1)Th e exploitation of theNetherland s Indies,particularl y the transfer of the credit balance,enable d recovery of the financial position of the state and the improvement of the infrastructure with the 74 construction of roads,canals ,port s and railways. (2)Th e creation of amoder n industry first for thedomesti c and later for the international market. (3)Th e development of theharbour s ofRotterda m andAmsterda m as transit ports toGerman y and theactivitie s connected with them.

Gradually theNetherland s economy changed froma n agricultural-commer­ cial to an industrial-commercial structure.U p till 1870 agriculture played -38-

a central role inth enationa l economy. Itwa son eo f themajo r foundations of the relatively high level of income inth eNetherlands .Afte r 1870 its rolebecam e less important due togrowin g urbanization and industrialization. Liberalization of international trade and an increasing demand for luxury foodproduct s inth e industrializing countries,i nparticula r theUnite d Kingdom, strongly influenced 7fi agricultural production and export. Specialization and technical change took place,wit hmeat ,butter ,chees e and horticultural products asmajo r export commodities.A s fordair yproducts ,th emakin g ofbutte r and cheese shifted from the farm todair y factories.O fparticula r importancewa s the improved centrifugal separator invented byLava l in1879 .Thi sallowe d an efficient and large-scale butter production at factorylevel . In187 8Dutch agricultur e underwent a severe crisis.Th eopenin gu p of theNort hAmerica n prairies and improvements in railway and sea transport meant that cheap grains flooded the Europeanmarket .Thi swa s followed by 78 grains coming fromRussi a andArgentine . Theagraria n criciso f 1880wa s not, as isofte n stated,a starting point formodernizatio n of Dutch agriculture. Before the crisisman y innovationswer e already rapidly being diffused.A t the same time the labour surplus inagricultur e was being 79 absorbed into the growing industrial sector of the economy. Two industrial developments now threatened dairy farmers. (1)Th e invention ofmargarin e and itsmanufactur e in theNetherland s as a substitute forbutter . It iso f interest tonot e that the two well-known Dutchmanufacturer s ofmargarine ,Jurgen s andVa n den Berg, were originally butterdealers . (2)Industria l entrepreneurswer e entering into the industrial manufacture of cheese and butter,an d into the liquidmil k industry, supplying and distributing freshmil k ona moder n andhygieni c basis.

Between 1880an d 1914 the rise of cooperativeswa s astrikin g phenomenon inth eDutch agriculture .Ther e are twobasi c causes for thedevelopmen t of cooperatives. Inth e first place there are theeconomica l benefits for farmers,an d inparticula r smaller farmers,i n the jointpurchas e of needed materials and inth e jointprocessin g and saleo f agricultural products. Secondly isth edesir e of farmers toge t abette r share of themarke t in 81 viewo f theactivitie s ofprivat e entrepreneurs. Among themos t active in developing dairy cooperativeswer e the Frisians. In188 6 inth evillag e of Warga a cooperative dairy factory for theproductio n ofbutte r and cheese -39-

was setup .Afte r anumbe ro f initialdifficultie s theventur eprove d a success.Othe r cooperative dairiesappeare d inothe rpart so fth e 82 country. Oneaspec to f thedair y industrywher e thecooperativ e movementdi d not take a leadwa s inth econdensin g ofmilk .Her e the initiativewa s takenb y private entrepreneurswh o seeing the successo fcondense d milk asa ne w dairyproduc t inSwitzerland ,Britai nan d theUnite d States,becam e interested inth e ideao fmanufacturin g sucha produc t inth eNetherlands . 83 One of thesewa s thearm yoffice r C.H.Hummelinck . Hebelieve d that the Netherlandswit h itslivestoc k and favourable situationnea r England,th e mainmarke t for condensed milk,wa s agoo dplac e tose tu pa mil k condensery.H e resigned from servicean d in188 1wen t toSwitzerlan d to studymoder ndair yan dmil k condensing techniques.H emanage d to find the necessary financial support forhi sidea . In188 2th eN.V .Hollandia ,a nenterpris e for theproductio n ofmil k productswa s founded and inth e sameyea r opened a factory inVlaardinge n (Figure 3.1).Th e sitenea r theNieuw eWaterweg ,th ewaterwa y connecting Rotterdamwit h the seaan d onth eedg e ofpastur e lands,wa swel l chosen. Themanage r of the factory,Hummelinck ,bega n the first condensery in the Netherlandswit h a staffo f ten ina formermargarin e factory.Thank s toa n article ina popula r journal of theperio dw ehav e a contemporary 84 description of themakin g of condensedmil k intha t factory. Themanage r isquote d assayin g that the factory could beviabl e ifal l the condensed milk produced could beuse d inth eNetherland s for infant feeding.Th e enterpriseprove d tob e successful,an d in189 4 inBolswar d inth edairyin g province of Friesland,a ne wmil k condenserywa s openedan d in189 6 Hollandia took over a lessfortunat e competitor inPurmerend . According toHummelinc k (1886)th e successo f condensedmil kwa s because itwa sabl e tob euse d in severalways . (1)A svictual so nboar d shipsan da sa nexpor t totropica l regionswhic h had a shortageo fmilk . (2)Fo rdail y and culinaryuse ,particularl y inothe r Europeancountries . 87 (3)Fo r infant feedinga sa substitute forbreas tmil kwhe nneeded . (4)Fo r the illan d convalescentswh oneede d anourishin g and easily digested food. (5)A s a food intime so fepidemic san ddurin gdigestiv e disordersan d diarrhoea because itwa s free fromgerms . -40-

De fabriek [lolliniln te V Ia a r d i n g e n. 1. Voorgevel der pakhnizen aan de haven te \ laatilingpn de fabriek ligt aelitcrwaarts. 2. Ilet \ oiirjiriK en iler am-lk. 3. Hot laboratoriuni van den directeur. 4 De varuumpan. r>, De blikroakerij. 0. De vnlling en sinning der biiuM' . 7. De buterbereidliif.

Figure 3.1 The first milk condensery in the Netherlands (1882), the N.V. Hollandia in Vlaardingen in a picture from 1884. Preservation of milk in tins in the Netherlands however can be dated back as early as the 1840's. Source: Eigen Haard, 1884. -41-

Several other condenseries were established inth eyear swhic h followed. Themargarin e manufacturers Van denBer g enlarged their interests by entering into the condensed milk industry. Thisprove d tob ever y successful and factorieswer e founded inRotterda m (1896), Uithoorn (1904) and Leeuwarden (1906). Skimmil k wasuse d inth emanufactur eo fmargarin e ofgoo d quality. This was originally bought only fromdair y factories. Inorde r tocontro l the quality and supply ofmil k contracts for itsdeliver ywer emad e with farmers in the region ofRotterdam . Themil k was skimmed for the manufacturing ofmargarin e and the creamuse d formakin g butter. In certain periods of theyea r farmersproduce d moremil k than could beuse d and the 88 ideawa s born tous e this surplus for themanufactur e of condensed milk. J.E. Scholten, sono f thewel l known industrialistA.W . Scholten, setu p inLeeuwarde n in 1912 the LIJEMPFCompan ywhic hdevelope d intoon e in the 89 major condenseries of theNetherlands . In191 0 thegian t in the international dairy and food industry,Nestle ,acquire d substantial interest inth eGala k Condensed Milk Company ofRotterdam . The Netherlands was considered tob emos t suitable as some condenseries had already been established andbecaus e therewa sa nabundan t supply ofmilk .Th eNestle' s main interestwa s theproductio n of sweetened condensed milk.However , the advent of sweetened condensed skimmilk ,a cheape r product, compelled Nestle andAnglo-Swis s to reluctantly alter theirbasi c policy of giving 90 preference to full-cream products. InAsi a the consumption of sweetened condensed skimmil k whichwa s used inte a had risen to substantial proportions. In191 921Nestle ,o nbehal f of theGala k Company, setu pa skimmil k condensery producing entirely for overseasmarkets . Inthi swa yNestl e andAnglo-Swis s protected themselves against thepotentiall y dangerous situation of fierce competition with producers of skimmilk . Some dairy farmers realized the necessity ofno t onlyproducin g cheese and butter industrially, but also thenecessit y ofproducin g newmil k products sucha s condensed milk. Private industry already had a lead in 92 this field so that itwa sver ydifficul t tobrea k in. Around 1914 there were 18 condenseries inth eNetherland s three ofwhic hwer e operating on a 93 cooperative basis. Thedecisio n of Frisian cooperatives toventur e jointly into themakin g of condensed milk in the long runchange d the situation in theNetherlands . In191 3 acooperativ e association for the preparation ofmil k productswa s setu p inLeeuwarden . Thever y energetic -42-

94 SietzeHepkema , sono fa dair y farmer,wa sappointe d asdirector . He undertook study tours inth eNetherland san dabroa d inBritain ,Switzerlan d and Germany todeepe nhi sknowledg e inth e technical aspectso f the productionan dmarketin g ofcondense dmilk .Th e outbreak of the FirstWorl d War delayed thebuildin g ofa condensery ,bu t in1916 ,unde r difficult circumstances,th e firstcondensed'miI kwa sproduce db y the "Cooperative 95 Condensfabriek Friesland",th eC.C.F . Theproductio no fmilk-powde r inth eNetherland sbega nabou t 1905 in several dairy factories.A s inothe r countries,th eproduct swer emad e for industrialus e andno t fordirec tconsumptio na thousehol dlevel .

Whower e the consumerso fcondense dmil k inth eNetherlands ?Oddl y enough thecondense dmil k producedwa sbasicall ydestine d forexpor tan d not forhom e consumption,Britai nbein g themai n consumer.I nth emateria l analysed for this study,n oevidenc e couldb e found to indicate that sweetened condensedmil kwa swidel y consumed inth eNetherlands ,althoug h itwa savailabl e forsale . In189 5th eHollandi amil k condenseryestablishe d theHollandi a Shops in several cities.I nthes e cleanan dattractiv e shopsdair yproduct s sucha s butter,chees ean d condensedmil k couldb ebought . Inth ebeginning ,a s inothe r European countries,Dutc hphysician saccepte d the sweetened condensedmil kwit henthusias ma sa mean s for infantan d child feeding. They followed theprais e forthi s foodmad eb y the famouschemis t Liebig (1868). However theearl yenthusias mdisappeare dwhen , inth e 1870's,som e physiciansobserve d that infants fedo n sweetened condensedmil k often could not tolerate itan d suffered fromdiarrhoea . Graduall97 y physicians becameawar e that sweetened condensedmil kmigh tb eusefu lunde r certain circumstancesa sa supplementary food for child feeding,bu tno t for infant feeding ingenera l and inparticula r nota sa replacement for breast-feeding.

Whywa s condensedmil k solittl e consumed inth eNetherlands ? Several reasonsma yaccoun t for this.Th e spread ofdairyin g over the country, including thearabl e regions theoreticallymad e a supplyo f freshmil k possible.Despit e theproces so furbanizatio n townswer e still ofa size whichallowe da supplyo fmil k fromth eneighbourin g countryside.Thi s togetherwit heffort s to improve the freshmil k supplyan d the late start -43-

of the industrial revolution,hardl y created ademan d for this type of milk product. The FirstWorl dWa r brought some changes.Neutral ,bu t surrounded by warring countries,th eNetherland s became confined within itsow n borders as fara s the supply of food and rawmaterial swa s concerned. The reduction, and in191 7 the cessation of imports ofanima l feeds and fertilizers,wa s fatal for the livestock industry. Initially,th enumbe r of poultry andpig swer edrasticall y reduced by forced slaughtering. Thiswa s followed by the slaughtering of cattle.Th e supply ofmil k and dairy products became scarce,an d the condensed milk industrywa s facedwit h many problems sucha sho w tomaintai n andbalanc e theexpor t tobot h theAllie s and the Central Powers,an d thedifficult y of getting sufficient milk, sugar and tins. Itwa s in thisperio d that both condensed milk andmilk-powder ,u p till 98 thenmainl y produced forexport,wer e first introduced inth eNetherlands . At the request of theMiniste r ofAgriculture , Industryan d Trade, F.E. Posthuma,th eAssociatio n ofManufacturer s ofMil k Productswa s created on 99 28Septembe r 1915. The aim of theassociatio nwa s toensure , inclos e collaboration with the government, anadequat e supply ofmil k for home consumption and theexpor t ofmil k andmil k products as agreedupo nb y the government.Othe r associations were established forbutte r and cheese.Al l these associations wereplac eunde r agovernmenta l supervisory commission. Facedwit h a failing milk supply, inth e summer of 1917,th e government made itobligator y for the condensed milk industry toprepar e large amounts of sweetened condensed skimmil k andmilk-powde r asa winte r stock (Table 3.1). Therewa salread y a shortage of sugar,an d from theno n the government regulated the sugar supply for themanufacturin g of condensed milk both forwinte r storage and forexport .

Table 3.1 Amount ofmil k preserved inmil k products inth e summer of 1917a t the request of the Dutch government for thebenefi t of awinte r stock 1917/18.

Amount ofmil k preserved Milk product

15 000 000 litre sweetened condensed skimmil k 3 000 000 litre full creammil k powder 12 000 000 litre skimmil k powder

Estimated value f5 00 0000 . Source:Wagenaar ,1924 . -44-

InDecembe r 1917 the supply of freshmil k became solimite d that there was notenoug h for children or the ill.I tbecam e rationed and could be bought officially only oncoupon s against fixedmaximu m prices.I nAmsterda m milk, skimmilk , sweetened condensed milk and evaporated milk (bothprepare d from whole and skim milk), driedwhol e milk anddrie d skimmil k were all for sale in thisway . In thewinte r of 1917 theGovernmenta l Bureau of Food Supply issued the producers anddistributor s ofmil kwit ha communication on the household use of condensed milk andmilk-powder . It stated thatbecaus e ofmil k shortages,man y housewiveswoul d turn tomil k products,an d itwa s therefore desirable togiv e some instruction on theiruse .Milk-powde r was recommended as being suitable fordishe swher e normallymilk ,o r skimmil k wasused . The preparation of liquidmil k from full creammilk-powde r was not recommended as the tastewa sdifferent .Mor e important,bu tno t clearly stressedwa s thementio n of the fact thatbecaus e of the absence offat , 102 condensed skimmil kwa sno t suitable for infant feeding. The government, however,wa s optimistic on the consumersdeman d formil k products. Consumers became interested incondense d milk but the government stock of 103 milk-powder remained unsaleable. On the 5thJun e 1918 theAssociatio n wasdissolved , tob e replaced by theGovernmenta l Bureau forMil k and Cheese (Rijksbureauvoo r Melk en Kaas). In191 9 the government allowed the remaining stock of condensed milk tob e exported. Inth emeantim e the condensed milk industry had experienced a considerable loss calculated at f648000 ,cause d bydeterioratio n of both quality andmarke tprices . In 1919 the situation toa certain extent returned tonormal ,wit h hardly any consumer demand for condensed milk andmilk-powder . For the first fewyear s after the armistice in 1918 theDutc h agriculture benefited froma n increase indeman d for food.Th edevelopmen t of theDutc h condensed milk industry meant that the share of condensed milk in the total dairy export increased considerably. Butter and cheese remained of course very important,bu t condensed milk became anexpor tproduc t ofequa l importance (see also Figure3.2) .

The economic crisiso f 1920 inNort hAmeric a and Europe affected both industry and agriculture.Afte r 1923 industry recovered and developed steadily until the collapse of theAmerica n Stock Exchange inNe w York in October 1929,whic h marked thebeginnin g of theeconomi c depression of the -45-

thirties.Agricultur e however,di dno timprov e greatlyafte r 1923.Th e agricultural slumpwa scause db yover-productio n inth eUnite d Statesan d 105 protective agricultural policiesi nvariou sEuropea ncountries . Dutchexpor to fcondense dmil kwa sconfronte dwit h severaldifficulties . Germany closed itsborder san di nBritain ,th emai n customer,th evalu eo f thepoun ddecreased .A tth esam etim eth eAmerica ncondense dmil k industry expanded itsexpor tt oEurope ,Canada ,Australi aan dNe wZealan d followed. Effortswer emad et oexploi tth edomesti cmarket .I n193 2th eCC F introduced evaporated milk intin sont oth eDutc hmarke tunde r thenam eo f Koffiemelk (Coffeemilk )wit hth esloga n "everyoneca nhav ehi sow nco wi n theco wshed" .Th eide ao fusin g evaporatedmil ka sa coffe e creamer insteado fcrea mo rfres hmil ka swa sthe nth ehabi twa s developedb yon e ofth esale smanagers ,Mr .va nde rWerff .H ego tth eide awhe nusin g tins destined forexpor tfo rhi spersona lus edurin gweekend so nhi sboat . In thebeginnin g theide awa sno tver yenthusiasticall y receivedan dunti lth e outbreak ofth eSecon dWorl dWa rther ewa shardl yan ydomesti cmarke tfo r 107 tinnedmil kproducts .

Figure3. 2 Volumean dcompositio no fDutc hdair yexpor ti n100 0tonnes ,1906-1940 .

1000 tons 2001 tinned milk A cheese y \ butter / \ t. milk powder / \ \ \ \ IbU - / \ / i / i i i i i 100 • f

50 ^ Y^7..... v

1910 1920 1930 19A0 years

Source:base do nCentraa l Bureauvoo rd eStatistiek ,1906/40 . -46-

Figure.3. 3 Destinationo fDutc h exporto fsweetene d condensed milk in100 0tonnes , 1920-1939 (meanso f5-yea r intervals).

D United Kingdom • other European countries M Netherlands Indies 35-1 I North and South America, Africa,other Asian countries 201

15-

10-

1920/241925/2 91930/3 41935/3 9

Source: based onCentraa l Bureau voord eStatistiek , 1920/39.

3.5 Dutch exportan dth equestio no fsweetene d condensed skim milk inth e United Kingdom

Before turningt oth etopi co fth ediffusio no fmil k productst o tropical countries,I firs twan tt ogiv e some attention toth equestio no f the exporto fsweetene d condensed skimmil k toth eU.K . andit sus ea s infant feeding. Discussions onsweetene d condensed skimmil k asinfan t food inth eU.K . resulted inhealt h authorities ina grea t number oftropica l countries becoming suspiciouso fimport so fski mmil k products and, ina number ofcases , even caused import prohibitions. After 1870Dutc h cheesean dbutte r lost their primary position intrad e with theU.K . Therang eo ffoo d exportwa swidene d toinclud e cattlean d 108 meat, horticultural productsan dsugar . Onesecto r where theDutc h -47-

managedt oge ta stronghol d inth eBritis hmarke twa sth eexpor to f condensedmil kan dmilk-powder .B y1900 ,65 %o fth eimporte d condensed milk 109 andmilk-powde r inth eU.K .cam e fromth eNetherlands . After theFirs t WorldWa rBritai nwa sth emos t important foodmarke ti nEurope ,an d continuedt ob ea majo r outletfo rDutc hmil k products (Figures3. 3- 3.5) . Milk consumptioni nBritai nwa slowe r thani nothe r industrialized countries. In193 0i twa s10 0litre spe rhead ,whic hwa stwo-third stha t ofth eAmerica nan done-thir d thato fth eFinnis h consumption. Through intensivepublicit y campaigns stressingth eimportanc eo fmil k forhealth , theBritis hdair y industrytrie dt oincreas eth econsumptio no ffres hmilk . Theywer ewel l awareo fth efac ttha tcondense dmil kan dothe r products couldb euse d insteado ffres hmilk ,an dtha tan yrelativ e falli nth ecos t of these "competitive"article swoul d tendt orestric tth emarke tfo rfres h .,,11 2 milk.

Figure3. 4 Destinationo fDutc hexpor to fsweetene d condensed skimmil k in100 0 tonnes,1920-193 9 (meanso f5-yea r intervals).

120 ^ D United Kingdom ID other European countries 100 EO Netherlands In'dies E^ North and South America, Africa,other Asian countries

60

40-

M 1920/24 1925/29 1930/34 1935/39

Source: based on Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, 1920/39. -48-

Figure3. 5 Destinationo fDutc h exporto fevaporate d milk in100 0 tonnes, 1920-1939 (meanso f5-yea r intervals).

20n D United Kingdom [HI other European countries Q Netherlands Indies E3 North and South America, 15 Atrica, other Asian countries

10

m J1920/2L;1925/2 k91930/3 41935/3 9

Source: basedo nCentraa l Bureauvoo rd eStatistiek ,1920/39 .

Milk importst oth eU.K . underwent some remarkable changesdurin gth e period 1910-1925.A nImperia l Economic Committeeo nDair y Produce report 113 for 1926summarize sth esituatio na sfollows .

"Over7 0percen to fth eimport so funsweetene d condensed milk came before thewa r(1914 ) fromNorway ,whic h countryha sno wbee n almost wholly replaceda sa sourc eo fsuppl yb yth eUnite d Stateso fAmeric a and Canada.Nearl y7 0percen to fth ewhole-crea m sweetened condensed milkwa sobtaine d from Switzerland before thewar .Th econtributio no f that country,whic hwa sth eorigina l homeo fth eindustry ,ha sno w fallent osom e 30percent ,it splac e having been takenb yth e Netherlands,an di na smalle r degreeb yDenmar kan dCanada .Th e supplieso fsweetene d condensed skimmil k come inth emai n from Holland,whic h before thewa rsupplie d 90percen to fth etota l quantity imported,an dno wno tles s than7 0percent .Th eactua l quantity shipped has,however ,mor e than doubled".

As already mentioned, condensed milkan di nparticula r thecheape r varieties,wer e usedb ylo wincom e consumersan di nplace swher e thesuppl y -49-

of freshmil kwa s inadequate orexpensive .I tha sbee nestimate d that in theearl y 1920'sth eyearl y consumptionpe rhea do f freshmil k inEnglan d wasabou t9 0 litres.Th e amounto fcondense dmil k consumedwa s equivalent 114 to rather over 9 litreso fliqui dmil k perhea d peryear . It ishardl y surprising thatth eBritis hdair y farmerswer eno tver yplease dwit h these importso f skimmil k products.Th eNationa l FarmersUnio n consequently took actionagains t their import.I ti so f interest tonot e thatbot h economic andnutritiona l argumentswer eused ;th e competitionbetwee n sweetened condensed skimmil k and freshmilk ,an d theunsuitabilit y of skimmil k products for infantfeeding . Inth emeantim e aDepartmenta l Committee onCondense d Milk Standardswa s established by theMinistr yo fHealth .Unde r pressure fromparliamen t the Ministerwa sprepare d toconside r thedraftin go f regulations for 115 appropriate labelling ofcondense dmil k products. Thisle d toth e CondensedMil k Regulationso f 1923whic h laiddow n rules for the labelling of condensed milk.Th emos t importanton e concerned sweetened condensed skimmilk ,makin g itcompulsor y tostat eo n thelabe l that itwa sunfi t for babies (see Figure 3.6). It re-enforced infac tth eprovision s of the Sale of Food andDrug sAc t of 1899makin g itcompulsor y tostat eo n every 117 tino f skimmil k that itwa smachine-skimme d milk. These condensedmil k regulations caused alarm inth eDutc hdair yworld . Theweekl y journal of theDutc hprivat edair y industrypublishe d thewhol e 118 regulation inEnglish . Ina commentar y itconsidere d themeasur e a "heavy gun"polic yagains ta peacefu l exportactivity . Itcommente d that Dutchproducer swoul d prefer tocondens e full-creammilk , rather than skim milk,bu t thatlarg egroup so f theBritis hpopulatio nneede d cheapmil k products. Ifartificia l impedimentswer e put inth ewa yo f imports into Britain then itswoul d be theBritis hpeopl ewh owoul d beunabl e to satisfy 119 theirneeds . Managerso f theDutc hCooperativ eDairy ,however ,di d not pay somuc hattentio n toth eCondense dMil k Regulations,probabl y because the shareo f themarke t ofth ecooperativ e condensedmil k industrywa s still limited.The ywer e of theopinio n that thesemeasure swoul d probably notencoute r difficulties from thegenuin e trade.A t the same time they were pleased tonot e thata nearlie r proposal tolabe l tinsa s "unfit for infants"wa sno t implemented and thatth ewor d "babies"referrin g toth e veryyoun g childwa suse d instead. "Doubtlessa n improvement as through 120 thischang e the saleo f skimmil kwil l suffer lessdamage" . Although onema yagre ewit h theargument so f the threatened Dutchdair y -50-

export interests,th e lack ofunderstandin g of thedair yworl d on the nutritional aspects of theproble m is less convincing. Certainly the British dairy industry exaggerated thenutritiona l arguments against skim milk products.Fro m a studyo f the twomai ndair y periodicals inth e Netherlands for theyear s 1919-1940,on e thingwhic h isapparen t isth e lack ofunderstandin g of thenutritiona l implications of skimmil k for infant feeding, caused by removingwit h thebutte r fatals o the very 121 important fat solublevitamin sA and D. This iseve nmor e surprising as nutrition research in thisperio dwa sver ymuc h oriented towards the discovery ofvitamins ,an d that their deficiency could cause derangement of physiological processes and result indisease .

Whywa s there abelie f thatal l dairy andmil k productswer e basically healthy foodsan dwh ywa s there a rather short sighted outlook on the importance ofdairyin g inth eoveral l nutrition of certain categories of consumers?Wha twer e the reasons fora lack ofunderstandin g of the progress made innutritio n research? Quite illuminating isth e reaction of theDutc h condensed milk industry toa pape r on thenutritiv e value of condensed skimmil kwhic h appeared in 1927 in the journal of theBritis h dairy industry. Thepape r was in fact an extensive excerpt from a reportb yDr .F.J.H . Coutts, entitled "Machine-skimmed condensed milk and infant feeding",mad e in191 1 for the Local Government Board. Dr.Coutt s argued that adie t consisting largely of skimmil k practically represented fat starvation,an dwa s likely to lead to injurious results inth e growthan ddevelopmen t of the child.

" Invariou spart s of the country shopkeepers have stated that there hasbee n a large increase inth e saleso f machine-skimmed condensed milk,an d that theyhav e reasons tobeliev e that suchmil k is largelyuse d among thepoo r for feeding babies,a swel l as for ordinary household purposes. Itwil l be asked how it is that parents give their babiesmil k from tins bearing theword s -machine-ski m milk - plainly printed on the labels.Fro mpersona l conversation with mothers Ithin k theanswe r mayb e summed up inth eword s -poverty- and -ignorance-. Somemother swh o resort tocondense d milk know that the full-cream variety issuperior ,bu tno t inwha t respects,an d they are tempted bypovert y tobu y the cheaper article.The ywoul d not think of using ordinary fresh skimmil k for their babies;bu t thepresenc e of -51-

sugar inan d thevicosit yo fth econdense dvariet ygiv ea fallacious appearance of richness,an d render the foodmor e satisfying toth e 122 baby ".

The comment of theDutc hDair yWeekl ywa s that theNetherland s should follow thesemovements ,despit e theabsurdit yo f theargument so f the 123 BritishMil k Industry. Thena full translation inDutc ho f the English textwa spresented . Another illustration ofa lac k ofnutritiona lunderstandin g isa paper published inth e same journalb yVa nde rMolen ,a nagronomist .Withou t referring toth evitamin sA andD h e considered thenutritiona lvalu e of sweetened condensed skimmil k interm so fenergy .H e concluded that itha d aworth yplac eamon gothe r foodsan d thaton e tinha d the same nutritional 124 valuea sabou t 14eggs . Ir.B .Gerritzen ,Dutc hGovernmen t ConsultingAgriculturis t inLondo n referred in192 9 toa nexperimen to n feeding inScotlan dwhereb ya groupo f school children received a rationo fbiscuits ,o r skimmil k or full-cream milk.Childre n fedo nmil k showedbette r resultstha nthos eo nbiscuit san d noprofoun d differenceswer e foundbetwee n those on skimmil k and thoseo n full-creammilk .Thes e results,Gerritze n concluded,wil l havea favourable influence on theunprejudice d memberso fparliamen t andma ypreven t drastic 125 measuresagains tou r condensed skimmilk . One importantaspec tGerritze n overlooked however, istha t the feedingo f schoolchildre n isdifferen t fromth e feedingo f infants.Nutritiona l argumentsbecam e important inth e discussionsa st owhethe r orno t skimmil k products shouldb eallowe d tob e 126 produced or imported. Very likely the skimmil kquestio n inEnglan d caused concern inothe r countries aboutwha t tod owit h thiskin d of product. Ina numbe r of countries regulations governing skimmil kwer e introduced including totalprohibition ,excessiv edut y compared totha to n the full-creamvariety ,an d special care inavoidin g itsus e for infants (seeals oAppendi x1) . In192 2 inth eUnite d Statesth enutritionis tMcCollu mwa s involved in hearings about the "Anti-FilledMil k Bill", concerningmil k inwhic h the 127 milk fatshav ebee n replacedb yvegetabl e ones. Thisdre wattentio n to thepresenc e ofvitami nA and thenewl ydiscovere d vitaminD inmil k fats. Another threat toth eDutc hexpor to fcondense d skimmil k inth e 1920's -52-

Figure3. 6 Rulesfo rth elabellin go fcondense dmil ki nth eUnite dKingdo mi n192 3an d 1927. (excerpt) 1923 1927 CondensedMil kRegulation s CondensedMil kAmendmen tRegulation s

Rules with respect to the Labelling oj Ib e following pai agi aphs shall be sub Condensed Mill;. stituled for paragraphs I and ^ ol the bhst N liedtile to the principal Regulations : I. kvery tin or other receptacle containing ton densed milk shall bear a label upon which is punted I. I'.very tin or otlu i receptacle contain such one or the following declarations as may he nil^ condensed milk shall bear a label upon applicable or such other declaration substantially to v\ hit b is printed stub one ol the following the like effect as mayb e allowed by the Minister : det lai alions as may b< applicable or such othei de

THIS TIN CONTAINS THE EQUIVALENT OF CONDENSED FULL CREAM MILK, UNSWEETENED (a) PINTS OF MILK. THIS TIN CONTAINS THE EQUIVALENT OF (,i) PINTS OF MILK. (u.) In the case ol full cleain milk (sweetened) : (ii) In the case ol full cream milk (sweet CONDENSED FULL CREAM MILK, ened) :— SWEETENED. THIS TIN CONTAINS THE EQUIVALENT OF CONDENSED FULL CREAM MILK, SWEETENED (a) PINTS OF MILK WITH SUGAR ADDED. THIS TIN CONTAINS THE EQUIVALENT OF (, ) PINTS OF MILK, WITH SUGAR ADDED.

(in) In the case of skimmed milk (un sweetened) : - to.) In Ihe : case ol skimiued milk (swccli ned):

CONDENSED MACHINE SKIMMED MILK i or CONDENSED MACHINE-SKIMMED CONDENSED SKIMMED MILK;, UNSWEETENED MILK |or CONDENSED SKIMMED MILK|, SWEETENED. UNFIT FOR BABIES. UNFIT FOR BABIES. THIS TIN CONTAINS THE EQUIVALENT OF THIS TIN CONTAINS THE EQUIVALENT OF |al PINTS OF 8KIMMED MILK WITH SUGAR ADDED (a) PINTS OF SKIMMED MILK

(iv) Ilk the case ol skimmed milk (sweet (in.) In the case ol skimmed milk (unsweetened) :

CONDENSED MACHINE-SKIMMED CONDENSED MACHINE SKIMMED MILK lor MILK |or CONDENSED SKIMMED CONDENSED SKIMMED MILKI, SWEETENED. MILKI, UNSWEETENED. UNFIT FOR BABIES. UNFIT FOR BABIES. rHIS TIN CONTAINS THE EQUIVALENT OF THIS TIN CONTAINS THE EQUIVALENT OF (a) PINT8 OF SKIMMED MILK. (a) PINTS OF SKIMMED MILK, WITH SUUAR ADDED

Source:Mil kIndustry ,1923 , 1927. -53-

came fromcomplaint s and reports that condensed milk products on the British marketwer e ofa n inferior quality. The Frisian Flag company for examplewa s confronted with complaints on thequalit y of the condensed milk, returned consignments ofblow n tinsan d claims for the damage suffered. In the factory inFrieslan d serious effortswer emad e toge t the 128 process of condensing under better control. Inth emeantim e in192 3a reportwa s issued inth eUnite d Kingdom by the Food Investigation Board of theGovernmen t Department of Scientific and Industrial Research under the title: "Studies inSweetene d and Unsweetened (Evaporated) Condensed Milk".Befor e giving the resultso f the examination the report reviewed previous findings on contaminated condensed milk in Britain. It concluded that all samples of sweetened condensed milk contained living bacteria. This caused great consternation inBritis h dairy circles and thecondense d milk industry. Theperiodica l TheMil k Industry interpreted the feelings of theBritis h dairy industry by saying that evaporated, or powdered milkswer e admittedly onlya ver y poor substitute for liquid milk.Nevertheles s themanufacturer s of these commodities inal l their announcements in thepres spreache d thedoctrin e of safety first,an d claimed that these productswer eperfectl y clean and free frombacteria . The report,writte n inth emeasure d language used by scientists, stated withperfec t certainty that the temperature employed incondensatio n was insufficient tokil lman y typeso fbacteria ,an d could notb e relied on for 129 this purpose. Ina later issue TheMil k Industry commented that there wasn o doubt that the reportha d dealt aver y severe blow tocondense d milk manufacturers. Unfortunately, thewriter s of the reportdi dno t clearly state that the bacteria found incondense d milkwer e harmless.Probabl yunde r pressure from themanufacturer s of condensed milk the issue of the reportb y H.M. Stationery Officewa s temporarily suspended inorde r toprovid e itwit h an introductory note by the chairman of the Food Investigation Board. The note mentioned that theproble m ofmil k condensing was toeliminat e or to reduce toa negligibl e quantity thenumbe r ofbacteri a oryeast swhic h found their way into freshmil k as soona s itcam e from the cowan dwa s exposed to contactwit h air orothe r bodies.I t further said thatmos t of these bacteria andyeast swer e enumerated inth e report.The ywer e not pathogenic but their activities, ifunchecked ,woul d result incurdlin g themil k or 131 otherwise changing itsdelicat e chemical and physical balance. Despite -54-

all these alanning reports, the British low-income consumer did not seem to pay much attention.

Agitation against sweetened condensed skim milk continued. The National Farmers' Union made concerted efforts to convince parliament and the government of the necessity of prohibiting its import. Rumours were spread that in the Netherlands and Denmark condensed milk was produced under unacceptably low hygienic conditions. Urged by questions asked in parliament, mostly at the instance of the National Farmers'Union , the Minister of Health, Neville Chamberlain, decided in 1927 to send a 132 commission of British dairy experts to the continent. The aim of the mission was to enquire into the conditions of the production of milk used in preparing condensed milk in the Netherlands and Denmark. The findings of the mission were published in the form of a Government White Paper. One of the conclusions reached by the commission was that the average cleanliness and purity of milk produced in the Netherlands was as high as that of milk 133 produced in the Britain. The British dairy industry was at variance with the findings of the mission, and members of parliament continued to demand that the government take steps against the Dutch product. The cooperative dairy in the Netherlands commenting on the idea of sending a fact finding mission said that its products met the requirements reasonably well. Nevertheless it pointed out the heavy dependence of the industry on the British market,whic h accounted for more than 90%o f the 134 total export of condensed skim milk. Despite their confidence in the quality of their milk products, the Dutch were relieved with the outcome of the mission. However they were still worried about what was called 135 sensational news on the issue. An angry letter from Sir Herbert Matthews,whic h had been sent to a number of British papers,wa s published in the Dutch Daily Weekly. Sir Herbert concluded his open letter by saying that the investigators had chosen to give the foreign competitors of the British farmers an unwarranted certificate of merit. He further stated that this would no doubt encourage the Dutch and the Danes to continue to turn their milk surplus into condensed skim milk for export, instead of feeding it to the pigs. TheWhit e Paper was not calculated to help the British dairy farmer,wh o as a taxpayer, would have to pay the expenses of the 13f i investigators and the cost of publishing the report. The only action the government took was to make an amendment in 1927 of the condensed milk -55-

regulation.Th eessenc eo fth eamendmen twa s that thedeclaratio n "unfit forbabies "shoul db emor e clearlydisplaye d on the label (seeFigur e 3.6).137

"Importso fmachine-ski mmil k growlik ea cancer",wrot e theBritis h periodical The FarmersExpres s in1929, "destroyin ghealt han d injuring the legitimatehom e trade inmilk .Las tyear' s importswer e nearly twomillio n cwtso fa valu eove r threemillio npoun d sterling. Farmer!mak e anot eo f it,an da tmeeting sas k prospectivecandidates : whatabou t it".138

Despiteal l thispressure ,th eBritis hgovernmen twa s stillno tprepare d to take steps toprohibi t imports.Afte r all,th egovernmen t alsoha d to recognize thebasi c interesto f low incomeconsumer san d thenee d for cheap food.139

With theeconomi cdepressio no f the 1930's,th epositio no f theDutc h condensedmil k industryo nth eBritis hmarke t changeddrastically . This market,onc e the stronghold of theDutc h condensedmil k exportan d in particular of sweetened condensed skimmilk ,eroded . In193 1a changeo f government took place inBritain .Th enewl y elected conservative government issued anumbe r of importquota s insuccessiv eyears .A s a consequence importquota swer e reduceda t theen d of 1936 toa 50%leve l of the situation in1932 .Anothe r heavyblo w for theexpor tmarke twa s that in 1931Britai nan d theScandinavia ncountrie sabandone d thegol d standard. Themai n competitor,Denmark ,ha d fewerproblem sa sth eDanis h crownwa s 140 devaluated inth eproportio n toth eEnglis hpound . Verymuc hagains t the wisheso f the businessworld ,th eDutc hgovernmen tmaintaine d the gold standardunti l 26Septembe r 1936,makin g theDutc hguilder ,an d hence exportproducts ,expensive .Anothe r difficultywa s that theOttaw a conference of 1932establishe d a systemo fpreferenc ewithi n theBritis h Empire.A s a resultDutc hmil k productswer eno tonl ypu t ina n unfavourable position inBritai nbu t likewise ina grea tnumbe r of overseas countries. Reaction from theDutc hdair y industry toth ecriticis mwa s rather emotional.A firstmor e rationalapproac h toth eproble mwa s reflected in 1930 ina report toth eDutc hAgricultura l CrisisCommissio nb yC . Wolmerstett, secretaryo fth ecentra lboar d of theAssociatio n of Dairy -56-

141 Farmers,a norganizatio n closely linkedwit h theprivat e dairy industry. Wolmerstett argued that the lowpric e of sweetened condensed skimmil k was the resulto f fierce competition amongDutc h exporters,whic hwa s causing alarm amongBritis h farmers.I norde r to save theDutc hmarke t position,h e said that the chaotic situation ofpric e dumping should be changed. He suggested a close collaboration between exporters toavoi d dumping on the British market soa s topreven t themarke t closing inth e future.Th e 142 report concluded thatdela y in thematte r could be fatal. The cooperative dairy at first reacted rather negatively toth e report, considering thematte r asexaggerated , and cooperation between private 143 industry and dairy cooperatives asundesirable . Inorde r to avoid further reduction of the importquota s theCrisi s DairyOffic e laid down official minimumprice s for condensed milk.Howeve r action against Dutch imports continued. TheBritis h Milk Marketing Board took anumbe r of measures through a central milk fund to support thenationa l condensed milk industry.Whe n in1934 ,unde r pressure from theDutc hdair y cooperatives, the system of fixed minimum priceswa s abandoned inorde r to restore the normal market situation, fierce competition broke out.A s a result the 144 British government reduced thequota s from 80t o70% . In 1934,a t the instigation of thedair y cooperatives,th e Dutch government tried tocreat e anExpor tBoar d to copewit h the situation. This failed because private industry feared amonopol y ofexpor t ofmil k 145 products. At the same time the government wasno t ina positio n to obtain abette r agreementwit h theBritis h government.Ne weffort swer e made and theAssociatio n ofManufacturer s ofCondense d Milk was created in 1935, comprising both theprivat e and cooperative condensed milk industry. The "pool" as itwa s called didno t last longan dwa s soon dissolved. Ina report addressed to theMiniste r ofAgricultur e and Fisheries in December 1936 on thequestio n ofexpor t regulations of condensed skimmil k toBritai n theDutc hprivat e industry blamed the cooperative industry for having increased their share onth eBritis h market byunfai r means. 146 According to the report,th e number of cooperative condenseries had increased without paying sufficient attention toth equalit y of the product and themarketin g aspects.A s a result the cooperative industry could only increase their saleb ya considerabl e reduction of theprice . Inon e instance a cooperative condensery had swindled with non-milk fatsan d endangered the reputation of thewhol e Dutch condensed milk industry. Heavy competition between thevariou sproducer s pricesdecrease d below an -57-

economicalacceptabl e levelan d createdalar mamon gBritis h farmersan d producerso f condensedmilk .

"Somewhat later (around 1930)an dinitiall y ata les slarge r scale" the reportstated , "the samephenomeno n appeared with respect toth e 147 export to tropicalan d sub-tropicalregions" .

This complaintwa sno twithou t foundation.Te nyear sbefore ,i n1926 , A.H. Colenbrander writing inth eOfficia lOrga no f theFederatio n of Dutch DairyCooperative sha dwarne d thatprimitiv emarketin g techniqueswer e 14 8 spoiling theDutc hmarke t inBritain . Likewise Ir.B .Gerritzen , government consultingagriculturis t inLondo na t thattim e stated that the situationo fa severecompetitio nbetwee nvariou sbrand swa saggravate d by 149 manufacturerswh odi dno tcar eabou tth equalit yo fth eproducts . He considered thisquit e riskyfo r thegenuin emanufacturer .A year later in 1930,Gerritze n said that thecal l forprotectio n amongBritis h farmerswa s becoming louderbecaus e importswer e increasingly takingo nth e character 150 ofdumping . The seriousallegation sagains t thecooperativ e industry needed tob eanswered .M r L.F.Britze l andM rJ.A .Geluk ,th e chairman and secretaryo f theFederatio no fDutc hDair yCooperative spresente d a report onthi smatte r toth eMiniste r ofAgricultur e and Fisheries inMa y1937 . Ina letter attached toth e report,th eDutc hDair y Federation still insisted on thecreatio no fa n importoffic e inBritai nunde r Dutch-Anglo management fora fair regulationo f importswithi nth eexistin g system of quotas andprices .Accordin g toth eletter ,th e systemthe n inforc ewa s leading to theconcentratio n of the imports inth ehand so fa few enterprises,whic h didno tcorrespon dwit hth e interestso f theDutc h farmers.Th e seriousallegation saime d atth ecooperativ e industrywer e described in the reporta sa n "abjectattack" .Malpractice swer e condemned, but therewa s surpriseexpresse d thatprivat e industrydare d towrit e in 152 sucha way . Only intw ocooperativ e condenseriesha d some adulteration withnon-mil k fatstake nplace ,du et oth e "weak character"o fth e manager concerned. The reportdenie d thaton eo f the reasons for thedemand s from British farmersan d theBritis hdair y industry for importquota swa s caused by lowprices .Th e reportsai d thaton e should take intoaccoun t the fact that for a longtim e thereha dbee na mil k shortage inBritain ,an d that thecondense d skimmil k had found itsow nmarket ,especiall yunde r thepoo r populationan dlabourers . -58-

Injudgin gth eexpor tpolicie so fth eDutc hdair yindustr yi nth eyear s 1920-1940tw oconsideration sshoul db etake nint oaccount : - Agenera llac ko rwil lt ounderstan dth enutritiona lsignificanc eo fth e fatsolubl evitamin sA an dD an dtha taccordingly ,ski mmil ki sno t desirablefo rth efeedin go fyoun gchildre nan dtherefor eshoul dno tb e usedfo rinfan tfeeding . - A strugglefo rsurviva lo fth edair yfarmer san dth ewit hthe ms o closelylinke dprivat ean dcooperativ econdense dmil kindustry . Asfa ra sth etota lworl dexpor to ftinne dmil ki sconcerned ,jus tbefor e theoutbrea ko fWorl dWa rI Ith eNetherland sstil lha dabou t60 %o fth e 153 market. Becauseo fth erapi dcrumblin go fth eBritis hmarke tfo r condensedmilk ,particularl ysweetene dcondense dski mmilk ,a tthi stime ,a reorientationo fth eexpor ttoo kplac e (seeFigure s3. 3an d3.4) .Ne w effortswer emad et openetrat eth emarket so ftropica lcountrie si nAfric a andi nparticula ri nSout hEas tAsi aan dth eFa rEast . -59-

Part II,DIFFUSIO NO FMIL KAN DMIL K PRODUCTS TO INDONESIA -61-

4.DAIRYIN GAN DTH EUS EO FMIL K INTROPICA LREGION S

4.1 Diffusiono fmil k toSout hEas tAsi a

Inhi s classical studyo ndomesti c animalsEduar d Hahnpointe d out that man'senjoymen t ofmil k cannotb e justifiable considered as self-evident since inactue l fact therear eman ypeople s forwho m theus eo fmil k asa food isunknown . If itcome s toth epoint ,fo rmany ,th edrinkin g ofmil k isconsidere d as something repulsive.Sout hEas tAsi a isa regionwhic h has 2 nomilk-usin g tradition. Dairying and theus eo fmil k asa foodneve r developed aspar to fa nagricultura l systemwithi n theSout hEas tAsia n region.Durin g theNeolithicu m inSout h EastAsia ,ma ndevelope d an agricultural systembase do nth eho ecultivatio no f rootsan d tuberssuc ha s yam (Dioscorea sp). Cattlewer e absent inthi sagricultura l system.Th e present-day populationso fMalaysi a and Indonesiamove ddow n theMalaya n peninsula froma nare a in southwestChina ,whil eothe rmigrant swen t toth e Philippines from the southeastChin acoast . Thedevelopmen t of theoldes tagricultura l systemso f SouthEas tAsi a is very complex andman yquestion s stil remainunanswered ,althoug hva n Laanen 4 made someeffor t to reviewth e situation. Around 1500B.C . Indo-Chinese tribespenetrate d intoth eMalaya npeninsul a and the Indonesianarchipelago . These "Indonesiens"practise d anagricultur ebase do n cereals;variou s millet speciesan d later,ric e (Oryza sativa).A sdistinc t from root agriculture,cattl ewer e knownbu tha d onlya social and religiousfunction . Theywer e a signo f importancean dwer euse d asdowr y ora sofferings .I n their turn,th e "Indonesiens"i n Indo-Chinawer edrive nou tand/o r absorbed by awav e ofmigrant sprobabl y coming froma nare a insouthwes tChina ,th e "Malaisiens" (+100 0 B.C.). Thesene wpopulation sno tonl ypractise d hoe agriculture based on cerealsbu t inth emos tpopulate d areasSawah so r irrigated rice fieldswer edeveloped . The buffalo (Bubalusbubalis )wa s introduced inth eagricultura l system. There isno t fullyagreemen ta s toth eorigi no f thedomesticatio n of the buffalo. Itmus thav ebee n indigenoust oth e rainforest so f continental SouthEas tAsia ,an d it islikel ytha twil d or semi-tamed buffaloeswer e firstuse d as sacrificesan da smeat .Durin g theNeolithicu m thebuffal owa s introduced into India fromSout hEas tAsia ,probabl ya sa nanima l for sacrifice. At amuc h later stage this resulted indifferen t typeso fmil k buffalo,a majo r source ofmil k inth e Indian subcontinent of today. -62-

InSout hEas tAsi a thebuffal owa sno tuse d formilking . Itgraduall y became used asa draugh t animalb y theMalaysia npeople . Thebanten g (Bosjavanicus ) isals oa membe r ofth ebovin e familyan d resembles a small cow. Iti showeve r anentirel ydifferen t species from either European cattle (Bostaurus )o r zebus (Bos indicus). Like thebuffal o thebanten g thrivesunde r hothumi d conditionsan dha s likewise ahig h resistance totick san d tick-borndiseases .I tca n stillb e found semi-domesticatedo r sometimeseve nwil d inIndo-Chin aan d Indonesia. It is a poormilke ran d itsudde r isalmos t invisible.I tha sno tbee n reareda s a milkanimal . Dairyingwa sno tpractise d inSout h EastAsia .Howeve r itdi d eventually reach thatpar to f theworld .Thi shappene d intw odifferen t phasesan d from twodifferen t centreswit h strongdairyin g traditions;durin g the first millenniumA.D .a spar to f the Indianpenetratio n inth earea ,an dwit h probablymor e lastingeffect ,a sth e resulto fth e European colonisation in the latter parto f the19t hcentury . Wheatleyha scollecte d evidence thatdurin g the firstmillenniu mA.D . o dairying spread fromth e Indian subcontinent intoSout hEas tAsia . During the early centuries,a proces so fbrahmanizatio nmove d along theprincipa l trade routes reachingacros sth eocea n intoth ewester n regionso f South EastAsia .Thi sle d toth e formationo f Indianized city-statesunde r the sanctified ruleo fgod-kings .India ncultur ewa s transplanted toth eol d tribal societies.A t thecor eo fthes e city-stateswa s thenationa ltemple , axiso f theuniverse ,th eworl d and thekingdom ,an d the seato f the palladium. Therewa showeve r anenormou s gapbetwee n thecour t lifewit h its hierachyan d religion,an d the resto f thepopulation . Infac tordinar y peopledi d notparticipat e inthi scivilizatio nothe r thant operfor m 9 statute labour and tobrin g inlevies . As the Indian influencemove d eastwards ittoo k thehumpe d cattleo r zebuwit h it.Th eus e ofmil k and dairyproduct swer epar to f the religious rituals.Thi s issupporte d by Sanskrit inscriptions found on shrines inBurm aan dCambodia . Inth eothe r partso f SouthEas tAsia ,accordin g toWheatly ,th eevidenc e fordair y is 10 meagre. There isevidenc eo fmil k beinguse d for ritualpurpose s in Java. Buddhismals o reached SouthEas tAsi a fromth e Indian subcontinent andwa s firmlyestablishe d inBurma ,Thailan d and Indo-China.Contrar y to what issometime sunderstood ,Buddhis mha sa positiv e attitude towardsmil k asa food.Thi sha slea d toa situationwhereb y incontemporar y Thailand imported tinso f sweetened condensedmil k arepopula r asoffering s to -63-

Buddhistmonk sbot h inisolate d ruralcommunitie san d inwealth yBangko k 12 temples. With thedeclin e ofth e Indian influenceafte r 1000A.D. ,dairyin g and theus e ofmil kdisappeared . Itwa si nfac ta custo m related tocour t life whichha d notpenetrate d into thehabit so f theordinar ypeopl eo f South EastAsia ,an ddespit e close contactswit h the Indiancultur e these people 13 hadno tadopte d thehabi to fdrinkin gmilk . TheArabi c and Islamic influencewhic h followeddi d notbrin gmuc h of the dairy traditionso f theMiddl e East toSout hEas tAsia .Thi sdespit e the facttha tth eKora ni sver ypositiv e onth eus eo fmil k as food forman . However inplace swher eArab s settled theydi dbegi ngoa t raising formea t andmil k production.Littl e evidence hasbee n found for thewidesprea d use ofgoa tmil k among the Indonesianpopulation ,althoug h itma yhav e occured 14 ona ver y limited scale. Arab traders imported theBengal i goatwhic hwa s alreadypresen t inth e 19thcentur y inplace swher e theyha d settled.Th e Bengali goat isuse d forbot hmea tan dmil kproductio n andgive sa muc h higher return thanth e localgoats . As fara sca nb eascertained ,n odat a havebee n found onth eus eo few emilk .Th eGujarat i andBengal i Muslims played an important role inth e spreado f Islam intoSout hEas tAsia .Th e areasmos t stronglyeffecte d by thisproces so f Islamizationwer e the Malaysianpeninsula ,th e Island ofJava ,part so fth e coastal regionso f Sumatra,Sulawes i andKalimantan . Itseem s that the spread ofdairyin g ina neasternl ydirectio n from the Middle Eastan d froma northwes t Indiancentr eo fa nagro-pastora l system couldno tbasicall y effect theagricultura l systemso fSoutheas tAsi awher e theplac e of livestockwa slimited . Besides,geographica l conditions in thehumi d tropicsd ono t favour cattle raising. This ispossibl ybecaus e of theprevalenc e of seriousdiseases ,an dbecaus e theho thumi d climate is unfavourable toth epreservatio no f cattleproduct s likemea tan d dairy products.Mos t importanthoweve r istha ttropica l pasture ofaverag e quality 17 hasn o great foodvalue . A second andmor epermanen t penetration ofdairyin g begandurin g the early European colonization of SouthEas tAsi adurin g the 17thcentury . It beganwhe n Europeans there raised cattlean d gradually setu pdairie s to meet their owndeman d for freshmilk .Fres hmil k production remained limited,bu t technological innovationsa t theen do fth e 19thcentur ymad e possible a relatively cheapmas s transport ofmil kpreserve d inth e formo f -64-

tinnedmil k fromth etemperat e zoneso fWester n Europe to the tropical regions ofAsia .

4.2 Milk-using populations in Indonesia

InIndonesia ,befor e thecomin go fth ePortuges e andDutc h inth e 16th century,th edomesticate d bantengo rBal i cattle,th eJav aan d Madura cattle,whic har ehybrid so fbanten gan d zebu,an d the zebu,wer e all tob e found there.Althoug h the Indonesianarchipelag o iswithou t anydoub ta typical non-dairying region,ther e are somepeople susin gmil k long before thearriva l of theEuropeans . As fara sca nb eascertaine d the indigenousbanten g cattlewer eno tuse d formilking ,althoug h therema yhav ebee n some rareexceptions .Th eBal i cattlewhic h aredescende d fromth ebanten gwer euse da sdraugh t animalsan d as supplierso fmeat .However ,i tseem stha t themil k sometimesma y have alsobee nused . Inth e strongly Indian-influenced mythology ofBali ,mil k is 18 mentioned several timesan dmil k oblationsals ooccu r .Zeb ucattl ewer e introduced by the Indiansdurin g the firstcenturie sA.D .Breedin g took placewit h thebanten gan d ane wbree dwa sdeveloped , theJav a cattle,whic h 19 canb e foundmainl yo nJava ,Madur aan dSumatra . InMadur a the cowwa so fmor e importance inth e localeconom y than itwa s onJava .Jus ta s inJava ,th eco wwa sa n integralpar to f the agricultural systema sa draugh tanima lan da sa supplier ofdung .Her ehowever ,th e raising of slaughter cattle forexpor t toJav awa s relatively extensive among the farming communities.Du e to thedrie r climate andpoo r soil 20 conditions,slaughte r cattlegav ehighe r returns thancro pproduction . The people ofMadur a takegrea t care of cows,bu t showles s interest in 21 buffalos. The longbreedin ghistor ywhic h took place onth e island of Madura led to thedevelopmen t of theMadur a cattle,a stabilized crossbreed. TheMadur a cattlear e thrifty,hard yan d able toperfor mwel lunde r extremes of heat andpoo r nutrition.O n thewhol e theMadur a cowha sa poo r 22 lactation. Milkwa sno tdrun k by thepeopl eo fMadur leac but somemil k was 23 produced for Europeans livingo n the island. Javaan dMadur a are regionswhere ,despit e thepresenc e of the buffalo andbanteng ,a milk-usin g traditionwa s completely absent. During his stay inJav a (1811-1816)Raffle swa s surprised to find invie wo f itsHind upas t thatdairyin gdi dno t forma par to f thedomesti c economy.H e conjectured thatwhe n theHindu sha d taken their cattlewit h them theyha d forbidden the -65-

useo fmil k inorde r that thenumbe r ofcattl emigh t increasemor e rapidly. 25However ,ther ear e sourceswhic h indicate thatmil kwa s being used inol d Java for ritualpurposes .I na n inscription fromth e stone of Dinaya (A.D.760 )i ti s recorded inSanskri tthat :

"land,cow sdecorate dwit h flowerstogethe rwit hherd so fbuffalo ,an d preceded bymal e and female servants- (allthes e thingswer e givenb y thekin g toprovid e for such thingsa sth eoblatio no fboile d rice,th e 26 oblationo fmelte d butter,ablution s ").

Itwoul d seemtha t theoblatio no fmelte dbutte r involved the ritualus e of ghee.Accordin g toWheatley ,probabl y theprovisio no fmil k for such ceremonieswa sals oth epurpos e thatmotivate d thegif to f 1000cow sb y the Kingo f Purnavarmant oth eBrahman so fTarum a inWes t Javaaroun dA.D . 27 450. It iso f interest tonot e that theNiticastra ,a nol d Javanese 28 didacticpoem , referst oth e importance ofmilk . TheNiticastr a was translated fromth eSanskri tdidacti cpoe mPannit i Sastroo fwhic h various versionsexist ,an dwritte n invers eb yJavanes e learnedmen .Durin g the period of the Indian influence thePannit i Sastrowa s translated onvariou s occasions.Althoug h the referencemad e tomil k doesno tdirectl y imply the use ofmil k as foodamon gcertai n categorieso f thepopulatio n ofJava ,a t least itdoe s showth e spread ofth e ideao fmil k asa food. It isals o likely that inJav amilkin gdisappeare d after thedeclin e of the Indian influence. Scattered over theoute r regionso nth e islandsoutsid eJava ,a numbe r of populations canb e foundwh omak eus e ofbuffal omil k (Figure 4.1).Thi sma y 29 be summarized asfollows . (1)Mos t of thepopulation susin gbuffal omil k canb e found inSumatra ,th e Minangkabau, theBatak , theGay oan damon g thepeopl eo fAceh . It seems that theus e and the importance attached tobuffal omil k varies.Amon g theKaro-Batak san d people inth esout ho f theBata k region,th eus e of buffalomil k isver y limited.A sa liqui d drink,buffal omil k ishardl y used,bu t iti s fermented. (2)Th e Toraja ofSulawes i arewel l knowna suser s ofbuffal omilk ,bot h as a food and for religiouspurposes .I t issai d that theBugines e inhabitantso fDuri , inth e southwesternpeninsul a sell akin do f cake (dangke)prepare d frombuffal omil k on theloca lmarkets . -66-

(3)O f the islands easto fJava ,Timo r isa regionwher e thedrinkin g of buffalomil k boiled aswel l asunboile d ispractised .Mil k isals o coagulated byaddin g thenotche d fruitso f thePoho ntitsus u (Wrightia calycina). Somemil k isuse d onth e island ofSumbawa .

Figure 4.1 Populationswit h a traditiono fusin gbuffal omil k inIndonesi a in late colonialtimes .

0 major 0 rudimentary or incidental

Thequestio n remainswhethe r theus e ofbuffal omil k among these populations are survivals of theol d Indian influence orwhethe r theydevelope d separately?Howeve r despite somemilk-usin g habits,dairyin gwa s non-existent inmos tpart so f thearchipelago . Iti so f interest tonot e thatwit h thearriva l of theDutc ha ne wdiffusio n ofmil k took place,no t inth earea swher e traditionallybuffal omil kwa suse d but rather onJava , which hadn o traditiono fusin gbuffal omilk .

4.3 Indonesian and European food patterns

Thenumbe r of Europeans living inIndonesi aha salway sbee nsmall , particularlywhe n comparedwit h thegrea tmasse so f the indigenous population.Th e first fixedpoint s ofDutc h settlementwer e the trading posts setu p the inth eMolucca s (1605).A fewyear s later theUnite d East -67-

IndiaCompan y (VOC)establishe d itselfo n the island ofJava .Th e towno f Batavia,buil tafte r 1619o nth e ruinso fJayakarta ,becam e themai n centre ofDutc hpenetratio n intoth earchipelago .Jav abecam e the focalpoin to f the colonial empire.Th e Europeanpopulatio nwa smainl y concentrated there, fewsizeabl e European communitiesbein g found inth eoute r regions.B y1870 , 55% of the Europeanpopulatio nwa s living inth ecoasta l residencieso f Java,Batavia ,Semaran gan d Surabaya;i n190 0thi swa s 53%. Even late in the 19thcentur y itwa sn oeas y task forEuropean s toliv eoutsid e these areas if theywante d tomaintai n theirow n foodhabits .Communicatio nwit h themotherlan dwa swea k and supplyo fEuropea n food irregular.Thi swa s particularly thecas e for those living inth e smaller placeso fJav a and in theoute r regionso f thearchipelago . Disheswer e stillver yDutc h inth e17t han d inth emiddl e of the 18th century. Even inth e small tradingpost sbrea dwa sbake d and there seemst o havebee nn o lack ofwine . Bontius31 ,th e firstphysicia nappointe d by the VOC arrived inBatavi a in1627 .H ewa sentruste dwit h themedica l care of the servantso f theVOC .H ewrot e about theavailabilit y ofbrea d and its relation ro ricea sfollows :

"If,a susual ,a sufficientquantit yo fwhea twa s imported tou s from Japanan d Surat,I woul dver y readilydispenc ewit h rice,becaus e the breadmad eher eo fwhea t flour isnothin g inferior totha t inou r own country,an d inm yopinion ,afford sbette r nourishment than rice.Bu t if there should bea scarcityo fwhea t thentha t rice ist ob e chosen which isth ewhitest ,o fa clear (andnearl y transparant)colour ,an d weighsheavy ,an dwhe nbaked , itough talway st ob e letcoo lbefor e it isused . Forexperienc e evinces,tha tho t rice isno tonl yhurtfu l to the stomach,bu tals ot oth ebrai nan dwhol enervou s system;an d from the grossan d dryvapour s rising toth ehea d from thisaliment ,th e optic nervesar e frequently somuc hobstructe d as to induce a total blindness;o fwhic hdisorde r Ihav e treated inm ymetho d of curing the disease inIndia .Henc eyo uwil l seldomo rneve r see theJavan so r [Maldivians] (Malaians)ea tho t rice;becaus e the Indians,o fal l people,ar e themos t careful ofpreservin g theirhealth ,an d observea 32 regular and temperate course ofdiet" .

TheDutc h communitieswer e largelymal e societies,an dmos tmarriage s werewit hwome n from the Indo-Portugese society.Girl sbor nou to f these -68-

marriageswer ebrough tu pb y theirmother s inth e Indo-Portugese culture rather thanth eDutc h culture.Th eelement so f this Indo-Portugese culture were perpetuated andhande ddow n tosuccessiv e generations.Accordin g to Boxer,writin g about theperio d 1600-1800,th eAsia nelement s of this Indo-Portugese culture insuc hmatter s asfood ,dres san d the seclusiono f 33 thewome nd ono t seemt ohav eweakene dwit h thepassag eo ftime . The strengtho f the Indonesian culture onth eDutc hma yb e exemplified by the fact that in178 6Dutc h ceased tob e themediu m of instruction inth e fewexistin gWester n schools. TheDutc hha d toadap t themselves toth e local situation.Thes e contacts gavebirt h toa blen d ofDutc han d Indonesiandishes ,th e rijsttafel.Probabl y the rijsttafel developed quite late,possibl y inth emiddl eo f 18thcentury .Thi sma yhav ehappene dwhe n wealthy Dutchmerchant san d later,les saffluen t servantso f theVO C 35 developed a countrywa yo f lifeo nthei r estateso nJava . This country lifewa sver yostentatiou sa s theDutc h tried tocompet ewit h the court life of theJavanes e Kratons. Indonesian societywa shardl ytouche db y Europeanhabits ,a t leastb y European foods.However ,i nJavanes e Kratonssom e foreignhabit swer e adopted.Fo r instance,toast swer e givenan dus ewa smad e of tablesan d chairs.

Likewise inth e 19th century,European s living inth e Indonesian archipelagodi dno t forma homogenou s group.Firs t therewa s thegrou po f Dutchmenwh oha dno tbee nbor n inIndonesia ,bu twh oha d come straight from Europe.Man y of them returned homeafte rhavin g completed their assignments with the colonical administration,arme d forceso r tradingan d plantation companies.Ther ewa sals oa grou p that stayed on in Indonesia,th eblijvers . Some of themha dbee n there for severalgenerations .Th e largest European grouphowever ,wa s that of the Indo-Europeans.Agai n thisgrou pwa s far from being homogenous.Amon g the Indo-Europeansa varyin g degree of affiliation with theDutc han d Indonesianwa yo f lifecoul db e found.The y formed the lower stratao f theEuropea n community,employe d as small civil servants by the government andworkin gwit h thepos to r railways.Thei r foodpatter nwa s oftenmor e Indonesianoriented . Itwa sa typically stratified and class-conscious societywher eeverybody' splac ewa s clearlymarke d and determined byone' spositio n inth eadministrativ ehierarchy ,b yeconomi c successan d byethni cbackground .Althoug h small insiz eth e European -69-

communityexercise d agrea t influence on the socio-economic developments of the archipelago. The tendency among Europeans tobecom e "Indonesianized"wa s still strong until theen d of the 19th century. Inman y aspects itwa s a small male-dominated society resulting invariou s formso f inter-marriage with the local population. For alon g time,European s hadmixe d feelings towards rice as a food. Itwa s considered tob eharmfu l to the stomach, eyesan d brain. Inhi smedica l topography ofBatavi a for theyear s around 1844,Dr . Bleeker reported that although many of these prejudices haddisappeared , efforts were still needed toeradicat e them completely. Bleeker had apositiv e view on rice: "Itha s the advantages of porridgewithou t thedisadvantages ; it is nutritious and easilydigeste d and corresponds fullywit h the food 37 requirements of these regions". Onema ywonde r ifthes e supposed associations of a ricedie twit h eye andnerv e problemsd ono t reflect the occurrence ofvitami nA deficiency andberi-ber i (vitamin B1 deficiency). Thephysicia n Munnich ina lecture in184 7 for the Bataviaasch Genootschap stated that therewa s a relation between the kind of foods consumed by thedifferen t peoples of theworl d and their respective somatic, spiritual andmora l character.H epu t forward the thesis that the sturdy son of Europe living inth e tropics and consuming only ricewould , inth e long DO run, take on the character of the local population. Inth e European top layer ofBatavi a society ricedi d not appear very often or only asa mer e formality on the table.A greatvariet y of European disheswer e served asBleeke r puts it, "tocompensat e theabsenc e of his 39 country of birth". Headvise d his fellowEuropean s to follow the indigenous way of feeding; ricewit h some spices,fish ,chicke n and vegetables. Such awa y of feedingwoul d favour thebod y andpreven t the general occurrence of obesity and predisposition for liver,mil t and intestinal diseases. Inth e 19th century, only the reallywell-to-d o of the Europeans could maintain their own food habits,mainl y based on imported foods.Mos t Europeans however,an d of course the Indo-Europeanswer e neither economically nor culturally ina positio n tod oso . In 1883,Dr .Va n der Burgwrot e inhi smedica l handbook for the Indies thatmos t Europeans including theDutch ,continue d tomaintai n their own 40 food habits but combined thiswit h some Indonesian habits. According to the author, some newcomers to the Indies tried tomaintai n Dutch food habits butwer e obliged inth e long runt oadap t to local conditions.Brea d was available inth emajo r townso f Javabu twa s ofpoo r quality.A typical food -70-

patterno fa Dutc h colonial household ispresente d inTabl e 4.1. It isinterestin g tonot e that theda ybega nwit ha cupo f coffee or a glasso fmilk .Ric ewa sa n importantelemen to f theEuropea ndie t inth e tropics. In smaller placesan damon gEuropean swit h limited income,ric e with chickenan dvegetable s formed themai ndish ,thre e timesa day . Ifw e compare theEuropea ndie twit h thato f theJavanes e kampungdwelle r the difference as fara sluxur y itemswa s concerned isstriking .Va nde r Burg estimated adail y intake of 617gra mo f rice (oneRati )pe r adultpe r day (2184kcal )an d considered fishan dmea ta luxury food forth e ordinary Indonesian.Thi sestimatio n ismos t likely toohig ha sScheltem a found that inth e 1880'sth edail y cereal intakewa saroun d 380g o r 1345kca lpe r head a day.41

At theen d ofth e 19th centurya strongproces so f Europeanization occurred fora numbe r of reasons.Wit h theopenin go f theSue zCana lan d technicaldevelopment s such asmoder n steamboats ,telegrap han d radio, communicationwit h Europe improved considerably.Th e government and companies intensified their administrative and commercial dealingswit h the localpopulation .Th ewhol eo f thearchipelag owa sno wunde r Dutch control 42 andwa s graduallyopene du p for thedomesti c and international market. In 1901 theEthica l Policywa s initiated tostimulat e thewelfar e of the Indonesianpopulatio n (Seefurthe r Part II,chapte r 7.1).Som enewl ybuil t European residential areas looked like the typical countryhous e and cottage 43 of Lareno rBussu m inth eNetherlands . At the sametim emarriag e prohibitionswer e abolished foryoun gemployee s and civil servants going to the East.A s a result thenumbe r of Europeanwome nno tbor n in Indonesia increased. It ismos t likely that thiswidene d the social gapbetwee n 44 Europeansan d the Indonesians. TheseEuropea nwome n tookne w ideasan d 45 habitswit h theman d caused aproces so f Europeanization. European habits and inparticula r Dutchhabits ,becam emuc hmor e thanbefor e thenorm so f the colonial society.Thi saffecte dno tonl y the lifeo f the Indo-European communities,bu tals o those Indonesianswh omanaged ,despit eal l sortso f barriers, toobtai nposition s inth e colonial system.

As fara sth eavailabilit y ofEuropea n foods isconcerne d the nutritionist Dr.B.C.P .Janse n summarized the situation in193 8a sfollows :

"Nowadays,particularl y inth egrea t seaportsan dnearb y cities,th e -71-

food available forEuropean sdiffer sver y little fromtha twhic h one gets inEurope .Befor e the supplyo f thesewa splentiful ,man y Europeanswer e simply forced to take recourse to thenativ e rijsttafel. During the last fewdecade s lifeha sbee nver ymuc hEuropeanized ,wit h the resultthat ,a tleas t inth elarg e cities,European s canliv e ona diet theywer e accustomed to inthei rnativ e country". Dr. Jansenmad eon e strikingexception : "There ishowever ,on e importantarticl e of foodwhic h isstil lmuc h moredifficul t toge t inth e Indiestha n inEurope ,particularl y inth e 46 plains- namel y freshmilk" .

Table 4.1 Foodpatter n ofa kampun gdwelle r anda Dutc hcolonia lhousehol d in Indonesia,Java ,aroun d1880 .

Kampung household DutchColonia l Household earlymornin g earlymornin g coffeeo rwate rwit h sugar coffee orglas so fmilk , Selterso rApollinari swate r

11.00 a.m. 7.00 a.m. ricewit h salt,lombo k and bread,eggs ,meat ,te ao r coffee trassi, vegetables snacks (if somemone y islef t 1.00 p.m. - athom e over) rijsttafel,thi smigh tb e followed by rice cake,kw e kwe,ketupat , meat,boile d or fried potatoeswit h gablok, fruits,cucumbe r vegetableso r salad

- atwor k rijsttafel orbread ,meat ,vegetable s

Sunset 5.00 .m. ricewit h salt,lombo k and teaan d biscuits trassi,vegetable s Dried or salted fishonl y added toth e riceo nmarke t days, onceever y fivedays . Better-off households consume freshmea t ordrie dmea t (dendeng). 7.00 p.m. Europeandish ,glas so fwine .

Source:base d onVa nde rBurg ,1883 . -72-

4.4 Maintaining amil kdrinking-custo m

As already said,European s living incolonia l Indonesiahad , toa certain extent,t oadap tthei r foodpatter n toecologica l conditions by incorporating Indonesian foodsan ddishes .Nevertheles s they continued to eat foodswhic hwer e considered asessentia l elements of the foodpattern ; bread,butter ,chees e andmilk .Thes ewer eal l foodswhic hwer eno to r hardlyavailabl e locally.Flou r for thebakin go fbread ,an dbutte r and cheese could bean dwer e caried inVO C ships toth earchipelag obu tmil k of course could not.A t aver yearl y stage theDutc h tried tomaintai n their milk drinking customsb ymakin gus e of local cattle andb y settingu p some dairyingactivities . Theprovision so fVO C shipsalway s included bread,butte r and cheese provided of course that the skipper,purse r and cook didno tdiver t tooman y 47 of these rations. These rations reflectedwha tDutc hworker s and small farmerswer e expected toeat .Generall y speakingVO C ships leftEurop ewit h preciousmeta l toexchang e forAsia ngoods ,th e shiphold s filledwit h ballastan d a fewgood s forEuropean s living inSout h EastAsia .Thes e goods 48 includedbeer ,wine ,drie dbean san d peas, flour andbiscuits . Asearl y as 1620, reportsmentione d theexpor to f cheesean dbutte r from theNetherland s 49 to theEas t Indies. Itshoul db e realizedhoweve r thato f the total dairy exports,th e share shipped outside Europewa so f limited significance. As a result,i nth e 17than d 18th century,chees e andbutte rwer e available for theDutc h living inBatavia ,an d inth e fortsan d tradingpost sdisperse d all over thearchipelago . Fresh cowmil k could inprincipl eb e obtained in thosepart swher e thepopulatio n kept some livestock. Thediffusio no f cowmil k inIndonesi a coincidedwit h theexten t towhic h theDutc hpenetrate d intoth earchipelago .Fro m the 17thunti l themiddl e of the 19th century,tw oarea swit h somedair yactivitie s could be found,a smaller oneo nAmbo nan da larger oneo nJava ,particularl yWes t Java.I n 1605Ambo n fell firmly into thehand so f theV.O.C. .Th ever y profitable spice trade caused theDutc h topenetrat e theare aan duproo t theeconomy . Inth e 17than d 18th century theV.O.C .als okep tcattl e formil k consumption. Inth emiddl e of the 19th century itwa s reported thato n the island ofAmbo nmuc h carewa sgive n todair y cowsb ybot hMoluccan san d 52 landowners. A share cropping systemo fdairyin g came intoexistence .Th e cowherd kepthal fo f themil k anda n indemnity from theowne r of the cow -73-

fromeac h calfborn .I tseem stha t sharecroppin go fdairyin g for both 53 buffalo and cowmil kwa sver y limited inIndonesia . Although anumbe r ofEuropean s lived inth eOmmelanden , the region around Batavia,mos to f themlive d inBatavi a itself,whic hha d beenbuil ta sa Dutch townwit h canalsan d acastle .A salread y stated,cattl ewer e a common parto f theagricultura l system,bu twer eno tuse d forth eproductio n of milk.However ,thos ewh owishe d (andthe ywer e alla sma yb e expected non-indigenous)coul dpurchas e cattle and raise them formil kproduction . For instance,i nth ebeginnin g of the 17thcentur y the important trading towno fJepar a had a livelytrad ewit hPortuges eMalacca .Th e Javanese exported rice,cattle ,poultr yan dhorse s inthei r large junks.Th e cattle exportedwer eno tonl y slaughter cattle,bu tals odair y cows. The 54 availability of freshmil k inBatavia ,wa smentione d several times inth e EdictBoo k of theIndies . In163 2 referencewa salread ybein gmad e toth eleas eo fmil k from VOC-owned cattle inorde r tocompensat e the costo fth ecar eo f the cattle and theirhousing . In166 9mil k biscuits (Melck koekjes)wer e on sale in 57 themarke t ofBatavia . An authority (1769)t olev ytol la t the two sluices atTangeran g andAnk ementione d a toll topa yo fon eduy t (doit)fo ra pro a CO of grasso rmilk . Inth e18t hcentury , richEuropea nmerchant s adopted the way of lifeo f landlordswit hestate s inth eOmmelanden .Larg e herdso f cows were keptan dmil k andbutte rwa s forsale . 59

After the restorationo f theDutc hauthorit y in1816 ,th enumbe r of Europeans gradually increased.Thi sprobabl y created a largerdeman d for dairyproduct s inth e 19thcentury .Accordin g toth e reporto n the stateo f agriculture in1829 ,anima lhusbandr y formilk ,butte r andmea t could be found in regionsaroun dmajo r towns,particularl yBatavia .Severa l landowners inCitrap ,Tanjun gEas tan dWest ,Pindo k tarom,Kampun gMalaiyu , Struiswijk and otherplace ssupplie dBatavi adail ywit h thesecommodities . In184 5Bleeke r reported that inth eBatavi a areaonl ya fewDutc h cowswer e available, insufficient innumbe r tosatisf y thenee do f theEuropean s for milk andmeat . Javanese cattleo r sapiwere ,accordin g tohim ,alread y present in sufficientnumbe r tosuppl y themwit hmil k andmeat .Butte r however,wa s still imported fromth eNetherlands .Buffal omil k and goatmil k wereno t oftendrun kb yEuropeans ,althoug h the Indonesiansdi d sometimes use goatmilk .On ewonder s ifBleeker' sobservatio nwa s fullycorrect .I ti s more likely that theautho rha dArab s inmind ,no t thepeopl e ofJava . -74-

Theus e ofmil k outsideBatavi adurin g themiddl eo f the 19th centurywa s reported insevera lmedica l topographies (geneeskundigetopographie ) for the 69 Regencieso fBanten ,Anye r ando fPasurua n inEas tJava . Likewise a study carried outo n live stock onJav a inth e sameperio d indicated thatdair y cattlewer e kept inplace swher e Europeans resided. Inothe r townslik e Semarangth ephysicia nMulle r reported thatther ewa sn o lack of cowmilk , whichhowever ,wa sno t rich in fats. Itwa softe ndilute d by the vendors 64 withwater . Buffalomil kwa sno tconsume d byEuropean sbecaus e itwa s considered unhealthy.Mulle rwrot e thath e couldno t saywhethe r thiswa s justified butpointe d out thatEuropean s inPadan gdran k itwithou t any prejudice. Generally speakingbuffal o andgoa tmil kwer eno t liked and hence notmuc huse db yEuropeans .Howeve r insituation swher e cowmil k was scarce,o fa ver ypoo rquality ,o rno tavailabl e atal l some Europeans 66 turned to these other kindso fmilk . Writing about the situationaroun d 1880,va nde rBur g said thato nJav a freshmil kwa savailable ,bu ttha t inth eoute r regionsco wmil kwa s often lacking.A greater problemwa sho wt oge tgoo d andpur emilk .Mil k was producedunde runhygieni c conditionsan dadulteratio n occurred frequently. Bottlesuse da smil k containerswer eofte nno t sufficiently cleanedb yth e milk supplier.Va nde rBur g reported thateve n ifon e keptdair y cows,th e cowman (tukang sapi)alway s tried to sell someo fth emil k at theexpens e of the owner.Thi s indicates that freshmil kwa spopular . Itwa salso ,a sca n be expected,expensive .Becaus e ofth eabsenc e of specialmil k bottles,mil k wasusuall ydelivere d inclose dwin ebottles .I nth eearl y 1880'sth epric e of abottl e ofmil kwa s 40cent so rabou t 64cent spe r litre inth emajo r 67 townso fJava . At first cowswer e zebu,bu t thesewer e later followed by cows from Australia (Ayshires,dair y shorthornsan d Jerseys). Despite high transport costs, inth e latter parto f the19t h centuryadministrator s of plantations occasionally imported dairy cattle from theNetherlands .Thi swa s tomak e 6ft freshmil k available forthemselve s and their European staff. The Dutch and other Europeansuse dmil k asa drink ,a sa n ingredient incooking ,o r added itt o coffeeo r tea.I twa suse d asa food for the illan d for convalescents and asa n infant food. Information onho wmil kwa suse d canb e found indat a onhospita l and other formso f institutional feeding. Inth emiddl eo f the 18th century the VOCha d ahospital ,i n facta kin d ofconvalescen t home,fo r itspersonne l inCipana s on thenorther n sideo fMoun tGede ,a ta heigh to fabou t100 0m . -75-

Dairy cattlewer e kept inth eneighbourhood . In1761 ,th e surgeon,Ja nd e Putt, reported toth eGoverno rGenera lva nde rParr a thathi spatient sdran k mineralwate rwit h freshmil k aspar to f their treatment. Although cow milkwa spreferred , theVO Cphysicia nBontiu suse d goatmil k aspar to f the treatment forpatient s suffering froma natroph yo fwhic hh e said:

"It iscommo n forpeopl e inthi scountr y towast e inthei r fleshan d grow leanwithou t anymanifes t cause;n o fever,o r atmos ta ver y slow oneattending" .

One of the rules inth eSeminariu mTheologicu m inBatavi a in174 5 included fordinne r the following:

"Theevenin gmea l shall consistou to fa goo dmil k foodo r eggso r such like, inadditio n toth e resto f the foodso fmidda yan d together with butter andbread . Further alwaysgoo dwhit e rice shouldb eo n the table 71 bothdurin gmidda y and inth eevenin ga swel l as inth emorning" .

Inth eBinnen-hospitaa l inBatavia ,th edail y foodpurchas e consisted of vegetables, fish,fow l and cattle,bread ,milk ,te aan d coffee (1754-55). 72 Thedail yoccupanc ywa sa naverag e of 999patients . Under Daendel's governorship regulationswer e laiddow n for thenutritio no f the ill inth e hospitals (1810)an d amongothe r foodswa sprescribed :

"Milk soupwit h bread,consistin g of8 ounce smil kwit h a slice 73 ofbrea d or 2-3 smallrusks" .

Milkwa s also listed asa n item inth elis to f food stuffs for thehospital s 74 inSemaran gan d Surabaya (1810). In184 5Mulle r reported that inth e 75 military hospital inSemaran gmil kwa sdistribute d tothos ewh oneede d it. Inothe rmilitar y hospitals,mil kwa suse d forEuropea npatients . Milk was considered sucha n important food for the illan d theconvalescen t that in 1901 twopharmacist s from thearme d forces inSemaran gpublishe d a studyo n milk control and thechemica l compositiono f freshmilk . -76-

4.5 Infant feeding and cowmil k

Toassur e a freshmil k supply itwa sno tunusua l for some European households tokee pa cow .Thi swa sparticularl y thecas ewhe nmil k was required for infantfeeding .Whe nvisitin g the Indiesi n189 7th eautho r Justusva nMauri k observed a ratherextravagan tattachmen t ofa n apparently well-to-do colonial household tomilk .Stayin g ina hote l inBatavi a (Hotel Wisse)h ewatche d thearriva l ofa family ina nope ncarriage ,followe d by thehote l omnibus loadedwit h their luggage and further bya co wwit hcalf . The cowwa s takeno n this journey toensur e amil k supply for thebab yan d 78 the resto fth e family. For theEuropea ncommunity ,mil kwa sno tonl y needed tomaintai n amilk-drinkin g custom,bu twa s alsoo f essential importance for infant feeding;I nth e 19th century,breast-feedin g was rare among Europeanwomen .Probabl ybreast-feedin gwa salread y rareamon g the well-to-doDutc hwome n inBatavi a andothe r importantplace s inth e 17than d 18th century.Th e rathernastil ycritica l Nicolausd eGraaff ,a VD C ship's surgeon,wrot e inhi sMirro r of theEas t Indies thatDutc hwome nhardl yeve r 79 breast-fed their infantsbu tmad eus eo f awe tnurse ,wh owa s aslave . TheBataviaasc hGenootscha pde r Kunstene nWetenschappe n (Batavian Societyo fArt s and Sciences)offere d apriz e for theperso nwh o could give anadequat e answer toth equestio no fwha t thebes t foodwa s forne wbor n 80 infantsno tbein gbreast-fed . Theprize ,a gol dmedal ,wa s given toth e medical doctor CornellsTern e and the resultswer e published inth e 81 proceedings of theSociet y in1814 . According toTern emos tEuropea nwome n didno tbreast-fee d their infants.H econsidere d ita regrettable situation as therewa sn onee d for it.Breast-feedin g inhi sopinio nwa s abandoned because of sensuality, laziness,pleasure ,inerti ao r andextrem e lack of 82 love for thechild . Ternewa sver ymuc h in favouro fbreast-feedin g butwa swillin g togiv e ananswe r toth equestio no fa nalternat e food that infantscoul d be given thanonl yeithe r ordinarymil k porridges orbein gwe tnurse d bya local woman. Milk and bread porridgeswer e considered asunsuitabl e infant 84 foods,becaus e they soonbecam enauseou s lookingan d sour. He referred to thewell-know n Swedishpaediatricia nRose nvo nRosenstei nan dhi s theory oc thatal l childhood diseasesaros e fromacidity . A thingrue l of somehartshor nwate rwit h somebiscuit so r flourwer e advised fora ne wbor n infantdurin g the first8 t o1 4day so r even 86 longer. Further he recommended Professor Camper's papo fwhea tflour , -77-

sugar and cowmilk ,bu t inth eEas t Indiesn omil k could beadde d as it 87 became sour. Hereagai nhartshor nwate rwa s recommended, ifnecessar y oo mixedwit h one or twoeg gyolk so r athi nbroth. When thirsty, infants could safelyb e givena glas so fwate r andmilk .Ther ewa sn o fear that the 89 papwoul d turnsour ,becaus e of theadde d acid-preventing food-stuffs. Apart fromTerne' sple a forbreast-feeding ,hi salternativ e forbreas tmil k doesno t standu p tomoder n scientificnutritiona lideas . Whenbreast-feedin gwa spractise d by Europeanwome n in Indonesia itwa s 90 only for a fewweek so rmonths . The reasonsar eno t fullyunderstood .Mos t likely theywer e following thehabit so f the sophisticated upper classwome n ofEurop ewher ebreast-feedin gwa sdeclining .Fo r feeding the infant the alternativeswer ewe tnursing ,co wo r goatmil k andcondense dmilk .We t nursingwa sno tver yusual .Indonesia nwome nwere ,generall y speaking,no t available as itdi dno t fit inwit h theirow n tradition. Ifa we tnurs e could be found thewoma ncam e fromth epoore r sectionso f Indonesian 91 society,an d had onth ewhol e received an insufficientnutrition . Besides, many Europeanwome nwer ever y fastidiousabou t thekin d ofwe tnurs e tob e employed.The yals o feared that the infantwoul d take inth echaracte r of 92 thewe tnurs ewit hhe rmilk . Thebelie f that themil k ofa we tnurs e conveys thecharacte r ofth ewoma n toth echil d isver yold ,an dwa smuc h debated inmedica l circlesfro m theRenaissanc e till the eighteenth 93 century. DeGraaf fan d Ternewer e alsoo f theopinio n thata n infant sucked from thewe tnurs ewoul d imbibehe r "character andnature" ,whic hha d 94 inthei reye sal l sortso fdefects . On theothe rhan d itha sbee n suggested thatMosli m Indonesianwome nwer e afraido fbecomin gpollute d by 95 breast-feeding aheathe n infant. Inth e secondhal f of the18t hcentur y in Europe,enlighte d physicianspublishe dwork scritica l ofwe tnursin g asa wayo f raising infantsan d favourable tobreast-feeding . InFrance ,however , wetnursin g remained amajo rwa yo f infant feedingunti l theen do f the 19th century. 96 Vande rBur g considered ita prejudic e of Europeanwome nno t tomak eus e of an Indonesianwe tnurse .O n theothe rhan d he indicated thatth e employment of awetnurs ewa s rather expensive.Aroun d 1880 itwoul d costa t least f10 0a mont h includingwages ,foo dan d clothing tohir ea we tnurs e 97 inBatavia . Cowmil k and thenewl ydevelope dmil k product,sweetende d condensed milkwer e theonl y "realistic"alternatives .Som ephysicians ,lik e vande r Stolk,gav epreferenc e togoa tmilk ,no tonl y froma medica l point ofvie wbu t likewise onmor epractica l grounds (Seeals oChapte r 5.2).I t -78-

wasmuc h cheaper and easier tokee pa goa t thana cowa sa househol d milk supply. Itals omean t lessdependenc e onth eadulterate d cowmil k provided 98 byvendors . Insituation swher e no freshmil k atal lwa s available condensedmil k couldb eused .Va nde r Stolkals osai d thatonl ya few infants could be fed forquit e sometim e oncondense dmil kwithou t suffering 99 anydrawbacks . Generally speaking,i nth e1880' ssweetene d condensedmil k wasmuc huse db yEuropea nmother s for infant feeding,th ebran d "Swiss condensedmilk "bein gwidel yknown . That artificial feedingwa sver y riskyeve namon g the relatively better off Europeanhousehold s inthi sperio dwa sgive nb y themilitar y pharmacist Cayaux:

"Figuresar e inthi s respect terribly convincing.O f the children nursed by theirmother ,20 %di edurin g the firstyea r of life;o f the children fedb ya we tnurs e 30%,o fartificiall y fedchildre n 60%,thu s more thanhalf ,durin g infancy.An d howman ywil l bewrecke d during the comingyear sdu e toth econsequence s ofartificia l feeding".

The infrequent occurrence ofbreast-feedin g meant that the firstyea r of 102 lifewa sa desperat e struggle forman ychildren . -79-

5.A DEMAND FOR FRESHBIL KAN DTH ERIS EO FMODER NDAIRYIN GUNDE R TROPICAL CONDITIONS

5.1 Beginning ofmoder ndairyin g

Asha salread ybee ndiscussed , theDutc han d otherWester n Europeans living inth etropic smaintaine d theirhabi to fusin gmil k and attached particular importance tomil k for infantan d child feeding.Ho wth emil kwa s distributed inth e 1880'st oEuropea nconsumer sma yb e illustrated bya description of thedail y life inth e Indiesa ssee nthroug hDutc heye san d published ina yout hjournal :

" Youas k mewha tkin d ofa ma npasse su s soearl y inth emorning . This isth etukan g susu (milk man). Oneac h sideo fhi spikola n (carryingpole )hang sa baske twit h somebottle so fmil k in it.H eha s todelive r thesebefor e 6o'cloc k inth emornin g tohi sclients , because that isth etim ewhe neverybod yget su pan ddrink s coffee.Eac h bottle isprovide dwit ha sealed paper cover inorde r topreven t the man from following theexampl eo f theDutc hmil k vendors inth e Netherlands andaddin gwater . Sucha mil kbusines so rdair y isgenerall yspeakin g runb ya Nony a or ladywh oa sa wido w triest omak ea livingou to f it.He r livestock consistsmainl yo f indigenous sapis (cows)eac ho fwhic hgive sonl ya littlemilk .Her ea co wgivin g 3-4 bottleso fmil k aday ,whic h is equal toabou t 2.5 litresi scertainl y oneo f thebest .Fortunatel y the milk iso f agoo dquality . Inplace swher e fewcow sar eavailable , buffalomil k isconsumed .Us e islikewis emad eo f theSwis s condensed milk,whic h isimporte d inlarg equantities" .

In the19t h century andunti l the1920' smos tdairyin g activitieswer e of a poor quality. Inan daroun d towns inJav aan dSumatr a with sizeable populations ofEuropean speopl e couldb e foundwh okep ta fewcow s in simple and oftendirt y cow sheds.Th emil k producedwa sno talway sclean , tuberculose contaminationoccurre d frequentlyan d theconsume rha d toloo k out for adulterationwit hwate r andothe r substances.Wh o kept these dairies? (1)I nth e firstplac e Europeanan d Indo-Europeanwomen ,ofte nwidows , who tried tosupplemen t their incomewit h the saleo fmilk .Thes ewomen , -80-

often,playe da majo rrol ei nestablishin gdairie si nth ecities .Afte r theretiremen to rdeat ho fthei rhusband ,wome nha dt oloo kfo rway so f earninga living .Th eorigi no fth edair yfarm swa softe nt ob efoun di n theplantatio nwher eth ehusban dwa semployed .A co wwa skep tfo r domesticpurposes ,bu tgraduall ymor elivestoc kwer epurchase dan dth e 2 milksurplu ssold . (2)Foreig norientals ,Indian san dChinese ,sometime skep ta fe wcows . Thatth eIndian skep tcow sfo rmilkin gi sno tsurprisin ga sthe y camefro ma regio nwit ha lon gdairyin gtradition .Th egrou po fsmal l Chineseentrepreneur sengage di nthes eactivities ,i smor estrikin ga s theyha dn odairyin gtradition . Around190 0i nth ecit yo fBand aAce h (Kutaraja)i nSumatra ,wher eman yIndian slived ,a nofte nhear dprais e ofIndia nmil kvendor swas ,"Th emil ki sgood" .Thi sha da doubl e meaning;no tonl ywa sther egoo dqualit yfres hmil kfo rsale ,bu tals o itwa spossibl et oborro wmone yfro mth evendo ra ta reasonabl erat eo f interest. 5 (3)Indonesian skep tals ocow sfo rth esal eo fmil kt oEuropea ncustomers . Accordingt oth egovernmen tveterinaria nVrijburg ,muc ho fth esmall-scal e dairyfarmin garoun d190 0wa sdon eb yChines ean dIndonesians . Atth een do fth e1930' ssmall ,moder ndair yfarmin gcoul db efoun do n theislan do fJava .I na popula rboo kwit hvariou scontribution so nth e dailylif eo fEuropean slivin gi nth eIndies ,som eattentio nwa sgive nt o thesuppl yo fmilk .Th enovelis tMadelo nH .Szekely-Lulofs ,whe ndescribin g a smallplac eo nSumatra ,sai dtha tmil kwa ssupplie db ya nIndia nco w keeper,bu ttha tsweetene dcondense dmil kwa sals oused . Inth esam ebook , DrC.W .Wormse rwrot etha to nJav ath eDutc hkep tcow si nth ehill saroun d thecities .Friesia ncow swer ekep ti nclea ncowshed so nconcret efloors .H e furtherreferre dt oth eimportanc eo ffres hcream ymil kas ,"Pur emil kfo r thenutritio no fou rchildren. "

Iti sno tpossibl et oascertai nwhe nmoder ndairyin gan da fres hmil k supplybegan .Th erepor to nth estat eo fagricultur eo nJav ai n182 9 mentionstha ttrial swer ealread ybein gdon ewit hDutc han dBalines estoc k Q toimprov eth ecattle . InStruiswijk ,Batavia ,som eexperiment so nfeedin g animalsi nth ecowshe dtoo kplac ei n1828 .Accordin gt oth erepor tth ecost s involvedwer eampl ycompensate dfo rb ya highe rmil kyield .Tw oJavanes e cowsgrazin gi nope nfields ,a swa sgenerall ypractised ,onl ygav etw o bottleso fmil ka day .Fe di nth ecowshed ,thi scoul damoun tt o7 o r8 -81-

bottlesa day .Fo r fodder,groundnu t cakeswer e advised, tob euse d inth e samewa ya slinsee d cakeswer euse d inth eNetherlands .A very realistic approachwa s the recommendationt oth egovernmen t for the importingo f bulls fromEurop e forbreeding . Itwa s suggested that thesebull s shouldno tb e keptnea r beachesbecaus e ofth ehea tan d the scarcityo fgrass .Rathe r they shouldb edistribute d tothos eengage d incattl ekeepin g inth e cooler mountain regions.Th eGovernmen thowever ,wa sno t interested inth e veterinary care of thelivestock ,wit h theexceptio no fhorses .Th e concern forhorse swa sbase do n their importance fortranspor t ofpeopl ean dgoods , particularly for themilitar yan dposta lservices . For the Indonesianpopulation ,th eco wwas ,nex t toth ebuffalo ,o f great importance asa draugh tanima l foragricultur e and transport.Als oo n the plantations setu pb yDutc hentrepreneur s itwa s indispensable asa draugh t animal for transport. Itseem s thatunti l 1851th ecivilia nveterinar y taskswer e carried outb ya smalluni to f fivemilitar yveterinarians .I n thatyea r twogovernmen tveterinarian swer eappointe d for civiliandutie s and thisgrou pwa sextende d toseve n in187 5covering ,a t least 12 theoretically, thewhol eo f thearchipelago . Gradually theybecam e interested and involved insom e care for the livestock of thepopulation .Thi swa sno talway sappreciate d by the Government. In186 6 iteve n forbade civil servants tohav ean ydealing swit h cattlebelongin g toth eloca lpopulation .Thes epeopl ewer e toloo k after their own cattle and itwa sassume d theywer e ina positio n tod oso . 14 A major threat tofurthe r development of livestockwa scattle-plaque . It firstbrok eou t inSumatra ,the n spread toJav a in187 9an dwa sa disaster for thepopulation .Th eveterinaria nA .Vrijbur g reported that during the 1886plagu e inDeli , Sumatra,no tonl ywer e theplantatio n oxen severlyaffecte d butals odair y cowsbelongin g toa certainMr .G . The outbreak of rinderpest showed thenee d fora well-organize d veterinary service.Rura l communitieswer e facedwit hheav y lossesamon ganimal s needed foragricultur e and transport.Th eGovernmen twa s forced totak eactio nan d all efforts tocomba t thepes twer e laid inth ehand so fa special Government Commissioner withnearl yunlimite d power. Therewa s great indignation among thepopulatio n against thetrader swh omad ea profi t out of theplaqu e and against the temporaryofficial s entrustedwit h the task of killing the infected animals.Thes eofficial swer ename db y the population as "Tuandokte r Snaphaan". Theveterinar y corpswa s furtherextende d and in190 0a n inspector for -82-

theVeterinar y Servicewa sappointed .Wit h thecreatio no f theDepartmen to f Agriculture,Industr yan dTrad e in1905 ,th eVeterinar y Servicebecam e part 18 of ita son eo f theWelfar e Services (Welvaarts Diensten).

Towards theen do f the 19thcentur y someeffort swer emad eb y government officials to improveJavanes e cattle,b y importing zebucattl e fromIndia . On Sumatra's EastCoast ,th e zebuha dalread ybee nbein g imported forquit e some timea sa transpor t animal for theplantation sbu t itwa sals o appreciated asa dair y cow.I n185 7o nJav ath eRegen to fWonosob o imported zebucattl e andChines e traderswer e likewise involved inothe rpart so f 19 Java.Th e zebuwa sals o imported for thedairie so f Semarang. Infac t around 1900Semaran gwa sa centr eo f cattle import.Zebu ,Dutc han d Australian cattlewer ebough t inSemaran gb yplanters ,mainl y coming from Middle-Java.Crossbreedin g tookplac e inth eplantation s inorde r toge t a 20 suitabledraugh tanimal . SomeEuropean s sawa brigh t future fordair ydevelopment . Ina pape r published inth eJourna l for Industryan dAgricultur e for theNetherland s Indies, in190 6 the livestock keeperso nJav aan dMadur awer e recommended to orient their livestock toth ebreedin go fdair y cattle.Condenserie s should be established inth ecoasta l regions andbutte r and cheese factories in 21 themountai n regions. Dr 'tHoen ,th eGovernmen tVeterinaria n reacted to thisambitiou s idea.H epointe d out thatJav awa s inhabited bya n agricultural populationo f 28millio nwhic hneede d cattlea sdraugh t animals and for slaughter andno tprimaril y formilk . Ifhowever ,a condenseryo r a milk factorywer e tob eerecte d ina narea ,th ekeeper so f cattlemigh t start toproduc emilk .Guidanc ewa sneeded ,bu t itwoul d bepossibl e tomak e 22 a reasonable livingou to fit . After 1905 theGovernmen tdeal twit hanima l husbandryo na mor e permanent basis.Th emai nemphasi swa s oncattl e rather thano nth ebuffal o (Carabao). Questions for thene wVeterinar y Service toanswe rwer eno tonl y onho wt o improve cattle,bu tals oo nwha tkin d of cattle shouldb eencouraged ; for 23 meatproduction ,a sa draugh tanima l ora scattl e suitable fordairying . Becauseo f theabsenc e ofa milk-usin g tradition,i t isobviou s that the government's interest indair y cattlewa sprimaril y for thebenefi t of the European communities.However ,i nth emountai n regiono fJava ,trial swer e carried outb y thegovernmen t todevelo pa bree d suitable asbot hdraugh t anddair y cattle.I n191 4a contrac twa sdraw nu p for supplyingDutc h bulls toth ewell-know n stock farmGeneraa ld eWet ,situate d inCisarua ,nea r -83-

Bandung.Th e localpopulatio ndi dno t respondmuc h tothes emeasures ,an d 24 mosto f thebull sende du p inth edairie so fEuropean s inJava . Friesian cattle throve inth emountainou sarea so fJava ,bu t inth e tropical lowlandshoweve r the situationwa squit edifferent .Th edifficult y withmil k productionwa stha t theanimal swer eapparentl y oftenno tabl e to keep theirbod y temperaturewithi nnorma l limits.Th e zebugav en o difficulties inth eho tclimate ,bu tproduce d lessmil k and required the presence ofa calfa tmilkin g time tole t themil k flow.Crossbreed s of Europeanan d indigenous cattle,includin g zebusha dn o special problemswit h heat stressbu t infectionso f footan dmout hdiseas ewer emor e serious than inth e indigenousbreeds ,wherea sbrucellosi san d tuberculosis imported with theEuropea ndair y cattle,sometime scause d considerable losses.Fro m these crossbreeds,th eGrat i dairycattl eo fmoder n Indonesiawa sdeveloped ,whe n in1925 ,pur ebre d Friesianbull sbor n inCentra l Javawer e stationed by the 25 Government inth eGrat i districto fEas tJava .

5.2 Freshmil k supply

When in190 5th eVeterinar y Service asa noperationa luni twithi n the Departmento fAgriculture ,Industr yan dTrad eofficiall y began itswor k of taking responsibility foranima lhusbandry ,severa lmoder ndairie s could alreadyb e foundo nJav a inan dnea rmajo r townslik eBatavia ,Buitenzorg , Bandung,Semaran gan d Surabaya. Manywer e found inth etown san d onlyha d space for their cowshedsan dothe r buildings.Unlik e other dairies,fo r theseal l cattle fodderan d strawha d tob epurchased .Thi swa s economically viable because of the favourable priceo f freshmil kwhic h lastedunti l the economic depression of the 1930's.A characteristic aspecto f these dairies was thatbot hmil k production anddistributio n toth econsumer s remained in onehand .Th enon-Indonesia ndair yowne r found itver ydifficul t toge tlan d around the towns for fodderproductio n becauseo f theAgraria n Land Law which prevented foreigners frombuyin g land.On edifficult y for towns dairieswa swha t tod owit h thedung .Th e simplest solutionwa s tothro wi t 27 intoon eo f thestreams . Someo f thesemoder ndairie swer e carefullyplanned .Abou t 1898 in Semarang forexample ,Swaving ,afte rhavin g carefully studied thevariou s aspects ofdairyin g inEurope ,bega nvegetabl e and small-scale dairy farming.B y 1905 inhi sfar mGetassa no n thenorther n slopeo fMoun tMerbab u (1300 m), healread yha d anare a of 30hectare .Hi slivestoc k consisted of -84-

importedAustralia ncattl e (Ayrshire)whic hwer ekep ti nfres hmeadow san d 28 ina moder ncowshed . Asmil ki sa perishabl eproduc ti na tropica lclimat ewit ha temperatur e of27.5°C ,i tbecome ssou rafte r8 hours .Henc eth emil kindustr ywa salway s nearth emai nconsumer .Prio rt oth edevelopmen to fmoder ncoolin g techniquesan da sophisticate dtranspor tsyste ma larg emil ktrad ewa sno t 29 possible. Placessuc ha sBatavi awit hgoo drailwa yconnection scoul d ns 30 receivefres hmil kfro mBuitenzor gan dBandun gb yearl ytrain . Forsellin gt oth econsumers ,th emil kwa sbottled .Throughou tth e19t h centuryan dt oa larg eexten tunti lth e1920's ,al lsort so fbottle swer e used,includin gwin ebottle so fwhic hther ewa sapparentl yn olack .Fro mth e hygienicalpoin to fvie wthes ebottle swer ehardl yrecommended . Thenarro 3w1 bottleneck sa swel la sth econve xbottom swer edifficul tt oclean .Th e colouredglas sobscure dth econten to fth ebottl efro mth econsumer .I twa s a longtim ebefor eth emoder nmil kbottl eo ftransparen tglas swit ha fla t bottomwa sintroduced .Closure so fth ebottle sremaine da problem .Bottle s witha lightnin gstoppe rwer eno tsuitabl ebecaus eo fth edifficultie s 32 involvedi ncleanin gthe mthoroughly . Onsevera loccasions ,veterinarian s recommendedth ehygieni cclosure so fvellu mpape ro rparaffine dcartons .Th e advantageo fthes ewa stha tthe ycoul donl yb euse donce .Th econsume r immediatelynotice dwhethe ro rno tth eclosur eha dbee nopene ddurin g transportfro mth edair yfar mt oth evariou ssale soutlets . Becauseo fth escarcit yo ffres hmilk ,i ti sno tsurprisin gt otha t adulterationfrequentl yoccure deithe ro nth efar mo rb yth emil kvendors . Thefirs tscientifi cpape rdealin gwit hco wmil kappeare di n190 1an dwa s devotedt oth eproble mo fadulteration .I n190 0Wetzelaa ran dGieben ,tw o militarypharmacist si nSemaran ggav ei nthei rstud yth efollowin glis to f 34 differentway si nwhic hmil kcoul db eadulterated . (1)addin go fwater ; (2)wholl yo rpartiall yskimmin goff ; (3)skimmin gof fth emil kan daddin go fwater ; (4)mixin gwit hgoat ,shee po rbuffal omilk ; (5)mixin gwit hsante n(coconu tmilk) ; (6)mixin gwit hcondense dmilk ; (7)mixin gwit hric ewater ; (8)boile dmil kfro mth epreviou sday . -85-

Itwa sver ycommo n for freshmil k tob eadulterate dwit h the imported but cheaper sweetened condensedmilk .Th eus eo funsweetene d evaporatedmil kwa s lessusua l becauseo f itshighe rprice . Theonl ygrou po fmil k consumers protected againstmil k adulterationwa s themilitary . As a resulto f thedecentralisatio n lawo f 1903a startwa smad ewit h municipal andprovincia l regulations concerning theproductio nan d saleo f milk and thebigge r townso nJav abega n toestablis h their own veterinary-hygienic services.Town slik eSurabaya ,Batavi aan d Semarang,an d on Sumatra,th e towno fMeda nbega n in1911/12 . Under these regulations oneha d toappl y fora licenc e fromth echairma no f the local council before beginningdairying .A governemento rmunicipa lveterinaria n then inspected thedairy ,th e fields,th ehealt ho f the cows,an d theequipment .N o licence wasgive nt othos ewh ocoul dno tmee tth especifie dqualifications .Th e 37 applicant alsoha d tounderg oa medica l check. Iti sdifficul t to ascertainho wseriousl y these regulationswer eobserved . InYogyakart a as in otherpart so fJava ,a systemo f "hiring"a cowwa spractised .Whe n there was anee d toproduc emor emilk ,a dair y farmer couldhir ea lactating cow fora fixedamoun ta day .Throug h thissyste mdespit emunicipa l control therewa sdange r of introducing contaminated animals intoth e cowsheda s the •DO hirerwa sunawar e ofth eanimal' shealt h situation. Complaintso n the low professional level ofdair y farmingwer e frequentlyhear d inth e 1920'san d 1930's. A step forward inmil k controlwa s the issueo fa codexalimentariu sfo r milk in1920 ,prepare db y theFoo dCommissio n (see further Chapter7.1) . From 1920on ,th eVeterinar y Servicebecam emor e involved inth ehygieni c aspecto fmil k andmea t forhuma n consumption.Mil k control and,closel y linkedwit h it,contro l of thedairies ,develope dmor eo r less 39 simultaneouslywit hmea tcontrol . Municipal authoritiesals obecam e involved insupervizin g the construction ofne wcowsheds .Earl yexample so fmunicipa l involvement inthi sar e Surabaya andMalang . In193 7a dair yexper twa sattache d toth eVeterinar :hec y Service for thebenefi to f thekeeper so fdair ycattle . 41 Milk controlwa sno tonl ynecessar ybecaus eo f theproblem so f adulteration butals obecaus e of thedange r of tuberculosis.I nth e archipelago,tuberculosi samon g cattlewa s adiseas e imported fromabroad , notably from Indiaan dAustralia ,whic h raged almostexclusivel y inherd so f dairy cows. Thankst o intensivemeasure s tocomba t tuberculosis,b y 1937 42 onlya smallnumbe r ofcow swer e still affectedb y thedisease . -86-

Placeswit hmajo rdair yactivitie so nJav aa s indicatedb y several veterinarians for theyear s 1920-1940ar epresente d inFigur e 5.1.Th e largest centreswit hdair yactivitie swer e found inan daroun d Surabaya and Bandung.Likewis e Bataviawit h its relativelyhig hnumbe r of European inhabitantsha dman ydairie s (seeTabl e 5.1).I n193 4 itwa s stated thatdu e togovernmen tmeasure s therewer e sufficientdairie s toensur e thetown so f 43 theResidenc y ofBatavi awit ha goo d qualitymil k supply.

Table 5.1 Number ofdairie san d cows inth eResidenc yo fBatavia ,1933 . regency dairies cows

Batavia 28 240 Meester Cornells 70 688 Krawang 6 61 Total T04 989 Source:base d onA.R .Min.v.Kol. ,1901-M5 , M.v.O.Residenti e Batavia, L.G.C.A. vande r Hoek,29-5-1934 ,p .75 .

Themil k supply forth e towno fBatavi ahoweve r notonl ydepende d on dairies inth eResidency ,bu tals oo nmil k coming fromBuitenzor g and Bandung. InSurabay a (1923)abou t 40dairie swer e runwit h a totalo f 1000 44 cows,whil e Bandung (1921)ha dabou t 30dairies . Inth eoute rprovinces , Medano nth e EastCoas to fSumatr awa sa majo r centreo fdairyin g activities because of thelarg enumbe r ofEuropean s living there.I tha d a large community of Indiansan d several of themwer e involved indairying . 45 Dairying inth eMeda n areadevelope d under Indianan d European initiative. Information oncattl eo ndair y farmso nJav a and theoute r provinces is available for 1925on .Betwee n 1925-1938despit e theeconomi c crisisth e number ofdair y cowso nJav a increased from 10 074 to1 5 368 (seeTabl e 5.2). Thiscanno tb eexplaine d bya rapidly growingdeman d fromEuropean , Chinese or Indonesian consumers.Mos t likelydair yowner s tried,whe n faced with fallenmil k prices,t ocompensat e theirdiminishin g income by producing moremilk .Henc e thenumbe r ofcow s increased. Milk productionvarie d according toth e level ofmanagemen t ofth e dairies.D r Kunst,th ehea d of theVeterinaria n Service,estimate d themil k production for thedairie s inJav aan dMadur a in193 5a tabou t 23.7millio n 46 litresan d for theoute r provincesa t 3.5millio n litres. Compared with theoute r provinces,th emil k production onJav awa smor e efficient.Her e the averagemil k productionpe r cow,base d onKunst' s calculationwa s 1755.5 -87-

litresa yea ragains tonl y50 0litre sa yea rpe rco wfo rth eoute r provinces.

Table5. 2 Cattleo ndair yfarm so nJav aan dth eoute rprovinces ,1925-1938 .

Javaan dMadur a OuterProvince s year cows heifersbull sbul l heifer cows heifers bullsbul l heifer calvescalve s calvescalve s

1938 1536 8 2329 784 1778 4363 5772 3011 1176 2075 2566

1935 1347 1 2476 797 1886 3979 7204 2986 2604 1818 2565

1930 1058 5 1985 668 1661 3226 -----

1925 1007 4 2273 823 2078 3162 -----

Source:Indisc hVersla g1939 ,Par tII ,p.284 .

Thisi squit ea nachievemen ta sMerken sestimate dth emil kproductio no fa cowi nJav aaroun d192 0a t2. 5litre sa da yo rabou t91 0litre sa year . 47 Theamoun to fmil kproduce doutsid eth eofficiall yregistere ddairie swa s 48 probablylimited ,a smos tdairie sfel lunde rregula rcontrol . Thehighe r milkproductio npe rco wo nJav awa sprobabl ydu et oth epresenc eo fmoder n dairyfarms ,whil ei nth eoute rprovince sth emil ksuppl ycam emainl yfro m smalldair yfarms .Again ,dair ycattl eo nJav aconsiste do f76.3 %pur ebloo d orvaluabl eDutc han dAustralia ncros sbreeds ,fo rth eoute rprovince sthi s 49 wasonl y8% . Themil kproduce dwa sfo rdirec tconsumptio nan ddair y productssuc ha sbutte ran dchees ewer ehardl yeve rmade . -88-

Figure5. 1 Placeswit hmajo rdairyin g activityi nJav ai nth eyear s1920-1940 .

Batavia (Jakarta)

Buitenzorg (Bogor) • . . ^Cirebon Lembang ^—£^_ Sukabumi 'Bandung Tegal ^Semarang ^><* Surabaya , Qarut Kiaten.Su™kQrtQ .Madiun Qrat h District^ Vogyakarta *Kediri. Malon g IjlD Plateau/

Source:Place swit ha majo r dairying activity,accordin gt oth e veterinarians 'tHoen ,1923 ;Merkens , 1923;va nde nAkker ,1934 ;E . van N.I.,193 9

Untilth eeconomi c crisiso fth e1930's ,dair y farmingi nth eNetherland s Indieswa scharacterize db ya deman d for freshmil k among theEuropean san d an insufficientmil k supply.Th epric eo ffres hmil kwa ss ohig h thatD r 't Hoen,th egovernmen tveterinarian ,coul dwrit ei n192 3 thata pric eo f f0.5 0fo ron e litreo ffres hmil kwoul dmak e themout ho fever y Dutch c 50 farmerwater . Theattractiv epric eo fmil k fromth eproducer spoin to fvie w caused several peoplet obegi ndair y farming.Becaus eo fth esustaine d demandfo r milkan dth ecorrespondingl y highprice ,a profoun d knowledgeo fdairyin g wasno ta requisit e forne wentrepreneur si nthi s field.A sa result ,goo d knowledgeo fmoder ndairyin gwa s limited among European,Chines ean d Indonesiandair y keepers. Notal lnewcomer si nth efiel dwer e successful. Three kindso fdairie s couldb efoun di nJav abetwee n 1920-1940;moder n dairies,smal ldairie san da kin do fdairyin g activitywhic hma yb ecalle d occasional dairies (seeals oTabl e 5.3).Th emoder ndairie swer e relatively -89-

largeenterprises ,nearl yalway sowne dan dmanage d byEuropean s (seeFigur e 5.2 and 5.3.The yma yhav eha d 50-250adul tan dyoun gcattle .

Table 5.3 Kind ofdairie s tob e foundo nJava ,1920-194 0

1 Moderndairie s - Moderndairie smigh thav eha d 50-250adul tan dyoun g cattle,wit h a dailymil k production of 100-600litre sa day . - Standardso fhygien ewer ewel lmet . - Spacy,wel lventilate d and cleancowsheds . - Dutchan dAustralia n fullan dvaluabl e crossbreedswer eused . - Ownerswer eEuropeans .

2 Small dairies - Smalldairie sha d fewcow san dmil k productionwa sno tmor e than 50 litresa day . - Production andqualit yo fmil kwa s inconsistent. - Standardso fhygien evarie d considerably. - Cowshedsvarie d from reasonable topoor . - Cattle consisted ofheterogeneou sbreeds . - Ownerswer emainl yEuropean san d Indo-Europeans,widow san d retired people.Th edair ywa s generallya subsidiarybusiness .

3 Occasional dairies - Occasional dairieswer e amin i businesswit honl yon e or two cows. - Surplus,mil kwa s sold,ofte n tosmal ldairies . - Milk production andqualit yo f themil kwa sver y irregular. - Standardso fhygien ewer epoor . - Cowshedswer eo fa poo rquality . - Cattle consisted ofloca lan dheterogeneou sbreeds . - Ownerswer emainl y Indonesians andChinese .

Source:base d on 'tHoen ,1923 ,p p 503-504;va nde nAkker ,1934 .

Standardso fhygien ewer ewel lme tan dcomparabl ewit h theNetherlands .Mor e widespreadwer e the smalldairie swit honl ya fewcows .A sdistinc t fromth e moderndairies ,th eproductio n andqualit yo f themil k ofth e small dairies -90-

was inconsistent.Als o thestoc k of cattle consisted ofheterogenou sbreeds . The ownerswer emainl yEuropean san d Indo-Europeans,ofte nwidow so r retired people. Inmos t casessmall-scal edairyin gwa sa subsidiarybusiness .A special categorywa s formedb y theoccasiona l dairies,a kin d ofa min i dairyactivit ybase do nonl yon eo r twocows .Th eowner swer emainl y Indonesians andChinese ,wh ower eoccasionall y engaged inproducin g a little milk.Th e cattle consisted of localan dheterogenou sbreeds .Th e production ofmil kwa sver y irregular and thequalit ypoor .Th emil kwa s often sold to smalldairies .Despit e their limitations,thes emodes toccasiona l dairies were of importance asa firstste p for Indonesians tobecome ,a s small proprietors,conversan twit h theproductio n ofmilk .Smal ldairie san d occasional dairieswer e found chiefly inth e smaller places,bu t therewer e some inth ebigge r towns.Althoug hdetaile d data are scanty,th emateria l analysed for this study indicates thatconsumer so f freshmil kwer e inth e firstplac e Europeans.Th eVeterinar y Service could state that the saleo f freshmil kwa sprincipall y confined toth eEuropean san d toa lesser degree toChines e living inth e large towns.Th e Indonesianpopulatio n consumed 52 practically no freshmilk . However,on eexceptio nha st ob emad ean d that isth eemergin g Indonesianmiddl e class (see further Chapter6.4) . The shareo f themoder ndairies ,althoug h small innumber ,i nth e total milk productionwa shigh . InBandun g forexampl e 6ou to f 30dairie s 53 produced about60 %o f thetota lmil k production in1921 . An interestingpictur ea t thebeginnin g of the 1920'so f the freshmil k supplyo fa majo r towno nJava ,i sillustrate d bya report of theMil k Commission ofth eBandun gmunicipality . The5Commissio 4 nvisite dmos to f the 30dair y farmsi nth eBandun g areaan dwa sver y concernedwit h the future of themil k supply. Iteve n feared that forsevera l reasonsmil k production might dryup . (1)Mos t of thedair y farmswer e too small and the totalmil k productionwa s only 3000bottle sa da yo r about200 0litre . The totalpopulatio n of 56 Bandungwa sabou t 16700 0 inhabitants,includin g 20 000Europeans . (2)Sufficien t forage,i nparticula r green fodder,wa sno t easy toge t and wasexpensive . -91-

Figure5. 2 Meadowo fth eVill aLuci awit hdair ycows ,Salatiga ,Middl eJav a ('t Hoen, 1919, p.98).

Figure5. 3 Milkingshe di nBandun g (Ligthart,Hovi ge tal. ,1926 ,p.253) . -92-

(3)Managemen to f thedair y farmswa swea k and localpersonne lwer eno twel l trained.Severa l ofth e smaller farmswer e subsidiaryactivitie s for the housewife,whil ehe rhusban dwa sworkin g elsewhere.Th eMil k Commission had a lowopinio no f the farmsan d stated thatth emajorit ywer e "managedb ywell-meanin gdilettantes" . (4)Anothe r problem rose fromth elac k ofyoun g cattle to replaceolde r ones.Befor e theFirs tWorl dWar ,mil k cattle couldb ebough t from Australia.Import s fromAustrali awer e later on forbiddenbecaus e of infestationwit h tuberculosis.Du e tohig h transport costs importa­ tiono fcow s fromth eNetherland swa s ratherexpensive .Th e Commission mentioned thata largenumbe r ofmil k farms inth e Indiesdepende d on thebull so f the stock breeding farmGeneraa ld eWet . Lack of sufficient capital toimpor tgoo d cowswa sa majo r diffculty. To begina dair y farmwit h 25cow san d abull , theCommissio n estimated that f 5000 0wa snecessary .Thi s included the costo fbuildings . TheCommissio n expected that thenee d for freshmil kwoul d growbecaus e of the rapid growtho f thepopulatio n ofBandung . Itwa sapparentl y thinking of the European segmentan d theopenin g ofne whospital so r hospital extensions. Itconclude d rightly thata tabou t 50cent spe r litre,fres h milk still remained aluxur y ora medicine .I ncompariso nwit h other foods, milk inth e Indieswa sver yexpensive .Wit ha naverag ehousehol d income of about f0,8 1 aday , itwa sou to f thequestio n for freshmil k tobecom e parto f thedie to f the localpopulation . TheCommissio n concluded thatexistin g farmsshoul d be supportedwit h good dairy cattlean d somene w farmsb eestablishe dwit h at least 40 cows. Notonl y themunicipalit y butals o theauthoritie so f thePreanga nwher e the towno fBandun g issituate d showed an interest insuppor t for livestock CO improvementan d adequateveterinar y care (seeals o Figure 5.4 and5.5) .

5.3 Central Milk Depot

Because ofproblem s connectedwit ha safemil k supply several people became interested inestablishin g aMel k Centraleo r Central Milk Depot for important Javanese towns.I n192 0durin g aconferenc e ofengineer s in Batavia,I rA . deBoe rmad ea ple a fora Centra lMil k Depot.H e compared the various aspectso fmil k hygienewit h thesituatio n inth eNetherland s inth e yearsaroun d 1880.H eargue d that inth etropic smil k should firstb e hygienically treated ina Centra lMil k Depotbefor e itwa sdistribute d to -93-

Figure 5.4 DrB .Vrijburg' sdair y farm "DeFriesch eTerp "i nth eearl y 1930's, Pengalengan,sout ho fBandung . Incontras t tomilkin g sheds intowns , inth ehighe r attitudes cattle couldb egraze d because of the cooler climate and available space (bycourtes y of theVrijbur g family).

Figure 5.5 Thedair y farm "DeFriesch eTerp "ha da distributio noffic e inBandun g from where eachmornin g cooledunpasturize d milkwa sdistribute d inbottle s to European customersb y carrier tricycle,earl y 1930's (bycourtes y of the Vrijburg family). -94-

59 the consumers. The idea of a Cooperative Central Milk Depot for the Bandung plateau was proposed in 1928 by the Ursone brothers from a dairy farm in Lembang. It remained a proposal, as many dairy owners did not see the point of it. Dr B. Vrijburg, than municipal veterinarian of Batavia, was another advocate of Central Milk Depots for major population settlements. He was owner of the dairy farm De Friesche Terp in Pengalengan, a place South of Bandung. Producers of milk could bring their product to the Central Milk Depot where the quality could be tested and where the exact amount could be measured. Further milk could be pasteurized and put into bottles for sale to consumers. His colleague, Dr J. Stapensea of the Veterinary Service of the municipality of Semarang was however, not enthusiastic about establishing a Central Milk Depot. In a paper he expressed his doubts about its usefulness in tropical countries. For the city of Semarang he considered it even undesirable, provided the public were regularly acquainted with the results of dairy inspection (marks granted for plant and working methods) and milk control (marks for composition and quality). A good quality milk should be sold at moderate prices so that it could be introduced into low income households. Dr Stapensea probably had Indonesian households in mind. According to Stapensea, the establishment of Central Milk Depots, whether under municipal, private or cooperative control,woul d lead to a considerable price increase and to a decline of the quality of milk. In the Central Depot, all milk would be mixed together and payment of the supplier according to the quality of his milk would become impossible. This was expected to be detrimental to the incentive of the producer to feed his 64 cattle properly and to treat the milk hygienically on the dairy. Stapensea saw no point in having milk pasteurized because of the tropical conditions. The consumer should boil the milk and if possible only once. In Europe and North America it took quite some time in professional circles before pasteurization of milk was generally accepted. In the 1890s the general conception was that heating milk did something to it which made it less suitable for infants.Accordin g to Morse the basis of this fifi conception was that babies and young animals get their food raw. When the dangers of contaminated milk and tuberculosis infection through milk began to be better realized, the bias against pasteurization disappeared, at least among professionals. Vrijburg reacted immediately to Stapensea pointing out that a Central Milk Depot in tropical countries was good for both producers and consumers. -95-

Theobjectio n thatdairie swit hgoo dqualit ymil kwoul ddeclin ewas ,h e maintained, incorrect.Thi scoul d easilyb e avoidedb ymean so fa goo d systemo f control.A n increase inmil k pricewa sno tnecessary . Vrijb referred toth e inefficient systemo fmil k supply inBatavia .

"Letu s takea nexample ,on e of themos t important salesoutlet s in Batavia,th eKoningsplei n (nowth eLapanga nMerdeka) . Inth emornin g onema yobserv e roundsmenwit h carsan dbicycles ,pikolans , distributingmil kwhich ,withou tan ydoubt ,originat e fromabou t 15 fift differentdairies" .

Thepossibilitie s ofa Centra lMil k Depotdealin gwit hproblem so fmil k surplusb y turning itint obutte ran d cheesewer eals ostressed . Asma yb e expected Stapensea reiteratedhi spoin to fvie wwithou t addingan yne w arguments. The firstCentra lMil k Depot tob eestablishe d inth eNetherland s Indies however,wa sno tdu e toa direc t concern fora goo dqualit y of freshmil k for the consumer.I twa s theeconomi c necessity causedb y theDepressio no f the 1930'swhic hbrough t themil k producers inBandun g together.Thi swa s anticipated bywha twa s called a fiercemil kwa r among theproducers . A milk surplusan da diminishin gdeman d formil k asa resulto fa declin e in income laya t thecor eo f theproblem .Al l overJav a inth emajo r and smaller townsth edairie swer e facedwit h theproble mo fa freshmil k surplus. In192 3 thepric e ofa litreo f freshmil kwa s f0.50 . In 1937/38 72) itdecrease d inBatavi a to f0.25 . .Th e causeso f thismil k surpluswer e threefold.

(1)Smalle r householdswithou t children turned toth evariou s kinds of tinnedmil kwhic hwer eeas yt ostore . (2)Man yhousehold sha d toeconomiz e and reduce their freshmil k consumption. (3)Th eexpansio no fdairie s inan daroun d towns resulting in fierce competition.Dairie scompete dwit heac h other forclients ,no tonl yb y meanso fadvertisement ,bu tals ob yusin gaggressiv evendors .

Withoutmuc hpubli c attention theN VBandoengsch eMelkcentral e or the Bandung Central Milk Depotwa sestablished ,becomin g operational inAugus t 74 1932. Itwa sbor nou to f thenee d topreven tuncontrolle d competition -96-

between thedairie so fBandung ,Lemban gan dCisarua .Th eCentra lMil k Depot tried tostabiliz e theprice sa t sucha level that some roomwa s leftfo r making a reasonable profit.Howeve r theBandun g CentralMil k Depot soon ran intodifficulties .Originall y itwa s anticipated thati twoul d have todea l with amil k surpluso f 1000litre sa da you to fa dail yproductio n of 10 000 litres.Bu t in193 3 themil k surplus grewt o 3000litre s (seeals oTabl e 5.4). Oneo f thebigges tmil k producersUrson edi dno tparticipat e inth eDepo t 75 and setu p itsow ndistributio nnetwork . Likewise a smallgrou po f dairies remained operatingalon eo n themarket ,benefittin g infac t fromth e stabilized prices.Eve nne wdairie swer eestablished , "parasiting"a sD r van denAkker ,directo r of theHygienica l Service of theMunicipalit y of Bandung called it,o n theachievement s of theCentra lMil k Depot. Inorde r to solve thesedifficulties ,i nMa y 1933,th eCentra lMil k Depot requested the government inBatavi a for financial support for transforming themil k surplus intobutte r or cheeseo r tose tu pmil k condensing factories. The requestwa s turneddow na s itwa sno t thepolic yo f thegovernmen t to support individualenterprises . Inth emeantim eNestl emad eeffort s totak eove r theCentra lMil k 78 Depot. Nestlewa s ofth eopinio n thata self-contained condenserywa s economicallyno t feasible.I tnevertheles s considered thata combination of a condenserywit h theCentra lMil k Depotwoul d beprofitabl e if surplusmil k wasbough ta ta reasonable price.Nestl epropose d takingove r thedepo t for f 130 000 (moreo r lessa tcos tprice )an dmakin g anagreemen t for the purchase ofa maximu mmil k surpluso f 5000litre sa day .Th eoffe rwa s not accepted,probabl y outo f fearo fbecomin g toodeepl y involvedwit ha big company. The situationaggravate d rapidlywhe n thelarges t of themortgagors ,va n Zijlo f thedair y farmGeneraa ld eWet ,recalle d hismortgag e and soon others followed.A sa result,th eBandun g CentralMil k Depotwen t bankrupt in1934 .No w themajo r freshmil k producing centreo nJav awa s facedwit h collapse.Th emunicipalit y ofBandun gwit h its relatively large European population took theunusua l stepo f intervening. The collapse of thedair ywa s considered economically and socially undesirable.Th eburgomaste r anda specialcommitte e tookaction . Consultation took place firstwit h theowner so f the twobigges tdairies , Hirschlandan dUrsone .Ou to f these consultations came the idee that the -97-

Table 5.4 Estimated milk production and sale inlitre spe rda y inth eRegenc y of Bandung,1934 . milk production litres/day saleo fmil k litres/day dairiesaffiliate dwit h 9400 municipalityo fBandun g 5000 the "BandoengscheMel k Centrale" Regencyo fBandun g 800 outside themunicipality ) dairiesno taffiliate d 4000 outside theRegency , 1700 particularly Batavia

13~400 7500 milk surplusa da y 5900litre s

Source:base do nA.R. ,Min .v . Kol., 1901-'45,verb .no.3553 ,23-3-1935 , no.13.

Bandung CentralMil k Depot shouldb e continuedunde rmunicipa ldirection .A newsettlemen tha d tob emad ewit hal lth emortgagors ,an d the bankruptcy had tob e annulled.Likewis e alldairie swer e tob e compelled by the municipality tocooperate .Th eburgomaste r ofBandun g requested the GovernorGenera l forapprova l and financial support.O n the 27Decembe r 1934th e situationwa s settled along theline so f theproposals . Despite hesitation indirectl y assistingprivat eenterprise ,th e governmentha dacte d favourably. Itdi dno twan t themil k trade to collapse 79 nor tohav e a stagnationo f themil k supplyo fWes t Java. In193 5al l dairieswit hmor e than 10lactatin g cows inth eRegenc y ofBandun g had to 80 be licensed by law (seeals oAppendi x2) . Nestle'splan showeve rdi dno tmaterialize .Th eCC F ofLeeuwarde nwa s quiteunderstandabl y concernedwit h the ideao fa Nestl eparticipation . It was seena sa typical continuation ofNestle' spolic y toacquir e interest indairie s incountrie swit ha sizeable tinnedmil k consumption.Unde r the device of supporting localdairyin gNestl e approached thegovernmen t for settingu p import restrictions.Behin d aprotectionis twal lNestl e could develop itsloca lmil k condensing.D rVrijbur g tried toge tCC F to participate inth eCentra lMil k Depoto fBandun g and tose tu pa localmil k condensery.However ,CC F considered participation tob eunrealisti c because of thehig hpric eo f local freshmilk ,th eprimitiv e equipment of 81 thedepo t and theeconomi c crisis. On thepositiv e side CCF advised the CentralMil kDepo t totransfor m theorganizatio n intoa cooperative,t o develop close collaborationwit h theBandun gmunicipalit y and to recruita -98-

on good "allround"dair yexper t from theNetherlands . Inothe r milk producing centreso rJav aa s inSurabaya ,peopl e became interested ina Centra lMil kDepot .A CentralMil k DepotCommissio n of Surabayawa s setu pan d recommended sucha n institution for thebenefi to f the government,consume r anddair ykeepers ,base d onth e supplyo f pasteurized milk.No tal ldairie swer e convinced of theusefulnes so f 83 pasteurized milk. Likewiseman ydair y keeperswer e suspicious of the idea 84 ofparticipatin g ina Centra lMil kDepot . By theen d of the 1930'sth e smalldairie swer e scarcely economically viable andman ydisappeared . Invie wo f thedifficul t situationo fdairyin g ingenera l thegovernmen tdi dno twan t tosuppor tan ynewcome r inthi skin d of activity. Ata meetin g of small farmersan ddair y keepers inBat u in 1940,th eveterinaria nD rJ.H .va nde nBer g fromMalan g summarized the reasons for failures inth e smalldair yactivities .

(1) Mis-management by thosewit hn oexpertis e indairying ,lik e retired government officialswh oha d noprofessiona l skill inthi sfield . (2) Cowso fa poo r quality,ofte nbough tou to f ignorance. (3) Delay incallin gupo n theadvic e ofa veterinarian . fifi (4) Poor book-keeping.

On thepolitica l level,i nth eVolksraa d or People'sCouncil ,a motio n 87 waspasse d requesting thegovernmen t tosuppor tth edairies . The governmentwa s invited tod o this through importquota so f tinnedmilk , trans-migrationo f cattle,an d technical assistance andextensio n for the 88 dairykeepers . The Indonesianmembe r of theVolksraad ,Hoedojo ,sai dh e was in favour of themotio nbecaus e of the importance ofth e Indonesian-owned dairies inYogy a and Solo.H edi d not seeth epoin t of firstestablishin g Indonesiandairie sbu t rather inmakin g betterus e of theanimal s theyalread ypossessed . Inhi sopinio ndraugh t and slaughter animalsalread ygav e sufficientmil k forhom e consumption,goa tmil k being used forArab san dpar to f thedes apopulation .Speakin g forhi s constituency, thePrincipalities ,Hoedoj o said that thepopulatio nwa s makingmil k products fromco wan dbuffal omilk ,dadih ,a kin d ofyoughurt , samin,a kin d ofbutter ,an dminya k samin,a kin d ofbutte r oil. The governmentdi d not impose restrictionso n the importo f tinnedmilk . -99-

However,i n193 9th eVeeweid epla nwa s launched for thedevelopmen t of dairy cattle inmeadow s inth emountai n regions inth eProvinc eo f East Java.However ,becaus e ofth eSecon dWorl dWar ,th epla nwa sneve r executed.

5.4Alternatives tofres hco wmil k

The relative scarcityo f freshmil k anda correspondingly highprice , caused Europeans toloo k foralternatives .I nth e firstplac eus e couldb e made ofbuffal o or goatmilk .Thi swa sdone ,bu to n thewhol e Europeans 89 were notver y charmedb y thesekind so fmilk . Inth evariou sharbou r towns,Ara b communitieskep t theBengal i goatswit h 90 anaverag emil k productiono fabou t1. 5 litresa day . The indigenousgoa tan d toa lesser extend the sheep couldb e found all overJav a andothe r partso f thearchipelago .Thes e smalldomesti c animals were keptb y thepoore r households inth e ruralarea s for slaughter. They 91 were also amean so f savingmone yb y raising them for sale. Inth e previous chapter,I hav ealread y showntha t goatan d ewemil kwer e hardly ever consumed by Europeanso r Indonesians.Th eonl ygoa tmil k consumers wereArabs .Som eeffort sha d beenmad e to import sheepan d goat (Bengali and Etawah) forbot hmea tan dmil k production. Insom eplace so nJav a Indonesians setu p local stock breeding associations,bu ta s fara smil k 92 was concerned these effortswer ever y limited. Because of theabsenc e of tuberculosis,goa tmil kma yhav e served asa nattractiv e food forchilden . Vande r Burgwrot e that theaversio no f thehighe r (European)classe s to 93 goatmil kwa sno t justified. Around 1900 inmedica l circles inth eNetherlands ,discussion s took place aboutwhethe r orno tther ewa sa relationbetwee ngoa tmil k as infant 94) foodan d anaemia.Toda yw e knowtha t this istru e 'O f course itshoul d be realized that inth eNetherland s goat raising (andhenc e theus eo f goat milk)wa sno t considered aprestigeou sacitivty . In ruralarea s the only milk-giving animal landless labourers could keepwa s thegoat ,ofte n called the "cowo f thepoor" .Becaus e ofa Europea nand , inparticular ,Dutc hbia s against buffalo and goatmilk ,thes ekind so fmil kwer eno t included in efforts todevelo pa localdair y industry inIndonesia . Those concernedwit h the local foodan dnutritio n of the population realized that local freshmil kwa s tooexpensiv e tobecom e abasi c food. Europeanphysician san dnutritionists ,brough tu p ina dair y tradition, -100-

looked for cheapmil k alternativeso fvegetabl e origin.Th e soyabea n (Glycinemax )wa s considereda sa nalternativ e becauseo f itshig hprotei n contentan dwidel yused . Inth earchipelago ,particularl yo nJava ,th e fermented strong-smelling and tastysoy abea nTerop eha dbee nknow n for centuries. Itha dbee n introduced by theChines e and graduallyadopte d by thepopulation . In 1889 the inspector of theCivi lMedica l Service,Cornelissen ,urge d thehead so f the regionaladministratio n inJav aan dMadur a topu tmor e 95 emphasiso n the cultivationan dus eo f soyabeans . Itwa sno tuse d asa food for infant feeding.Anothe r soyabea nproduct ,soy amil k offered better possibilities.Soy amil k isa whit eemulsio nexpresse d from soaked, softened soyabean san d has theappearanc e ofmilk ,whic h ofcours e iti s not. Soyamil kwa sno tpar to f the indigenouscookin gan d theDutc h probablyhear d of thetrial swit h soyamil k for infant feeding inChina . Soyamil kwa s sometimesmad e inth eChines e communities inth eIndies . According toB.S .Piat tth evalu e of soyamil k asa n infant foodha dbee n studied since 1909.I twa s scarcelyeve ruse d intraditiona l infant feeding inChina ,an d itsassociatio nwit h infant feeding startedwit h theeffort s ofa nAmerican-traine d Chinesepaediatricia n to find asubstitut e forhuma n milk.97 The importance of soyabean s for thenutritio n of the Indonesian 98 populationwa s stressed byJanse nan dDonat h in1923 . Tenyear s later 99 Donath recommended soyamil k asa chea p substitute for cowmilk . Inth e meantime, some smallhospital s inth e 1930'swer e alreadyusin g soymil k as a substitute for cowmilk . It iswidel yuse d asa supplement inth edie t ofpatient s inth ehospita l ofSemaran g (CentraalBurgelij k Ziekenhuis). Thedirecto r of theHospital ,D rCohen ,wa sawar e that soyamil k should not be considered asa mil k substitute. Thispoin to fvie wwa showeve r quite exceptional. The ideao f soyamil k asa goo d substitute forco wmil kwa s apparently sowidel y spread that in193 5th ePubli cHealt h Service issued awarnin g to 102 itsmedica l officers. Themai nmessag e implied that soyamil kwa s an excellent protein-rich foodbu tnevertheles sha d itslimitation s for infant feedingpurposes .I twa swel l suited for supplementary feedinga sa goo d source ofprotei nan dB vitamine s (B.an dB, )an dwa s relativelycheap . Soyamil k hashowever ,i ncompariso nwit h cowmil k anumbe r of disadvantages. It isshor t infat san dcarbohydrates ,i nunorgani csalts , and in thevitamine sA andD .Anothe r limitation is itsofte nbitte r and -101-

tart taste.Thi sca nhoweve r be reduced and severalmethod shav e been developed.Th epeadiatricia nd eHaa san d thenutritionis tva nVee nwer eo f theopinio n thatsoy amil kmigh tb ea goo d sourceo f cheapprotei nbu t could notunde r theprevailin g circumstances,b e considered asa substitute for cowmilk . Inth e reporto f thepreparator y committee for the Intergovernmental Conference of FarEaster nCountrie so nRura lHygien e in Bandung inAugus t 1937,doub twa sals oexpresse d ast owhethe r soyamil k 104 was theanswe r for improving the ruraldiet . Interest insoy amil k asa substitute forco wmil k remained.A non-profitorganizatio n (theIndisch eMaatschappi jvoo r Individuele Werkverschaffing) requested theMedica l Laboratory inBatavi a tod o some work inmakin g soyamil kmor e comparablewit hco wmilk .A reporto n this workwa spublishe d in1937 . The soyamil k prepared corresponded approximately toco wmilk .Thi swa sdon eb yaddin g sugar,coconu toil ,sal t andboile d pawpaw juice (neutralizedwit h calcium carbonate). Because of thevitami nA deficiencies inth e Indonesiandiet ,muc h thought was given toenrichin g the soyamilk .Experiment swer emad ewit h good vitaminA or carotene sourcessuc ha slive r oil,re dpal moi lan d pawpaw juice.Preferenc ewa sgive n topawpa w juicebecaus eo f itsgenera l availability. As forkeepin gquality , soyamil k iscomparabl ewit h cowmilk .Kep ta t ordinary roomtemperatur e in the tropics itgoe sba dwithi n 24hours .Th e soyamil k preparedwa s considered tob ea goo d supplementary food foryoun g children,bu twa sno tb euse d asa substitute forbreas tmilk .Th e product wasmean t tob euse d inhospital san dhealt h centres.Th epric e compared favourablewit h cowmilk ,4. 5 centsa sagains t 25-28cent s fora litre of .,,10 6 cowmilk . Soyamil k did notbecom e agenerall yaccepte dproduc t for replacing local fresh cowmilk ,eithe rb y the Indonesianso rb y theEuropeans , despite its relatively lowprice .Fro mth econsumer spoin to fview ,th e limitationso f soyamil kwer e thebitte r and tart tastedu e toth e contemporary techniques,th e rather lengthy foodpreparatio n (milk is immediately ready for consumption),an d theabsenc eo fa soyamil k industry tobrin g theproduc t toth econsumer .Buffal oan d goatmil k didno t become analternativ e for local freshmil k either,largel ybecaus eo fa European bias.A real substitute for local freshmil k became imported tinnedmilk ; sweetened condensedmil k and inparticula r sweetened condensed skimmilk . -102-

Thedairie s inth eNetherland s Indieswere ,i nth e firstplace , established tosatisf y thedemand so fEuropea nconsumer san d reachedonl ya very small sectiono f thebetter-of f Indonesiansan d Chinese.Wha t the dairiesdi d notmanag e todo ,th eEuropea n condensed milk industrydid ; the bringing ofa mil k product tomor epeopl ewithi n Indonesian society. -103-

6.HIL KPRODUCT ST O INDONESIA

6.1 Exporto fmil k products totropica l regions

Although condensedmil kwa soriginall ydevelope d asa produc t to satisfy theWester n Europeanan dNort hAmerica nconsume r the industryals o tried to expand itsmarke t intoothe r regions.I nth e 1880sNestl ean dAnglo-Swis s were alreadyver yactiv e inAfric a andAsia .Th eAnglo-Swis sbran d of sweetened condensedmil kMilkmai dwa sespeciall ywell-know n .Amon g the Dutchbrand sexporte d toth e tropics,Hollandi awa s themos twel l known at 2 that time. Toensur ea bette r position,th ene w firmNestl e andAnglo-Swis s Condensed Milk Companyestablishe d a centraloffic e inLondon .Thi sha d several advantages,suc ha sth eprospec to fpreferentia l tariffs forBritis h goods inth emarket so f theempire ,th elac k of importdutie so n imported condensedmilk ,an d good transport facilitiesbetwee nLondo nan dAfric a and Asia. An importantdevelopmen twa s further the replacement ofloca l sales agentsb y subsidiaries in1910 .Thi sgav eNestl e a realadvantag e over other firms sucha s theDutc hone swhic h still continued towor kwit h sales agents.Nestl eha d setu pa depo t inSingapore .A sa centre for grouping ordersan d splittingu pconsignments ,i tplaye d amajo r role inorienta l marketswher edepot swer eopene d atHon g Kong,Calcutta ,Madras ,Bombay , Colombo and in191 3 inJapan . On thewhole ,sale sagent swer e less effective inpromotin g aparticula rproduc ta sHepkem a foundou tdurin g his 4 mission for theCooperativ e Condensery inth eNetherland s Indies in1930 . By 1900 sweetened condensedmilk ,evaporate dmil k and sterilizedmil k in that order of importance,wer ebein g imported intoth eNetherland sIndies . There are indications thataroun d 1900 somedrie dmilk-powde r mayhav e been being imported into theNetherland s Indiesbu t itcoul dhardl y serve asa substitute for freshmil k or condensedmilk .O ra sa contemporary looked at it:

"Astud yo ndifferen t sampleso fmilk-powde r gaveu s the impression that,dilute dwit hwate r itcanno t servea sa replacement for fresh cow milk because anappropriat emetho d ofmanufacturin gdrie d milk-powder hasno tye tbee n found. One getsa liquidwhic hha s the same chemical compositionan d toa certainexten t the same colour,bu ta s fara s smell, tastean d generalappearanc e isconcerne d itdiffer s somuc h -104-

fromfres hmil k and evencondense dmil k thaton e rightlyma ydoub t if milk powder canb edestine d innorma lusag ea sa substitute of fresh 7 milk.

Throughout theperio d studied,unti l 1941milk-powde r hadneve r had any substantial importance inth etota lmil k supplyo f theNetherland sIndies .

6.2 Thearriva l of condensedmil k inIndonesi a

Despite all effortst odevelo pdair y farming inth e tropics,mil k remained anexpensiv e foodan d onlyavailabl e inan d around the larger cities.Condense dmil kwa sa goo dalternative ,particularl y for those living inth e smallerplace so nJav aan d inothe r regions.I t iso f interest to note that in187 3 thever yactiv e firmo fHenr iNestl ewa salread ymarketin g itsmil k food farine Lactee (apowdere dmil k basedo nmil k and cereals)i n o Netherlands Indies. When condensedmil k arrived isdifficul t to say,bu t therear e indications that itwa salread yuse d around 1880b yEuropeans , q especially for infantfeeding . It issurprisin g that inth eperio dwhe n thetechnique s ofmil k preservation intin swer e still inthei r infancy,tinne dmil k productswer e being introduced intoNetherland s Indies.I n183 5a nadvertisemen t appeared inBatavi amentionin g aproduc tcalle d "Laitconserve" . The Royal Food Preservation FactoryJ.H .Nieuwenhui s Jr &Co ,begu n in1844 ,sen t from Amsterdam toth eNetherland s Indiesa consignment of foodspreserve d in tins,amon gwhic hwer e 300tin so fmilk . Thiswa smos t likely sterilized milk as theGai l Bordenmetho d ofmil k condensingpresumabl yha d notye t crossed theAtlanti cOcean .Th e same firm senta large consignment of 50 000 litreso fmil k preserved intin st oth emilitar yhospital s ofAceh ,Norther n 12 Sumatra,durin g theAce hWa r in1877 . Around 1883mos to f the condensed milk consumed inth eNetherland s Indieswa sSwis s condensedmil k fromth e Anglo-Swisscompan ya tCham .Anothe rmil k producto n salewa sAlpenmilch , evaporatedmil k in tinso r bottles from the "First SwissAlpin eMil k Exporting Company"a tRomanshorn ,Switzerland . Lookinga t thepric e of condensedmil k iti sobviou stha t itwa sa ver y expensive product,ou to f reacho f theloca lpopulatio n (Table6.1) .I n188 3 themilitar ypharmacis tCayau xpublishe d a rather criticalpape r inth e medical journal forth eNetherland s Indieso n theus e of condensedmil k and farine lacteea s infant food.H eargue d thatcondense dmil kwa sno t suitable -105-

14 for infant feeding. Hequote d the instructionso fth emanufacture r on the label of the tinwhic h said that for infant feeding,th econtent s shouldb e dilutedwit h 7 to1 4part swater .N o further instructions for infant feeding were printed onth elabel .

"Diluting the contento f theti nwit h7 part swate rwil l give about 2.5 litres of liquid.Thi sliqui ddoe sno teve nprovid ehal f of the proteinsan d fatwhic h the sameamoun to f freshmil k does".

Table 6.1 Priceso fcondense dmilk ,loca lmil k andmil k food inth emai n towns ofJav a in 1883*).

pricepe r container amounto fprotei n foron e guilder

1 tino f condensed milk 450g f0.5 0 112.5g protei n (Anglo-Swiss)

1 bottle of freshmil k 667c c f0.4 0 102.0g protei n

1 tino f farine lactee 400g f1.5 0 32.0g protei n

Source:base d onCayaux ,188 3

*)farmin g household budget inJava ,38. 3cent sa day .

From 1900on ,dat a areavailabl e onmil k imports into theNetherland s Indies.Althoug hno tye t specified inth edifferen t kindso fmil k products andonl ygivin g themone yvalu e andno t theactua lquantitie s imported, these figures indicatea n increasingdeman d for condensedmil k (Table6.2) . Importedmil k productswer e still chieflyo f theAnglo-Swis s Company.Th e increase ofmil k imports,an d inparticular ,sweetene d condensed milk canb e explained bya numbe r offactors . (1)Sweetene d condensedmil k had severaladvantage s over freshmilk . Itwa s a relatively safeproduct ,whil e freshmil kwa softe nproduce d and handled under unhygienic circumstanceswhereb yadulteratio n frequently occured.Whe n closed,th e condensedmil k tincoul d be stored forquit e some time,wherea s inth etropics ,fres hmil k had aver y short shelf life. When the tinwa sopened ,th esweetene d condensed milk could be -106-

Table 6.2 The indexo fmil k importsan d other European foods,base d on import value inguilders ,fro m 1900til l theoutbrea k of the FirstWorl dWar , NetherlandsIndies . year 1900 1905 1910 1913 food index import value 1913 in million guilders milk 100 172 255 383 2.4 cheese 100 125 187 197 0.4 butter/margarine 100 115 152 170 3.0 wheat-flour 100 87 168 227 5.8 hard liquor 100 85 113 143 2.7 beer 100 135 175 250 2.5 wine 100 91 111 114 1.5

Source:Centraa l Kantoorvoo r de Statistiek,1927 .

keptmuc h longer than freshmilk .Furthermore ,compare dwit h the locally producedmil k itwa s lessexpensive .Howeve r thoseuse d to freshmil k didn't like thetast eo f condensedmilk .

(2)Th e influx ofEuropean safte r 1900stimulate d a furtherdeman d for foods coming fromEurope .Th e European community changed froma male-dominated society toon ewher e family lifebecam e increasingly important.Th e Europeanpopulatio n inth eNetherland s Indies increased between 1905-1920b y 74 000whil ebetwee n 1890-1905 the increase had beenonl y 21 000.17

(3)Th e salesactivitie so fagent so f thecondense dmil k industry operating inth eNetherland s Indiesmad ea regular supplyo fmil k products possible.Thes e activitieswer e firstdirecte d tosatisfyin g theneed s of the European community,bu t later they reached the Indonesian population (Figure6. 1an d6.2) .

Althoughdifferen t sizeso f condensedmil k tinswer epu tupo n themarket , themajorit yha d adiamete r of7. 5 cm,a heigh to f 8.3 cman d abrut oweigh t of 0.5 kg. With thepric eo f the condensedmil k at f0.5 0 per tin,i t is obvious that itwa sou to f reacho f themasse so f the Indonesianpopulation . The government statistician SollewijnGelpk e (1880), calculated the annual farminghouselhol d budgeto nJav a tob e f140.- , or about 38.3cent spe r day.19 -107-

6.3 Milk products and the Indonesian population

Howan dwhe ndi d these new foods,originall y destined for the European consumer,als o reach the Indonesian population? Theearlies t information on theus e of condensed milk by Indonesians is reported byD rva nde r Burg in 20 hisboo k "The Physician inth eNetherland s Indies",publishe d in1883 . He writes thatdurin g a severe fever epidemic inth eRegenc y of Banten, condensed milk wasdistribute d to Indonesian childrenwhe n themother s were tooexhauste d tobreast-fee d them. Thedistribute d productwa s Swiss condensed milk.N o information is further given on the reaction of the mothers and children to thisne wproduct ,no r onwh owa s responsible for the distribution. Milk productswer euse db y the Indonesians for infant feeding, in teao r coffee,a s an ingredient in ice lollies and ice cream,an d sometimes as a medicine. Thisbasicall y reflected theway s Europeansuse d thevariou s milk products,wit h onenotabl e exception;no ta sa drink .A s abeverage ,mil k was onlyuse d medicinally. Thevariou sway s themil k productswer e consumed by Indonesians arediscusse d below. Themajo r direct use ofmil k products by the Indonesianswa s for infant feeding (Figure 6.3 and 6.4).A t first sweetened condensed milkwa suse d and later, inth e 1930's, the cheaper sweetened condensed skimmilk . Evaporated milk remained aproduc t used onlyb y Europeans,i ncoffee ,porridg e and 21 puddings. Thepoo r keeping quality ofa nopene d unsweetened milk product made itunsuitabl e for the local consumer. Because theywer eunacquainte d withmil k asa food,an dbecaus e of the highpric e ofmil k products in relation to thever y lowpurchasin g power of the Indonesian population, condensed milk productsdi d not reach the great masses. There are several indications that the situation changed somewhat in the 22 beginning of the 1920's. Gradually condensed milk found some acceptance among themor ewell-to-d o Indonesians and Chinese andbecam e known as Susu 23 blik. However the consumption of condensed milkwa sno t limited to these few.A study published in192 7 on infantmortalit y inth e East Coast of Sumatra indicated that breast-feeding waswidesprea d among thehousehold s of theDel i plantation workers.Nevertheles s artificial feedingwit h condensed milk did occur and evena noccasiona l feeding bottlewa snoticed . Although not explicitly stated, the reasons forno tbreast-feedin g were mainly death of themother , illness of themother ,a mothe rwh o didno twan t to take care -108-

HOLLANDIA-VLAARDINGEN HOLLANDIA-VLAARDINGEN (1)sterilize dfull-crea mmil k (2)unsweetene dcondense dmil k

NUTRICIA CONDENSED MILK MILKMAID BRAND *

WISSCONDENSEDHMC. VOLLE •l^ifyTOlilAHD" LOUDON; &CT» « £ E.I--4

I^PORTLORS

(3)sweetene dcondense dmil k (4)full-crea man dbuttermil k

Figure6. 1 Advertisementsfo rtinne dmil kproduct saime da tth eEuropea nconsumer .Th e Hollandiaadvertisemen tshow sth etw omajo rmode so fuse ;a sa drin kfo r youngchildre nan di nte ao rcoffee . Source:1 .Nederlands-Indie ,no.7 ,1930 ,p.4 ;2 .Nederlands-Indie ,no.11 , 1930, p.15;3 .Alg .Landb.W.Bl .Nederlands-Indie ,no.43 ,1925 ,p.1415 ; 4.Alg .Landb.W.Bl .Nederlands-Indie ,no.37 ,1925 ,p.1285 . -109-

Als n koele stroom vol lafenis... Zoo goat figuurlijk gesproken - de Frtesche Vlag-meik over Indie. Versche. koele melk uit HollandI Frisschevoil emel kva nhe t gezonde Friesche vee. U prosit er gewoon- weg de roomIn .E nd e Hollandsche zon en het Hollandsche groen! Hygienisch in blikken komt deze melk over zee naar U toe, om U te brengen: veel van de Hollandsche frischheid,vee lva nd e Hollandsche gezondheid!

Kent V tms« wedstrijd in ket fouten-vothen at? Vraog Uw U- vtrancier am de bij&mderhetUn. • 200&- aanptijzitn. JCh Prifth* Wet efr W ttOut,

GecondenM«rde ongesuikcrde Vollemelk (evaporated) FRIESCHE VLAG

Figure6. 2 Advertisement around 1936fo revaporate d milk,a tinne dmil k used exclusivelyb yEuropea n consumers (bycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) . ofth einfan tan dgav ei tt oa relative,an dsometime sbecaus e thebreas t 24 milk milkwa sno tsufficien t tofee dth einfant . Artificial feedingwa s riskybot h inth ehom ean di nth eplantatio n hospitals.O fth e9 2infant s belowth eag eo f3 month swh odie d inth ehospital so fth eDel i Maatschappij 25 between June192 5an dMa y1927 ,1 6ha dbee nartificiall yfed . Breast-feedingwa suniversall y practised andartificia l feedingb y bottle,usin g tinned milk,wa srare .However ,i ncase swhe n themothe r died, a grandmother ora naun t cared forth einfan tan dfe di tartificially . -110-

Traditionally the caretaker chewed cooked rice and then transferred it carefully to the mouth of the infant. After the arrival of tinned milk, it too was used as an infant food. At the end of the 1920's in the Karo-Batak Plateau of the East Coast of Sumatra, industrial products such as tinned milk, tinned sardines and biscuits could be found in the simple shops of remote kampungs. Likewise in the 1930's on Java tinned milk could be found in the small tokos spread over the island.28

loetnja, atau terlaloe gampang dapat oleh baji, djadi baji itoe djadi malas mengenjoet. Kalau dot diperiksa seperti jang terseboet tadi, dan keda patan soesoe teroes keloear bertetes-tetes, maka dot itoe tidak SOESOE boleh dipakai lagi, haroes teroes diboeang. Pada oemoemnja baiklah sekali pakai dot doea boeah ; satoe jang berlobang ketjil sedikit oentoek 5 menit jang pertama kalau JJAP NONNA" si baji masih koeat merasakan laparnja ; soedah itoe diganti de- ngan dot jang Iobang lebih besar sedikit, soepaja bolehlnh soesoe dihabiskan dengan tidak baji djadi tjape mengenjoet.

Botol-soesoc Nestle. Perloe sekali botol soesoe dipilih dengan saksama dan selaloe haroes bersih. Botol soesoe boeatan Nestle memang sengadja dibikin oentoek mentjoekoepi segala sjarat memberi makan kepada baji. Garr.- pans dan saksama sekali boleh dibersihkan, sebab tidak ada

BOEKOE BOEAT PERDJAGAAN DAN MAKANAN ANAK-ANAK

Botol soesoe dari Nestle @m © Dot keloewaran Nestle Toetoep botol dot DIKELOEARKEN OLEH keloewaran NESTLE & ANGLO-SWISS CONDENSED MILK CO. Nestle

Figure 6.3 A brochure on infant feeding based on sweetened condensed milk aimed at the educated Indonesian mother (by courtesy of CCF, Leeuwarden). -Ill-

SOESOE VICTORIA ja-itoe soesoe (gecondenseerd), dari kaleng, moerah dibelinja, enak dan lezat rasanja. SOESOE VICTORIA Jang patoet bikin anak toean djadi sehat. Mengandoeng bahan-bahan jang perloe boeat badan sehat, seperti garam, vitaminen, protei'ne, goela, gemoek d. s. b. Bikinan Negeri Belanda Paling baik boeat anak-anak.

Dimana sadja bisa dibeli. Imporieur: KIAN GWAN.

Figure6. 4 Advertisement forth eus eo fsweetene d condensedmil k forinfan tfeeding , SinP oNewspaper ,June ,193 6(b ycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) .

^^^^^^P^m *L- acLalah djalan pandjang, tetapi boeat Soesoe entjer „TJAP NONNA" djalan jang aman. Disebabkan oleh teliti dan rapt pembikinannja, saban orang boleh minoem Soesoe entjer „TJAP NONNA" dengan tidak oesah dimasak lebih doeloe. Oleh sebab itoe Soesoe entjer „TJAP NONNA", soesoe jang paling baik, jang dimana-mana toean bisa dapat. Minoemlah saban hari Soesoe Entjer „TJAP NONNA" Simpen ettket darl blilc. boeat dapetken barang- barang persenan jang bagoes dan berfaedahl Mintalah boekoe tantang barang-barang persenan pada NESTLE, Koningsplein Noord 13, Batavia-C.

Figure 6.5 Advertisement forsterilize dmil k indicatingit sus efo radults ,Si nP o Newspaper,June ,193 6(b ycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) . -112-

Thecontinuin gimport so fcondense dmil kcreate dsom econcer namon g healthauthorities .D rW.F .Donat ho fth eHealt hLaborator yi nWeltevreden , Bataviatoo kth einitiativ eo fcarryin gou ta stud yo nth enutritiona lvalu e oftinne dmil kan dmilk-powde r (Chapter7.2) .I na nintroductio nt oth e study,Prof .CD .d eLange no fth eMedica lSchoo la tWeltevrede nsummarize d thevariou saspect so fmil kimport sa sfollows :

"Theimpor to fmil kproduct si sincreasin grapidly .Thi sincreasin g importi sno texclusivel yfo rth ebenefi to fth eEuropea npopulation , butindigenou sgroup sar eals ousin gmor ean dmor emil kfo rth e nutritiono finfant san dchildren .No tleas ti sthi sth ecas ewit hth e illi nth ekampungs .Thos ewh ohav esee nan dlearne dt ous emil ki nth e hospitals,propagat ethi slate ramon gfamil yan dacquaintances . Inparticula rth echeape rcondense dmil kproduct shav efoun dthei rwa y 29 toth epopulation" .

Prof,d eLange nurge dth egovernmen tt oen dfre eimport so finferio rmil k products. Theincreas ei nus eo ffres hmil kb yth eEuropean si nth eyear sbefor e theeconomi ccrisi so f192 9wa sno tdetrimenta lt oth eimpor to fcondense d milk.Thi sbecaus eo fth efac ttha tth eIndonesian san dChines ebega nt ous e thecheape rski mmil kproducts . Ofal lth eimporte dtinne dmil kproducts , :ts, 31 thesweetene done swer ethos eth emos tconsume db yth eloca lpopulation . Howeveri twa sstil lver yexpensive .I n192 9a ti no f40 0c csuc ha s 32 Milkmaido rTja pNorm acoul dcos taroun df 0.5 0i nth ecit yo fBatavia . However,th echeape rsweetene dcondense dski mmil kcontinue dt opou ront o themarket .Th edifferenc ei npric ebetwee nth ewhole-crea man dski mmil k productswa senormous .I n193 7i nBatavi aa ti no fcondense dsweetene dmil k (300cc )cos taroun df 0.3 5whil ea ti no fski mmil kwa sf 0.13 ,whic hmean t adifferenc eo f2 2cent s(Se eTabl e6.3) . Ina househol dbudge tsurve y carriedou ti n193 7amon glabourer so fth eBatavi amunicipality ,77 %ha da 33 dailywag eo ff 0.30 . Thepric eo fa ti no fsweetene dcondense dmil kwa s moretha nthi sminimu mdail ywag e (105%),whil eth eski mmil kproduct scos t lesstha nhal f (39%).Thi swa so fcours estil lhig hbu tnevertheles swithi n reacho fth ebetter-of fIndonesian san dChinese .I nth ecooli ehousehol d budgetsurvey ,expenditur eo nprepare dric ean ddelicacie s (jajan)hav ebee n groupedtogether .Thi sinclude sth eprepare dfood sthes ewag eearner sbough t duringthei rlunc hhour .Als oinclude di nth eite mdelicacie sar eoutlay s -113-

forcocoa ,tinne dmilk ,prepare d meat,fish ,vegetables ,an dbottle d drinks (lemonade and the like).Worker swit h adail ywag eo f f0.3 0 spento na monthly basis,f 0.1 3 on ricean d f0.8 9 ondelicacie swhic hma y have included some tinnedmilk .Furthe r iti so f interest tonot e that households lived primarilyo n credit,wit h anaverag eo f 63%o fwage sgoin g to 34 landlordsan dwarung-keeper si npaymen to fdebts . Milk productsha dals ogaine d someacceptanc e forus e inte aan d coffee. Aswit h infant feeding, first sweetened condensed milkwa suse d and later thecheape r skimmilk . Ina reportt oCC F inth eNetherlands ,th e sales representative of Internatio inBatavi a referred toth edua l destination for sweetened condensed milk;a s food for Indonesian and Chinese children,no tonl y infants,and ,particularl y onSumatra ,fo rus e incoffe e 36 and tea. Thewel l knownbran d ofNestl eTja pNonn a stilldominate d all markets.Th e reportmentione d that some successha dbee nmad ewit h skimmil k destined exclusively for the Indonesians for coffee or teaa swel l as for thepreparatio n ofpudding san d icecreams . In the towno fPalemban go nSumatra ,sweetene d condensedmil k found its way to thebigge r and smaller restaurantswher e itwa suse d incoffe e or tea.Th e clients ofth ebigge r restaurantswer eChines e traders,Indonesia n taxi drivers,an d thosewit h some incomewh ower e ina positio n todrin k coffeeo r tea several timesa day .Th emor eeducate d Indonesians,trader s and office clerksdi dno tvisi t these restaurants,bu t took their foodan d drinksa thome .Ski mmil kwa s largelyuse d for themakin g of ice creamsan d the rest for coffee or tea in small restaurants.

"Thevisitor s consist ofChines e and Indonesian coolies;i nan y case the lowestan dpoores t classo fth epopulation .I ti sou to f the question that thesepeopl e can readnewspapers .However ,the yar e generallyver ywel l aware of thedifferen tbrand s onth emarke t and theirprices .Amon g themselves there ismuc hdiscussio n about food and drinks".37

A smallpar to f the skimmil k used inth ehousehol dwa s for the 38 preparationo fkwe-kw e and sometimes forus e inte ao rcoffee .I n1937 , Hughes, theexpor tmanage r forCC Fgav e avivi ddescriptio n ofa coffee shop.39 -114-

"Palembangi sa tow nwit hon ecoffe esho pafte rth eother ,an dbehin d thecounte ro fth eshop sth echeape rbrands ... .I hav eonc echecke d howth ecoffe esho poperates .Th ecoffe ei spoure dint oa cu pan dwit h a skillfulgestur ea scoo po fmil ki sthrow nint oi tb ymean so fth e well-knownChines espoo no fstone .Thi sexplain swh yth ecoffe eshop s ofPalemban gnee dt ohav ea thic kkin do fmilk .Whe nh e (thecoffe e shopkeeper)ha sa thi nkin do fmilk ,i twil lru nto ofas tfro mth e spoons oh ei soblige dt oad dsom emore .I hav ecalculate dtha tth ema n getsa tmos ttw oscoop sfro ma ti no f1 4oz .I nmos to fth ecoffe e shopssuc ha cu po fcoffe ecost s5 cents ,o fwhic hth emil kwil lcos t him2. 5cents .Th eaverag ecoffe esho puse s3 t o4 crate sa months , thebigge rone seve n1 0o rmore .Peopl ear ever ymuc hattache dt oth e brandTeapot" .

Table6. 3 Priceo fmil kproduct san dfres hmil ki ncent si nBatavi ai n1937/38 . milkproduc t amount price* sweetenedcondense d 1ti n f0.1 3 skimmil k 300c c 397g sweetenedcondense dmil k 1ti n f0.3 5 310c c 397g evaporatedmil k 1ti n f0.2 0 410c c 454g freshco wmil k 1litr e f0.2 5

Source:base do nDonath ,1938 ,p.1259 . * Ina househol dbudge tsurve ycarrie dou ti n193 7amon glabourer so fth e Bataviamunicipalit ysevent yseve npercen tha da dail yhousehol d expenditureo ff 0.3 0 (VanLaanen ,1979 ,p .138 )

Likewiseman ycoffe eshop scoul db efoun di nth ecoasta lplace so f Kalimantan,particularl yi nth ePontiana k region.Th eturnove ro fsweetene d 41 condensedmil kwa shighe ri nth ecoffe eshop stha ni nth ewarungs . OnJav a however,ther ewer efewe rcoffe eshop san dth epopulatio nalmos texclusivel y 42 drankblac kcoffee . -115-

Milk also found itswa y toth e Indonesian consumer bymean so f ice lolliesan d icecream . Inthi s formhowever ,th econsumer shardl y realized thatmil k wasa majo r component.Th emakin g of icecrea m inth e tropicswa s of course connectedwit h thedevelopmen t of icemakin gmachines .I t is likely that icecrea mwa salread ybein gmad e after 1846whe n forth e first 43 timenatura l icewa s imported fromth eUnite d States. At theen d of the 1870'sic e factoriescoul db e found inth emajo r Javanese towns.Ic ewate r became apopula r drink amongEuropeans ,an d Indonesians living inan d around the townsals obega n toappreciat e it.I nactua l fact it replaced thewate r 44 coming fromth e traditional cooling jars. Inthi speriod , for thoseo f the Indonesianswh ocoul d afford it,ic ecrea m found someacceptance .However , until around 1935,th emos tpopula r form inwhic h thepopulatio n consumed icewa s tobu y fromth e tukang-es,fo rth epric eo f 1cent ,a glas s filled 45 with grated iceo nwhic h akin d of syrupwa s added. Thiswa s gradually replaced byanothe rproduct ,th e icelolly .Thi swa sa mixtur e ofwate r and sweetened condensed milk,an d inorde r tomak e itmor eattractive ,a colouringwa sadded .Th emixture swer epu t into tubeso fglas so rmeta l togetherwit h abambo o stick,an dwer e frozen.Th e ice lollieswer emad e by small enterpriseswit h adail yproductio n of 3-5000.The ywer epacke d in 46 large tinsan d soldb yvendor s inth ekampung s for 1cen teach . Ina large town sucha sSurabaya ,beside s amoder n icecrea m factory, some fifteen small enterprises couldb e foundwit ha productio n capacity eacho f 3500 47 lolliesa day . The total consumption of ice lollies for Surabayawa s estimated at 10000 0a day . Icecrea 48 m remained expensive (5cent s fora scoop)an dwa sconsume d onlyb y theEuropean san d thebetter-of f Chinese and 49 Indonesians in "icepalaces "o r from ice creambarrows . Inorde r to reduce the costso f ice creammakin g and icelollies ,sweetene d condensed milk was used insteado f freshmilk .

Insom e instancesmil k productswer eutilize d asa medicine .Thi swa s so inth eChines e communitieswher e sterilized milkwa spopula r for this purpose (seee.g . Figure6.5) .I na report from Internatio itwa s mentioned that sterilized milkwa suse d asmedicin e byol d and sickly Indonesians and 51 Chinese, thebran dMilkmai d (Nestle)bein gwell-known . Chinese attributed toMilkmai d thepropert y ofa purg ewhil e Indonesiansgav e itothe r miraculousproperties .Chines ean d sometimesals o Indonesians kept 52 sterilizedmil k in theirhome sa sa nOba t (ahousehol d medicine). Whatwa s theleve lo f consumption of thedifferen t kindso f tinnedmil k -116-

by the Indonesianpopulation ?Th e availabledat aar e limited. From192 8 onwards theStatistica lOffic e collected data forJav aan dMadur a and the outer provinceso n the importso f sweetened condensedmilk ,evaporate dmilk , sterilized milk and othermil k products.Th e figures showa n increase inth e total importso f tinnedmil kunti l 1930,the na decline ,bu tafte r 1933,a steady increase.I n193 8mor e tinnedmil kwa s imported thateve r before (Table 6.4).A t the same time therewa sa shiftawa y fromth emor e expensive sweetened condensedmil k toth echeape r sweetened condensed skimmil k (Figure 6.6).I n192 8 theshar eo f sweetened condensed skimmil kwa s15.2 % of the total tinnedmil k import;b y 1938 itha d increased to 47.8%. The importo f this skimmil k product rose from 2.1 millionk g in192 9 toa 8.1 million in193 8 (Table6.4) . Theeconomi c crisiso f 1929als odeepl yaffecte d theeconom yo f the Netherlands Indies.I tcause d adeclin eo f incomean d eventh e totalmone y circulationdeclined .Henc ea deman d for thecheape r sweetened condensed skimmil k isno t surprising.Accordin g tod eHaas , thepric e of sweetened condensed skimmil k in193 5droppe d toabou t 1/3 of thepric eprevailin g in 1928. DeHaa swoul dhav ewelcome d sucha pric edeclin e forothe r kindso f tinnedmil k products,bu tno t fora n inferior one.A sa paediatricia n hewa s concernedwit h theproble mo f "ignorant"peopl ewh ower e induced intobuyin g a skimmil k producto naccoun to f itslo wprice ,unde r the impression that itwa sa chea pmilk ,whil e in reality itwa smor e like sugaredwater .A s far as regional distribution isconcerned ,o fal l tinnedmil k imported, 36%wa s destined forJav aan dMadura . Inth ebeginnin g of theeconomi c depression this rose tomor e than 40%.Althoug h 68.7%o f the totalpopulatio nwa s living inJav a andMadur a (and80 %o f theEuropea n population), 64%o fth e 54 tinnedmil kwen t toth eoute rprovinces . Thishig hproportio n of imported tinnedmil k products toth eoute rprovince s cannotonl yb eexplaine d by the presence of Europeans there andb ya n inadequate supplyo f freshmilk . Sumatra,an d inparticula r theeas t coastwit h itsplantation san d smallholder cultivationo f cash crops,wa sa majo r importer of food. Estate labourersan d smallholderswer ever ydependen t ona mone y economy for their food supplies.The ywer euse d tohavin g tobu y foodan d they formed parto f a rapidly changing society.Thi s societywa sver ydiversifie d andwa smad e up ofJavanese ,Chinese ,Indian san dEuropean s aswel l asth e local population. As a resultpeopl ewer econfr confronteo dwit hne w ideasan d commoditiesan d had a littlemone y tospend . -117-

From theavailabl edat ao n imports iti sno tpossibl e toconclud e how much tinnedmil kwa suse db y the Indonesianpopulation . Ihav e already concluded thato fal lkind so f tinnedmilk , Indonesians consumed sweetened condensedmil k especially sweetened condensed skimmilk .O naverage ,70 %o f the sweetened condensedmil kwa s imported intoth eles spopulate d outer provinces (Table6.5) .Thi sma y suggestEuropea n clientele,a s freshmil k was scarce.O nJava ,compare dwit h theoute r provinces,dair y farming lessened thenee d amongEuropean s fortinne dmilk .O nth eothe r hand,mor e skimmil k than full-creammil kwa s imported intoJava .Thi sma y indicate that skimmil kwa s indeman d by Indonesians.I tconfirm s the reportsb y nutritionists andhealt hpersonne l onth e increasingus e of skimmil k by the Indonesians.A report in193 0state d thatabou t75 %o f the imported condensed milkwa suse db y Indonesians andChinese . Thisestimatio n isprobabl y toohigh .Lookin g atth eavailabilit y of tinnedmil kpe r caputa yea r for the totalpopulatio n of the Indies in193 0 thiswa s 0.249k gan d in193 8aroun d 0.262kg . As fara s the consumption of fresh cowmil k isconcerned , theavailabilit ype r caputa yea rwa s0.44 8 litrean d around 0.455litr e in193 5an d 1938 respectively.Takin g into account thatmos to f the fresh cowmil kwa s consumedb yEuropeans ,th epe r caputavailabilit y forth eEuropea ncommunit y in193 8ma yb eestimate d of 124litr eo r 0.340litr epe r caputa day . In1936/3 8 inth eNetherlands ,th e CO availability ofmil k per caputa da ywa sa shig ha s0.45 0litre .

Hardlyan y food consumptiondat a areavailabl e onth eus e of tinnedmil k by the Indonesianpopulation . Initiatedb yJ.J . Ochsean dG.J.A .Terr a of theHorticultur e Service (Tuinbouwkundige Dienst)o f theDepartmen t of EconomicAffairs ,a startwa smad ewit h food consumption studies.Th e first surveybega n in193 1 inKutowinangun , inth eRegenc yo fKebumen . Itwa s found thatamon g the ruralpopulatio n the totalvalu e of food consumed was less than 3cent spe rperso na day ,selametan san dal l sortso f snacksan d in-betweenmeal s included.Th e findingso fth e studygav en o reason for unqualified optimism, themargi nbetwee n incomean d expenditure for food 59 beingver y small. Donathwh odi dwor k on theanalysi so f the nutritional value of the food consumed,mad e some commento nmil k products and the Indonesian population.Durin g theperio d of the surveyn ous e ofmil k was found.Donat hmentione d that inth e towns,th e cheaper sweetened condensed skimmil kwa suse d by the indigenous societyno tonl y for infantan d child feeding,bu tals odurin g thecar eo f the ill.Th eus eo f tinnedmil kwa s -118-

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A; £> lO 4-1 ID -H o r^ CrO~ 4J ro ro us 10 4-1 co 0) 00 <-H in T) CM co o o CO ID u m •^ lO ro O o > u 00 CO 00 CM CM r^ o 4-1 «3

(0 C8 l-i w 4-c1 T3 ai a> ai u w ui c C c 0) (U o •a •8 "8 •a o o 0) u u TD T) •a TJ 0) u •H CD 4-) 4J O 4J O in

Figure 6.6 Import of tinned milk to the Netherlands-Indies in 1000 kg, 1928-1938.

sweetened condensed milk sweetened condensed skim milk evaporated milk

As.

Source:base do nCentraa l Kantoorvoo rd eStatistiek , 1928/'38.

muchmor eextensiv e thanwa sgenerall y thoughtt ob eth ecase .Further ,i t wasmentione d thati nth edistan t pastmil kha dalread ybee nuse db y"son s of thiscountry" , referringt oth eJavanes epoem ,th eNiticastra . Inth e1930's , several food consumption surveyswer e carriedou ti nrura l areasbu tmil k productshoweve rwer eno trecorded . Theus eo fthes emus t havebee n confined largelyt oth ecities .I nth eBatavi a expenditure survey, milkwa sliste da sa nitem .Durin ga sessio no fth eVolksraa d in194 0o nth e questiono fsweetene d condensed skimmilk ,a governmen t representative quoteda nunpublishe d reportprepare db yth ephysicia nMari aJ .Otten-va n Stockum. According tothi s reporta naverag eo f2.9 %o finfant si nth e -121-

townkampung swer e artificially fed.O fal l infants,0.24 % received sweetened condensed skimmil k instead ofbreas tmilk .

6.4 Howt o reach Indonesian consumers

Howdi dmil k products reachth e Indonesianpopulation ?Thi shappene d through those Indonesianswh oha d close contactwit hEuropeans ;suc ha s those employedb yth e colonialgovernmen t andprivat e industry,thos e employed inoffic ewor k and/orhavin g received some formo f school education.A swa smentione dbefore ,th ebetter-of f Indonesiansan d Chinese were the first tous emil kproducts ,an dwer e later followedb y someo f the lesswell-to-do .Th e spreado f someEuropea nhabit san d commoditiesan d theirgradua lacceptanc eb yth e Indonesiansmanifeste d itself firsti nth e towns. As inmos to fpresen tThir dWorl d countriestown sar e theplace swher e the legacyo f thecolonia lpas tan d the indigenouscultur emee t each other. Althoughurbanizatio nwa s lesstha ntha t inMalay aan dSingapore , and also rather lesstha ni nth ePhilippine swit h itsprimat e cityo f Manila,Javanes eurba ndevelopmen t inth econtex to foveral l economic growth was certainlyno t inconsiderable.I n193 0th eurba npopulatio no fJav a and 64 Madura amounted to8.9 % ofth e totalpopulation . Insearc h forcentre so f effective administration and trade,colonia lpower sestablishe d themselves inalread yexistin g settlementso r foundedne wones . Inth eNetherland s Indiesthes ewer e considereda t thebeginnin g of thiscentur ya s "western enclaves",wit hEuropea nburgomaster san dmunicipa l councilswit ha European preponderance. Comparedwit hBritis h India for instance,wher e from 1872 onward, regionalan d towncouncil swer e created,decentralisatio nan d the creationo f representative councils inth eNetherland s Indieswa s a rather latephenomenon . Inaccordanc ewit h thedecentralisatio n lawo f 1903,thre e townshipso nJav aacquire dmunicipalit y statusi n190 5an d in1906 ,twelv e others followed. In190 7an d 1908eleve no f the twentyResidencie so nJav a were given their own regionalcouncils . Themunicipa l councils,usuall ybase do nth eDutc hmodel ,wer e authorized toadministe r the town.Thi s included constructionan dmaintenanc e ofroads , provision ofa safewate r supplyan d sewerage,an d the runningo f slaughter housesan dmarke tplaces .Car e forth e spiritualan dmateria l interest of the Indonesianmasse s inth etow nwa sa nare ahardl y touchedb y the fi7 municipal council. Themajorit yo fEuropean sa swel l as foreignoriental s -122-

fift like the Chinese and Arabs, lived in the towns. Nevertheless, Europeans made up not more than 10% of the population, Bandung, with 12%,bein g the only exception. Itwa s in the towns that a new modern Indonesian elite gradually developed; intellectuals and a middle class. Commodities from overseas including food stuffs were imported by the towns for local consumption and also for further distribution to the interior. In the towns, and of course particularly in the capital city of Batavia, offices of trading companies and major stores could be found. With the further growth of the towns at the end of the 19th century, expansion took place along the main roads leading to the rural areas, resulting in a ribbon development. Rural kampungs became absorbed into the towns. Along the main roads Chinese traders established their tokos and Indonesians their small warungs. Because of their favourable situation, the junctions were much preferred as sites by the Chinese toko keepers. Likewise the pasar or market, and to a lesser 70 extent, street vendors became sales outlets for imported commodities.

Who were the Western-educated Indonesians who formed the modern middle class and elite? Within the framework of the ethical policy, after 1900 a modest start was made in the field of education. Originally education was viewed by the government as a means for westernization and assimilation. After the 1920's, a more conservative view dominated; western education for the Indonesians should depend in the first place on the needs of the 71 government and private sector for western-trained personnel. In 1907 the desa school or Volksschool was created, offering a period of three years of primary schooling with the local language as medium of instruction. The Volksschool was meant for the benefit of the masses. In 1940, about one-third or two million of children of school age attended these schools. It should be realized however, that only a minimum of teaching was considered necessary. Of more importance were the Dutch-Indonesian (1915) and Dutch-Chinese schools. Here the language of instruction was Dutch. These schools offered a modern education and laid the foundation for a small but well-trained new elite. From here young people could continue with secondary school education. In 1920 a start was made with training at university level with the creation of a Technical Faculty in Bandung, followed by a Law Faculty 72 (1924), and a Medical Faculty (1927), both at Weltevreden in Batavia. -123-

Indonesian familieswer ever y interested inthes ene weducationa l possibilities for their children.The ydi dno tcom eonl y from thepriyay i group,bu tals o from lessprominen t families.Man yha d tomak e great sacrifices sotha t their childrencoul d study.

Whatwa s theeffec to fwester neducatio no nth e social structure?Dumas y (1980)wh o is rather sceptical of thegoo d intentionso f theNetherland s Indieseducationa l policyha scom e toth e followingconclusions . (1)A tvillag e level,th e traditional authority structurewa seroded .Th e schoolteacher emergednex t toparent sa sa ne wauthority . Eventh e village religiousofficial swer ehurt .Fo r instance,i nth e19t h century these officialsha dbee nemploye db y thegovernmen t asvaccinators , while inth e 20thcentur y this rolewa s takenove rb y the schoolteacher. Likewiseeducatio n forgirls ,althoug hmodest ,cause d changes inoutloo k on thepositio no fwomen . (2)Th edifferen t formso fhighe r education createdmor e radicalchanges . School leaversgraduall y formed ane welite ,no tbase d primarily on descent orbirt h liketh epriyayi ,bu ta clas so fmodern-traine d people 73 based on individualachievements . Thenumbe r of Indonesians enrolled inschool sgivin ga wester n education grew froma 3000i n 1904/05t o5 400 0 in1920/2 4an d to10 0 000 in 1940.74 Itwa sno teas y for thewestern-educate d Indonesians toge t suitable jobsa s theywer e subject todiscriminatio n infavou r of theDutch .Fe w Indonesians were ina positio n toge ta pos t inth ecivi l service higher thanth e rank ofa clerk. It is interesting tonot e thata sa reaction toth eDutc h administration and thedevelopmen t ofa nationa l consciousness,variou s Islamican d nationalistic groupscreate d their ownfor mo f formaleducation . Thewestern-educatio ndi dno t result inth ecreatio n ofa groupo fmoder n Indonesianentrepreneurs .A government surveycarrie d out in1928-192 9 in urbanarea s showed that less than2 %o fth ewestern-educate d Indonesians were self-employed and over 83%worke d forwage swit h theNetherland s Indies government and toa lesser extentwit hDutc h andothe rwester n 75 enterprises. As far as thepurchasin gpowe rwa s concerned, in193 9 thenumbe r of Indonesianswit ha yearl y incomeo fbetwee n f20 0an d f900 ,wa s 56200 0 76 and thosewit ha yearl y incomeabov e f900 ,3 6 000. Of atota l population withmor e than 59million ,i ti sa relative smallnumbe r but for themoder n westernan do f courseJapanes e industry,stil la n interestingmarket .I n -124-

1937mos t labourers inth eBatavi amunicipalit y had ahousehol d expenditure 77 of f123. -a year . The economic and educational expansiono f theDutc h after 1900 resulted ina n increase inth ecirculatio n ofmone yal love r the archipelago. Itopene du ppossibilitie s formarketin g and for the exchange of goodsa ta longerdistanc ewit ha greate r varietyo fproduct s tob e 78 bought and soldb yIndonesians . The spreado f tinnedmil k inth e Indonesian society tookplac e through twomai nchang eagencies . (1)Throug hhospital san d clinicsusin gmil k andmil k products for infant feeding andmedica lcare ; (2)Throug h themarketin g activitieso f theagencie san d sales offices of thecondense d milk industryo fWester nEurope ,Nort hAmeric a and alsoo fnearb yAustralia .

6.5 ChildCar eCentre san dMil k Kitchens

Medical care inth eNetherland s Indies forth e indigenouspopulatio nwa s for a long time restricted toeffort s toeradicat e endemicdisease s sucha s smallpox ,malaria ,framboesi aan d lepra.I nth eearl y 1920'sa change took placean d thepubli chealt h servicebega n topa yattentio n tomaterna l and childhealt h care (Figure 6.7 and 6.8).Infan tmortalit ywa sver yhigh .D e Haas refers toa figure of round 300%o for 1936.I nurba n environments infantmortalit ywithi n the first sixmonth swa s 3.3 timesa shig ha si nth e 79 second sixmonth so f life. Another estimation shows thato fal lt hinfant s 80 bornalive ,50 %die dbefor e reaching theag eo ffive . The socio-medical interest inmothe r and child care firstoccurre d inth e townso fJava .Somewha t later,medica l authorities and themanagemen t of the estate companies inEas tSumatr a showed interest in itfo r the familieso f theplantatio nworkers . This isno t surprising as inth e 19th century modernhospital swer e setu p inth e firstplac e tomee tth eneed so f Europeans,usuall y inth emajo rplace s of European residence. On theothe r hand, itwa s themissionaries ,wh owhil eworkin gwit h thepopulation ,becam e concernedwit hhealt hproblems .Throug hmedica lmissions ,effort swer emad e toprovid emoder nmedica l care forth epopulatio na t least inth e areas 83 covered by themissio nsocieties . Hygienic centresan d child care centres (consultatiebureaux )wer e setu p inmajo r townso nJava .Althoug h thesemad equit e an impressive start,th e majority of thepopulatio nwa s stillno tbein g reachedb ymoder n medical -125-

Figure6. 7 Weighingo finfant si na Hygieni cCentr e(Nationaa lRapport ,1937) .

Figure 6.8 Ademonstratio nbarro wo fth eDepartmen to fPubli cHealt h(Nationaa l Rapport,1937) . -126-

care. In193 6 inBatavia ,a cityo faroun d 75000 0 inhabitants,nearl y two-thirdso f theconfinement s tookplac eunde r theguidanc eo fa midwife . Buta t the same time the Indonesianpopulatio n showed great interest inth e child care centres.Educatio nwa sprovide d formother s inth e field of infant feeding andhealth .Th e importance ofbreast-feedin gwhich ,i n contrast toEuropea nwomen ,wa suniversall ypractised ,wa s always 84 emphasized. InBatavia ,th e largestcit yo fth earchipelago ,abou tag90 o% o f 85 Indonesian infantswer ebreast-fe ddurin g their firstyear . Inth e towno f Semarang,Otten-va n Stockumestimate d that 4-5%o f the infants receivedartificia l feeding,whil e in ruralarea sthi sma yhav e been 86 as lowa s 2%. A major problemhoweve r remained.Wha t shouldb edon e ifbreast-feedin g failedo r ifth emothe r died?Wet-nursin g proved tob e adifficul t alternative asman ywome ndislike d taking careo fanothe r infant insuc h a way. Instead, infant foodslik egruel so rporridge s ofmashe d ricean d bananawer e given.Problem so fhygien ean d insufficientprotein smean t that the chanceo f survivalwa s low.I nvie wo f this,hospital san d later on the child carecentre sbega n feeding infantso nmil kproduct sand ,i favailable , sometimes alsoo n freshmilk .Apar t froma medicall y feltnee d tostar twit h milk feeding,ther ewa sals oanothe r factor involved. For theEuropeans , especially theDutch ,mil k andmil k productswer e considered as essential foods for infantsan dyoun g children.I nth evariou s studiesan d reportso n dairying andmil k inth e tropics,writer softe nexpresse d regret thatmil k wasno ta common foodamon g theIndonesia npopulatio n and that the possibilities forwell-develope d localdair y farmingwer e limited. Inthi scontex t it isno t surprising thatEuropea nphysicians ,confronte d withproblem so fbreast-feeding , followed theexampl eo f theconsultati e bureaux inth eNetherland sb ymakin gus eo fmil k carefullyprepare d inth e Melkkeukenso rmil k kitchens.A s inth eNetherland spriorit ywa s given to breast-feeding. By theen d ofyea r 1910 somemil k foodwa sbein ggive n to infants inth ecit ykampung so fBatavia .

"Moreover,mil kwa sprovide d freeo f chargeb y thepubli c health service incas e themother swer eno t themselvesabl e togiv e children thebreast .A s thechildre n receive freemil k for7 o r 8month s this could,o naccoun t of theexpense ,onl yb egive n toa limited number.M y efforts to inducemother s tofetc hthei rmil k fromth enativ e maternity hospital -Bud i Kemuliaan- whic hha slatel ybee n founded,agains ta -127-

paymento fonl y 15t o2 0cent spe rday ,hav e sofa r failed.Som edi d notwan t tospen don e cent for it,other sagai ndi d itfo ron eweek , 87 but inth elon g runfoun d thedistanc e toofar" .

Needless to sayth eautho r ofth e report completelyunderestimate d fully the lowpurchasin g powero f themothe r tobu ymil k foodo na regularbasis .

Ingeneral ,sweetene d condensedmil kdilute dwit hwate rwa suse d for infant feeding.Whe naroun d 1918 theevaporate dan d thusunsweetene dmil k appeared on themarke t inth eNetherland s Indies somephysician sbega n to 88 use it. Whendilute dwit h 2part so fwater ,i tcam eclos e toth evalu eo f fresh cowmilk .Mil khoweve r isa difficul tproduc t tous eunde r tropical conditionsa s itdeteriorate squickl ywhe n itca nno tb ekep t ina refrigerator or icebox .I norde r toovercom e theseproblems ,som e physiciansbega n tous ebuttermil k andparticularl y sourmilk .Thi swa sdon e inaccordanc ewit h the foodhabit s insom epart so f theNetherland swher e 89 buttermilkwa suse d for infant feeding. Buttermilk,whic h isth eaci d by-product fromth e churningo f sour cream intobutters ,i smuc hmor e easily digestedb yyoun g infantstha n ismilk .Fo ra long time the reasonswer e thought tob e found inth eworkin g of thelacti caci dbacteria ,th e fine flocculated caseino r thelo wfa tcontent .I n192 3 theAmerica nMallio t showed that thedigestibilit y ofmil kwa s related toth ep Ho f thestomach . Ina ho tan dhumi d tropicalclimat ebuttermil k and souredmilk shav e the greatadvantag e that theyca nb ekep t forabou t 24hours .However ,th ever y limited scaleo nwhic hbutte rwa sprepare d inth eNetherland s Indiesmean t that freshbuttermil kwa s scarcean dver yexpensive ,s oonl y sourmil k could beused . For infant feeding therewer e twooption sopen. (1)t outiliz e the imported condensed buttermilk ofNutrici a (seeFigur e 6.1 (4))o rbuttermil k powder (Eledono fNestle) . Thiswa showeve r a rather expensivewa y tofee da largenumbe r ofinfants . (2)t omak e a sourmil k product fromlocall yavailabl emateria l (locally produced freshmilk ,importe d evaporatedmilk ,milk-powder) . A disadvantage,however ,o fbuttermil k istha twit h theproces so f churning, mucho f the fat is removed and consequently also the fatsolubl evitamin s A andD . The traditionally preparedbuttermil k istherefor e less suitable as 90 an infant food. Insou rmil k however,th evitami nA andD level canb e muchbette rmaintaine d as thisproduc tca nb eprepare d fromvariou s combinationso f full-creammil kwit hpartialy l skimmed and skimmilk . -128-

DelBaer ean d Straubwer e the first tointroduc e sourmil k for infant feeding inDeli ,o n theEas tCoas to f Sumatra,i nth e late 1920's. This examplewa s followedb yd eHaa s in193 0 inth eBata k hospital in 91 Kabanjahe. Themil k kitchenso f theclini co f themedica l school inWeltevrede n under theguidanc e and supervisiono fD rd eHaa swer ewel l known.I twa sD r deHaa swh o introduced sourmil k feedingo na large scale,whe n facedwit h 92 theproble m ofho wt obrin g itt oinfant so fpoo r families. Preparation of milk athom e for infant feedingwa s impossible invie wo fth epoo r economic andhygieni c circumstances.Anothe r problemwa sho w toinstruc t themother s tous e theexac tquantitie s required. Preparationunde r well-controlled conditions anddistributio n froma centralkitche nwa s theonl y responsible and realistic approach.Th emai n ingredientswer e full-creaman d skim 93 milk-powder, sometimesevaporate dmil k and laterbuttermil k powder. Fresh milkwa suse d lessbecaus e of itshig hpric e andpoo rquality .

Inth edistributio n of sourmil k therewa sa shift from full-cream to half full-cream sourmilk ,probabl ybecaus e of thenee d toeconomize .Th e milkwa s souredwit h lacticacid ,citri cacid ,wit h lemono rorang ejuice . Then itwa s carefullypu t intocleane d bottleswit h a lightning stopper. From thecentra lmil k kitchen thebottle swer e transported byva n toth e different Consultatie Bureaux inth ecity .Ther e thebottle swer e handed out with thenecessar y instructions toth emother .Empt ybottle sha d tob e returned and then sentbac k toth emil k kitchen forcleanin g and re-use.Th e milk kitchenwa sno t financed fromth e regularbudge to f theMedica l School andno tal l staffmember swer e convinced of the importance of infantcar e in 94 viewo fothe r healthproblems . The costso f the sourmil k and of the personnel of themil k kitchenha d tob e coveredb y feespai db y better-off customers.Th epoore rmothe r paid a symbolicprice . According tod e Haas, inthos e areaso f Indonesiawher e sourmil k or Susu asamwa sdistributed , itwa saccepte d bothb y themothe r and infant.A s far as theexten t of sourmil k distribution isconcerned ,th e following estimationshav ebee nmad e forBatavi a at theen do f the 1930's.Ou to fth e 20 000 infantsbor neac hyear ,abou t 3000wer e coveredb yth e Consultatie Bureaux.O nmedica l indicationsmor e than 500infant s (or16.6 %o f the infants covered) receivedwhol e orpartia l sourmil k feeding from themil k 95 kitchen. Generally speaking an infant received 750-800 cco f sourmil k a day (Table6.6) . -129-

Table6. 6 Kindso fsou rmil kdistribute dfro mth emil kkitchen ,Medica lSchoo l inWeltevreden ,t oth eConsultati eBureau xo fBatavia .

partialskimme d full-cream sourmil k sourmil k perlitr e energy 705ca l 700ca l fat 1.5% 2.5% protein 3.4% 2.3% lactose 3.8% 3.3% lacticaci d 0.6% 0.6% ash 0.7% 0.5% water 83.5% 84.8% sugar 5.0% 4.5% flour 1.5% 1.5%

VitaminsA ,D an dC wer eadde db ymean so fco dlive roi lan dascorbi cacid . Source:d eHaa san dMeulemans ,1940 ,p.64 ,69 .

Oneo fth eConsultati eBureau xdistributin gsou rmil kfro mth eMedica l School'smilk-kitche nbelonge dt oth ehygieni ccentr eo fTanah-Tinggi . Thiswa ssituate di nth eeaster nsectio no fcentra lBatavia ,i nth eSene n sub-districto fWeltevreden .Th etow nquarte rha dabou t2 500 0inhabitant s andth emos teasterl ypar tstil lha da fairl yrura lcharacter . Onth e 97 wholehowever ,i twa sa densel ypopulate dare awit hovercrowde dhousin gan d 98 infantmortalit ya shig ha s310.2% ofo rth eyear s1938/40 . Thesou rmil k washande dou tunde rsupervisio nt omother so feligibl einfant slivin gi n thearea .Dependin go nth elivin gcircumstance so fth emothe rthi swa sdon e atcos tprice ,o ra tgreatl yreduce dprice so reve nfo rnothing .Thos e eligiblefo rsou rmil kwer eth einfant swh ower eno tbein gbreast-fed ,o r forwho mbreast-feedin gwa sinsufficien tbecaus eo fth eillnes so fth e mothers.A financia lcontributio nfro ma provincia lcharit ycommitte emad e 99 thispossible . Informationo nth eus eo fmil kan dmil kproduct sa spar to finfan tcar e inothe rarea si sscanty .A sI hav ealread ysaid ,i nth emajo rtown so fJav a hygienican dchil dcar ecentre sha dbee nse tu pfro mth e1920' sonward san d latermedica lauthoritie san dth emanagemen to fth eestat ecompanie sshowe d interesti nth efamilie so fth eestat eworkers . Inmos to fthes e institutionsgenerall yspeakin gmil kwa suse do nmedica lindications . It wasno tonl yuse di nhospitals ,polyclinic san dth eConsultati eBureau xfo r infantfeedin ga ssuch ,bu tlikewis efo rth etreatmen to fcase swit h -130-

xerophthalmia.A n official reportprepare d by thePubli cHealt hServic e in 1937 said thatxerophthalmia ,keratomalaci aan dnightblindnes swer e tob e found inman yplace s inth earchipelago .Researc h onvitami nA levels in blood andurin e indicated these levelswer e low.I ti sno tunlikel y that 102 hypovitaminosisA alsooccurre dver y frequently.

Xerophthalmia occursmos tcommonl y inyoun g childrenan d is frequently associatedwit hprotein-energ ymalnutrition . In193 8 thephysicia n Otten-van Stockumwrot e thatxerophthalmi a ispracticall y alwaysassociate dwit h a more or less seriousdegre eo fmalnutrition .Sh ementione d thata large number ofyoun g children suffering fromvitami nA deficienywer e artificially fed.Sh ewa so f theopinio n that itwa swishfu l thinking to hope thata nadequat enutritio nwoul db ewithi nth e financial reacho f the population inth enea r future.Her eonl y guidance andwell-controlle d milk distributionwoul db eo fuse . 103 Various reports indicated that foodscontainin gvitami nA sucha smilk , egg,codlive r oilo r liverwer euse d tocur epatients . Inth eWillia 104 m Boothophthalmi c hospital inSemaran g for instancepatient swer e treated with freshco wmilk ,egg san d liver.I nth e1920' sevaporate dmil k (Viking brand)wa suse d inth ehospital .Th ephysicia nD rWill ewa sver ymuc h in favour ofevaporate d milk as itwa s sterilean d could bemixe dwit h 2part s ofboile dwate r toge ta norma l full-creammilk .Th eGlax oproducts ,h e 105 wrote,wer e alsoexcellen tbu tmor eexpensive . Data collection by themil k kitchens inBatavi a showed that infantsgre w well on the sourmilk . When achil d reached theag e ofone ,o rperhap sa little later, itwa sn o longer eligible fora supply ofsou rmilk . For the poor household, itwa sver ydifficul t to replace the sourmil k by other protein rich foods.I nth eonl yexistin g bureau fortoddler s inBatavia , whichwa sals oconnecte dwit ha consultatie bureau,a relapse inweigh to f the toddlerswa sobserved . Improvement inth enutritio no f toddlers fromth e poor kampung population seems tohav ebee nmor edifficul t than improving the nutrition ofinfants . It isstrikin g thatwhe ndealin gwit hvitami nA deficiency, somuc h emphasiswa splace d onexpensiv e foods sucha smilk ,egg so r liver.Thi swa s probablyno tonl ybecaus eo fa nethnocentri c approach by thephysicians ,bu t wasals odu e toa lack ofknowledg e of Indonesian foodsa spossibl e alternatives.Studie s carried out inEurop e andAmeric a bySteenboc k and othersdiscovere d inth ebeginnin g of the1920' stha ta vitami nA precursor -131-

orprovitami n (carotene)wa swidel ydistribute d inyello w fruitsan d 108 vegetables. Ittoo k sometim ebefor e thisne wknowledg e becamewidesprea d inmedica l circles.Goo d sourceso fvegetabl e origino fvitami nA are paw paw,mango ,yello w sweetpotatoe san ddar k green leafyvegetables . Theextent st owhic h themil k kitchensoperate d created someuneasines s inth e condensed milk industrya s is reflected inthi saccoun twritte n in 1937.

"Attackso n tinnedmil k are carriedou to nJav ab yphysicians .I nal l placeso fan y importance infantclinic s canb e found.Al l these consultatiebureaux ,th eclinics ,th ehospitals ,th e government hospitals,al l these institutionspropagat e freshmil k for infant feeding.Nearl yal l these institutionshav e amil k kitchen.Fo r a few cents the Indonesiansan d Chinese canbu y inth ekitche na small bottle ofmilk . ... Themedica lworl do nJav a isperfectl yorganize d andha s setou tt o reduce themortalit y ratean d considers consultatie bureaux and education of thepopulatio n asTH Emean s for thatpurpose .On e has informedm e that theorganizatio n isstil l in itsinfancy . Inth e bigger placesa norganize d propaganda serviceo fmantri sca nb e found 109 whovisit sth edes a and stimulatepeopl e tovisi t theclinics" .

Summarizing,on ema y conclude thatmil k aspar to f infantcar ewa s practised bymedica l staff inth eNetherland s Indieswhe n breast-feeding failedo rwa s insufficient.Thi shappene d especiallyafte r 1920,whe n the medical authorities started toemphasiz emothe r and child care.Th e importance ofbreast-feedin g asth ebes twa yo f feeding the infantwa s always stressed.A smothe r and child care centresemerge d first inth e towns,mil k feedingwa smainl ya nactivit y inth eurba nan d peri-urban areas. For reasonso f completeness,I woul d like to refer toa schoolmil k feeding programme at theen do f the 1930's insevera lEuropea n primary schools in Indonesia. Itoriginate d outo fa concern for the living conditionso f children frompoo r European families.Fres hmil k or condensed milkwa sdistribute d toth echildre nwit h somebread ,a banan aan d insom e 110 schoolswit h aho tmeal . A schoolmil k committeewa s setu punde r the -132-

responsibility of theDepartmen to fAgriculture .Thi swa sdon eb yC.H.W .va n derVen ,unti l 1935hea dmaste r ofa privat eDutch-Indonesia n school in Pematang Siantar (Sumatra).

6.6 Marketing activitieso fth e condensedmil k industry

TheNetherland s Indieswa sdominate d bya Wester ncapitalis t economic systembase d onplantations ,impor tan dexpor t firms,transpor t companies 112 and after the FirstWorl dWar ,als ob y some industrialenterprises . Nearlyal l these enterpriseswer e runb y theDutc han d other Europeansan d thepositio no f the Indonesianswa s thato flaboure r oroffic e clerk only. For the Indonesians thismean ta nearl y insuperable obstacle to participation asa nentrepreneu r inmoder neconomi c activities.The ywer e limited tothos eactivitie s forwhic h theEuropean s showedn o interest and 113 where somecompetitio n couldb e givent oChines e traders. This reduced the Indonesianentrepreneur s toth epositio no f smallpett y trader or artisan.Trad e above thevillag e levelo nJav aan d inothe rpart so fth e archipelagowa s controlled by theChinese ,an d sometimesals ob yArab s and Indians.A t thebeginnin g of the20t h century theol d established systemo f self subsistance andmutua l assistance of theJavanes e economyha dmad ewa y 114 fora mone yeconomy . Schrieke (1929)wrot e that thetraditiona l mentality was graduallybein gbroke nunde r the influence of theopenin gu po f the country,th e introduction of themonetar y systeman d thecultivatio no f commercial crops.Th e spread of themonetar y systemwa saide d by the necessity forpayin g taxes inmone yan db y the fact thatal lne wneed s createdb y contactwit h theoute rworl d could onlyb e satisfiedwit h 115 money. The importan d exporto f commoditieswa s fullycontrolle d by European firms,whil e thewholesal e and retail tradewa s inth ehand so f the Chinese. Despite theirpredominan tpositio n inth e retail trade onJav a the Chineseha dme t already strong competition from Indonesian tradersan d Indonesian cooperativesbefor e the 1930's.A n example of this isth e Sarekat Pagan Islamo r IslamicTrad eAssociatio n inSol owhic hwa sestablishe d in 1911.117

During theeconomi cdepressio no f the 1930'sJapanes e importers,trader s and tokokeeper smanage d toexclud emuc ho f the imported European commodities sucha scottons ,artificia l silk,furniture ,lamps ,glassware , -133-

pottery,meta lware ,nail san dbicycle s from theloca lmarket .Th e population,stricke nb y theeconomi c crisis,wa so fcours ever y receptive to thelo wprice d Japanese commodities.A n intimate knowledgeo f the local 118 market and thepsycholog yo f itsbuyer sals oplaye d a role. Their approachwa sver y successful.Instea d of leaving retaildistributio n to the Chinese,a s theEuropea n import firmsdid ,the yopene d shopsal love r the 119 country and employed Indonesiansalesmen . The Japanese,a peopl ewit hn otraditio no fmil k usage,eve n sold Japanese-mademil kproduct s inthei r tokos.Howeve r their role inthi s field remained insignificant,probabl ybecaus eo f their limiteddair y industry. It nevertheless created someanxiet yamon gEuropea n condensedmil k 120 manufacturers. In193 3 theDutc hprivat edair y sentt oth eMinistr y of EconomicAffair s inth eHagu e acomplain to nJapanes emil k products for sale inth eNetherland s Indies.Japanes e sterilizedmil k intin so f 14 1/2 ounces (435g )wa s sold instead of theDutc h tinso f 16ounce s (480 g). Moreover the labeldi dno tprovid ean y indication that themil kwa smanufacture d in Japan.Th e textwa sbot h inEnglis han dDutc hwhil e the labelwa sprinte d in the colour of theDutc h flag.Th equestio nwa s askedwhethe r itwoul d be possible tohav e the countryo forigi nprinte d on the label.Howeve r no actiono n thiscoul d be takena s thegovernmen t ofBatavi awa s stillworkin g 121 ona draf t regulationo nlabelling . Moreexcitemen twa s created bya narticl e inth e Indische Couranto f 21-3-1936 reporting onJapanes e tinnedmil k destined for thegarriso na t Malang.Durin ga tender fora food contract for thegarrison ,a Chinese contractor submitted the lowestbid .H ego tth econtrac tan ddelivered , among other things,Japanes e tinnedmilk .Th enewspape rwrot e that itwa s an odd situationwhen ,i nEas tJava ,wit h itssurplu so f freshmilk ,th e 122 military consumed Japanesemilk . Inth eVolksraad , the representative 123 Doeve brought thequestio n toth eattentio no f thegovernment . Inth e meantime privatedairyin g inth eNetherland s approached theMinistr y for the Colonieswit h the request forpreferentia l treatment ofDutc hproducts .I n Batavia thematte rwa s takenu pb y theDepartmen t ofEconomi cAffair s in close consultationwit h the commander of thearme d forces.Th e remaining problemwa stha t inmakin gcondition s forcontract s for suppliest oth e government or toth earme d forces,i twa spracticall y impossible toexclud e brands fromothe r countries.Despit e thisconstrain t the Governor-General informed theMiniste r forth eColonie s inSeptembe r 1936 that certain -134-

preferenceswoul db e given toproduct s fromth eNetherland san dNetherland s Indies.

The importso fmil kproduct swa s and remained inth ehand so f the Europeans,althoug h competition from theUnite d Statesan dAustrali a was strong. Inth e 1880's,th e sweetened condensedmil k of theAnglo-Swis s Company,Mil kMai dwa salmos t theonl ybran d of tinnedmil k available inth e 125 Netherlands Indies. Asalread ydiscussed , itwa s toa largeexten tuse d byEuropea nwome n for infantfeeding .Fro mthei rdepo tsituate d inth e StraitSettlement s inSingapore ,th enewl ymerge dNestl ean dAnglo-Swis s Companydistribute d theirmil k products toth eNetherland s Indies.Thi swa s incontras t toth eDutc h condenserieswit h suchbrand sa sHollandi aan d Aurorawhic hdepende d forthei roversea sexpor to n trading companiesactin g as their salesagents . During theFirs tWorl dWa r the steadily increasing importswer e interrupted bywa r hostilitiesa t sealik eth eunrestricte d submarine warfare,b y exportembargo san d finallyb y the seizureo fDutc hmerchan t shipsb y theAllie s in1918 .Becaus e of shortagesth egovernmen t interfered inth edistributio n andpric e settingo f sweetened condensedmilk . Before theoutbrea k of the FirstWorl dWa r in1914 ,Europea ndair y firms had already increased their effortst oexpor tmor eo f thecheape r sweetened condensed skimmil k toAsia ,s otha ta wide r rangeo f consumerscoul db e reached,especiall y thebette r offgroup swithi n the indigenouspopulation . Inorde r tob eensure d ofa nabundan tmil k supply,Nestl e acquired a substantial interest inth eGala kCondense dMil k Companyo fRotterdam . On behalf ofthi scompany ,Nestl e setu pa skimmil k condensery producing entirely foroversea smarket sespeciall yAsia ,wher e theconsumptio no f skim 127 milk inte aha d rapidly risen. TheGala k skimmil k condensery began operation in1912 .Thi sgav eNestl e thechang e ofalterin g theirpolic yo f givingpreferenc e tofull-crea mmil k productswithou t having toassociat e theirbran d namewit h thecheape r skimmilk .Anothe r advantageo f new factories inothe r countrieswa s that theywer ea wa y toprotec t the company againstpossibl e tradebarrier s likeexcessiv e importdutie san d import quotas. Apart from theNestl e andAnglo-Swis s companywh o operatedwit h their own controlled network, theothe rdair yan d food industriesha d tob e content with the trading firmswh o acted assal eagent so nthei r behalf.Th e imported tinnedmil kwa sdistribute d toth econsumer sb yChines ewholesal e -135-

dealers througha nextensiv e network ofmainl yChines e retailtraders . Advertisementswer eplace d innewspaper san do nposter sb y thevariou s 128 companies. Someattentio nwa sgive na s toho wt oapproac h theilliterate . inth eNetherland s andothe r European countries theeconomi c crisis led toa surpluso fdair yproduct san da largenumbe r ofne wbrand swer e introduced on themarke t inth eNetherland s Indies (1931).Thi scause d some confusion 129 on themarke t andprice sdeclined .

Howan d inwha twa yeffort swer emad e to reach the Indonesian population mayb eanalyse d by looking atho wa ne w firm tried togai na plac eo n the market intropica l countries.Thi swa s theCCF ,th e Cooperatieve Condensfabriek Friesland,wit h itsbran d name of FriescheVla go ra s it became locallyknown ,Tja pBender a (inpresen t spelling,Sus uCa p Bendera). InEurop e thisDutch-base d firmwa s confronted by two serious threats,a decline ofhe rmajo r exportmarke t inth eUnite d Kingdombecaus e of trade protectionism (Part I,Chapte r 3.5) and thetendenc y inth e condensed milk industry to form large international enterpriseso fwhic hNestl e and Carnationwer e themajo r exponents.Slowl ybu t surely theCC F shifted its interests tomarket s inothe r countries.Throug hDutch ,Frenc han d British exporting firms,nex t toexistin gactivitie s inNort hAfrica ,effort swer e made topenetrat e markets inCuba ,Turkey ,Greece ,Egypt ,Eas tAfrica , China,th e Strait Settlementsan d theNetherland s Indies.I nth e tropical 130 regionso fAsi amarke tprospect s lookedver ypromising . However,b y the end of the 1920'si tbecam eobviou s that itwa sver ydifficul t in tropical markets tocompet ewit h the international firmsNestl e andCarnation .Th e director ofCC F realized that inorde r toge ta foothold intropica lAsia , themarke t should be carefully studied.Hepkema ,th edirector ,decide d tog o therehimsel f toobserv ean danalys e themarke tprospect spersonally . The CCF inLeeuwarde nwa salread y so firmlyestablishe d that thedirecto r could leave the responsibilities of the condensery tohi sclos eassociates .I n March 1930h ewen t ona fivemonth s trip,visitin g Colombo inCeylon ,th e Netherlands Indies,Rangoo n inBirma ,Malacca ,Singapore ,Indo-Chin aan d 131 HongKong. He travelled extensively inth eNetherland s Indiesvisitin gvariou s places onJava ,Bal i and Sumatra.Extensiv e interviewswer e heldwit h Chinesewholesaler s and keeperso fth etoko s inth edesa' san d kampungs,a s theywer e the link betweenth eproduce r and the Indonesianconsumer .Hepkem a quickly learned thatth eChines ewholesaler splaye da crucial rolea s they -136-

bought the tinnedmil k products from the importing trading firmsan d distributed itfurthe r toth evariou s tokosan dwarung si nth etown san d countryside. One aspectwhic h clearly cameou to fal l these investigationswa s the verydisappointin gpositio no f theCC Fproduct so n theNetherland s Indies market.Compare dwit hothe rbrand san d inparticula r theNestl eMilkmai d or TjapNorm aa s itwa s known to Indonesian consumers,CC Fproduct smad e apoo r impression. Itstinne dmil k products remained too longo nth emarke t sotha t thequalit ydetoriated .Thi sproble mwa sdiscovere d byHepkem at ohi shorro r 132 at firstpoin to fentr y inth eNetherland s Indies,Sabang . InMarc h 1930 he found ina tokoCC F tinnedmilk ,Ana k Blanda andHe tBoertj edatin gbac k to192 8 and 1929 respectively.Th emil kwa sol d ando fpoo r qualitya swa s theappearanc e of thetin .Th eChines e tokokeepe r explained inMalay .

133 "SusuTja pBender a tida laku",o r themil k brand Flagdoe sno twork .

Inth eearl y 1930'sNestl e controlled thelion s shareo f the condensed milk,whil e theevaporate d milkmarke twa smostl y inth ehand so f the American firmLibby .Sterilize dmilk ,a produc tmuc h less indemand ,cam e 134 mainly from theSwis s firmo fBernes eAl pwit h thenam eBea rBrand .

Based on theobservation so fHepkem a the following factorsma y explain thenearl yunassailabl epositio no fNestle . (1) Whenaroun d 1910Nestl e started toconque r themarke t the firm sentt o Java special salesmen toth ekampung st odistribut e sweetened condensed milk freeo fcharge .Thi s created somedeman d fromth e Indonesians so 135 that inthi swa ya plac e inth emarke tcoul db eobtained . At the same timeNestl edi d everythingpossibl e tomaintai n thequalit y of the product, itscompositio n sucha s the fatconten t remainingunchange d as well as itsorganolepti c properties. Asa result the Indonesian consumer gavea special significance toth ebran d or capnam eo f sweetened condensedmilk ,th eTja pNorma .Closel y linkedwit h thiswa s theactiv epolic yo fNestl e to replaceol d tins inth e tokosan d warongs.Throug ha systemo fquic k salean dquic k consumptionNestl e products remained ofa goo dquality . (2) The imagewa s further strengthened bya solidan d pleasant looking packing.Becaus eo f itshug e sales,Nestl ewa s ina positio n toproduc e condensedmil k intin swit ha sizeaccordin g toth enee d of its -137-

consumers, thewel l known 14o ztin s (400 g), small tinso f 3.5 oz (115g )an dbi g square tinswit ha handl e for thecoffe e shops (Teapot 137 Brand). ' (3) The corner-stone of theNestl edistributio n systemwa s tooperat e on Javawit h their own salesoffice san d their ownstaff .Onl y inth e outer regionswa sus emad eo f importing firms sucha sBorsum e and the Deli-AtjehHandelsmaatschappi jo nSumatra .Upo narriva l every shipment was carefully checked for taste,odou ran d colourbefor e itwa s released fordistribution .Likewis e theavailabl e stocks inshops , tokosan dwarung swer e checkedan d changed forne wone swhe n found to 13 8 beunsuitabl e forconsumption . Arrangementswer emad eb yNestl ewit h themajo r Chinesewholesaler s thatn oothe r product couldb e soldothe r thanNestle .Violatio n of the arrangementmean tpunishmen tb ymean so fa fineo ra forfeito f the 139 bonusshare . (4) Nestlewa sver ymuc h inth epubli cey e throughit ssyste mo f advertisements inth e formo fposter san d innewspapers .I norde r to reach the less-educated populationposter san dadvertisemen t boards wereused .Hepkem anotice ddurin ghi svisi t toJav a that inth ebig citiestramcar sha d large recommendations forNestl emilk .H e came to the conclusion that thistyp eo fapproach ,a sharp studyan d control of themarke tan d anoffic ewit hdedicate d staffwa so f invaluable significance.Tha tNestl e sawthi spoin t canb edraw n from the fact that these officeswer emaintaine d despitea heav y loado n the current costs. Inorde r toprotec t itsleadin gbran dMil k Maid against competitors Nestleoperate dwit h some specialbrand so nth emarket .Whe na competitor made efforts tointroduc ea mil k producto n themarke t or tried toexpan d itsposition ,Nestl e considerably lowered thepric eo fon e of itsspecia l brands,an d thenewl y introduced product generallyha d tob ewithdraw n from themarket . Nestle and itssubsidiar y companiesha d abouLesr t 75%th e 142 condensedmil k market inth eNetherland sIndies .

How toconque r a "placeunde r the sun"wa s of course amajo rworr y for Hepkema.Base d onhi sobservation san ddiscussion swit ha grea tvariet y of people concernedwit h the condensedmil k business,a strategywa sdevelope d consisting of twoelements ;a concentration ofeffort so n the introduction -138-

of sweetened condensed skimmilk ,an da clos eassociatio nwit ha well-established importing firm. Skimmil kwa sno tonl ychose nbecaus eCC Fwa s an importantmanufacture r of thisproduct .I nthi s sectoro fth emarket ,n o leadingbran d existed. Compared to full-creammil kproducts ,i twa sno ts omuc h thebran dnam ean d 143 quality,bu t thepric e thatdetermine d success. Onepotentia l danger remainedhowever ,an d thatwa sa possibl e importprohibitio n aswa s imposed inothe r tropicalcountries . As thebul k of the skimmil kwa s imported from theNetherlands ,Hepkem a considered an importprohibitio nunlikely .Durin ghi svisi t toth e Indiesh e had seena draf t regulationo n labellingwhic haime da tmakin g clear to Indonesianconsumer s thedifferenc e between full-cream and skimmilk . Hepkema considered thist ob e justified and felt that for the tradea ssuch , there could ben oobjection .Migh t iteve ncom e toa n importprohibito no f skimmilk ,the nth eeffor tan d costswoul d nothav ebee n invai n ifski m milk hadalread ybecom e "laku"o r indemand .Unde r the samebran dname , full-creammil k products could thenb e labelled and their consumptionwoul d 144 increasea sha d oncebee nobserve d inMarocco. A suitable importing firmha d tob e chosenbecaus e theCC F lacked the resources to setu p itsow n salesnetwor k likeNestle .Th emajo r importing firmswer e Jacobson &va nde rBerg ,Ge oWehry ,Borsum ean d Internatio. It wasdecide d to intensify theearlie r contactso fCC Fwit h the firm 145 Internatiowhic hha d itshea d office inRotterdam . Internatiowa swha t mayb e called anexampl e ofth eEuropea ngenera lmerchan t thatdominate d the trade ofSout hEas tAsia .Fo r the Indonesianmarket ,Internati o imported the consumer goods fromEuropea nmanufacturer so na commissionbasi so r consignmentagreement ,an d sometimeso n itsow naccount .Unti l the 1930's Internatiodi dno tdea ldirectl ywit h the Indonesian customers,th e tokos andwarungs .It ssyste mo fdistributio nwa sbase d onagreement swit h Chinese,Arabi c and Indianwholesal e traders.I norde r todea lmor edirectl y with the Indonesian consumers,Internati odevelope d itsow nnetwor k of Chinese "runners"an ddeliver yvan swhic hbrough t themor e perishable products toth e salesoutlets .Th e systemwa s supervised bya n inspection 146 unit (theM.I.R. ,Monopolie-Inspecti ee n Reclame). Contactsbetwee nCC Fan d Internatiower ever y satisfactory but they 147 lackedwha t could becalle d anappropriat e "milkmentality" . Like any other importing firm inth e Indies,th eassortmen t of thecommoditie s for salewer ever ydiverse .Consequentl y insufficient attentionwa s given to -139-

separate commodities sucha sth e tinnedmil kproduct so fCCF .Th e staff,a s Hepkema reportedbac k home inLeeuwarde nt oth ecooperative ,kne wmuc habou t sellingbu t toolittl e aboutmanufacturin gwhic h resulted ina lack of knowledge ofmilk .Som eo fthe mdi dno teve nkno wth edifferenc e between 148 full-creaman d skimmilk . Arrangementswer emad ewit h Internatioi nRotterda m tosen d junior staff to Leeuwarden fora crashcours eprio r tothei rne wassingmen t inth eIndies . Ina cras h courseo fa fewday sthe ywer e tobecom e familiarwit hmil k and 149 milk products. Inth emeantim e the sales representative of Internatioi n 150 Singapore,M rGrandia ,wa s sent toLeeuwarde n for intensive training. In order to speedu p things,th eCC F consulted theadvertizin gagen tA .d e la Mar inAmsterdam ,wh oha da noffic e inRijswijk ,Batavia .D e laMa r pointed outtha t theEuropea npopulatio nwa s thepace-make r foran yne wbran d on the market.Th e fact thatEuropean sprefere d tinnedmil k showed that itwa s of goodquality ,an d thatmos t likely theChines ean d Indonesianswoul d follow 151 theEuropean s inthei rpreferenc e for certainbrands . A major pointo f concern still remainingwa sho w toinvolv e theChines e wholesaler sufficiently.Th edistributio n systemwa sbase d on thewholesale r whobough t the imported commodityo ncredit .Thi swholesale r often lacked capital and ifh eha d sufficient,i twa suse d for investing inhouse so r 152 speculation. Providing credit remained a riskybusines s foran y importing firm.Th e amounto f thecredi twa s fixedo nth e inth epas tprove n liability.Henc e theabilit yo f the importing firmwas sno t to sell,bu t to 153 give good and safecredits . De laMa runderline d thenecessit y forCC F to give a clearbran dnam e tothei r condensedmil k productsusin g a symbol 154 easily recognizedb y theless-educate d consumer. Another recommendationo fth e reportwa stha tCC F should lookver y seriously intoth epossibilitie s forhavin ga salesmanage r for the Netherlands Indies.Suc ha manage rwoul d beexpecte d tovisi t thevariou s importing firms,wholesalers ,th e shops,toko san dwarungs ,t ochec k the qualityan d prices,an d to reporto na regularbasi sb ymean so fmarketin g reports.- .15 5

De laMa r further referred toth e fragmented positiono fbot h theDutc h andMala y languagepress .N o reallyleadin gnewspape r existed for thewhol e of thearchipelag o asonl y relatively small localnewspaper swer e tob e found in thevariou s towns. Iti sobviou stha t through thepres smos to f thepotentia l consumers,th e illiteratemasses ,coul d notb e reached.Th e -140-

Malayanlanguag epres sha dhoweve r theadvantag eo f reaching the educated Chinese and Indonesianpopulatio ngroups ,wh ower e already receptive to foreignproducts . Because of the limitationso f thenewspapers ,i twa sadvise d to reachth e illiterate consumer throughadvertisement s in railway stationsan d at train stops. Itwa s thehabi to f the Indonesians tog owel l inadvanc e toth e railway stationan d they thereforeha da goo d opportunity totak enotic e of advertisements.Th e reportattache dmuc hvalu e tothi skin d of publicity despite the facttha ta par to fth e local transportha d alreadybee n taken 157 over by thebus . Placingadvertisemen tboard sa t the sideo fmajo r roads 158 wasno tadvisable ,becaus e ofth ehig hcost s involved. Limited results were expected intown s fromposter so ncit yadvertisemen tboards ,ename l plates,an d showcard s inth e shopsan d tokos.However ,deliver yvan swer e providedwit h advertisements (Figure6. 9 and 6.10).

Figure 6.9 Advertisement for sweetened condensed (full-cream and skim)mil k ona deliveryva n inBatavia ,aroun d 1935 (bycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) .

Pasarmalams o rpasa r gambris,kin d ofannua l fairs,wer e a tradition in thevariou s townsan dplace so f thearchipelago .The ygav e the importing -141-

firmsan dmanufacturer s theopportunit y todispla y their commodities to European,Chines ean d Indonesian consumers (Figure 6.11).Accordin g tod e la Mar's report,a t theen d ofth e 1920'scontac tbetwee n the importer and wholesaler had become soclos e that thepasa rmala mha d lostmuc ho f its value for reaching theconsumer .I twa s recommended thatthi s shouldb e left to the retail trade.Besides ,th enumbe r ofpasa rmalam sha d increased to sucha nexten t that itha dbecom e tooexpensiv e for themanufacture r totak e 159 advantage of themall . Cinemaswer e alreadywel l spread all over the Indiesan dwer ever ypopula rwit h the Indonesians,ric han dpoor . Advertisementswit h fewword sb ymean so f slideso r filmswer e an excellent meanso f reachingal lwalk so f life inth e Indonesianpopulation .On e difficultywa s thatth eChines eo r Indonesian cinemaowner swer e little concernedwit h aprope r presentation of theadvertisement ,s o that supervision fromth e sideo fth e importer ormanufacture rwa sneeded . The reportals oadvise d CCF toge tmedica l recommendations fromphysician s in the Indiesan d theNetherland so nth epurit yan dnutritiona lvalue so f the condensed milkproducts .

Figure 6.10 Advertisement for sweetened condensedmil k and sterilized milk ona deliver yva n inPalembang ,193 6 (bycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) . -142-

(1)

(2)

Figure6.1 1 Promotiono fcondense dmil ka tth epasa rmala mi nBatavia ,(1 )an d(2) , April193 9(b ycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) . -143-

TheCC Fwa sno wwel lprepare d toexpan d itssale sactivities . Internatio became actively involved inthes eb ymaintainin gan dcontrollin g sales outlets through close contactswit hwholesal e dealersan dth etok oan d 16 ? warung keepersi ntown san drura lareas . A firstac twa sth e"cleaning " ofth emarke tb ybuyin g backa tCC Fexpens eth eol dtin s fromth etoko san d 16 3 warungsan dreplacin g themwit h fresh ones. After having receivedhi strainin g inth eNetherlands ,th eInternati o representative inSingapore ,Grandia ,embarke d forMalay aan dth eIndies .H e 164 tookwit hhi ma speciall yequippe d cinemavan . Inmajo r townso nJava , thepromotio npictur e "Adventureso fK oth ecow "wa sshown .Thi spraise dth e 165 qualitieso fth eTja pBender ao rFrisia nFla g (Figure 6.12). Althoughth e

'////'"' (HlAdun200/iaymxs wtAdm.5eoJ&8.m 'User,dame sI

Figure 6.12 Advertisement forth eFrisia n Flag cookeryboo k around193 7directe da t European consumers,showin gK oth eco wo fth epromotio n film.Th eboo k included recipesusin g three kindso ftinne dmilk ;chocolat emilk ,sterili ­ zedmil kan dsweetene d condensedmil k (bycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) . -144-

filmonl ymentione d evaporatedmilk ,a produc tmainl y consumed byEuropeans , itnevertheles s contributed tomakin g thebran dnam eTja pBender amor e widely known.Unde r the samebran dnam e skimmil kwa sals o sold. Itha d been agreed thatn o special advertisements shouldb emad e for skimmil k and that its lowpric ewa s thebes tmean s for further expansion onth emarket .I n 1931 Internatiostrongl yadvise dCC F tospen da slittl ea spossibl e on advertizing skimmil k soa sno t toalar mNestl ewit h efforts toexpan d the saleo f sweetened condensed skimmil k further. Lessprogres swa smad ewit h sweetened full-cream condensedmilk . According to Internatio,tw omistake sha d beenmad ewhe n thiswa s introduced. Inth e firstplac e thepric ewa s solo wcompare dwit h theTja p Normao fNestle ,tha t Indonesianan dChines econsumer s thought itwa s of an inferiorquality . Secondly thebran dnam euse dher ewa s TjapBender awhich , despite adifferen t colour,wa s seenb y theconsume r asinferio r skim milk. Based onthes e experiences,i twa sdecide d tointroduc e sweetened 1fift condensedmil k under thebran d nameo fAna kMas . InJav aAna k Maswa s promoted bymean so fnewspape r advertisements and posters. A differentapproac hwa s carried out inMedan ,Sumatra .Ther e the promotionwa smainl ydirecte d atChines epopulatio ngroup sb ymean so f lectures,a stand atth epasa rmala man dnewspape r advertisements. Inspired byNestle ,CC F supported a teamo f 5nurse s (2Indonesian san d 3Chinese )a t DrYap' sout-patient sdepartmen t inMedan .Whe n the firstappointe d CCF salesmanage r for the Indies,G.J.F . Staverman,arrive d inMeda n inDecembe r 1938,h e observed thato n thewhol e the introduction ofAna k Maswa sno t very successful. He reportedbac k home toLeeuwarde n thata s fara sth e out-patients departmentwa s concerned, theapproac hwit h Indonesian mothers wasquit e successful,an d that itwa spossibl e tocreat ea certain demand forAna k Mas.Man ymother swer eattendin g theout-patient sdepartmen t and the ideao fchangin gove r toAna kMa safte r aperio d ofbreast-feedin g was 170 brought tothei rattention . Thenurse swer e notonl yemploye d inth eout-patient sdepartmen tbu t also inth earea saroun dMedan .Whe n Internatio truckswit h theirvariet yo f productswen t to ruralarea st osuppl y the tokosan dwarungs ,som eo f the nurseswen t too for salespromotio nactivities .Muc hvalu ewa sattache d to thedecenc yo f thenurses ,i nparticula r theChines enurse swh owoul d not stayovernigh t inhotels ,bu tonl ywit h relatives or goodacquaintances .I f foron e reasono ranothe r a rumour spread about thebehaviou r of oneo f the -145-

nurses itwoul d havebee n likely thathe rmothe rwoul d havekep the r at home.Needles s tosa ythi swoul dhav eha da negativ e effecto n the promotion 171 activities. CCFwante d toimpor t feeding-bottles for the out-patients 172 173 department. Thishoweve r proved tob e tooexpensive . The operational costo f the out-patientsdepartmen twa s likewise aburde n for themarketin g budgetan d itwa s seriously considered closing itdown .Howeve r the free medical check for infantswa sessential ,an d itwa s thereforedecide d to ..... 174 continuewit h it. Stavermanestimate d thatmor e thanhal fo f the sweetened condensed milk forJav awa suse d for infant feeding.Therefor eh ewante d toge t feeding-bottles andnurse s forpromotio nactivities .Thes e ideasneve r materialized because of thehig h costs involved andHepkema' spolic yo f operatingwit ha limitedbudge t foradvertisements .H ebelieve d thatth e prevailing smallprofi tmargin swoul dno tallo wexpensiv e promotion ..... 175 activities. The CCFals o tried totak eadvantag eo f thehabi to fusin g sweetened condensed milk incoffe ea swa sdon e inth ecoffe e shopso f Sumatra and the coastal placeso fKalimantan .O nJava ,wher e coffee shopswer e fewan d the populationmainl ydran k black coffee,Staverma ndecide d tocontac t the Surabaya Koffie-Propagandabureau (bureaufo r thepromotio no f coffee). Thisbureau ,lik e itscounterpar t theThee-Propagandaburea u (bureau for the promotiono f tea),wit ha serieso fvan sequippe dwit h loudspeakersan d a filmprojector tried topromot e theconsumptio no fcoffe e among the population.Durin g demonstrations coffeewa s freelydistributed . The bureau wasno t interested inth e ideao fdistributin g condensedmil k at the same time topromot e theconsumptio no f coffeewit hmilk .Th e promotion activitieso f theburea uwer e concentrated onblac k coffee,Kopi-tubruk ,an d milkwoul dunnecessaril y increase itsprice . Earlie177 r requests for 178 collaboration fromNestl eha d likewisebee ndeclined .

On thewhole ,promotio nactivitie s inth e Indieswer eno t carried outb y special nurseso r other canvassers.Th emil k productswer edistribute d by wholesalers andb y the "truck-runners"o f importing firms.Thes ewer epeopl e whowen twit h atruc k toth etoko san dwarong swher e they solda wid e range ofproduct so n commission.Her e theproble m already observedb yHepkem a remained.Mil kwa s onlyon e itemamon gman yothers .Internatio' s distribution system inth eBatavi a regionconsiste d of 5trucks .Th e "truck-runner"visite d theoutlet sonc eever ymont han d Staverman joined one -146-

of them in order to get a better insight into the system. The products carried by the truck included cigarettes,milk ,biscuits ,peppermint , all kind of sweets,cigars ,toot h paste and soap.

"How can one give sufficient attention to the one product 'milk'", 179 sighed Staverman.

The CCF sales activitieswer e further supported by means of newspaper advertisements and posters.Moreove r inmajo r Javanese townsvan s decorated with CCF products could be seen.Wit h the help of Dutch housewives,a special cookery book was prepared for the European population with recipes 180 using tinned milk as one oonf the e ingredients. Further a children's library was supported by CCF. 181

Not all efforts to introduce amil k product were successful. One noticeable failure was the introduction of sterilized chocolate milk in tins 1ft? (Figure 6.13). In 1936 thisproduc twa s reasonably well distributed in the tokos andwarung s but saleswer e limited. Of the competitors, only Nutricia's Chocomel was tob e occasionally found. Inorde r to push the sale of chocolate milk a special poster was prepared for coffee shops and 1R 3 warungs. A number of factors may account for the unsuccessful introduction of chocolate milk. The Indonesian and Chinese consumerswer e at that time not familiar with the taste of chocolate and hence were not 184 interested in trying it. Besides,chocolat e milk could not be used in coffee or for infant feeding. Itsbrow n colour led consumers tobeliev e that itwa s not fit for consumption. In one of the tokos,a representative of Internatio found in a corner a heap of chocolate milk tins. In answer to the question why these tinswer e thrown into the corner and not put on the shelves the toko keeper explained that the tinswer e spoiled.Wha t had happened was that the toko keeper, together with a client,ha d opened a tin and noticing the colour of the milk assumed that itwa s unfit for consumption. It took the Internatio representative quite an effort to persuade the toko keeper topu t the tins on the shelves again. This incident also showed the limited contribution of the "truck-runners" to the promotion of milk products. I could find little information on the turnover of tinned milk in the different tokos and warungs. In the Regency of Krawang onWes t Java, the average monthly turnover of a tokowarun g may be estimated for 1939 as 3.8 -147-

Ojikalau tisndak pssiar tfjanganlah loepa ntnhawa

(l)

Djagalah dengan baik-baik, dan koentjilah lemari makan, sebab kaiau didalamnja adatefsimpenb«borapakaleng Soesoe Tjoklat „Tjap Bandera"

soedah lentoe bolat a di pastikan, bahwa anak* nanti akan minoem itoe. ka'ena dia tahoe beto eI tangSoeso e Troxlat „T|ap Bandera" enak adanja.

SOESOE"TJOKLA T TJAPMBANDERA

(2)

Figure 6.13 Posters on chocolate milk aimed at Indonesian consumers, (1) and (2), 1936. Efforts to introduce chocolate milk in tins were not successful (by courtesy of CCF, Leeuwarden). -148-

186 to 5.6 caseso f tinnedmil k or 182t o26 8tin so fmil k (Table 6.7). In districtswit h amuc h lowerpurchasin gpower ,warung s could be foundwit h a 187 turnover ofonl y6 to1 2tin sa month .

Table 6.7 Estimated monthly turnover ofvariou s kindso f tinnedmil k in10 3 tokosan dwarung s inth e regiono fKrawang ,Wes t Java,expresse d innumbe r ofpackin g cases,1939 . kind of tinnedmil k number ofpackin g cases (1cas e= 48tin so fmilk )

sweetened condensed skimmil k FriescheVla g 150-175

Cowshead 125-150 Shield 25-5 0 others + 5

300--380

sweetened condensedmil k Milkmaid 100--150 FriescheVla g 10 others ± 3

100-163

sterilized milk Milkmaid 20 Bearbrand 10 FriescheVla g 1 31

- evaporatedmil k

estimated turnover ofpackin g caseso f tokos/warungs 400-574 averagenumbe r ofpackin g casespe r toko/warung 3.8-5.6

Source:base d onArchie fCCF ,Staverma nbrie fno.35 ,Cirebon ,27-5-1939 .

An interesing locallydevelope d productwa s stroop soesoe,a pin k coloured syrupbase d on imported sweetened condensedmil k and lemonade essence. Itwa s sold inbottle s or couldb edrun k by theglas s intoko san d warungs ino r near townso r largeplaces .I coul dno tdiscove r whether stroop soesoewa s originallyprepare db y Europeans or Indonesians.I twa s 188 consumed byEuropeans ,an d Indonesianswhe n theycoul d affordit . -149-

Themarketin g activitieswhic h thecondense dmil k industrydirecte d at the Indonesianconsume rwer eal l focusedo ncondense dmilk .Referenc ewa s made to the facttha t itcoul db euse d for infant feeding,bu t that it shouldb euse d onlywhe nbreast-feedin gwa sn olonge rpossibl ewa sno t explicitly stated.Hardl yan yadvertisement swer emad e for sweetened condensed skimmil k as itscheapnes sguarantee d itssuccess .A s far asca n be ascertained fromavailabl e sources,i twa sno tpromote d assuc h for infant feeding.I t ishoweve rver y likely thatbecaus e of itslo wpric e a shifttoo k place from full-cream toski mmil k for infant feeding.Fea r for an increasingus eo f skimmil k for infant feedingb y Indonesianmother s caused concernan deve nalar mamon ghealt hauthorities ,an d thisle d toth e "skimmil kquestion" . European-oriented educationan dhealt h services,an d the socio-economic changesmean tpeopl e graduallybecam emuc hmor ea par to f theworl d economy and thusdependen t on each income.A growingnumbe r ofurba ndwellers , estateworker s or smallholderswit h cashcrop sbecam e receptive to theus e of Europeanproducts ,includin g foods.Thi sproces swa s further strengthened by theactivitie so f European firms,b yth e retail tradean db y thepresenc e of anexpatriat e communitywit ha relativelyhig hpurchasin gpower .A s far as theattitud eo f Indonesianconsumer swa s concerned towards freshmil k and milk products,n o indications couldb e found inth eavailabl e sourceso fa fundamental and insuperableprejudic eagains tmil k forhuma nconsumption . Thepric e remained amajo r obstacle inmakin gmil k anelemen to f thedie to f thegrea tmas so f thepopulation . -150-

7.TH E SWEETENEDSKI MMIL KQUESTIO N

7.1 Governmentpolic yo n foodan dnutritio n

TheUnite d East IndiaCompan yo rVO Chad ,a sma yb e expected ofa trading company,a noverridin g interest incas h crops.O nJav a thesewer e coffee, indigo,cotto nan d sugar,an d inth eMoluccas ,peppe r and other spices.Despit e this interest theVO Cwa snevertheles smuc h concerned with food supply tobot hEuropean san d Indonesians.Fo r agoo d functioningo f the trade itwa sessentia l thatthi s shouldb e reliableparticularl y in Batavia and theOmmelanden ,th eoutposte d officesan d inarea swit h cash crops sucha sAmbon .Th eVO Cobtaine d ricethroug hmean so f forced deliveriesan d fromprivat eChines e traders.Mos to f the rice forBatavi a came fromCirebo nan d thenort heas tcoas to fJava ,th egranar ya t that time. Between 1650an d 1790th ecompan y intervened inth e rice supply. In periods ofgoo dharvest ,ric eexpor twa spromote dwhil edurin g periodso f 2 shortage,expor twa sprohibited . InBatavia ,th e fluctuations inric e priceswer ewatche d carefully andpric e interventionsoccurre d fromtim e to time. After thecollaps eo f theCompan y in179 9 itsposession s inth e archipelago came formallyunde r thedirec t controlo f thegovernmen to f the newly formedBatavia nRepublic .Fo r the first time,a t least theoretically, thene wenlighte dRepubli c showed someconcer n for thewelfar e of the Indonesianpopulation .I n180 8 forexample ,th eGovernor-General ,Daendel s gave instructions for findingway so f improving thelo to f the Indonesians 4 and forexpandin gagricultur e asmuc ha spossible . Invie wo fhi s personality,on ema ydoub t theearnestnes so fthi s concern.Hi s administrationwa showeve r too short tohav eha d any lastingeffects . After theBritis h interregnum (1811-1816), themai n interesto f the Stateo f theNetherland swa sho wt omak e thecolon y lucrative for the depleted Dutchexchequer .I n183 0th eGovernor-Genera l vande nBosc h introduced theCultuurstelse l orCultur e Systembase d onforce d cultivation of cash crops.Th e thoughtwa s that theLandrente ,a taxo f 2/3 of the rice harvest or 1/3 of itsvalue ,wa s toohig h for thepopulatio n and unprofitable for thegovernment .Instea d ofpayin g this,par to f the fields were cultivatedwit h coffee,suga r and indigo. The culture systemweighe d heavilyupo n thepopulatio n inman yarea sbecaus e ofcompetitio n between land and labour for food cropsan d cash crops. Inth e 1870'sth e forced cultivationswer e graduallyabolishe dunde r criticism from liberal-minded -151-

people in theNetherlands . TheAgrarisch eWet ,th eAgraria nLa wo f1870 , made itimpossibl e toallo wagricultura lpropertie sbelongin g to Indonesians topas s intoth ehand so fothers .Thi sla wwa sa n important step forward inth e careo f thepopulatio na s itprevente d private enterprise fromdestroyin gvillag eeconomy .O n theothe rhand ,accordin g to regulationso f thene w law,th e "wastelands"coul db e leased to non-Indonesians fora maximu mperio do f7 5years .Thi spar to f the law benefitted the the individualplanter swh oha d established themselvesunde r o theCultur e System theyprofesse d todespise . Inparticula r modern plantationswer eestablishe d outsidedensel ypopulate d Javao n theeas t coasto fSumatra .

At theen d of the 19thcentur yliberal-minde d peoplebot h inth e Netherlandsan d the Indiesbecam eawar eo fth e fact that the involvement of theDutc hwit h theeconom yha dno t led toa n improvement inth ewelfar e of g the Indonesianpopulatio nan d theyurge d that somethingb edon eabou tit . A substantial changeo fgovernmen tpolic y towardsth e Indonesian population took place,wit h theethisch e koerso rEthica l Policy.Thi swa s officially initiated inth e speech fromth e throne in1901 ,whe nQuee nWilhelmin a addressed bothhouse so fth eState sGenera l ina unite d session.Th e government stated that itha da mora lmandat e towardsth epopulatio n and announced an inquiry intoth ewelfar e of thepopulatio n ofJav aan d Madura.10 Twoyear sbefore ,i n1899 ,th eprogressiv e liberal C.Th.va nDeventer ,a specialist in Indonesianaffair s inth eLowe rHouse ,ha dwritte nhi s much-discussed paper inth eliterar y journalD eGid s inwhic hh eha d spoken of anhonorar ydeb t toth e Indonesianpeople .H epleade d fora restitution of theamount swhic h theNetherland sha d taken fromthe mdurin g the course of time,a s thepopulatio nwa sno wi n sucha nalarmin geconomi c situation. At the requesto f theministe r for the colonies,Idenburg ,h eprepare d a report in190 4o nth eeconomi c situationo f the indigenouspopulation . Nieuwenhuys rightly considersthi sa politel y formulated accusationo f the government. The Ethical Policyhowever ,di dno tquestio n the colonial systema s such,bu t triedo nhumanitaria nground st ocorrec tharmfu l side effectsan d to stimulatewelfare .It sgoa lwoul dneve rb e thedevelopmen t of the Indonesianpeopl ealone .Th epolic ywa softe n linked to,an d sometimeshidde nby , theai mo fdevelopin g theeconomi c resourceso f 12 Netherlands Indies for thebenefi to f themotherland . -152-

As an important instrument instimulatin g thewelfar e of thepopulation , a Departmento fAgricultur ewa s created in1904 ,late r tob e renamed the Departmento fAgriculture ,Industr yan dTrade ,an d lateragain ,th e 13 Departmento f EconomicAffairs . Outo fthi sdepartmen t anumbe r of welfare services (Welvaartsdiensten)fo r thebenefi to f thepopulatio nwer e developed;agricultura l extension,veterinar y services,irrigatio nservice , rural creditbanks .Thi smean t thatafte r 1900colonia l civil service administrators had towor k alongside techniciansentruste dwit h technical and development-oriented activities.Thi screate d technocratic tendencies 14 inth e colonial administration. At firstth enecessar y fundst ocarr you t these activitieswer e lacking. In190 5a spar to f theEthica l Policy,th e State of theNetherland s took over theNetherland s Indiesgovernmen t debts inBatavi a fora totalvalu eo f f4 0million .Thi s relieved the government inBatavi a of financialworries ,s otha t fundscoul db eallocate d for the stimulation ofwelfar e of the Indonesianpopulation . In191 1an d 1912cro pfailure spu t thecountr y inseriou sdange r of beingwithou t a readysuppl yo f itsstapl e food, rice.A temporaryba no n riceexpor taverte d thedanger .Ric ebecam eon eo f themai nobject so f the Government economicpolicy . During the FirstWorl dWa r itwa s difficult tomaintai n imports fromoversea san d thegovernmen tbecam e concerned with food supply,particularl y for those inth ecas h cropgrowin g regions.I t introduced severalmeasure s toensur ea nadequat e supply.

(1)A temporaryprohibitio n on theexpor to f rice,whic hwa s later followed byprohibition so n theexpor to fcassav a andmaize . (2)A n increase inth eare aunde r food cropsb ymean so f forced cultivation. (3)Th e fixingo fmaximu m riceprice san d themakin g ofarrangement swit h rice tradersabou t thenee d tokee pstocks .

Sometimes regional authoritieswer e involvedwit hproblem s of supply and could even,i fnecessary , imposea fooddistributio n system. Interferencewit h the supplyo f tinnedmil k caused irritation among 18 Europeans.

In 1936 Scheltemamad eestimation so n the foodavailabilt y per caputpe r 19 year onJava ,base d on foodproductio n figuresan dne t foodimports . Despite population growth,foo davailabilit y per caput remained atmuc h the -153-

20 sameminimu m level during 1875-1940. Theavailabilit y of rice declined 21 but thiswa s compensated bya n increase inmaiz e and cassava cultivation. The superimpositiono f cash crops left theJavanes e peasantry with essentially a single choice incopin gwit ha risingnumbe r to feed; tilling their sawahs intensely. Therewer e no realalternative s outside this form of subsistance farming.Th epeasant s could notbecom e part of the plantation economy,no r could theymak eus e of thewasteland s which were being planted with coffee trees.Non-agricultura l opportunities were fewa s industrywa s limited.

Thisproces sb ywhic h large populationswer e absorbed on small rice farms through intensive cultivation,withou t a serious fall inpe r capita income isanalyse d anddescribe d byGeert z as "agricultural involution", an agricultural systemwhic h failed either to stabilize or to transform itself intoa ne w system but rather continued todevelo p bybecomin g internally 22 more complicated. The theory ofagricultura l involution has been 23 criticized byvariou s researchers butha sno tbee n completely rejected. Withmuc h difficulty thegovernmen t managed topreven t famine in 1919 and 1920.Foo d shortageswer e caused bya severedrough t inth emiddl e of thewe tmonsoon .Th e government intervened andbanne d theexpor t of rice. It imposed price controls,purchasin g anddistributin g rice to affected 24 areas. Itals opurchase d rice substitutes sucha s cassava. Despite budgetary cuts, thegovernmen t welfare services intensified their efforts in the 1930'1930 st oameliorat e the food situation.Thre e different measures 25 were taken.

(1)Intensificatio n of the amount of landunde r cultivation. (2)Increas e incro poutput s perhectare . (3)Increas ewhe npossibl e of arable land for food production.

Irrigation schemeswer e further developed, and attention was given to the dry lands.Th e introduction ofa maiz e cropan d theproductio n of more cassava and soyabean s inth edr y landswa s important inthi s respect. Newvarietie s of rice,maize ,cassava , soya beans,groundnut s and sweet potatoeswit h higher yields and better resistance todisease s were introduced. Intota l therewer e about 57mai n centres onJav a and 17 smaller centres fromwhic h newvarietie swer edistribute d to the population. The introduction of fertilizerswa s tried butprove d tob e too -In­

expensive for farmers livingo n subsistance level,bu t the introduction of 26 leguminoses to improve the soilwa smor esuccessful . Theeconomi c crisiso f the 1930'scause da declin e inth e incomeo f the population,an d thegovernmen tagai n took anumbe r ofmeasure s tokee pth e 27 priceo f ricean dmaiz ea slo wa spossible . Interferencewit h the food prices took the formo fa coheren t systemo fguidin gmeasure sdesigne d to keep rice surpliesan dprice sa t thedesired ,predetermine d level,chiefl y bymanipulatin g available supplies,controllin g foreign importsan dbuyin g 28 up small stockso f ricet oadjus tloca lpric e levels. Inorde r tob e prepared for the coming international conflict thegovernmen t setu pa Food Fund in1939 ,it smai ntas k being tola y infoo d reserves for timeso f emergency. Foodwa sobtaine d bypurchasin g rice frommill s at fixed 29 prices.

On thewhol e theoverridin g concerno fEuropean s in the 19th century in the colonieswa son eo fhealth .Earlier ,a relativelyhig hoccuranc e of illnessha dbee ntolerate d asth epric e tob epai d foreconomi c returns. With the rapidgrowt ho fmedica l science inth e 19th century,European s began tohav ehighe r expectations ofthei row nhealth . Inth eNetherland s Indiesther ewa sa long traditiono fnutritio n research.I tha dbegu nwit h theclinica l observation ofth ediseas e beri-beri (B. or thiamine deficiency).Th e symptomso fberi-ber i are depression, irritability, failure toconcentrat e anddefectiv e memory. Therear eals o subjective andobjectiv e changes inth eperiphera l nervous system likemuscl eweaknes san dhear t symptoms like cardiomyopathy, eventually resulting indeath .Durin g thegreate r parto f the 19thcentury , beri-beriwa s considered tob ea diseas e causedb y infection,o rb y toxic substances infood . InEurop edurin g the19t h century themedica lwa yo f thinking on theetiolog yo fdisease swa s focused on infection. Likewise medical care inth eNetherland s Indieswa sdirecte d towards the eradication 31 of infectiousdiseases . Fora long time thisprevente d thedevelopmen t of the idea thata lack of certainchemica l compounds inth edie tma y lead to a deficiency disease.I twa sdu e toth ewor k ofEijkman ,Grijns ,Hulsho f Poll,Vordema nan dKiewie td eJon g inth e1890' stha tberi-ber i couldb e 32 related to fooddeficiency . This interest inberi-ber i didno t arize from a concern for thepopulation ,bu t fromproblem s encountered during theAce h wars. Soldiers incomba tan deve n troopso nboar d ships sailing fromJav a toAce h suffered fromberi-beri .Becaus eo fth ehig h losses,th e government -155-

decided tose tu pa commission consisting ofth eProfessor sPekelharin g and Winkler toenquir e into theaetiolog yo f thediseas e (1886-1887). Eykman,a young officer ofhealt h inth eRoya lNetherland s IndiesArm y (KNIL),wa s attached toth ecommissio n .Afte rman yyear so fexperiment sb y Eykman andGrijn s on feeding chickenswit hdifferen tdiets ,on e conclusion became apparent;beri-ber iwa s causedb ya nunbalance d dietbase d onpolishe d 34 rice. In190 2th eauthoritie sdecide d tolimi tth e supply ofunpolishe d 35 ricet oprison san dnearl yal l caseso fberi-ber i disappeared. Beri-beri was in facta deficienc ydiseas eonl y forthos e groupswithi nth e Indonesian society sucha sth emilitary , labourersan dprisoner swh ower e dependento nmas s feeding.I n rice,mos to f thethiamin e ispresen t inth e outer layer and germ. Incontras t tohom epounding ,machin emillin g removes nearlyal l theoute r layersan dger mo fth egrain ,leavin g awhol e rice which ishighl yesteemed ,bu twhic h isgrossl ydeficien t inthiamine .I n 1939, for example,onl yabou t20 %o f the ricecro pwen t toth emill s so that inJav aberi-ber iwa sno ta majo r problem.

At theen d ofth e1920' ssevera l studies showed thatXerophthalmia , caused byvitami nA deficiency,ofte noccure d onJav aan d otherpart so f thearchipelago . Itwa s foundespeciall yamon gchildre nwit h nutritional oedema in regionswit hpermanen to r seasonal food shortagesbecaus e of crop 37 failures. Inorde r todea lwit h goitre inth emountainou s regionso fJav a itwa s decided thatgovernmen t salt fromMadur a shouldb e iodized.Bu tdespit e this statemonopoly ,sal twa s still smuggled in from thecoas t toth e interior,wher e itwa sused .Alway s cheaper thanth e iodizedproduct ,th e 38 smuggled saltwa smor e readilyaccepted . Until theeconomi c crisiso f 1930,th egovernmen to f theNetherland s Indieswa smainl y concernedwit h thequantitativ e aspects ofnutrition ,th e food supply.Healt hauthoritie sbecam eworrie d thata declin e of income would alsolea d toa deterioratio n inth equalit yo f thediet .Peopl e like de Langen,va nVee nan dDonat h took the initiative and created the 39 Nutrition Institute (Instituutvoo r deVolksvoeding ) in1934 . Thiswa s subsidized by theQuee nWilhelmin a Jubilee Foundationan d later received 40 financial support fromth egovernment . Theai mo fth e Institutewa s to study the influenceo fnutritio no nth ehealt h situationo f the population 41 and toadvis e onho wt oimprov eit . -156-

TheNutritio n Institute continuedwit hwor k alreadybegu no nanalyse so f Indonesian foodsan dpublishe d foodcompositio ntables .O fdirect practica l implicationwa s thecollaboratio n of the Institutewit h the Horticulture Divisiono f theDepartmen t ofEconomi cAffairs .Th ehorticulturist s J.J. Ochse andG.J.A .Terr awere ,b y theen d ofth e 1920's,activel y involved in work on the significance ofhom egarden s for thenutritio no f the populationan dhorticultur edivisio nha d begunwit ha programm e forth e improvement ofhorticultur e inth ecompound san d gardenso fhousehold so f Java.Cultivatio n ofvegetable san d fruitswer eencourage d inth ehop eo f lesseningvitami nA deficiency. TheNutritio n Instituteals ocollaborate dwit h theCentra l Bureauo f Statistics ina numbe r ofcooli ebudge t surveys.Variou sdietar y surveys were carriedou tt oobtai nmor e insightint oth enutritiona l situationan d 42 its socio-economic aspects. One ofth eoutcome so fth e surveyswa sthat , with theexceptio no fvitami nA deficiency,clearl ydefine d vitamin deficiencies onJav awer e limited.Beri-ber i and Pellagrawer e rare. Nutritional oedema occured inari dan d infertile regionswhe n thedie twa s based oncassava .Protei nproblem soccure d in regionswher e cassavawa s the staple food. In193 9 some civilauthoritie sexpresse d their concernwit h the foodan d nutrition situationo f thepopulation ,despit e the facttha tth emajo r setbacks for the localeconom yha d takenplac e inth eyear s 1933-35an d 43 thatafte r that,th eeconom y slowly recovered. On thewhol e the Javanese dietwa so fa margina l nature,quantitativ e andqualitativ e speaking,an d itbecam emor e andmor edifficul t tocontinu e toge ta sufficient food supply for theeve r increasing population.A modern aspecto f these surveys istha t theywer e carried outb ya teamo fnutritionists ,agronomist san d horticulturists.

Aswel l asconcer n for the food supplyan da ta later stage,fo r the nutrition of thepopulation ,th eNetherland s Indiesgovernmen t became interested in food control.Unde r thethrea to f the FirstWorl dWa r a food commission (Commissie totonderzoe k vanvoedingsmiddelen )wa s established in 1914,it smai n taskbein g toadvis e thegovernmen t inmatter s relating 44 to food control. Several disciplineswer e represented on this commission which included physicians,chemists ,pharmacists ,lawyer san d 45 nutritionists. The commissionoperate d bymakin g useo fth eexistin g laboratories for thenecessar y analyses.Qualit y controlwa s carried out on -157-

foods sucha s coffee,vinegar ,wine ,arak , flour,marmalade , fruit syrups, pepper and honey. A major constraint of thewor k of the commissionwa s that itcoul d only work ona n advisory basis,an dman y of its recommendations were not put intopractice . Inth eNetherland s Indies,a food lawan d aneffectiv e food control systemwa s lacking.Adulteratio n of local foodsan d likewise imported ones occurred frequently. Only inlarge r municipalities were there provisions for food control ofmea t anddair yproduct s bya veterinarian . 47 In 1920a Code xAlimentariu s formil kwa s issued. TheNetherland s Indies Penal Code had anarticl e on food adulteration but iswa s rather vaguely 48 formulated, so itspractica l valuewa s limited. It iso f interest tonot e that thequalit y of foodstuffs destined for the army and navy could ifnecessar y be checked inth e chemical laboratory of themilitar y health department inBandung . Foodstuffs and in fact mainly tinned foods imported onbehal f of theNetherland s Indies government were 49 examined inth eNetherland s before theywer e shipped overseas. At this stage,n oarrangement s had beenmad e toprotec t the foodqualit y of the Indonesian population. A step inth e rightdirectio nwa s the Labelling Regulation (Verpakkings- ordonatie) of 1935. Inth e firstyear s of itsexistenc e the Food Commission aimed at the adoption ofa food lawan d of special food control services. Itwante d a food control system for European foods along the lines of the food law inforc e inth eNetherlands .A s far as Indonesian foodswer e concerned, theCommissio n recommended that samples of specific foods from the entire archipelago should be taken and analysed and that food standards should beprepared . Because of the likelihood of avet o from thegovernmen t because of thehig h costs involved and probably also because of the complexity of a food law, the Commission prepared adraf t labelling regulation. Inprincipl e thisdeal twit h commodities,s o that both food and non-food commodities could be included.Wit h fewmodification s the government accepted thedraft . The purpose of the labelling regulationwa s tomak e provisions for labelling withdetaile d regulations "inth e interest of the trade and for theprotectio n of theconsumer" .Th e government could now indicate by decreewhic h foodstuffs should fallunde r the labelling regulation and could provide theappropriat e detailed regulations. Inessence ,th e regulation prohibited false andmisleadin g statements on thelabel . Provisionswer e alsomad e for finesan d imprisonment for those who -158-

committedoffence sagains t the regulation. Not only the FoodCommission ,bu tals ovariou s tradeassociation sha d an interest inth e labelling regulationbecaus eo fwha t theycalle dunfai r competitionwit h imported commoditieso fnon-Dutc h origin.Fo r example Australianbutte rwa s sold intin swhic h lookedalmos t the samea sth e Dutch ones,bu twhic hwer e smaller and therefore cheaper.Th ene t content 52 declaration on the tinswa sunclear . Competition fromoutside ,especiall y fromJapan ,wa s feltmos t inth enon-foo d sector.Industrie s inth e Netherlands Indiesan d inth eNetherland salik e stressed the importance of a labelling regulation.I nvie wo f thelo wlivin g standard of the populationan d illiteracy,th eTrad eAssociatio no fBatavi aunderline d the 53 need forclea r and simple labelling. After 1936 labelling regulations 54 came into force forvinegar ,margarine ,flour ,an dbutter . However,i n 1935,whe n the labelling regulationwa sestablishe d thoughtswer e given to thequalit yo fmil k products.I ncas eo f skimmilk-powde r or tinnedmil k the ideawa s to indicate clearlywhethe r theproduc twa so fa lesser qualityb ymean so fa blac k stripewit ha widt ho fa t least 7m mal laroun d 55 the container. Butmuc heffor twa sneede dbefor e finally the regulations for skimmil kproduct s couldb e settled. So far food regulationswer eoriente dmor e towards theprotectio n of the Europeanan dbetter-of f Indonesianconsume r thantoward sth eprotectio no f themas so f thepopulation .I n193 9a labelling regulation formil k productswa s inpreparatio nan d asthi swa sdon e inconnectio nwit h the sweetened skimmil k question itha da mor edirec tmeanin g for thenutritio n and healtho f thepopulation .

7.2 Nutritionistsu p inarm sagains t skimmil k

Thoseworkin g inth e fieldo f foodan dnutritio nobserve dwit h suspicion the importso f sweetened condensed skimmilk .Severa lunderlyin g factors contributed to this. Muchprogres sha dbee nmad eo n researcho nvitamins .I nEurop emil k was considered anutritionall ydesirabl e food,especiall y for infant feeding. Taking the importantvitamin sA andD ou to f themil k by skimming off the cream could of courseno tb eaccepted .Nutritio n studiesshowe dvitami n A deficiencies inth epeopl eo f thearchipelago ,an da t the same time governmentmedica l andagricultura l officersbecam emor e interested inth e well-being of thepopulation .Beside s itwa sknow n that for some time in -159-

neighbouring countries,authoritie sha dbee n limitingo rha d even prohibited the importso f sweetened condensed skimmilk . TheNetherland s IndiesGovernmen twa s inthi s respect farbehin d other countries inth e region.I nth eearl y1920' sth e saleo f skimmil k products was forbidden inth eStrait sSettlements .A regulation inth e Federated Malay States insistedupo na red labelaffixe d toth eti nbearin ga prominentblac k characterwarnin g that themil kmus tno tb egive n toth e illo r tochildren .Thi sha d tob ewritte n inEnglish,Chinese ,Mala yan d 56 Tamil. In192 8th egovernmen t ofSia mdecide d toprohibi t the importo f 57 skimproducts . In193 1Donat han dhi scolleague swer e able towrit e that inal lBritis han d Frenchadministere d countries,th e importo f sweetened condensed skimmil kwa sprohibite d inorde r toprotec t the illiterate 58 consumer.

Discussiono n these importstoo kplac eo n twolevels :th eprofessiona l and thepolitical . On theprofessiona l level,th ediscussio nwa sopene db yDonath' s study on thenutritiona lvalu e oftinne dmil kan dmilk-powder ,publishe d in 59 1929. This studywa s carried out inth echemcia ldepartmen t of the Medical Laboratory inWeltevreden ,Batavi a ofwhic hh ewa shead .Foo d analyseso fa grea tnumbe r of importedmil k productswer emad ean d experimental studieswit h ratsan dbird so ndiet swit hvariou smil k productswer e carried out. Donath,a modes tman ,wa sver y interested in thenutritiona lwell-bein go f the Indonesianpopulation . His studywa s bornou to fa concern for thenutritiona l consequenceso f tinnedmil k asa n infant food. His conclusionwa s thato n thewhol e importedmil k productswer e of a quality inaccordanc ewit h thedemand so fa goo dmilk . Itappeare d that withon eexceptio n thevitami nA levelo f thevariou smilk swa s still reasonablyhigh . ft"?D eLangen ,Professo r at theMedica l School in Weltevreden,wh oha dprepare d an introduction tothi s study,wa smor e outspokeno n the issue.H e came toth econclusio n that the increasingus e of tinnedmil k by thepopulatio n couldhardl yb e seena sa nadvantage . Children fedwit h ricepa pan dbanan awer eprobabl ybette r off than those fedwit h thewha th e called the "doubtfulblessings "o f themoder nmil k industry.Durin g the first twoyear so f lifeman y Indonesian children suffered fromnutritiona ldisorder s soi tshoul d havebecom e clear tothos e dealingwit h theseproblem s that itwa snecessar y toen d the free importo f -160-

deficientmil k products.Thi scoul db edon eb ymean so fa n import prohibition onproduct s fromwhic hal lnutritiona l valueha dbee n removed, orb yputtin g ahighe r importdut yo nproduct so fa lo wnutritiona l value.63 Donath's studyan dd e Langen's introductionwer emainl y oriented toth e vitaminvalu e ofmil kproduct san dno t somuc ho nprotei na sa usefu l supplement inth ediet .Thi snutritiona l aspectwa squit e characteristic of further discussionso nmil k imports.I t iso f interest tonot e thatCayau x inhi s criticalpape r on theus eo fmil k products inartificia l infant . 64 feeding in1883 ,th epre-vitami nera ,stresse d the importance ofprotein . Theonl ypeopl eoutsid emedica l andnutritiona l circleswh ower e suspiciouso fan d concerned aboutmil k importswer e of course those engaged inloca ldair y farming (Chapter6.3) . Itwa s theenergeti c and critical deHaa swh o took thequestio n ofmil k imports further.Togethe rwit hhi scollaborator ,th echemis t Ir0 . Meulemans,h epublishe da pape ro nth eus eo ftinne dmil k inth eMedica l Journal of theNetherland s Indies in1937 . Thispape r provoked heavyan d fiercediscussio n onth equestio no f importso fan d theus e of sweetened condensed skimmil kb y the Indonesianpopulation .D eHaa swa sno t against theus e ofmil k andmil k products for infant-feeding intropica l countries inprinciple ,bu th ebelieve d that certaincondition s toensur e proper hygiene,suc ha sguidanc e inus eb yhealt hpersone l and amil k producto fa highnutritiona l quality,shoul db emet .Henc ehi senthusias ma s earlier described for souredmil k (Chapter6.5) .Hi smai nargumen twa s thatbot h nutritionally and economically evaporated milkwa s thebes to fal l tinned milk intropica l countries and that sweetened condensed skimmil k was harmfulan d completelyunfi t for infantfeeding .

"Afterdilutio nwit hwate r sweetened condensed skimmil k hasonl y its name incommo nwit hmilk . In reality iti sa can e sugar solution containing a littleprotein ,mil k sugaran dminera l substances, without evena traceo f fato ro fvitami nA substances.Agains t this itma yb e contended thatanythin g (sweetened skimmilk ) isbette r than nothingwher en oothe r prepared infant food isavailabl e inth enativ e village.Bu t this- something - inthi s respect isperhap s evenwors e thannothing , seeing thata sa n infant food,sweetene d skimmil k has hardly anymor evalu e than ricewate r inwhic h sugarha sbee n -161-

dissolved,th eonl y- prepare d- infant food traditionally known to fifi thenativ epopulation. "

According tod eHaa san dMeulemans ,th epric eo f this "dangerous"produc t had in193 5 fallen toabou t 1/3 thatprevailin g in1928 .The y felttha t thisdeclin e of sweetened condensed skimmil kwa s tob e regretted,whil e a decline inth epric eo fothe r tinnedmil k productswoul dhav ebee n welcomed.Becaus e ofa declinin gpurchasin gpowe r among Indonesians,it s consumptionha d constantly increased.Peopl ewer e induced tobu y itbecaus e of its lowprice .Indonesia nan dChines e consumerswer e leftunde r the impression that sweetened skimmil kwa sa chea pmilk .A sa matte r of fact theywer e purchasinga produc t thatwa s littlemor e thansuga rwater . Also labelso nth e tinnedmil kproduct swer eofte nno tclear .Donat han d vanMarie ,afte r careful investigation,ha dpointe d out several years before that informationo nlabel so n tinnedmil k productswer e incomplete and evenmisleading . DeHaa san dMeuleman s fully supported Donath'san dva nMarie' s idea that skimmil k products should belabelle d conspicuously as such,a sha d tob e done for example inAustralia ,Britis h India,an d thePhilippines ,an d that thiscoul db edon eperhap s incombinatio nwit ha special importduty .D e Haasan dhi s colleagues called ita deceptio n ("it canhardl yb e designated by anyothe r term")tha t labelscontaine d no information that sweetened condensed skimmil kwa sutterl y inadequate asa n infant food.Neithe r in Malay,Chines eno r Dutchwa sproduc t informationprovide d and incase s where some informationwa sgiven ,i twa s inEnglis han dver ysmall . UnlikeDonat han dVa nMarie ,d eHaa swa s in favouro fa complete prohibition of sweetened condensed skimmilk .H e realized thatb y sucha measure adultsmigh tb edeprive d of theopportunit y ofprovidin g themselves with animal protein. Inhi sopinio n itremaine d aquestio nwhethe r adults really consumed sweetened skimmil k insuc hconsiderabl e quantities that therewa snutritiona l benefit.Suc ha slightadvantag ehoweve r did not counterbalance thehar m itdi d toth e "mosthelples s creatures inth e world,th ebottle-fe d infantso f thepoor" . De Haasan dMeuleman s came toth e conclusion that thecontinua l use of sweetened condensed skimmil k could causexerophthalmi a and even blindness in infants.A n importan d salesprohibitio n similar totha t inforc e in 71 other tropical countrieswas ,accordin g tothem ,urgentl y required. This clear and ratherviolen t pointo fvie wagains t sweetened skimmil kwa sno t -162-

onlynotice d inth earchipelago ,bu t likewise inth eNetherlands .A lengthy reviewo fth epape r appeared shortlyafte r inth eNetherland sMedica l Journal.

Ona professiona l level,th emai nexporte r of sweetened condensed skim milk toth eNetherland s Indies,th eCC F inLeeuwarden ,reacte dver y 73 promptly. Ina lengthypape rb y itssenio r chemistD rG.S .d e Kadt,sen t toth eedito r of theMedica l Journal of theNetherland s Indies,i twa s stated that therewa sa nawarenes so f thedange r of "castingwate r intoth e 74 Thames. De Kadt spokeo fa philippic ,tha tapar t fromth eviolen tan d discourteous toneagains t themanufacturer so fthi sproduct ,wa s unmotivated.Hi smai nargumen twa s thatdespit e the removal of the vitamins,ski mmil kwa s stilla usefu l sourceo fprotein .H e referred to theus e of the cheapski mmil k inth eNetherland sa spar to f government support tohousehold s affected byunemployment .H e further referred toth e fact thatbuttermilk , "somuc h favouredb yMessr sd eHaa san dMeulemans " had practically the sameconstituent s as skimmilk . In the same issueo f theJournal ,spac ewa sallocate d tod eHaa swh o 75 repliedwit h the French saying, "Quis'excus es'accuse" . Hismai n criticismo fd e Kadtwa s thatth ecor eo f theproble mwa sno t touchedo nb y speaking onlyo f skimmil k andno to f sweetened condensed skimmilk ,a product consisting ofabou t 42%sugar .I twa sno t true that the consumer gota goo d food fora littlemoney .Th e consumer payed ahig hpric e forth e imported sugarwhic hwa s themai n ingredient;expensiv e carbohydrateswhic h couldb e fiveo r six timescheape rwhe nobtaine d from local sugar cane.D e Haaswa sver y irritated byd e Kadtputtin g buttermilk and sweetened condensed skimmil k onth e same level,whic hh e called an impudence.Th e replyende dver yemotionall y byaskin gwhethe r Drd e Kadtha d the courage to seteye so n infantswh oha d become fullyo rpartiall yblin d afterbein g given sweetened condensed skimmilk .Accordin g tod e Haas,n o representative of the firmha d thecourag e tod o so.H ewa s furtherwillin g todiscus s thematte r again ifd eKad twoul d accept the invitationan d if he offered hisapologie s for the fact soman y childrenbecam eblin d after a 76 diet of sweetened condensed skimmilk . Fortunately ford eKadt ,h ewa s supportedb yD r J.M. Baartd e laFaille , professor in socialmedicin e atUtrech tUniversity , inth eNetherlands . Baartd e la Faillewa s chairmano fa commissio n of inquiry into the nutrition ofunemploye d households inUtrecht .Th e commission recommended -163-

thathousehold swh o couldno taffor d full-creammil k should at leastus e skimmilk . In193 6 thiswa s included ina food stampprogramm e for the unemployed inUtrecht . Ina lette r toth eedito ro f the journal hewrot e thatalthoug h thepape r had attracted attention inth eNetherland sh e could notagare ewit h theargument .Referenc ewa smad e towor kdon eb yProf . L.K. Wolff onth e improvemento fth eprotei n contento f school feedingwit h skim milk-powder.Furthe rh e askedwhethe r fivetime sdilute d sweetened condensed skimmil kwa sno tafte r allmor enutritiou s thanth e traditional ricewate rwit h sugar given to infantsan dwhic hdi dno tcontai nvitami n 78 A. ThisProf .Baar td e laFaill ewa sa clos e relative ofTj .P . Baartd e laFaill ewh owa s connectedwit h Internatio,th eCC F representative inth e 79 Indies.

Thepolemi c inth eMedica l Journal forth eNetherland s Indies continued. Muller,a missionar ydoctor ,workin g inYogyakart a argued thath e could appreciate theconcisenes so f theobjection sagains t theus eo f skimmil k on butno t fully themora l issueo fwho m toblame . He realizedhowever ,tha t as fara s food regulationswer e concerned,th egovernmen twa s lagging behind neighbouring countries like Siam.Mulle rquote da case inYogy a where Europeanparents ,becaus e ofth e failureo fbreast-feeding ,bega n to feed their two-month-old infanto nmil k sugar andwater .T owha texten twa s themanufacture r of themil k sugar responsible for thedeat ho f the child because of fermentation? Theappearanc e of thewor d "milk" inth e term 81 "milk sugar"ha dha d amagi c and tragiceffec to n the ignorantparents . Muller further recommended theus e ofth echeape r partial skimmilk-powde r for infant feeding inhospitals .Vegetabl e fatan deve nbutte r could be added asth e latterwa s still cheaper than inth eNetherlands .Indeed , cheapbutte r intin s imported fromAustrali a pushed Dutchbutte r fromth e market. And again theeve rmilitan tD rd eHaa s replied, first toBaar td e la Faille and later toMuller .H eargue d thatBaar td e la Failledi d not realize the greatan dessentia ldifferenc e between skimmil k and skimmil k with anadmixtur e of sugar,eithe r init scompositio n or itsapplication . Nonotic ewa sgive n toth edifferenc e between cheaply soldo r freely distributed skimmil k inth e richNetherland san d theexpensiv e sweetened condensed skimmil k containing not less than 40-45% added sugar,whic hwa s 82 sold inth e Indiest oth epoores t illiterates. DeHaa swa smilde r inhi s reply toMuller ,statin g thataddin gbutte r topartiall y skimmedmil k was -164-

Q-3 expensivean ddi dno teconomiz eo ninfan tfeeding . Hethe nreturne dt o thequestio no fXerophthalmi aan dth eissu eo fth edange ro fth esweetene d 84 skimmil kfo rinfan tfeeding . Ina narticl eentitle d "Oncemor esweetene dski mmilk "Donat hjoine di n 85 thediscussion . Hecalculate dwha ton ecoul dbu yfo rth evalu eo f2. 5 cent,o ra gobang ,i nth eloca lmarket si nBatavi a (Table7.1) .

Table7. 1 Theestimate dquantit yo fprotein san dfat sobtaine dfro mcertai nfoodstuff s onecoul dbu yfo r2. 5cent so r1 goban g- th epric eo fa neg g- i nBatavi a in1938 .

localfood s importedmil kproduct san dloca lmil k amountfoo d proteinfa t amount food protein fat

40g chickeneg g 4.8 4.8 250cc * dilutedsweetene d 4.5 0-0.5 75g duckeg g 9.0 9.0 condensedski mmilk . 35g meat,lea n 7.0 1.8 50c co r6 6g undiluted ; (cow,buffalo, priceo f1 ti no f30 0c c pig) or39 7g ,f 0.1 3 15g dendeng 8.2 1.5 100cc * dilutedsweetene dcon - 1.7 1.9 (driedmeat ) densedmilk .2 0c co r 35g ikansepa t 13.3 5.0 25.6g undiluted ; (driedsalte d priceo f1 ti no f31 0 fish) cco r39 7g ,f 0.3 5 50g ikangabu s 20.0 1.5 150cc * dilutedevaporate d 4.2 4.7 (driedsalte d milk.5 0c co r55. 5g fish) undiluted; 200g kacangtana h 63.0 95.0 priceo f1 ti no f41 0 (groundnuts ) or45 4g ,f 0.2 0

200g soyabean s 74.0 35.0 100c c freshco wmilk ,loca l 3.3 3.8 priceo f1 litr ef 0.2 5

250g tempekedel e 62.5 12.5 (fermentedsoy a beancake ) 250g fermentedgroun d nutcak e 47.0 6.0 200g tahu 10.0 8.0 (soyabea n balls)

Source:Adapte dfro mDonath ,193 8 *th emil kproduc twa sdilute dwit h watert obecom eclos et onorma lfres h milk.

Thiswa sa rathe rsensitiv eissue .A sa resul to fth eeconomi ccrisis ,th e expenditurepatter no fth ecommo nIndonesia nwa sreduce dt osuc ha leve l -165-

that in 1933 one could not spend more than a gobang a day on food. This was also indicated in the study by Ochse and Terra in Kutowinangun. The government became worried and the Director of the civil service, Muhlenfeld, requested the head of the Department of Public Health to look into the matter. The outcome was the statement that an adult Indonesian fifi should be able to feed himself on 2.5 cents a day. This reassuring statement by Muhlenfeld in 1933 caused great agitation both in and outside the Volksraad. A storm of protest broke out in the Indonesian press, reflected by cables from Moscow and newspaper reports in the Netherlands. It seems however that in general terms, the statement was confirmed by 87 other investigations. Donath was less convinced, and maintained that not only the quantity of the diet, but also the quality of the diet in terms of nutrients such as fats, proteins and vitamins should be taken into . 88 account. As for sweetened condensed milk, this product made a poor impression as a source of protein and fat (Table 7.1).Indee d for 2.5 cents, one could get more protein and fat from local food resources and infinitely more from foods of vegetable origin. However as far as milk and dairy products as a whole is concerned, sweetened condensed skim milk is,althoug h a poor source of fat, still valuable for its protein. Donath who had already been involved for some time in discussions on the labelling of milk products, doubted if a stripe in red or black on the label would be sufficient towar n illiterate consumers that the product was unfit for infant feeding. He recommend that the government follow the example of Siam by prohibiting all imports of sweetened condensed skim milk. Or to put it in his own words:

"Sweetened skim milk is a waste product of Western techniques, expensively sold, which the poor Indies - poor in correct ideas on nutrition, poor in fats in peoples' diet and poor in financial 89 resources - cannot make use of".

In the meantime the question of the import of sweetened condensed skim milk went beyond the professional circles. Some perturbed members of the Volksraad approached the government, putting a number of questions and urging the administration to take appropriate measures. This is discussed further under 7.3. In the Medical Journal for the Netherlands-Indies the discussion was -166-

moreo r lessclose dwhe n inJun e 1938 theofficia lpoin to fvie wo f the 90 Nutrition Institutewa spublished . Thispoin to fvie wwa smad ewhe n the head of thePubli c Health Service and theDirecto r ofEconomi cAffair s requested the Institute foradvis e onth enutritiona lvalu eo f skimmil k and skimmil k products.D eHaa smus thav ebee nver yhapp y asal lmember so f the Instituteunanimousl y agreed that theimpor to f sweetened condensed skimmil k init susua l formcoul dno t longerb e continued.Ther ewer en o objectionsagains t institutional use inhotel san do n ships,provide d sufficient control couldb eexercize d topreven t themil k fromcomin g into thehand so f thepopulation . Themember so f the Instituteha dn odifficultie s inacceptin g the import of skimmilk-powde r andevaporate d skimmilk .Thi swa sbecaus en o sugar was added toth eproduc t andu p till then itha dno tbee nuse d for infant feeding.However ,th emember swer e ofth eopinio n that itshoul d be labelled in sucha wa y that itcoul db eeasil ydistinguishe d from full-creammil kproducts .O n the label should be stated inDutch ,Javanese , Malay,Chines ean d English thatth eproduc twa sunfi t for infant feeding. A reactionoutsid e theEuropea n circleso fprofessional s came fromD r LoePin gKian ,a colleaguean d friend ofD rd e Haas. InDecembe r 1940h e summarized thewhol e skimmil kquestio nan dpublishe d iti nth eSi nP o 91 newspaper issued inBatavia . LoePin gKia n stressed thepoin t thatdurin g thepreceedin g 10year s sweetened condensed skimmil k hadbecom ea popular infant foodamon gth eChines ean d somegroup so f the Indonesianpopulation . Its import shouldb e considered asa grea t socialdanger .Howeve r despite expertadvic ean dpressur e fromth eVolksraa d thegovernmen twa s stillno t willingt oprohibi t itsimport .Lo ePin gKia n saidtha ti twa s tob e regretted that in favouro f thedair y industry innocent infantsar ebein g 92 sacrificed. Ina postcrip th e showed some irritationabou t thewa y the governmentplaye ddow n the resultso fOtten-va nStockum' s report.Accordin g tothi s report,2.9 %o f infants inth e townkampung swer e artificially fed, ofwhic h only 0.24% received sweetened condensed skimmilk .

"Only!Leavin g theexactnes s of thesepercentage sa sa nope n question, iti sstrang e tohea r from thegovernmen t thata par t - however small- o fa populatio n ofmillion so f infants facedwit h disease,blindnes s ordeat hdu e toth eus e ofa deficien tmil k 93 variety,ha sno tbee na poin to fmajo r concern". -167-

Despite all thecritica l remarks,th egovernmen twa s reluctantt od o anything aboutit .

7.3 Reluctance of thegovernmen t to regulate the importo f sweetened condensed skimmilk .

On thepolitica l level,discussio no nth equestio no fth e importing of sweetened condensed skimmil k tookplac e inth eVolksraad , or People's Council.Thi s institutionwa s established in1918 ,an dwa s in realitymor e anadvisor y councilwithou tmuc hdirec tpolitica l power.However ,wishe s and ideasexpresse d by theVolksraa d could notb e ignoredb y the 94 Governor-General. In192 5th e task of theVolksraa d changed frombein gonl yadvisor y to thato fbein g co-responsible for legislation.Toth egrea t disappointment of the Indonesiannationalist s the reformswer eno t far-reachingenough . 95 TheVolksraa d firstconsiste d of 39an d latero f6 0member so fwhic h 20 were Indonesians,1 5Dutc han d 3foreig norientals ,al l elected fora period of 4years .Beside s theelecte dmembers ,2 2wer e appointed by the Governor-General (10Indonesians ,1 0Dutc han d 2 foreign orientals). TheVolksraa d met twicea year . Itha d the rightt o introducebills , the righto fpetition ,th e righto famendment ,th e righto f interpellation and the right toexpres swishes an d judgements in resolutions.Member sha d the individual right topu t forwardquestion s toth egovernment .Th e Volksraad couldno tchang e thegovernment .Ther ewer e inth e colonial administrationn oministers ,an dneithe r theGovernor-Genera l nor the headso fdepartment swer e responsible tothi s institution.Th e chief functiono f theVolksraa d inful lassembl ywa s tocriticiz e thebudge t and relatedmatter so fgovernmenta lpolicy .A n importantaspec to f thewor k of theVolksraa dwa s thata hea d ofdepartmen t (thoughno ta member )attende d thediscussion s concerninghi sdepartment .Durin g sucha sessionh e explained thematter s ofhi sdepartmen tan d answeredan yquestion spu t to him.Thi sbrough t thehead so fdepartmen tmor e incontac twit h questions of concern fromth evariou s sectionso fth e society of theNetherland s 97 Indies. Indirectly itals oexercise d an influenceo n thechoic eo f heads ofdepartmen t inth e sense thatthe yha d tohav e theabilit y toac ta sa 98 governmentdeputy . Matterso flegislatio nan do f functionsconcernin g administrative routinewer emostl ydelegate d toa Colleg e ofDelegate s (Collegeva nGedelegeerden) .Thi spermanen t committeeo f 16member swa s -168-

electeddurin g the first sessiono f theVolksraa d for thewhol eperio d of fouryear san dpreside dove rb yth echairma no f theVolksraad . Itwa showever ,no t thenutritionist sbu t those engaged indair y farmingwh o firstbecam eworrie d aboutth e increasing importationo fmil k products.Loca ldair y farmingha d alreadyha d tofac ecompetitio n from importedmil k products forman yyears .Thi swa sparticularl y feltdurin g thedepressio n of the 1930's,whe ndeclin e inincom emean t thatth edeman d 99 for freshmil k diminished.

InJul y 1936a membe r of theVolksraad ,Doeve ,expresse d concernabou t the consequenceso f tinnedmil k importst oth egovernmen t representative Hart,wh owa sDirecto r of theDepartmen t ofEconomi cAffairs . Hedi d notunderstan dwh y thedairie s inth eplatea uo fBandun gha dha d their milk production regulated,whil e tinnedmil kwa s thegreates t competitor inth e indigenousdairyin g system.Wh yno t rather impose an importquot a 101 on tinnedmil k or increase the importduties ? The government representative replied that regulationo f thedairie s couldno tb e linkedwit h anunrestraine d importo fmil k products.Mil k importswer eno tdetrimenta l toloca lmil k production. Itwa s further argued thato n themarke t cheaptinne dmil k products cost1 4cent s fora tino f 400cc ,which ,i fdilute d tonorma lmilk ,sol d for thevalu e of 22.5cent sa bottl eo f70 0cc .Suc h apric e couldno tb e considered as being competitive for local freshmilk .Besides ,tinne dmil kwa s consumed by familieswh ower eno tuse d todrinkin gmil k ona regular basis.A n advantage for these familieswa s that tinnedmil k couldb e easily stored.102 Doeve,wh odi dno tagree ,cam ebac k tohi spoin tb yexplainin g that in Chinese tokos,peopl e took susuence r tob eno tonl y sterilizedmil k but also tinned evaporatedmilk .Thes e tinso f 400c c costaroun d 20cents . Diluted tonorma lmilk ,th epric eo fa litre camet o16. 5cents .H e also mentioned that thepric e of freshmil k inBatavi awa sunfortunatel y still 25-28 centsa litre. Doeve sawevaporate d milk andno t sweetened condensed skimmil k asth emai n competitor forth e localproductio no f freshmilk .Thi swa sbecaus e evaporatedmil k couldb e reconstituted toa product resembling,t oa certai nextent ,norma lmil k and couldb e solda t a lowerprice .Doev ewa s right inthis ,a sth econsumer so f sweetened condensed skimmil kwer e traditionally notconsumer s of freshmilk . -169-

Theproble mo fmil k importsan d local freshmil k production cameu p againdurin g budgetdiscussion s in193 8 forth eDepartmen t of Economic Affairs.Doev e stressed thenecessit y for theNetherland s Indiest obecom e 104 "inthi s timeo fpolitica l tension"self-sufficien t inmilk . He referred toth epape rwritte nb yD eHaa san dother si nwhic h theyurge d theauthoritie s toprohibi t the importo f sweetened condensed skimmil k on nutritional grounds.Doev e said that froma hygieni cpoin to fvie wan dno t froma commercial one,h e favoured aprohibitio no nth e importo f this product.Consumer s of sweetened condensed skimmil k couldno taffor d the priceo f freshmilk . Ifsweetene d condensed skimmil kwa sn olonge r available on themarket ,thes e consumerswoul dno ttur nt o freshmilk .Th e dairies could onlyb eaide d ifth e importso f thebette r kindo fmil k 105 productswer e tob eprohibited . Doeve said further that itwa sobviou stha tpeopl e inth eNetherland s would notappreciat e acur bo nth e importso f sweetened condensedmilk . When theDutc hLowe rHous eo fParliamen tdiscusse d thebil lo nsuga r import regulation,som emember sdre wattentio n toth e facttha tDutc h sweetened condensedmil kwa s soldt ocountrie s likeCub aan dCentra l America fromwher e the sugar for thisproduc t came.Doev ewondere dwh y the Netherlandsdi dno t feel obliged totak emor e sugar fromth e Indiesa sa kind of counter offer for themil k imports. Hart, thegovernmen t representative,indicate d toDoev e thatth e government couldno t impose importquota so nmil k products largely coming from theNetherlands .H edi dno twan t toembar k onth edifficultie s resulting from sucha n importquota .Furthe rh e fullyagree d thatmor e attention shouldb e given tostimulatin g localmil k productionan d consumption.A s for the importingo f sweetened condensed skimmilk ,Har t wasawar e of thedange r of itsus ea sa n infant food. Itwa s stilla nope n questionwhethe r orno t itwa s tooexpensiv e forus eb yadult si n relation to itsnutrients .Th e governmentha d requested theFoo dCommissio n toloo k into thematte r and togiv ea nearl yopinion .

Itwa sD rV.P .Leunisse nwh obrough tth enutritiona laspect so f the sweetened condensedmil k importsmor e specifically toth eattentio no f the memberso f theVolksraa d and thegovernment .Leunissen ,a narm y surgeon living inBatavi a and a friend ofD rd eHaas ,ha dbee na membe r of the Volksraad since 1935.I nJul y 1938durin gdiscussio no nth e 1939 budget for thePubli c Health Service,Leunisse nexpresse dhi s regret thatth e -170-

governmentha dno tye tmad eu p itsmin do n thequestio no fmil k imports, despite theavailabl e informationprovide d byd e Haas,Meuleman san d Donath,an ddespit e theadvic eo fth eNutritio n Institute.H eurge d the necessity for thegovernmen t togiv epriorit y inthi smatte r todemand s forpubli chealt h tob epu tabov eeconomi c interestsan d tomak e a 108 decision assoo na spossibl e on thequestio no fmil k imports.

Itwa sD rJ . Offringa,Chie f ofth ePubli cHealt h Service,wh o stated thatth egovernmen t couldno tye tmak eu p itsmin do n thematter .Th e Public Health Serviceha d alreadygive nadvic ebu t itwa s stillwaitin g fora reaction tocom e fromth eDepartmen to fEconomi cAffairs .Offring a continued by sayingther ewer e conflictingopinion swithi nmedica l circles.H e referred toth eVolksraa dmembe r Kruynewh owa sno t infavou r of importprohibition sbu t rather for food labelling.H e said further that thegovernmen twoul d speed thematte ru pan dgiv eal lpossibl e attention 109 toth eprotectio n ofth ehealt ho f infants inthi scountry . Ina rejoinder,Leunisse n said thegovernment' sanswe r onhi sple a for import prohibitionswa sno tencouraging .Publi chealt h should begive n first priorityan d therefore an importprohibitio nwa surgentl yneeded . Ina second replyOffring a confirmed thegovernment' swillingnes s totak e appropriatemeasure s for theprotectio n ofth ehealt ho f infants against thedandange c r of skimmil k products. Doeve intervented inth ediscussion , saying:

"Butho wlon gd ow ehav e towait ? Itha salread ybee n longer thana year ago since thisquestio nwa sbroache d byD rd e Haas". 112 Offringa replied: "Ihop ever ysoon" .

The governmentwa sapparentl y reluctant tomak e anydecisio no n the question of the sweetened condensed skimmil k imports,whethe r in the form of an importprohibition ,sale s restrictionso r food labelling,o r even whether todro pth ematte r as suchafte r careful considerations. InJul y 1939durin gdiscussio n on the194 0budge t for theDepartmen t of Economic Affairs,Leunisse n rightly complained thatn omeasure sha d so farbee n taken.

"Iwoul d like toas k inwhic h field thedifficultie s lie.Woul d the government informm e ifI a mcorrec t inlookin g forthe m inth e field -171-

of trade policy?Woul d they informm ewhethe r Ia m correct in assuming thatDutc h industryoppose s import prohibitions? Ia m very anxious to know itbu t Ibeliev e that Ia m not far from the 113 truth". " Ino w turn to the government andurg e itno t to delay anymore. Don't let it come to the sad fact of having subordinated the interests of the public health in this country to the interest of 114 Dutch industry".

After this sharp attack on the government policy,va n Mook, Director of 115 the Department of EconomicAffairs , replied for the government. He said that sweetened condensed skimmil k was indeed detrimental to the health of infants, but that as itwa s largely consumed by adults itprovide d a useful and cheapprotei n supplement.Befor e taking appropriate measures, itwa s necessary to investigate whether or notvitami nA and fat could be added in order tomak e it suitable for infant feeding.H e said that results from investigations were expected toarriv e soon.H e further expressed his hope that Leunissen would become convinced that public health interestswer e not being subordinated to trade policy 11fi considerations. The same kind of discussions dragged on during the debate on the Public Health Service budget and in the second term of the discussions on thebudge t for the Department of Economic Affairs. In theVolksraa d Leunissen gave a lengthy reviewo f Donath's study on what one could buy for the value of 2.5 cents or a gobang on the local markets of Batavia in terms of proteins and fats. Hewante d to refute the statement that sweetened condensed skimmil k was ausefu l and cheap source of protein.

A new element in the question of milk importswa s introduced when Dr W.F. Theunissen, Chief of the Public Health Service, informed Leunissen that trialswit h vitaminA fortification were being carried out and that resultswoul d soonbecom e available so thatmor e definite measures could 118 be taken. Within a very short time,va n Mook was ina position to state that trialswit h vitaminA fortification of skimmil k were succesful, and that these productswoul d soon arrive on themarket . In thiswa y the import of harmful products ceased and measureswer e prepared tod o this by 119 legalmeans . In February 1940va nMoo k came back to this issuewhe n he had to respond in theVolksraa d toa writte n question posed by Leunissen on the -172-

120 latestdevelopments . VanMoo k informed theVolksraa d thatmor e than90 % of the imported sweetened condensed skimmil k hadbee n fortified.Th e governmentha d inth emeantim e taken intoconsideratio nho wt osettl e it ona legalbasis .Shoul d importso fbot h fortifiedan dnon-fortifie d skim milk beallowed ,s olon ga sther ewa sa special labelo nth elatte r indicating that itwa sunfi t for infant feeding,o r should thereb ea prohibition on the importing ofnon-fortifie d skimmilk ? Theexistenc e of twotype so f skimmilk ,a fortifiedan da non-fortified one,wa s considered tob e tooconfusin g forth emas so f consumers.Th egovernmen tha d inmin d toprohibi t onth e importo f non-fortified milk and invie wo f this,a food regulationwa s being prepared.

"Thehonourabl emembe rwil l certainlyb eawar e that such a food regulation isa complicate d technicalmatte r so iti sno tye t ready. Inth emeantim e thematte r hasbee n solved insuc ha wa y that inth e opiniono f thegovernmen tal l interests concerned havebee n taken 121 intoaccount" .

Leunissen said thatalthoug h hewa s largely satisfiedwit h the Government's answer,hi sonl y concernwa swha twa s going tohappe n toth e remaining 10%o f imported sweetened condensed skimmil kwhic hwa sno t fortifiedwit hvitami nA , andwit h thestock sno tye t sold.H ewanted , in anticipationo f thene w food regulation,a ba no n the saleo f the remainingnon-fortifie d stocks.Va nMoo k replied that thegovernmen tdi d nothav e theauthorit y toprohibi t the saleo flegall y imported milk 122 productsan dpointe d out that itwa s atransitiona l period. Again in1940 ,th e skimmil kquestio n flaredu p inth eVolksraad . The government referred toa nunpublishe d reportb y thelat eMr s Otten-Van Stockumwhic h said thatonl y 2.9%o f the infants inth etow nkampung so f Bataviawer e artificially fedo fwhic honl y 0.24%b ymean so f sweetened 123 condensed skimmilk .

Up tothi stim e itha dbee nmainl y theEuropea nmember s of the Volksraadwh o took part inth ediscussion s onth e sweetened condensed skim milk question.Wer e the Indonesianmember s silentbecaus e ofothe r priorities sucha sth edeman d fora fully-fledged parliament and direct participation inth egovernment ?Ver y likelymil kwa s seena sa mino r -173-

issue comparedwit h the social andpolitica lproblem so f thepopulation . However,whe nD rd eHaa spublishe d a studyo n theprevalenc e of Xerophthalmia among children inBatavi a itwa s the Indonesianmembe r 124 Soekawatiewh o immediately reacted. He referred toth e studywhic h indicated thatvitami nA fortified sweetened condensedmil kwa s still an insufficient food for infantsa s itwa sfatless . Thequestio nof ,t owhic hexten tth eus eo f sweetened condensedmil k causedvariou s stageso fxerophthalmi a andblindnes shad ,u p till this time,no tbee ntouche dupon .I nvie wo fth eemotion scalle du pb y theus e of thisproduc t iti ssurprisin gho w fewdat ao nthi squestio nwer e collected.Th ephysicia nOtten-va nStocku mdi d have somedat a forSemaran g IPS (1920-1925)an d Bandung (1929-1930). Informationwa scollecte d onhom e feedingpractice s for Indonesian infantsbelo w theag eo f 1yea rwh oha d beenadmitte d toa hospita l suffering fromxerophthalmia . InSemarang ,6 outo f 13an d inBandun g 25ou to f 31case so fxerophthalmi awer e associatedwit ha hom e feedingbase d on sweetened condensedmilk .Befor e 1932n o casewa s foundb yOtten-va nStocku mo f infantsbein g fed ona skim milk product,wit h theexceptio no fon echil d inth e secondyea ro f life 126 whoha d received sweetened condensed skimmil k during itsfirs tyear . Inhe r opinion toomuc hattentio nwa sbein ggive n toski mmilk ,an d the 127 inappropriateness of sweetened condensedmil kwa sbein gneglected . De 128 Haasprovide d somedat a for the situation inBatavia . Inth e childrens department of theCentra l CivilHospita l inBatavi adurin g 1935-1938 clinicallyobserve d caseso fxerophthalmi awer e foundamon g 259 children (156boy san d 103 girls), being 5%o f the totalnumbe r of children 129 admitted. Informationwa s collectedo nhom e feedingpractice samon g the 152 infantsbetwee n 0-2 yearssufferin g fromxerophthalmi a (Tables7. 2 and 7.3). Of these infants,11 1ha d received anartificia l feedinga thome . Sixty seveno f these,o rabou t 60%ha dbee n fedo na die tbase d on 130 sweetened condensed skimmilk . Needless tosa yonl ya smallnumbe r of infants suffering from xerophthalmiawer eadmitte d toth ehospital .D eHaa swa sprobabl y right in hisconclusion s that in reality thenumbe r of caseso fxerophthalmi a associatedwit ha feedingbase d on sweetened condensed skimmil kwa s higher.

Howdi d it relate toth eothe rnutritiona l problemso f Indonesian children? From thevariou snutritio n studiescarrie dout ,i ti sapparen t -174-

thatbreast-feedin gwa suniversa l and even inurba nareas ,90 %o f children werebreast-fe d fora tleas ta year .Probabl yno tmor e than 5%o f the Indonesian infants inurba narea swer e fedartificiall ywit h condensed sweetened skimmed or full-creammil k or thetraditiona l ricewater .

Table 7.2 Type of feeding received athom eb y infants (0-2year so fage )befor e admittancewit hxerophthalmi a toth echildren' sdepartment ,Centra l Civil Hospital,Batavia ,1935-1938 . typeo f feeding received ageo fadmitte d infants total athom ebefor e admittance 0-1 year 1-2 years number number a. -breast-feedin g only 14 24 38 - mixed feeding 1 2 3 b. - sweetened condensed skim 37 6 43 milk only - sweetened condensed skimmil k 21 3 24 after breast-feeding c. - sweetened condensed milk only 19 1 20 - sweetened condensed milk after breast-feeding 8 4 12 d. -othe r artificial feeding 12 0 12 total 112 40 152

Source:base d ond eHaa se t al., 1940,p.937 .

Table 7.3 Formso fxerophthalmi a in infants (0-2year so fage )an d their feeding received athom ebefor eadmittanc e toth e children'sdepartment ,Centra l Civil Hospital,Batavia ,1935-1938 . typeo f feeding received formso fxerophthalmi a total athom ebefor e admittance blind blind inon eey e other forms number breast-feeding 11 5 22 38 mixed feeding 2 - 1 3 sweetened condensed skimmil k 21 14 32 67 sweetened condensedmil k 5 6 21 32 other artificial feeding 5 3 4 12 total 44 28 80 152

Source:base d ond eHaa se tal. ,1940 ,p.937 . -175-

Withoutan ydoubt ,fo r a largepopulatio n this small percentage nevertheless presented an interesting market for the condensed milk industry.Va n Stockum had avali d pointwhe n she stated by that the significance ofa small groupo f artificially fed infants and their life expectancywa s onlyo fmino r importance compared toth eman y times greater group of children.Thes eyoun g childrendespit e theprivileg e of having enjoyed breast-feeding,woul d bewrecke d ingrea tnumber s after their first year and before their sixthyea r because ofa n injudicious and insufficient nutrition. ... 13.1 Thishoweve r doesno t imply that theproble m should have received less attention. Thevariou snutritio n and healthpeopl eworkin g inth e archipelagower e absolutely right inthei rbelie f thata skimmil k product deprived of itsvitami nA wasunfi t for infant feeding,an d that the condensed milk industry should takea mor e responsible attitude.Th e need fora food lawan d anadequat e food control system tocove rmil k products waswel l pointed out.However ,th e intensity of thediscussio n meant that therewa s adange r of overlooking other nutrition problems in infants and children.Als o anadequat e food lawa s suchwa sno t going to solve basic causes ofmalnutrition .

7.4 The point ofvie wo f the condensed milk industry

As Ihav e already stated inChapte r 6.6, Part II,on eo fNestle' s basis policieswa s togiv e preference to full-creammil k products.Ther ewa s a reluctance to introduce skimmilk .Apar t from aconcer n for ahig h quality product,anothe r factor taken intoaccoun twa s that the consumer often considered sweetened condensed skimmil k asa cheap substitute. Inorde r to protect their share inth emarke t against the threato f cheaper products Nestle only introduced skimmil k when ane wbran d managed toacquir e a 132 certain position. Inth e Indies thiswa s thebran d Cowshead, a skimmil k product thatprotecte d the interests ofNestle .T omaintai n the strong position ofMilkmai d itwa snecessar y forNestl e toas k for import regulations and even restrictions of sweetened condensed skimmilk . In 1927 theTrad eAssociatio n ofBatavi a requested thehea d of theDepartmen t of Public Health to takemeasure s todistinguis h skimmil k insuc ha wa y that 133 confusion between these twoproduct swoul d beprevented . It isver y likely thatNestl ewa sbehin d this initiative.Whe n in193 7 the skimmil k question flared up and further demandswer e made toth e government for food -176-

labelling, the CCF representative Huges reported that Keller of Nestle had 134 been insisting on such labelling for 5years . We have already seen how Dr de Kadt of CCF in Leeuwarden responded to the skimmil k question. It is of interest to note that it took quite an effort to have his point of viewplace d in the Medical Journal of the Netherlands Indies.Huge s received de Kadt's paper with the request to 135 submit it to the editor for publication. In a letter to CCF, Huges complained that he,a s a non-medical man,wa s not making any advance with placing it in the medical journal.Th e editor was not very keen to give business people the opportunity of attacking a colleague in their midst. If refused, itwoul d be possible to send the paper in the form of a brochure to all physicians as had been advised by a medical doctor (whowa s no great 136 friend of Dr de Haas). The problem was finally solved when, on the advice of one of the editors, the paper was edited and signed as a 137 communication from Dr de kadt and not from the CCF. In the meantime CCF realized that further discussions with Dr de Haas 13f l would serve no useful purpose. This opinion was based on a discussion between Hepkema and two medical professors from the University of Utrecht with working experience in the Indies,D r CD. de Langen and Dr A ten 139 Bokkel Huinink. On their advise,Hepkem a approached the Nutrition Institute in the Indies and pointed out that according to information received, sweetened condensed skim milk was generally not used for infant feeding.Al l available labels (in the Netherlands)wer e immediately provided with a text in Dutch and Malay stating that the milk was not fit for infants. Hepkema further put forward the idea that the CCF had never made any effort to promote skim milk for infant feeding and that even on this matter, an agreement had been signed with Nestle.

"We don't see everything from the point of view of self-interest. This may be proved by an exchange between the Burgomaster of Bandung and our Cooperative. Here we gave our opinion on the way the Bandung Milk Depot could be developed and we have the impression that advice given by our dairy experts has been accepted. Finally I am of the opinion that the blame Dr de Haas has given tou s as manufacturers of 141 sweetened condensed skim milk isneithe r justified nor correct". -177-

Further referencewa smad et oth efac ttha tCC Fha dbegu nt oloo k into questions concerning full-cream sweetened condensed milk asa ninfan t food invie wo fth eunfavourabl e opinionso fsom ephysicians . Inth emeantim e theCC Fbega nt orevitaminiz e their skimmil k products and other manufacturers followed (Figure7. 1an d7.2) . Thisprove d tob ea sensible approach toth eproblem .D rW.J . Bais,physicia na ta medica l centre fora numbe r ofplantation s inTebingtinggi ,o nth eeas t coasto f Sumatra, senta circula r letter toth eplantatio n managers inDecembe r193 9 advising themt oprohibi t theus eo fsweetene d condensed skimmil k inth e 142 plantation area. Ascoul db eexpected ,th eadviv ewa saccepte dan d carriedout .

ONGESCHIKT ..„, CONDENSED KiNDERVOEDING SWEETENEDy Oeiff bus b«»a* ges:0Kri«meerd» oidtsi ANAK ANAK ISDA meik wet iuiker en >i *oof 'a! vert doc einderc gewhikr, ah SAi

Figure7. 1 Label froma ti no fsweetene d condensed skimmil k indicating itsus ei n coffee,tea ,coco aan dfo rhousehol d purposes.Thi s revised label statesi n both Dutchan dMala y thati ti sunfi t forinfan t feedingan dtha ti sha s been revitaminized,193 9(b ycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) . (notclearl y reproduced becauseth eorigina l letteringwa sred )

.FRIESCHEVLAG - GECQNDENSEERD;c^: EGESU1KERD EJ*»*««u»w»,.f~«i»vb, '.*» »

NEnO GEWICHT 397 GRAM VOLIE V*^^ MELK

COOrettATtEVC COND6NS*A«M9C „FRICSUNO' UEUWAKDfcN

Figure7. 2 Labelo fsweetene d condensed milk indicating itsus ei ninfan t feeding. Instructionsar epartiall y inMalay ,194 0(b ycourtes yo fCCF ,Leeuwarden) . -178-

Stavermantrie d toconvinc eD rBai stha t skimmil kwa sgenerall yno t used asa n infant food.Th ephysicia nhoweve r remained adamant that skim milkwa sexclusivel yuse d for infant feedinga s itwa s tooexpensiv e for household use.Th eAssociatio n ofDel i Planters (Deli PlantersVereeniging ) senta follow-up circular letter inMarc h 1940t oal l itsmembers ,pointin g out thedange r of skimmil k because of itslac k ofvitami nA . It further stated that somemanufacturer sha d takenmeasure s to revitaminize skimmil k and that thiswa salread y trueo fth e skimmil k from FriescheVlag .A requestwa smad e toth emember s tochec k themedica lward so nth e plantation insuc ha wa y thatn oski mmil k couldb ebough twithou t the 143 indication that itha dbee n revitaminized. Needless tosa yStaverma nwa s veryplease dwit h thiscours e ofthings ,an dconclude d thatCC Fha da n 144 important lead onNestl e andothe r competition. DrBai swa s takenb y surpriseb y thecircula r letterwhic h fell intohi s hands. Ina letter toCCF' s importing firmi nMeda nh e said itwa sunwis e todea lwit h importantmatter so fpubli chealt hwithou t theadvic e of 145 concerned and interestedphysicians . Infac tStaverma nagree dwit h this reaction,bu t rather thantel lD rBais ,h e communicated itt oCC F in Leeuwarden.H ementione d that the lesson tob e learned fromD rBai swa s that itwa s important tomak emor e effort tomak e contactwit h physicians.

7.5 Other reactions

Whatwa s theeffec to f the skimmil kquestio noutsid e the circles of professionals,th e industry itself,member so f theVolksraa d and government officials? Did itcreat ea kin d ofpubli c concern,a noutcr y some resembling theheate ddebat e that followed thepublicatio n in197 4o f the "BabyKiller" ,a brochur eo n thepromotio nan d saleo fpowdere dmil k for 147 infant feeding? InPar t I,Chapte r 3.5 Ishowe d that inEnglan d inth e 1920's, the questiono f skimmil k importsan dvitami nA wa s causing awid e concern.I n Singapore thenutritionis tD rCicel yWilliams ,wh o in1934 ,introduce d the termKwashiorko r forprotei ndeficiency ,bega na tirad e againstwha t she considered the cupodityo f the infant food industry.Ski mmil k productsha d beenprohibite d inSingapor e forquit e some timebu t therewa s a fear that breast-feeding mightb e replacedb y sweetened condensedmilk . Inth e autumn of 1939,Cicel yWilliam swa saske d toaddres sth eSingapor e RotaryClub . -179-

Thetitl eo fhe r talkwa s "Milk andMurder "an d to theastonishmen t of the assembledworthie s sheaccuse d themo f collusion ininfanticide .Accordin g toD rWilliams ,employer sencourage d theirwor k people,thei r servantsan d theirwive s to feedbabie so n tinnedmilk .Sh ewen to nt o saytha t anyone who ignorantly or lightly caused abab yt ob e fedo nunsuitabl emilk ,wa s guiltyo f thatchild' sdeath .Breast-feedin gwa sno tconsidere d smartb y a large sectiono fth epopulation ;Chinese ,Malay ,European ,Eurasian , Indian,ever yon e of them. InSingapor e therewa s somedeadl y influence which affected richan dpoo ralike . "Icanno t feedm ybaby "wa sa sorto f parrot crywhic h one continually heard,althoug h itwa softe nno t true.I t wasa claim to sophistication andwa s often thedeat hknel lo f thebaby . She told themo fChines ewome nbindin g theirbreast s sotha tthe ybecom e emaciated oruseless ;o roverworke d mothers ando fth edeplorabl e economic conditions that forced themt og oou tt owork .Sh e spoke of the necessity forVitami nA . Shebegge d them tous eonl yunpolishe d ricean d to insist thatthei rwive san ddaughter sbreast-fe d theirchildren .He r lectureende d by stating thatmisguide d propaganda on infant feeding should be punished as themos t criminal formo f sedition.Th e effecto nth eEuropea n audience waselectrifying ,bu t itshoul d be realized that itdi dno t touch the larger sectionso f thepopulation .Furthe r it iso f interest tonot e that DrWilliam s cleared herselfwit h the localNestle' s representative before 148 speaking,an d that shedi dno t in factmentio nan yproprietar ynames . This tiradewa squit e remarkable asD rWilliam sha d gained apositiv e viewo f sweetened condensed milk duringhe rwor k asa paediatricia n inWes t Africa inth eGol d Coast (Ghana)fro m 1930-1936.Sh e recommended sweetened condensed milk asa mean so f swift recovery for infantsafte r severe illness,t ob e followed bydrie do revaporate dmilk .A tAccr a shebega n to reorganize theoutpatient' sdepartmen t of thePrinces sMari e Louise Hospital insuc ha wa y thata Wel lBab yClini c couldb ekept .Furthe r she started tiny clinics inborrowe d garages,schoolroom san deve n shop fronts inth eare aaroun dAccr a inorde r to reachlarge r sections ofth e population.Thes e clinicswer e runb y trainedhealt hvisitor s together with nurses from thechildren' shospital .A t every clinicvariou s typeso f food including sweetened condensed milkwer eprominentl y displayed andD r Williams instructed hernurse s toencourag emother s tous e thema sa 149 weaningdiet . Herwor k inWes tAfric a hadmuc h incommo nwit h thekin d ofactivitie sD rd eHaa swa sundertaking . In193 9 shelef tSingapor e for some timean d convalescedwit h some friends inth e Indiesi nth e farbette r -180-

climateo f thehill sabov eBatavia .Whe n sheme tDr .d eHaa s she fully underestimated his importantwor k ininfan tan d childnutritio n andhi s social concern forth ehealt ho f the Indonesianpopulation .O r topu t it in theword s ofhe rbiographer :

"She took theopportunit y tovisi t thehospita l ofa Dutc h paediatrician called Dr J.H.d e Haas,wh owa s sowrappe du p inhi s research into congenital syphilistha thi s remedy for theubiquitou smalnutrition , worse even than inSingapore ,wa s todistribut e bottles ofmilk . Cicelywa sno t impressed."

It ismos t likely that these twover y strongpersonalitie sha d great difficulty incommunicatin gwit heachother .

In theNetherland s Indies theski mmil k question,s oheatedl y discussed inth eprofessiona l journalsan ddebate d inth eVolksraad ,ha d onlya limited effectoutsid e these circles.Thi swa sals o trueo fth e Netherlands,wher e thequestio nwa shardl ydiscusse d inpublic .A searcho f themajo r journalso f theDutc hdair y industry showsn o reference toit . Tenyear searlie r inEngland ,th e samequestio nha d been extensively discussed.Som e referencewa smad e invariou s journalst oothe r tropical countries.Whe n forexampl e the FederatedMala yState smodifie d the import regulations in1933 ,detaile d informationwa sgive no n thewarnin g tob e affixed toth e tin;th e contentsmus tno tb egive n toth e illo r to children. In193 6 theprivat e condensedmil k industry inth eNetherland s expressed its fear thatbecaus e of fierce competition,th equalit yo f the condensed milk and itscontainer swa s likely tosuffer . Under these circumstances manufacturerswer e compelled toeconomiz e on rawmaterials .Again ,a swit h the skimmil kquestio n inEngland ,nothin gwa s saido n the fat-soluble vitaminsA andD an d their importance ininfan t feeding. An extensive reviewo fo fd eHaa san dMeuleman spape rwit h theirver y severe criticismso f the importing of sweetened condensed skimmilk ,wa s 154 published inth eNetherland sJourna l ofMedicin e in1937 . No onehoweve r took up thematte r inth eNetherland s ormad ea publi c issue ofit . ApparentlyD rd e Kadto f theCC F inLeeuwarde n thought itmor e sensible to arguewit hD rd e Haas ina professiona l journal inth eNetherland sIndies . The effecto f theski mmil k questionwa s likewise limited inth eIndies . -181-

In the Dutch language daily newspapers, such as the Locomotief and the Java Bode, no reference was made to the debate in the Volksraad on skim milk 155 imports. In the special weekly edition of the Locomotief destined for the Netherlands, the request for an import prohibition was hardly 156 mentioned. In 1931, in two Malay language newspapers, one of which was the Djawa Tengah of Semarang, a rather technical article appeared under the heading; "Has skim milk the same value as full-cream milk?". It discussed the problem that mothers, out of poverty, bought cheaper foods and used skim milk for infant feeding. Further attention was given to the need to warn the public against skim milk. The article concluded that the government should issue a regulation that on a tin or on the brand name of the skim milk the words "Not fit for infants or small children" should 157 appear. Oddly enough itwa s the weekly of the conservative Vaderlandsche Club that gave a brief review of the discussion in the Volksraad, under the 15f t heading; "Skim milk under certain circumstances a danger". The review was signed by Kr., which was most likely Dr H. Kruyne, member of the Volksraad and committee member of the association of De Vaderlandsche Club (Patriotic Club).

Why was there such a poor public response to the skim milk question? It confirms a complaint expressed byW.H . van Helsdlngen, the President of the Volksraad on the weak relation between the Volksraad, the press and the 159 public. Debates were hardly reported in the press, neither in the Dutch nor the Indonesian newspapers.Accordin g to van Helsdingen, this may have been due to a kind of interaction between the opinion of the press that the educated public was not served with reports that could not be considered as pleasant reading and a general indifference of the public for the work of the Volksraad. Another factor may have been the economic crisis which had so affected the economies of both the Indies and the Netherlands that little attention was being paid to ethical questions. Or to say it more simply, people had other things toworr y about. One general concern about tinned milk remained, and that was the price. In 1939 the government decided to allow importers to increase the price of tinned milk by 27.5% in view of the rising costs of raw materials and containers. As a reaction, one newspaper (Indische Courant, Surabaya) commented that tinned milk and milk products were no luxury. It said that the Department of Economic Affairs paid more attention to the interests of the importers than to those of the general public. -182-

7.6 Responsibilities of thecondense dmil k industry

Were thenutritionist s right inblamin g thecondense dmil k industry for creatingvitami nA defiencyproblem san d evenblindnes samon g infants becauseo f theirpromotio no f sweetened condensed skimmilk ? Inth emateria l consulted inth earchive so fCC F concerning the Netherlands Indies Icoul d findn oevidenc e for thepromotio no f skimmil k for infant feeding.However ,a swa smentione d inChapte r 6.6, Part II,i t wasver y likely thatmother s shifted from full-creammil k toth e cheaper skimmil k for infant feeding.Observation smad e and reported by the staff of Internatioand ,a ta later stage,b y the salesmanager sHuge san d Stavermano n theus eo f thevariou skind so fmil k productsmak ehardl yan y reference toski mmil ka sa n infantfood .Thi sma yhav ebee nbecaus e businesscontact swer emainl ymad ewit hwholesalers ,tokos ,warung san d coffeeshops rather thanwit hhealt h centres.Th e condensedmil k industry exporting toth e Indieswa showeve rwel l aware ofth e reservationsabou t and eventh eobjection so fhealt hauthoritie s tosweetene d condensed skim milk. Itwa s the staffo fhealt hcentre swh ower e facedwit h theproble mo f infantsbein g fedo n skimmil k deprived of itsvitamins ,althoug h breast-feedingwa salmos tuniversall ypractised ,i nth eurba nareas , probablyno tmor e than 5%o f Indonesian infantsbein gartificiall y fed. Condensedmil kwa s indeman dbecaus eo f lactation failure orwher e the mother haddied . Inth emateria l analysed for this studyI coul d findn o clear indication that thedeman d forcondense dmil k (full-creamo r skimmed)wa sbecaus e tinnedmil kwa s seena sa signo fmodernit yo rbecaus emother sha d less time tocar e for their infantsa s theybecam emor e involved in income earning activitiesoutsid e thehousehold .Ther ema yhav ebee n some exceptions tothi s inth eplantatio narea so nth eeas t coasto fSumatra . Inth emeantim e the industry couldno t ignoreth epoin to fvie wo f the nutritionistsan dpubli chealt hauthorities .A s Isai dbefore ,a majo r step inth e rightdirectio nwa swhe nCC Fbega n to revitaminize itsski mmil k productsahea d of itscompetitors .

The sweetened condensed skimmil k questionbecam eovershadowe d byevent s which changed the situation fundamentally. InMa y 1940,th eNetherland swa s occupiedb y theGermans ,leavin g theNetherland s Indies inth eod d -183-

1fil situationo fbein ga colon ywithou ta motherlan d .Mil kimport sfro mth e Netherlandswer eo fcours einterrupted .O n8t hDecembe r1941 ,th e NetherlandsIndie sdeclare ditsel fi na stat eo fwa rwit hJapan ,an dthre e monthslater ,o n8t ho fMarc h1942 ,th earme dforce scapitulate da tth e airporto fKalijat ii nWester nJava .Ou to fthi ssituatio nwhic hwa s difficultfo rbot hIndonesian san dDutch ,th eRepubli co fIndonesia nwa s born.Th ecolon ywa sofficiall yproclaime dindependen to n17t hAugus t1945 . -184-

8.POSTSCRIPT :MIL K INMODER N INDONESIA 1945-1985

8.1 General

TheJapanes e occupationo f Indonesia caused a sharpdeclin e inth e number ofdair y cattle. Nearlyal lEuropean-owne d dairies disintegrated andwell-know n dairy farmssuc ha sthos eo fUrson ean dHirschlan dan dva n 2 Zijldisappeared . Itdi dno thoweve r meana nen d todairyin g assuch . During the Indonesian revolutionan d struggle for independence inth eyear s 1945-1949, several Dutchdair yowner stoo ku pthei rbusines sagai na s if nothing had changed. In194 7 for instance,i nJakarta ,a mode l dairy,th e Bataviase Model Boerderij,wa sestablished . Likewise firms sucha sNestl e and CCF resumed their exporto f tinnedmil k toIndonesia .Th eCCF ,th e majorDutc hexportin g firmo f tinnedmilk ,wa sconfronte dwit hman y problemsa she rproduct so n theoversea smarke tha d almost disappeared during theSecon dWorl dWar . InJul y 1946,expor to f condensed milk to Indonesia resumedunde r difficult circumstances,havin g tocompet e heavily 4 withAustralia n andAmerica nbrands . Inth emeantim e however,ther ewa s thecontinuin gproces so fmil k imports,loca lmil k production,processin gan ddistributio npassin gmor e andmor e in Indonesianhands .Milk ,onc e anexoti c element inth e society, became Indonesianized.Thi swa s connectedver ymuc hwit h the riseo fa n Indonesianmiddl e classafte r thebeginnin go f the20t hcentur y (Chapter 6.4).Whe n in194 9 theDutc h finally recognized theRepubli c of Indonesia, manyo f theirposition swer e takenove rb y this Indonesianmiddl eclass . Theproces swa s further acceleratedwhen ,durin g theconflic twit h Irian Jaya in 1958,Dutc hpossession swer enationalize d and theexpulsio no f Dutchnational s fromth ecountr yoccurred .Likewis eCC F (atleas t temporarily)an d itstradin gpartne r Internatioha d toen d itsactivitie s afterman yyear so fbusines s intha tpar to f theworld . Inorde r tofil l thevacuu m thatwa s created,arm yofficer sbecam emanager s of companiesan d plantations.Th e armyemerge d asa social force inth e Indonesian society. It isofte n said that there isn omiddl e class in Indonesia,bu tonl ya wealthy elite on theon ehan d anda poverty-stricke nmas so n theother . This ishoweve r too simplistic avie wo f Indonesian society.Ther e isa n Indonesianmiddl e classalthoug h it is rather amorphous interm so f occupation and status,wealt h andpower . Itca nb edescribe d as still being a floatingmass ,whic h ineconomi c terms iscertainl ybette r off than -185-

the lower classes.Som e groupswithi n itma yb e closer toth euppe r class, o butmos t of themar e still closer to the lower class. It includes civil servants,teacher s andacademics ,engineers ,doctors ,lawyers ,journalists , airline pilots,busines s executives,othe r "white collar"worker s and employers. Itha sa nurba nmiddl e classculture ,an d itslifestyl e and attitudes provide theunderlyin g coherence.Thi s ismos t evident in Jakarta,bu t it isbein g diffused throughout the country through education, g radio, television andmagazines . Because advertisements areplace d in the media,bran d nameso fvariou s products areno wbecomin g known inman y parts of the country. It iso f interest to see that,fo rexample ,women' s magazines sucha s Kartini advertize avariet y of tinned milkbrands .

8.2 Freshmil k andmil k products

Dairieswer e taken over from theDutc hb y Indonesians and in places where large dairy farmsdisintegrated , itwa s the farmerswh o continued dairying as smallholders. The importancewhic h both the government and a number of Indonesians attach todairyin gma y be seen from the fact that in present day Indonesia a smallbu tnevertheles s activedair y industry can be 12 found. Themajo r freshmil k producing areasare : - East Java;Yogyakarta , Surakarta,Boyolali ,Ungara n and Semarang - West Java;Bandung ,Bogo r and Jakarta 13 - North Sumatra;Meda nan d its surroundings. These centres of freshmil k production correspond roughlywit h the dairy centres of late colonial Indonesia. The supply of freshmil k toconsumer sdepend sbasicall y on two different groups ofmil k producers.I nth e firstplac e theurba n and peri-urban dairy farmerswh o sell their milk directly and indirectly tocustomer s in the nearby towns.Thes e producers include both larger farmersan d smallholders. Secondly there are the small ruralmil k producerswh o often have fewer than 5 cows.Mil k issol d either throughdair y cooperatives or through 14 associations. A major point of concern isth ewea k development of the "milk line", the flowo fmil k fromproduce r tocollector , from processer 15 anddistribute r to consumer. Thisma y lead todifficultie s such as spoilage ofmilk ,dilutio n of freshmil k withwate r andproblem s in absorbing milk surpluses.Severa l aspects of this freshmil k supply have already beenmentione d inChapte r 5.2 and 5.3.However ,wha t isver y new and striking isth e concerno f thegovernmen t with thedevelopmen t ofa -186-

nationaldair yindustry ,wit hspecia lemphasi so nsmallholders . Dairycattl ear et oa larg eexten towne db ysmallholders ,an dthi si s particulartru eo fth esituatio ni nEas tJav a(Tabl e8.1) .

Table8. 1 Thenumbe ro fdair ycattl eo fsmallholder san dcommercia lenterprise si n Indonesia,1979 .

smallholders commercialenterprise s total

(numbero fdair ycattle )

Java 6000 0 2500 0 8500 0 EastJav a 2700 0 700 0 3400 0 Indonesia 6700 0 2700 0 9400 0

Source:Directorat eGenera lfo rLivestoc kServices .1981 ,quote db y FeasibilityStudy ,1982 .

Itshoul db erealize dtha ti nIndonesi ales stha n40 %o fth edair ycow s arelactatin gcows .Cow sbelongin gt osmallholder sproduc ea naverag eo f 1400litre spe rlactatio nan dthos efoun do nlarge rdair yfarm sgiv eabou t 2500litres . Mostdair ycattl eowner sca nb eclassifie da sbetter-of f farmers.Smallholder sca nb edivide dint othre egroups .Th efirs tgrou p consistso fthos ewh oow ndair ycattle .A secon dgrou pconsist so f shareholders.Thes ear esmal lfarmer st owho msom eowner sma yentrus tthei r non-lactatingcow sfo rgenera lcar eunti lthe yar eagai ni ncal fwhe nthe y arereturne dt othei rowner .Th ethir dgrou par eth egrass-cutters ,poo r andlandles sfarmer swh oobtai nsom eincom eb ysupplyin gdair yowner swit h 17 grassan dherb sobtaine dfro mth eroadside . Amajo rlimitin gfacto ri nth edevelopmen to ffres hmil kproductio ni s thati na ver ydensel ypopulate dislan dlik eJav ather ei sno tmuc hspac e forth eproductio no fcattl efeed .Thi sha st ob ecollecte dfro mgras s growinga tth eroadside san dfro mcro presidues .O nth ewhol ethi sfee di s ofa poo rquality .Wit hth eincreas ei ndair ycattle ,ther ei sa dange r thatpoo rfarmer swil lno tb eabl et ofin dfee dfo rthei rdraugh tcattl eo r 18 forth esmalle rruminants ,goat san dsheep . Dairyingb ysmallholder swil l thereforedepen dver ymuc ho nth efurthe rdevelopmen to flow-cos tfeed s 19 fromcro pan dagro-industria lresidues . Moreselecte ddair ycattl ewit ha greaterdeman dfo rfeed swil lagai ncompet ewit hth esmal lruminant sfo r betterfeeds . -187-

Domesticmil k productionaccount s foronl yabou t 10%o f the totalmil k consumptiono f Indonesia,an ddair y farmershav e tocompet eheavil ywit h 20 themarketin g activitieso f thecondense dmil k industry. Thiswa s already the case inth e 1930's (Chapter 7.3).A t theen do f the1960' sth edeman d formil k andmil k products rose insuc ha wa y that the government encouraged foreign firms likeNestle ,Indomil k and Foremost toestablis h dairy factories for theproductio no fmil k products from imported 21 milk-powder andbutte r fats. Thisshoul db e seena seffort so n thepar t of thegovernmen t tocreat ea n import substituting industry (Table8.2) . Averagemil k imports rose inth eperio d 1961/65- 1973/77fro m8 410 0t o 22 31710 0metri c tons inwhol emil kequivalents .

Table 8.2 Milk production,consumptio nan dannua lgrowt h rate1961-6 5an d 1973-77 averages inIndonesia .

1961/65 1973/77 growth rate 1000metri c tons percent wholemil k equivalents milk production 36.0 50.5 279 milk consumption 120.1 367.6 9.8 annual populationgrowt h 2.5

Source:base d on Sarmaan dYeung , IFPRI,1985 .

After Indonesia and theNetherland s resumeddiplomati c and economic relations in1963 ,CC Festablishe d a "Friesian Flag"dair y inJakart awhic h becameoperationa l inMarc h1971 .I tproduce s sweetened condensedmil k by recombining importeddrie d skimmil k andbutte r fats.Othe r firmslik e Foremostproduc e filledmilk ,a mil k productprepare d fromproduct sbase d on importeddrie d skimmil kwhereb y thebutte r fatshav ebee n replaced by 23 local fatso fvegetabl e origin. The comingo f theUH Tmil k (ultrahig h temperature treatment)i ncarto n containersha sals omad e an impact in 24 Indonesia. Milkwit ha lon gkeepin gqualit y insmal lhand ycarto n containerswit hvariou s flavoursca nno wb e found inal l thebi gcities . Until the 1970'sonl ya fewdair y factoriesuse d locallyproduce dmil k inthei rmil k products.I n197 8ther ewa sa majo r reversal ingovernmen t policy towards the roleo f smallholders inth emil k industry. InMa y 1978 the government announced thatmil k processing factoriesmus tbu yal l locallyproduce dmil k presented tothe m inacceptabl e conditiona t pre-agreed highprices .Thi sha sbee no fgrea tencouragemen t to Indonesian 25 dairy smallholders. One remainingproble m istha tth equalit yo f themil k -188-

delivered isno talway su p toacceptabl e standards.Th e rationale behind thepolic y ist osubstitut emil k importswit h localproduct san d to raise the incomeo fdair y smallholders.Severa l governmentdepartment s are involved inth e furtherdevelopmen t of themil k industry; theDepartmen to f Cooperatives,th eDirectorat eGenera l ofLivestoc k inth eDepartmen t of Agriculture,an d theDepartmen to f Industryan dHealth .Compare d toth e effortbein g givent omil k productionbase do ncattle ,les sattentio n is beinggive nt obuffal oo rgoa tmilk .

8.3 Milk consumption

27 The consumptiono f freshmil k ismainl ylimite d toth ebi g cities. In the early 1950'sfres hmil kwa s chieflyuse db yhospitals ,clinic s and the 28 morewell-to-do . In195 5th eanthropologis t Freedmanmad e some interesting observations onmil k ina n Indonesian society. InKampun gUta n (regiono fPasa r Minggu),a fruitgrowin g area some2 4k m fromth e centre of Jakarta,h eobserve d that some farmerskep ta fewdair y cows.Th emil k was rarely consumed by thevillager sbu t sold to thecities .H e came toth e conclusion that thedeman d fromth e cityha d familiarized villagerswit h the facttha tcow' smil kwa sa possibl e food forhuma n consumption,bu t 29 that the cost stood inth ewa yo f itspopularity . Morepopula r were tinnedmil k products,particularl y sweetened condensed milk. Inth e town Pasar Minggu sweetened condensedmil kwa s for sale ina coupl e of shops.H e didno t seepeopl e fromth e rural areasbuyin g tinnedmil k buth ewa s told that they liked it. Theproble m remained that itwa s economically beyond their reach.I nth emeantim e an increasingnumbe r of tinnedmil k products have found theirwa yno tonl yont oth eurba nan dperi-urba nmarkets ,bu t also intoth e tokosan dwarung sal love r thecountry . Thesemil k productsar euse d inth emake-shif t coffee shopsa s ingredient intoni cdrink s sucha sOvaltine ,Horlick san dMilo .The yar e alsouse d asa n ingredient intraditiona l recipes.Advertisement s for example suggest that sweetened condensed milk canb epoure d over green beanso rove r ablac k glutinous riceporridge . Itma yals 31 ob euse d as ingredient intraditiona l sweetso rdeserts .Anothe r advertisement describesa moder nbreakfas t asbrea d coveredwit hmargarin e and then spreadwit h sweetened condensedmilk . Althoug32 h accurate data onmil k consumption areno tavailabl e atpresen t and thosewhic hw ed ohav ema yb e contradictary, theynevertheles s give a fair idea that the consumptiono f -189-

33 milki slow . Bylookin ga ta foo dbalanc eshee tfo rIndonesia ,w eca nsee _ thatth eavailabilit yo fmil ki s2. 9k gpe rcapu tpe ryear ,expresse di n milkequivalents .I tcontribute sonl y0.6 %o fth etota lprotei n availabilitype rcapu tpe rday .However ,i fw eloo ka tth etota l availabilityo fprotein so fanima lorigin ,it scontributio ni s6 %whic hi s ofmor esignificanc e (totalavailabilit yo fprotein so fanima lorigi nwa s 34 4.51g pe rcapu ta da yi n1976) . Milki sa foo dmainl yconsume di nurba nan dperi-urba nareas .Dat a collectedb yth eBurea uo fStatistic si nJakart aindicat etha tabou t65 %o f therura lpopulatio ni nJav adoe sno ti nfac tconsum emil k (Table8.3) .

Table8. 3 Milkconsumptio n (inm i Ikequivalents )i nl i trespe rcapu tpe r yearo f varioushousehol dexpenditur ecategorie si n Java,urba n andrural ,1981 . household totalJav a urban Java ruralJav a expenditure milk percentage milk percentage milk percentage con­ population con­ population con­ population sumption sumption sumption

rupiah litre litre litre

<2 4 000 _* 14.01 _ 2.13 _ 16.67 24000 -3 6 000 - 24.38 - 7.53 - 28.15 36000 -4 8 000 - 18.99 0.1 12.15 - 20.52 48000 -6 0 000 1.25 12.06 1.71 9.30 1.19 12.67 60000 -7 2 000 1.35 8.03 2.60 9.67 1.25 7.66 72000 -9 6 000 2.65 9.43 8.68 16.63 2.23 7.82 96000-12 0 000 8.27 4.46 8.94 10.48 6.65 3.12 120000-18 0 000 9.41 4.70 9.93 15.47 7.43 2.29 >180 000 21.42 3.94 22.15 16.64 14.87 1.10

Source:adapte dfro mFeasibilit yStud y198 2an dBir oPusa tStatisti k1981 . *non eo rnegligible .

Inth eurba narea sth esituatio ni sdifferent .Ther eth epercentag eo f non-milkconsumer sma yb eestimate da t10 %o fth etota lurba npopulation . Needlesst osa ythes ebelon gt oth ever ypoo rsection so fth epopulation . Sofa rn oreferenc eha sbee nmad et ofurthe rdevelopment so fa produc t veryclosel ylinke dwit hth emil kindustry ,ic ecream .Variou sic ecream s onstick san di ncup sar eno wavailable .I ti sinterestin gtha tic e lollies,whic hwer es opopula ri nth e1930' s(Chapte r6.3 )ar estil la n 35 appreciated refreshmentfo rlo wincom econsumers . -190-

8.4 Milk and infant feeding

Sweetened condensedmil k and othermil k productsca nals ob euse da sa substitute forbreast-feeding .A s fara sca nb eascertaine d this ismuc h lesstru eo f Indonesia than,fo r instance,o fMalaysi awher e several motherswor k inplantations .On eproble m isthat ,apar t fromth e fact that sweetened condensedmil k hasa hig hproportio no fcarbohydrat e anda comparatively lowprotei n content,i t isusuall yoverdiluted . The Indonesiangovernment ,awar eo f thesedifficulties ,passe da regulation in December 1975stoppin gpromotio nactivitie so f sweetened condensed milk as a food for infant feeding,an d tinsha d tob e labelled asunsuitabl e for 37 infants. Thisproble m shouldno tb e confusedwit h thequestio no fbab ymil k formula,whic h are foodstha tcom e incompositio na sclos ea spossibl e to breastmilk .Marketin g activities connectedwit hmil k formula,th eproble m ofusin ga substitute forbreas tmil k and thedange r ofbottl e feedinghav e 38 alsobee ncriticize d inIndonesia .

In1977 ,a n Indonesianworkin guni t for thepromotio no f breast-feeding was created and acampaig nwa sbegu nwit hposter s andadvertisement s on 39 T.V. Invie wo fworld-wid e criticism and theWH O International Codeo f 1981 for themarketin g ofbreast-mil k substitutes,infan t food industries 40 in Indonesiahav eals ochange d theirmarketin g policies. TheCC F for instanceha s rewritten itslabel so n tinnedmil k products inorde r toavoi d any suggestion that itca nb euse d asa substitute forbreast-feeding . In Indonesia itstinne dmil k productsar e soldunde r thebran d name of "Susu CapBendera" ,bu t incountrie s sucha sneighbourin gMalaysia ,wher e "Dutch 41 Baby"wa sproduced ,th ebran dnam eha sbee nchange d into "DutchLady" . Iti sno tclea rwh y researcho n sourmil k for infant feedingwa sno t continued inIndonesi a after independence.Severa l factorsma yaccoun t for this.A major factor could be that itwa sno tuse db y theEuropea nelit e in the colonialperio dan dpost-colonia l years.Mother sdi d not like the sour tasteo f themil k for their infants.Besides ,mos to f thempossesse d an ice chestan d later a refrigerator andwer e therefore less interested inmil k thatcoul db ekep t forabou t2 4hour so na shelf.Medica l training in public healthan d infant care inmoder n Indonesiaha sbee n influenced by internationalworker s coming fromcountrie swhic hhav ea dair ytradition , but theyhav en odirec texperience s in feedingbase do nbutter-mil k or sour -191-

milk.Therefor e thedairyin gan dcondense dmil k industrieshav emad e no further seriouseffort s topromot e sourmilk . As for thequestio no fartificia l feedingversu sbreast-feeding , it shouldb e realized thati nIndonesi abreast-feedin g isstil lcommo n in rural areasan d thatmos tmother sd ono thav e themean st opurchas e a substitute,i nwhateve r form itma ybe .Howeve r thepotentia ldange r ofa decline inbreast-feedin g shouldno tb eunderestimated . Inth eEas tJav a Nutrition Study itwa s found thatbreast-feedin g generally continues 19-24 months,bu t itca neve nb eprolonge dunti l thechil d iswel l over 4year s of age.I nth epopulatio n studied,artificia l feedingwit hmilk-powde r was uncommon,eve n ina relativelydevelope d areawit ha food surplus,abou t 42 20k m fromth e cityo f Surabaya. At sixmonth s ofag eal l infantswer e stillbein gbreast-fed .Howeve r thepatter ndiffere d fora twha tag e additional foodso rweanin g foodswer e given.A fewmother s supplemented breast-feedingwit h cowmil k assuch ,o rwit ha porridge .Thos ewh odi d so 43 were invariablyth eeducate d inth earea ,lik eth ewive so f teachers. In thebi gcitie showever ,th e situationwa sdifferen tan d artificial feeding 44 wasmor e frequent. Dried skimmilk-powde rwa sdonate db yvariou s agencief va s to Indonesia fordistributio n inmothe r and childcentres . 45 Mosto f these activitieshav eno wbee nabandoned .Larg eproject sha d difficultieshandlin g DSM ina responsiblewa ywhe n itcam e toprope r storage,hygiene ,an dway s toteac hmother sho wt ous e DSM inloca l recipes.

8.5 Concluding remarks

Milk andmil k productswhic hha sbee n introducedb y theDutc hdurin g the colonial era,an dwhic hwer eonc ea nexoti celemen t inth e Indonesian society graduallybecam e Indonesianized. Thisproces swa s accelerated during theperio d after independencewhe n the Indonesiangovernmen t took a great interest inth edevelopmen t ofa nationa ldair y industrybase d on local freshmil k productionan d import substitution.Mil k andmil k products becamepar to f the foodpatter no fa nurba nmiddl e class.Ecologica l limitations,a hig hpopulatio ndensit yan d thelo wpurchasin gpowe r of the greatmas s of thepopulatio nhav e sofa rprevente d amuc hwide rdiffusion . However,th eeconomi c and social implications of the foodpatter no f the urbanmiddl e class should notb eunderestimated . There isamon g the lower socio-economic categories of thepopulatio na tendenc y to see thisclas sa s -192-

a reference groupan d to follow their ideasan d consumptionpatter na s soon aseducatio nan d income increase. Remembering the limitations,on ema ywonde r how sensible the development of a local freshmil k production really is.I tma yb eusefu l for increasing the incomeo f smallholders,bu t froma nutritiona l pointo fvie w iti sver y doubtfulwhethe r locallyproduce dmil k canpla ya role inimprovin g the nutritional statuso f thepopulatio n toa largeextent .Mor e important is thewa y inwhic h Indonesiaha stake n toa dairyin g industry largelybase d on the importso f rawmaterial san d localprocessing .Thi sma yb e inth e formo f recombinedmil k products,whereb y importeddrie d skimmil k and butter fatsar e recombined.Anothe r formar e the filledmil k products whereby locallyproduce dvegetabl e fatsar eadde d toth e imported dried skimmilk .T obot ho fthes eproduct s locallyproduce d milk nowha s to,b y law,b eadded .A matter of future concern istha t regulations concerning an increasingamoun to f locallyproduce d freshmil k tob euse d inth e processing ofmil k productsma y leadt oa n increase incost .Thi sma y impede further diffusion ofmil kproduct samon g themas so f thepopulation . -193-

9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

9.1. General

This studydeal swit h thequestio no fth ediffusio n of foods from industrialized countries todevelopin g countries,wit hparticula r reference to the late colonial era.I tfocusse so nho wan dwh ymil k andmil k products spread from industrialized countrieswit ha dair y tradition to regionso f theworl dwit hn odairyin g traditionlik e tropical countries.Thi s is illustrated by theexampl e of Indonesia.I tdeal swit h the early introduction and spread ofmil k andmil kproduct s toth e former Netherlands Indiesdurin g theyear s 1880-1942,togethe rwit h anoutlin e of theperio d after 1945whe n Indonesiabecam e independent.Th e study isa cross-disciplinary approachbase d on the social sciences,nutritiona l sciences and socialhistory . Indonesia,lik e thewhol e ofSout hEas tAsia ,i stypica l of regionso f theworl dwit h no traditiono fusin gmilk . Insom e scattered places such as inSumatr aan d Sulawesi,communitie susin gbuffal omil k havebee n found,bu t inJav a amilk-usin g traditionwa sabsent . Iti s important totak e intoaccoun t the facttha tth edat a for this study comesmainl y fromDutc h sources.Thi sha s itslimitations ,a s these dataprimaril y reflectDutc h reactions toan d interpretation of Indonesian society. When theDutc hestablishe d themselves inth e Indonesian archipelago they tried tomaintai n their foodhabit sand , inth e 17thcentury ,graduall y introduced dairying for theirow nneeds .B y theen do f the 1860's, sweetened condensed milkwa sbein gproduce d inNort hAmeric a andWester n Europe,an d ata ver yearl y stagewa sexporte d totropica l countries.I nth e1880' sth e firmsAnglo-Swis s andHollandi awer e active inJava .Othe r formso f preserved milk could be tracedbac k toa neve nearlie r date.I n1835 ,a n advertisement appeared inBatavi amentionin g aproduc t "Lait conserve".I n 1844a consignment of foodpreserve d intins ,amon gwhic hwer e 300tin so f milk,wa s sent toth eNetherland s Indies.Th e salesactivitie so f the condensed milk industrywer e firstdirecte d tosatisf y theneed so f the European community,bu twer e gradually shifted to the Indonesianpopulation .

Indonesiawa s influenced by three cultureswit h strong dairying traditions; Indian,Arabic ,an dWes t European,particularl yDutch . -194-

During the firstmillenniu mA.D .dairyin g spread fromth e Indian subcontinent intoSout hEas tAsia .Wit h thedeclin e of Indianinfluence , dairying and theus eo fmil kdisappeared . Itwa s in facta custo m related to religious ritualsan d courtlif ewhic hdi d notpenetrat e into larger sectionso f the society.Th e islamic influencewhic h followedhardl y brought dairying traditionswit h it,despit e the factth eKora n isver ypositiv e on theus eo fmil k asa food forman . AlthoughArab s living inth enorther n coastal townso fJav akep t goats for bothmil k andmea tproduction ,th eus e ofgoa tmil k didno t spread to the resto f thepopulation .However ,i ti so f interest tonot e thatgoa t meatwa sa foodparticula rpreferre d by themor e orthodox moslims. A morepermanen tdiffusio no fmil kbega na tth een do fth e 19th century when theDutc hbega nmoder ndairyin g on the island ofJav aan d aroundMeda n onSumatra .

At first sight iti sstrikin g thatth ediffusio no fmil k did nottak e place inthos e areaswher ebuffal omil k already formedpar to f the food pattern. Itwa s Java,wit hn omilk-usin g tradition thatbecam e the coreo f thepresen t Indonesiandair y industry. Dairy farmsse tu pb y theDutc hwer eestablishe d tosatisf y theneed so f urbanEuropea n consumersan dno t Indonesians.Ther ear e indications thatb y the1920' ssevera l Indonesianswer e involved insmal ldairyin gactivities . However freshmil k remained aver yexpensiv e andperishabl e food for the majority of thepopulation . What thedairie s couldno tbrin gabou twa s inth elon g runaccomplishe d by the European condensedmil k industrywit h thediffusio no fmil k inth e formo fmil k products tolarge r categorieso fth e Indonesian society. Sweetened condensed milk had severaladvantage s compared to freshmilk .I t was lessexpensive , relatively safean dno tadulterated . Itha d long keeping qualities,eve nafte r the tinwa sopened .Mil k productswer euse d for infant feeding, incoffe eo r tea,an d asa n ingredient in icelollie san d ice cream,whic h led toth edevelopmen to fa local ice cream industry. Itwa s alsouse d asa medicine . Oneaspec t inwhic h therewa sa clea rdifferenc e between Indonesian and European consumers inth eus e ofmil kwa s that the formerdi d notus e ita s a beverage.Mil k products consumedb y the Indonesianswer e sweetened condensed milk and,late r inth e 1930's,th e cheaper sweetened condensed skimmilk .Evaporate dmil k remained aproduc talmos texclusivel yuse db y the -195-

European consumer.Th e limited keepingqualit yo fa nopene d tino f an unsweetened milkproduc tmad e itunsuitabl e forth eloca lconsumer . Sterilized milkwa s sometimesuse d asa noba t (medicine).Milk-powde r was not important inth e totalmil k supply inth eperio d coveredb y the study. Thequalit yo fmilk-powde r attha t timemad e itunattractiv e for consumption at thedomesti clevel . Howdi d condensed milk reachth e Indonesianpopulation ? Thishappene d through groups inth e Indonesian societywh ower e inclos e contactwit h the Europeans;thos eemploye d byth eNetherland s Indiesgovernmen tan d private industry,thos eworkin g inoffice so ra slabourer sand/o r thosewh oha d had some formo f schooling.I nth e townsa ne w Indonesianelit e emerged, intellectuals andmiddl e class.Diffusio no fcondense dmil k (full-cream and skim)too k place inth etowns ,bu tals o inarea swit hplantation san d smallholder cultivationswit h cashcrops ,wher e theEuropea neconom y and culture hadpenetrate d intoth e Indonesian society.Fro mth e towns someo f thecondense dmil kwa s further spread intoth e ruralareas .

As fara sth emechanis mo fth ediffusio no fcondense dmil k isconcerned , thistoo k placeb ymean so f twomai nchang eagencies : (1)Throug hhospital san d clinicsusin gmil k products for infant feedingan d medical care ingenera l (2)Throug h themarketin g activitieso fth econden s industry. Inth eearl y 1920'sa chang e took place inth ePubli cHealt hService . Until then,activitie sha dbee ndirecte d atcombattin g themajo r tropical diseases.However ,i nth e 1920'sth ePubli cHealt hServic ebega npayin g equal attention tomaterna lan d childhealt hcare .Hygieni c Centresan d consultatiebureau x orchil dhealt hcentre swer e setu p inmajo r townsan d placeso nJava .I ncontras twit hEuropea nwomen ,breast-feedin g was universally practised.A t these centres,breast-feedin gwa s always encouraged,bu t thequestio n remained ast owha t tod o ifbreast-feedin g failed or ifth emothe r died. Ingenera lwe tnursin gwa sno tpractised ; instead infantswer e givengruel so rporridge s ofmashe d ricean dbanana . Because ofpoo r hygiene anddiet swit h alo wprotei n content,th echance so f survivalwer e small.I nvie wo f this,hospital san d later the consultatie bureaux began feeding these infantso nmil k products,an dwhe navailable ,o n freshmilk . Ingenera l sweetened condensedmil kdilute dwit hwate r was given.When ,aroun d 1918,evaporate dmil k appeared on themarke t inth e Netherlands Indiessom ephysician sbega n tous eit . -196-

In 1927buttermil k and sour milk were introduced bya numbe r of physicians for infant feeding. Ina ho tan dhumi d climate,sou rmil k canb e kept for 24hours , ishygieni c and ismuc hbette r thanordinar ymil k for digesting byyoun g infants.Melkkeuken so rmil k kitchensbelongin g toth e Medical School inWeltevreden ,Batavi aunde r the leadership ofD rd e Haas becamewell-known . InBatavia , infants received sourmil k feeding from the milk kitchenswhe n iswa s considered tob emedicall y necessary. Milk as part of infant carewa spractise d by themedica l staff inth eNetherland s Indies only in caseswhe n breast-feeding had failed orwa s insufficient.A s mother and child care centresdevelope d first in towns,artificia l milk feeding on medical groundswa smainl y restricted tourba n andperi-urba n areas.

Before the outbreak of the FirstWorl dWa r the condensed milk industry had alreadymad e serious efforts to include the Indonesian consumer in its activities.Aroun d 1910Nestl e began topenetrat e into themarke t onJav a by sending special salesmen to thekampungs ,distributin g free tinso f sweetened condensed milk.Thi s created ademan d and the firmdi d everything tomaintai n thequalit y of theproduc t under tropical conditions.Othe r firms such as CCFwh o could notaffor d their own salesnetwor k made use of an importing firm. Imported milk productswer e distributed to the consumers by Chinesewholesal e dealers through anextensiv e network of retail traders. More consumers could be reached by the introduction of themuc h cheaper, butnutritionall y inferior product,sweetene d condensed skimmilk . The introduction of sweetened condensed skimmilk , inparticula r during the economic cricis of the 1930's,wa s the result of the crumbling of the British market forDutc hmil k products.Thi s caused a reorientation of export from theNetherland s to tropical countries. Themarketin g activities of the condensed milk industry included references toth e fact that sweetened condensed milk,a full-cream product, could beuse d for infant feeding.However , itwa sno t explicitly stated that it could beuse d asa substitute forbreast-feeding . Compared with this full-cream product,hardl y any advertising wasmad e for sweetened condensed skimmilk , the relatively lowpric e being themai n factor for itssuccess . As fara s canb e ascertained, skimmil k wasno tpromote d as such for infant feeding. It isver y likely thata mov e from full-cream milk to skimmil k for infant feeding took place because of its lowprice .Th e fear of an increase inth eus e of sweetened condensed skimmil k for infant feeding by Indonesian mothers created the skimmil k question. -197-

When itcome st oth epoint ,th epresen t issueo fartifica l feedingversu s breast-feeding,an d the roleo f the infant food industrya sdiscusse d for example in theWH Oassembl yo f 1981,i sno tnew . InIndonesi a in193 7a rattieremotiona ldiscussio n flaredu po n thedanger so f theus eo f sweetened condensed skimmil k for infant feedingan d the riskso fbecomin g blind. Thoseworkin g inth e fieldo f foodan dnutritio nobserve d the importso f sweetened condensed skimmil kwit h suspicion .Deprivin g sucha foodo f the importantvitamin sA andD b y skimmingof fth e creamcause d anxiety. Nutrition studies showedvitami nA deficiencies inth earchipelag o and at the same timegovernmen tmedica lan d agricultural officersbecam e more interested inth ewell-bein go f thepopulation .Besides ,i twa sknow n that inneighbourin g countries,authoritie sha d already limited oreve n prohibited importso f sweetened condensed skimmilk .Th eNetherland s Indies governmentwa s inthi s respect,fa rbehin d theothe r countrieso f the region.Ther ewa sn o food lawa ssuch ,no rdi da food control systemexist . Only inlarge rmunicipaltie swer e thereprovision s for control ofmea tan d dairying bya veterinarian .Th ediscussio no f the importingo f skimmil k took place on twodifferen t levels;th eprofessiona l and thepolitical .

Itwa sD rd eHaa swh o took the skimmil kquestio n further in193 7 ina ratherviolen tpape r accusing thecondense dmil k industryo fhavin g caused xerophthalmia and evenblindnes samon g infantswit h their sweetened condensed skimmilk .Th equestio no f importing skimmil kwen tbeyon d the professional circle.Som e concernedmember so fth eVolksraa d approached the government putting anumbe r ofquestions ,an durgin g theAdministratio n to take appropriatemeasures . The governmenthowever ,wa s reluctant tomak ean ydecisio no n import prohibitions, sales restictions,o r food labelling.Probabl y itwa sno t convinced of the seriousnesso f the situationan dwa smor e inclined totak e intoaccoun t thepossibl eeffec to nmil k imports.I nth emateria l consulted however, Icoul d findn o indicationo f this. The industry trieda t first toargu e that thequestio no f skimmil k was outo fproportio nan d that skimmil kwa sno tuse d for infant feeding.Th e CCFdecide d totak epositiv e stepsb y revitaminizing itsski mmil kproducts . On the labelwa s further indicated inbot hDutc han dMala y that the contents wereunsuitabl e for infant feeding.Othe rmanufacturer s followedan dva n Mook,a t thatmomen tDirecto r of theDepartmen t ofEconomi cAffairs ,wa s ablet o informth emember so fth eVolksraa d inFebruar y 1940tha tove r90 % -198-

of the imported sweetened condensed skimmil k had alreadybee n revitaminized. Inth eNetherland s Indiesth e skimmil kquestion ,s oheatedl y discussed by theprofessiona l journalsan ddebate d inth eVolksraad ,ha d onlya limited effectoutsid e these circles,a swa sals otru eo f themotherland . Oneo f the reasonsma yb e thewea k relationbetwee n theVolksraa d and the press.Anothe r factorma yb e theeconomi c crisiswhic h causedpeopl e to worry aboutothe rthings .

Were thoseworkin g inth e fieldo fpubli chealt han dnutritio n right in blaming the condensedmil k industry forcreatin gvitami nA deficiency problemsan d evenblindnes s among infants? Inth emateria l available for this studyn oevidenc e couldb e foundo fdeliberat e promotiono f skimmil k asa n infant food.I ti sver y likely thatwit h theeconomi c crisiso f the 1930'smother s shifted fromth eexpensiv e full-creammil k toth e cheaper skimmil k for infant feeding.Th e condensedmil k industryexportin g toth e Netherlands Indieswa showeve rwel l awareo fth e reservationsan d even objectionso fhealt hworker sagains t skimmilk . Inth eavailabl emateria l I could findn o indicationo fa cleardeman d forcondense dmil k because its usewa sa signo fmodernity ,o r that isadde d tosomeone' sprestige ,o r that,havin g lesstim ebecaus eo fa n increaseo fwor k load ino r outside the household, itwa sa substitute forbreast-feeding .A s fara sth e latter is concerned therema yhav ebee n someexception st othi s inth eplantatio n areaso n theeas tcoas to fSumatra .

Invie wo f theemotion sarouse db y theus eo f thisproduct ,i ti s surprising tonot eho w littledat a thereappear s tob eo n feeding practices and theus eo f condensedmil kb y Indonesianmothers .Probably ,a tmost ,5 % of infants inurba nan dperi-urba narea s received anartificia l feeding;th e traditional ricewater ,condense d sweetened full-cream or skimmilk .Withou t anydoubt ,fo ra largepopulation ,thi s smallpercentag e nevertheless presented an interestingmarke t forth e industry.Althoug h itsexten twa s limited,healt han d nutritionworker swer e right insayin g thata mil k productdeprive d of itsvitami nA wa sunfi t for infantfeeding . The skimmil k questionals o indicated thatn o realdialoqu ewa s possible between thoseworkin g inth e fieldo fpubli chealt han dnutritio n onth eon e hand and the condensedmil k industryo nth eother .Bot hwer eworkin g intw o verydifferen tworlds ,eac hhavin ghardl yan y ideao f thegenuin e interests -199-

and responsibilitieso f theother .A "betterknowledg eo feachother "woul d of courseno tautomaticall yhav e solvedth edifference sbetwee n nutritionistsan d thedairyin g industry,bu t itwoul d atleas thav e facilitated efforts fora mor e constructive approach. One aspect thatbecam e lost inth ediscussio no n sweetened condensed skim milkwa s theproble mo f complementaryo radditiona l foodst ob egive nt o infantso na regularbasis ,fo rexampl eafte r 6month so fag eunti lweaning . Althoughman y infantswer ebreast-fed ,povert ymean ttha tthe y received inappropriateweanin gfoods .

9.2. Concluding remarks

Onema y conclude thatmilk ,onc ea nexoti c food,ha sgraduall ybecom e Indonesianized,an dha s founda modes tplac e inth e foodpatter no f an emergingurba nmiddl e class.N o indications couldb e found inth e available sourceso f a fundamental and insuperableprejudic e againstmil k forhuma n consumption.Th eprice ,rathe r thanunfamiliarit ywit hmil k as food, remained amajo r obstacle againstallowin g itt obecom ea nelemen t inth e dieto f the greatmasse so f thepopulation . Itseem s that theoccurrenc eo f primary lactose intolerance amonga traditiona lnon-dairyin gpopulatio n is nota nobstacl e fora modes tadoptio no fmil k into the foodpattern . Thisbring su s toth equestio no fwha ta traditional food is.Man y traditional foodswer e onceexoti cbu tth emomen tpeopl e regarded thema s parto f the foodpatter nan dpasse d themo nt oa nothe rgeneratio no f consumers,the ybecom e traditional.I ti slikel y thatmil kwil l eventually become a traditional food inth e samewa y that inWester nEurope ,exoti c tropical beverages sucha scoffe e and teahav ebecom e traditional elements of the foodpattern .

The spread ofmil k andmil k products inIndonesi a inth ecolonia l era among categorieso f the Indonesianpopulatio nwa sno t somuc h the resulto f the introductionb y theDutc ho fmoder ndair y farms inth etropics ,bu t rather of industrial foodprocessin g and thedevelopmen to fmas stransport . Milk condensingmad e itpossibl e tobrin gmil k productsa ta relative cheap price fromth e temporate zonest ozone swher eprevailin g ecological conditionsmad e freshmil k scarcean dexpensive .I tlai d the foundations for thepresen tmodes tbu tgrowin g Indonesianmil k industrywhic hconsist so f localmil k productionmainl yb y smallholdersan d adair yprocessin g industry -200-

using imported rawmaterial s sucha s skimmilk-powde r and butter oil,an d the locally available freshmilk .Sinc e 1950 the Indonesian government has given substantive support to these dairying activities. Thedevelopmen t ofdairyin g inIndonesi a showscontinuity . The present areas of freshmil k production correspond roughly to those of the late colonial era.Likewis e tinned milk (nowlocall y produced from imported raw materials) still competeswit h locally produced freshmilk . Inon e aspect there isa clea r dis-continuity and that isth eus e of sourmil k for infant feeding.Whe n theDutc h left Indonesia, research on sourmil k was discontinued. Invie wo f the keeping quality of sourmil k under tropical conditions this ist ob e regretted. Nutritionally, it isdoubtfu l whether locallyproduce d freshmil k can play a role insolvin gmalnutrition . It iso f importance however as an income-generating activity for smallholders,an d insatisfyin g urban consumer demands.Th edevelopmen t ofa mil k industry based on imported raw materials and localmil k mayhav ebette r nutritional prospects.Howeve r the price of locally produced freshmilk ,on e of the rawmaterial s formil k condensing must not increase toomuch ,o r itwil l impede further diffusion ofmil k products among the population. -201-

SAMENVATTING (Melknaa r tropische gebieden;verspreidin gva nee nnieu wvoedingsmidde l naar Indonesie'1880-1942 ,me tee nnaschrif tvoo rd eperiod e 1945-1985).

Onderzoek isgedaa nnaa rhe tverschijnse lva nd everspreidin gva n voedingsmiddelenvanui td e geindustrialiseerdelande nnaa rontwikkelings - landen,me tnam emel k enmelkproducte nnaa rd e traditioneel niet-zuivelver- bruikende tropische gebieden.He t isvoora l gerichto pd ebeginfas eva ndez e verspreidingdi e inhe tlaa tkolonial etijdper k plaatsvindte ndi e geanalyseerdword taa nd ehan dva nd e situatieva n Indonesie ind e periode 1880-1942. Aanleidingva nhe tonderzoe kwa she tdoo rd e StichtingVoedin gNederlan d (toenno gNederland s Instituutvoo rd eVoeding ) innauw e samenwerkingme td e VakgroepHuman eVoedin gva nd eLandbouwhogeschoo l uitgevoerde project "Verbetering Zuivelvoedselhulp Programma's".Ee naspec tda tnaa rvore nkom t isda t localemelkproducti ee nverbrui k vanmelkproducte n inverschillend e tropische landengee n recentverschijnse l is.D everonderstellin g hierbij is dat zuivel ind e tropen terug tebrenge nval t tothe tkolonial e tijdperk toenWest-Europes elande n (metnu nzuivelgebrulken )grot egebiede nonde r controlehadden .Daarnaas tbestaa t zoalsbeken d kritiek op zuivelexportnaa r ontwikkelingslanden. Doelva nhe tonderzoe k is: (1)He t leverenva nee nbijdrag e ind e kennise n inzichten ind eversprei ­ dingva nvoedingsmiddele nvanui td e geindustrialiseerde landennaa r ontwikkelingslanden,voora l ind evroeg efase . (2)Hoe ,waaro me nwannee rmel ke nmelkproducte nvanui td egeindustriali ­ seerde landen zichhebbe nversprei d naard e traditioneel niet-zuivel verbruikende tropischegebieden . Het onderzoek isverrich t aand ehan dva nd e situatie in Indonesiegedurend e deperiod e 1880-1942.I nee nnaschrif tword t ingegaano pd e ontwikkelingen vand e zuivel ind e jarenn ad eonafhankelijkheid ,1945-1985 . Hetonderzoe k begeeft zicho phe t raakvlak tussend e socialewetenschappen , devoedingswetenscha p end e sociale geschiedenis.Indonesi e isgekoze nomda t hetee n land iswaar ,o penig euitzonderinge nna ,melkverbrui k onbekendwas , hetbestuur dwer d doorNederland ,ee nkolonial emogendhei dme tee n duidelijke zuiveltraditie.Reed svana fhe teind eva nd e 19eeeu w isvee l baanbrekend voedingsonderzoek verricht inIndonesie . -202-

Vanuitee n sociaal-wetenschappelijke benadering in sociaal-historisch perspectiefwerde ngegeven sui td evolgend ebronne nverkregen : (1)Gepubliceer dmateriaa l zoalsstudie se n rapporteno phe tgebie dva n landbouw,voedin g enveeteelt .Gezie nd e tropentraditieheef td e Landbouwhogeschoolee nuitgebreid e collectieva nNederlands-Indie , vooralvoo r deperiod e1880-1940 . (2)Archiefmateriaa lva nd eCCF ,Leeuwarden ,voo r de jaren1929-1940 ; AlgemeenRijksarchief ,Ministeri eva nKolonien ,1901-1945 . Daarnaast isgebrui k gemaaktva n informantendi eo phe tgebie dva nvoedse l envoedin g inhe tvoormalig eNederlands-Indi e hebbengewerkt . Watd ebeschikbar e gegevensbetref t ishe tva nbelan g rekening tehoude n methe t feitda tdez evoornamelij k uitNederlands e bronnenafkomsti gzijn . Ditheef t zekerebeperkinge nomda td e gegevens ineerst e instantie een weergave zijnva nd eNederlands e reactieso pe n interpretatie vand e Indonesische samenleving.

DeNederlander sdi e zich inOost-Indi ehadde ngevestigd ,probeerde n nun eigenvoedingsgewoonte nt ehandhaven .Z ointroduceerd eme na l ind e 17e eeuw geleidelijk aand emelkveehouderi jvoo r eigengebruik .Wannee r tegenhe t eindeva nd e jaren186 0 ind eVerenigd e Statene n inWest-Europ a de (gesuikerde)gecondenseerd emel k inbli kword t geproduceerd,vind ta l spoedig eenexpor tnaa rNederlands-Indi e plaats.Ron d 1880ware nd e firma's Anglo-Swiss enHollandi a reedsactie f opJava .D everkoopactiviteite n vand e condensindustrie richtten zicheers to pd e Europesebovenlaag ,doc h geleidelijk aanoo k opee ndee lva nd e Indonesischebevolking . Indonesieheef t invloedenondergaa nva ndri e culturenme tee n sterke zuiveltraditie:Hind ucultuu rui t India,ee nArabisch e enee nWest -Europes e metnam e eenNederlands e cultuur. Vanuit Indiaheef tgedurend ehe teerst emilleniu mva nonz e jaartelling de zuivel zichversprei d naar Zuid-Oost-Azie.Me td e achteruitgangva nd e Indiase invloedverdwee noo kwee rd e zuivele nhe tgebrui kva nmelk .He twa s zeernau wverweve nme td e religiee nhe thofleve n zonder inwerkingo pd e bevolking.D eArabisch e en Islamitische invloeddi edaaro pvolgd eheef t op het gebiedva nd e zuivelnauwelijk s invloed gehad. Eenmee rpermanent everspreidin gva nmel k ontstond toend eNederlander s aan heteind eva nd e 19eeeu wee nbegi nmaakte nme tee nmodern e melkveehouderij opJav ae n rondMeda no pSumatra . -203-

Het isoverigen sopvallen d datd everspreidin gva nmel k nietplaat svon d indi e gebiedenwaa r demel kva nd ekarbou wo fbuffe l reedsee ndee lva nhe t voedselpatroonwas ,doc h inhe t typischniet-zuive lgebie dJava . Demelkveehouderi jdi evoornamelij k uitmelkstalle nbestond ,wa s ind e eersteplaat s opgezetvoo rd e consumptieva nmel kvoo r Europeanen ind e stedene nnie tvoo r Indonesischeconsumenten .E r zijn indicatiesda t reeds ind e jaren 1920verschillend e Indonesiersbetrokke nware nbi jee n kleinschaligemelkveehouderij .Vers emel k bleefee n zeer kostbaar enee n snelaa nbeder fonderhevi gvoedingsmidde lvoo r debevolking .

Hetwa snie t zozeerd emelkveehouderi jdoc hd eEuropes e condensindustrie dieee nverspreidin g vanmel k onder groteredele nva nd e Indonesische bevolkingheef tmogelij k gemaakt.Gecondenseerd emel k heeftvergeleke nme t versemel k verschillendevoordelen .He t isgoedkoper ,he t isee n relatief veilig productwaa r nietme egeknoei dword t zoalsda tme tvers emel k het geval is,he theef tee ngroter ehoudbaarhei d zelfsal she tbli k isgeopend . Demelkproducte nwerde ndoo r Indonesierso pd evolgend emanie rgebruikt : (1)voo r zuigelingen-e nkindervoeding ; (2)i nkoffi ee nthee ; (3)al s ingredientva n ijslolliese nconsumptieijs ; (4)al see nmedicijn . Inee nopzich twa se ree nduidelij k verschil ingebrui kva nmel k vergeleken met Europeanen,he twer d ind emeest egevalle nnie tal see ndran k geconsumeerd. Opwelk ewijz evon d nuee nverspreidin gva ngecondenseerd emel k onder de Indonesische bevolking plaats?Di tgebeurd evoora l bijdi e categorienva nd e Indonesische bevolking die eenemploo ivonde nbi jhe tGouvernemen to f op plantages,daarbi jee ngel d inkomenontvinge ne n zogeconfronteer d werden met ingevoerde productenvanui tEurop a enlate r Japan.Vanuit d e stedenvon d een zekereverspreidin g plaatsnaa r andere gebieden.He tmechanism eva nd e verspreiding vangecondenseerd emel k gebeurdedoo rmidde lva nd evolgend e twee categorien instellingen: (1)ziekenhuisen ,klinieke ne nconsultati ebureaux ; (2)verkoopactiviteite n vand e condensindustrie. Ind e jaren192 0ondergin gd e gezondheidszorg vanNederlands-Indi e een belangrijke veranderingdoo rnaas td e strijd tegend etropisch e ziektenoo k aandacht tegaa nschenke naa nd e zuigelingenzorg. Ind ebelangrijk e plaatsen opJav awerde nhygiene-centr a enconsultati e bureaux opgericht.O md e -204-

hygiene-centra goed telate nfunctionere nwer dpara-medisc hgeschool d Indonesischpersonee l ingezet.Borstvoedin gwer dovera l gegeven,doc hwa t te doen indi e gevallenwannee rd emoede r geeno ft eweini gborstvoedin gheeft , ofwannee r zijsterft ? Indi e gevallenwer donde rbegeleidin g een melkvoedinggegeve n (gecondenseerdemelk ,geevaporeerd e melk ofvers e melk). Bekendwerde nd emelkkeuken sva nd eMedisch eHogeschoo l inWeltevreden , Batavia,waa r onder leidingva nDr .d eHaa so pmedisch e indicatie aangezuurdemel kwer duitgedeeld .D ezur emel k isonde r tropische omstandigheden2 4uu rhoudbaa re nka nthui sdoo rd emoede r aanhe tkin d wordengegeven . Reedsvoo r de lewereldoorlo gwer ddoo r decondensindustri e geprobeerd Indonesische consumentent ebereiken .Omstreek s191 0wa sbijvoorbeel d Nestle actiefo pJav ae nspecial everkoper sdeelde ni nd ekampong sgratis enig e blikkengecondenseerd emel k uit. Zoontston de ree nvraa gnaa r gecondenseerdemel k terwijlhe tbedrij falle sdee do md e kwaliteitva nhe t productonde r tropischeomstandighede n zogoe dmogelij k tebewaren . Andere bedrijven zoalsd eCC Fdi epa s ind e jaren193 0goe d opd emark t kwamen,konde n zichgee neige nduu rverkoopapparaa tveroorlove n enmaakte n gebruik vand e inNederlands-Indi e gevestigdehandelsfirma's .D e ingevoerde gecondenseerdemel kwer ddoo r Chinesegroot -e nkleinhandelare ngedistri - bueerdnaa rd e tokose nwarongs . Eengroter e categorieva n Indonesische consumentenko nn uworde nbereik t doord evee lgoedkoper e afgeroomde gecondenseerdemelk .Hoewe lvoo rdi t productnauwelijk senig e reclamewer d gemaaktginge n toch Indonesische moederse r toeove ro mhe tal skindervoedin g tegebruiken .Al sgevol g hiervanontston dd e "afgeroomdegesuikerd emelk "o f "blikkenmelk"kwestie . Gezondheids-e nvoedingskundige nmaakte n zichbezorg d over het feitda tmel k ontdaanva nd evette ne ndaarme ehe t ind emelkvette noplosbar eVitamin e A (enD )toc haa n zuigelingene n jongekindere nwer d gegeven.Vitamin e A tekort,probleme nva nXeroftalmi ee n zelfsblindhei dware n reedsal see n gezondheidsprobleemonderkend .Nederlands-Indi e beschikte in tegenstelling totd ebuurlande nnie tove ree ngoed e levensmiddelenwetgeving. Zowel in professionele kringal s ind eVolksraa dontston dhierove r een levendige en fellediscussie .He tGouvernemen twa soverigen sweini g bereidadequaa t op deze problematiek int egaan . De condensindustriewer dvanui td egezondheidshoe k onzorgvuldigheid verwetene n zelfsverantwoordelij k gesteldvoo r hetveroorzake nva nblind ­ heid onder jongekinderen .I nhe tonderzocht emateriaa l zijnoverigen s geen -205-

indicatiesgevonde nva n eenbewust e bevorderingva nafgeroomd e gecondenseer- demel k alskindervoeding . Indez e kwestie deed deCC Fee n stap ind e goede richting door deafgeroomd e melk tevitaminizere n eno phe t etiket inhe t Nederlands enMalei s tevermelde nda t hetproduc t niet geschikt isal s kindervoeding. Borstvoeding was inhe t laatkolonial e tijdperk algemeene n waarschijn- lijk kreeg nietmee rda n 5%va nd e zuigelingen ind e stedelijke gebieden uitsluitend kunstvoeding . Eenbelangrij k aspectda t indez e kwestie geen aandacht kreeg ishe tproblee mva n eenaanvullend e voeding of het speenvoed- sel,wannee r na zo'n 6maande nborstvoedin g alleennie tmee rvoldoend e is. Want zelfsme tborstvoedin g wasd e zuigelingensterfte nog zeer hoog in Nederlands Indie. Inhe t stedelijk milieuwa sd e zuigelingensterfte ongeveer 300%o,waarva n de sterfte gedurende heteerst e levenshalfjaar 3.3 maal zo hoogwa s als inhe t tweede levenshalfjaar. Opvallend isverde r dat er geendialoo g plaatsvon d tussen de gezondheids-e nvoedingskundige n aand e ene kante nd e condensindustrie aan de andere kant.Beide nwerkte n inzee rverschillend e werelden enhadde n in feite geen kennis en inzichtva n elkaarsverantwoordelijkheden . Het spreekt van zelfda the telkaa r beter lerenkenne nnie t automatisch zalleide n tot het oplossen van problemen,maa rhe t zal zeker een constructieve benadering bevorderen.

Melk, eens eenuitheem sproduct ,bego n geleidelijk aanee n Indonesisch voedingsmiddel teworden .He t heeft nuee nbescheide n plaats gevonden inhe t voedselpatroon metnam eva n eenopkomend e stedelijke middenklasse. Inhe t onderzochte materiaal zijngee n indicaties gevondenva n een grondige enonoverkomelijk eafkee r vanmel k enmelkproducten .D eprij sva nmel k en niet zo zeer de onbekendheid ervan isee nva nd ebelangrijkst e hinderpalen om eenvolksvoedse l teworden .Voort sblijk t dathe tvoorkome n vanprimair e lactose intolerantie onder een traditioneel niet-zuivel gebruikende bevolking ind epraktij k geenbelemmerin gvorm to mmel k in bescheiden hoeveelheden inhe tvoedselpatroo n op tenemen . De ontwikkeling vand e zuivel inIndonesi e vertoont een zekere continuiteit. Dehuidig e gebiedenme tvers emelkproducti e komen grotendeels overeen metdi eva n het late koloniale tijdperk. De Japanse bezetting en de turbulente jarendaarn a betekende geenbreuk .N a de onafhankelijkheid stimuleerded e Indonesischeoverhei d zeerduidelij k de zuivel.Hierbi jval t de nadruk opd e kleineremelkveehouderi je nee n importvervangende lokale -206-

condensindustrie gebaseerd op invoerva ngrondstoffe n (zoalsmelkpoeder )e n lokalevers emelk .Evenal s inhe tlaa tkolonial e tijdperk isd e gecondenseerde melk eenconcurren tva nd evers emelk . Inee nopzich t ise r eenduidelijk ebreu k methe tverleden .N ad eonafhankelijkhei d zijn activiteiteno phe tgebie dva n zuremel kvoo r kindervoeding beeindigd. Geziend ehoudbaarhei d van zuremel k onder tropische omstandigheden isdi t jammer.

Vanuitvoedingsoogpun t gezien ishe t zeer twijfelachtig ofd eproductie - mogelijkhedenva nvers emel k eenbijdrag e kunnen leveren inhe toplosse nva n ondervoeding inIndonesie .Va nbelan g ishe techte rwe lvoo r de verbetering vand e inkomenspositieva nklein eveehouder se nvoo r consumentenva nvers e melk inhe t stedelijkemilieu .D everder eontwikkelin gva nee n zuivel industrie gebaseerd opd e invoerva ngrondstoffe n (zoalsmelkpoede r en boterolie)e no p lokaal geproduceerde melk,bied twellich tbeter e perspectieven.Ee ngrote raandee lva nlokal emel k ind egrondstoffe n kan echter,wannee r ditleid tto thoger e kosten,ee nverder everspreidin g van melkproducten onder debevolkin g ind ewe g staan. -207-

APPENDIX1 .REGULATION SREGARDIN GSWEETENE DCONDENSE DSKI MMIL KI NTH EWORLD' S MARKETSABOU T1924 . a.Prohibite do rwithou tsale . 1.CUBA :Al lcondense dmil kwhic hdi dno tcontai na tleas t1 %o ffa tequa l toth e25 %o fsolid swa sconsidere dt ob eski mmil kit ssal ewa s prohibited. 2.BAHAMAS :Th ela wabsolutel yprohibite dth eimportatio no fski mmilk . 3.CHILI :Al lmil kproduct scontainin gles stha n7 %o ffa twer econsidere d tob eski mmilk ,an dthei rsal ewa sprohibited . 4.FLORIDA ,OHIO :Condensed ,evaporate dan dpowdere dmil kfro mwhic hth e wholeo rpar to fth ebutte rfa tha dbee nremove dcoul dno tb esol dunde r anyconditions . 5.PENNSYLVANIA :A Bil lwa sintroduce dprohibitin gth esal eo fski mmil ki n theStat eo fPennsylvani aa tth elas tsessio no fth eLegislature . 6.ARGENTINA :Importation ,sal ean dmanufactur eo fski mmil kwer e prohibited. 7.SOUT HAFRICA :Th eimportatio no fski mmil ki nan yfor mwa sprohibite db y atarif fo fsixpenc epe rpoun dweight ,a sagains t1 0shilling san dfou r pencepe r10 0poun dweigh to ffull-crea mmilks . 8.BRITIS HEAS TAFRICA :Th eimportatio no fski mmil kwa sprohibited . 9.STRAIT SSETTLEMENTS :Th esal eo fski mo rseparate dmil ki nan yfor m whateverwa sprohibited . 10.BRITIS HHONDURAS :Th esal eo rimportatio no fski mmil kwa sentirel y prohibited. 11.ITALY :Th esal eo fski mmil kwa sprohibited . 12.SPAIN :N obran do fski mmil kwa so nsale . 13.NORWAY :I tseem sther ewa sn osal ei nNorwa yo fski mmilk . 14.ROUMANIA :N oski mmil kwa st ob efoun do nth emarket . -208-

b.Practicall yprohibite dowin gt oexcessiv edut ycompare dt oth e full-creamvariety . 15.BRITIS HGUIANA :America nmil kproduct swit hles stha n8 %butte rfa tno t classifieda swhol emil kwer esubjec tt oa dut yo fnin edollar san d sixtycents ;no tles stha n8 %butte rfa tsubjec tt oa dut yo ffort y eightcent spe rcase .Britis ho rCanadia nfull-crea mmil kwa sdut yfree . Skimo rpartiall yski mha dt opa yfou rdollar san deigh tcents . 16.COST ARICA :Mil kproduct swit hles sbutte rfa to rsoli dmatter stha n 9.5%an d25% ,respectively ,pai ddut yo fsixt ycents .Wit hthi s percentageo rover ,thirt ycents . 17.PANAMA :N ola wregulatin gpercentage ,bu ti fmil kwa sskim ,th edut ywa s 15%instea do f10% . 18.TRINIDAD :Dut yo nski mmil kwa s1 0shilling spe rcase ,agains ton e shillingpe rcas eo nfull-crea mmilk . 19.PERU :Al lcondense dmil kcontainin gles stha n8 %fa twa sknow na sskim , anda dut yo fte ncentavo spe rkil o(gros sweight )wa spaid ;i f full-creamsweetene dcondense dmilk ,ther ewa sn oduty . 20.VERMONT ,NE WYORK ,MARYLAND ,WISCONSIN ,SOUT HCAROLINA :I nthes eState s sweetenedcondense dski mmil kcoul db esold ,bu tonl yi ncontainer so f tenpound so rmore .I nSout hCarolin adealer sha dt odispla ya sig n statingtha ti tshoul dno tb efe dt obabie so rinvalids . c.Specia lcar et oavoi dus efo rbabies . 21.AUSTRALIA :Ski mmil kha dt ob elabelle di nbol dtyp ea sbein g"Unfi tfo r infants"an dsom eo fth eStates ,suc ha sWester nAustralia ,insiste do n theadditiona lwording ,"Fi tfo rculinar yan dmanufacturin gpurpose s only". 22.FEDERATE DMALA YSTATES :N ostandard ,bu ta regulatio nwhic hinsiste do n a redlabe lbein gaffixe dt oth etin ,bearin gprominen tblac kcharacter s warningtha tnearl yal lnourishmen tha dbee nremove dfro mthi smilk ,an d thattherefor ei twa sno tt ob egive nt oinvalid so rchildren .Th e warningha dt ob ei nEnglish ,Chinese ,Mala yan dTamil . 23.FRENC HINDO-CHINA :Th ecustom swer einstructe dt oprocee dt oanalys ean y milkimporte dwhic hthe ysuspecte dt ob eprepare dfro mski mmilk .An y suchmil kwoul donl yb emarkete dwit hth esanctio no fth eMedica l Officer. -209-

24.CHINA :N oregulations ,excep ti nHongkong ,wher elable sha dt ob eput , compellingth eprintin go nth etin si nEnglis han dChines estatin g"Thi s isskimme dmil k- childre nunde ron eyea ro fag eshoul dno tb efe do n it". 25.PHILIPPINES :Container so fski mmil kha dt ob emarke dwit hth ewords ; "Notsuitabl efo rnourishmen tfo rinfant sunde ron eyea ro fage" .Ther e wasals oa specia lta xo nski mmil ko f2 0centavo spe rkil o(gros s weight,includin gcontainer) .Thos ewh ocontravene dth ela wwer eliabl e toa fin eo fP.60 0an dimprisonmen tfo rsi xmonths .

Source:Mil kIndustry ,1924 ,base do nW.G .Savage . -210-

APPENDIX2 .TH ENUMBE RO FDAIR YFARM SAN DDAIR YCOWS ,MIL KPRODUCTIO NAN DSAL E OFMIL KI NTH EREGENC YO FBANDUNG ,1935 . 1)

Nameo fdair yfar m numbero f milkpro - saleo f dairy duction freshmilk/da y cows litres/day a.member so fth ecentra lmil kdepot , Bandung.(Bandoengsch eMelkcentrale ) 1.Diemon t 10 60 2.Ramasar i (B.H.Cramer ) 20 95 3.Tjipagant i (P.J.Streithorst ) 35 140 4.Frisi a (J.J.va nde rGoot ) 45 270 5.Zaanlan d (B.F.E.R.Janse nAndeweg ) 20 105 6.Andi r (E.A.Ritter ) 60 280 7.Oe yTjenpoe n 20 80 8.Tjiboda s (F.A.Witbol sFeugen ) 45 270 9.Sin tJozef sHoev e(G.M .Godee ) 20 125 10.Lembangsch eMelkeri jUrson e 555 2500 11.Tangkoeba nPraho e(Jhr .L.A.C.d eKock)14 0 :)140 900 12.Pondo kBoewangbato e (F.L.Ellwanger ) 90 460 13.D eKlein eHoev e (W.P.J.F.Fraayhoven ) 45 150 14.Tjisaron i (J.Stekkinger ) 35 140 15.E.J .Tremle t 30 105 16.D eBataafsch eBoe r (G.D.Walter ) 90 350 17.W.A.J .Noordhoor n 25 50 18.Timaro e(O.G.J .Uyleman ) 85 270 19.K .Mutschle r 90 420 20.Boerderi j"Generaa ld eWet " (Hirschlande nva nZijl ) 5a 60 0 2600

Total 2060 9370 4100 -211-

b.othe rlicense ddair yfarm si nBandung . 21.Lactasar i (F.G.va nde rElst ) 25 100 22.A .Roll e 10 40 23.G.J .Weidem a 10 50 24.D eSierka n(C.L .Altheer ) 30 200 25 Alba (W.Ch.Nagel ) 70 700 26.C.C.W .Ch .Bec k 8 50 27.D eHoo p(A .Jansz ) 30 150 28.Nieuwenhoor n (Dr.Ph .va nde rPoel ) 35 200 29.D eTjisaroe a (F.H.Ungermann ) 60 460 30.Dair yAer d (C.va nde rHoop ) 35 150 31.J.H .Wouter s 70 175 32.Almana k (W.G.Hoogland ) 80 450 (75)

Total 463 3000 2600 c.dair yfarm si nth eRegenc yo fBandun g notsupplyin gmil kt oth ecity . 33.C.J .d eGraa f 20 75 34.G.J .Lin g 20 75 35.J .Timmerman s 25 80 36.Va nde rLeli j 10 40 37.Donn e 15 50 38.Va nde rKol k 30 85 39.P.A.W .Wouter s 5 15 40.J .Hoet s 2 10 41.D rB .Vrijburg 2' 280 600

Total 407 1030 800 Totalo fth eregenc yo fBandun g 2930 13400 7500

1)Dair yfarm so f1 0cow so rmore . 2)Mainl ya stoc kfarm .

Source:A.R .Min .v .Kol. ,1901-1945 ,verb.no .3553 ,23-3-1935 ,no .13 . -213-

NOTES

1 THE STUDY

Jelliffe, 1971,p.15 3 A booklet thatarouse d public interest inth ematte rwa s apublicatio n entitled "TheBab yKiller" ,a n investigation intoth epromotio nan d sale ofmil k powder indevelopin g countriespublishe db y theBritis h non-governmental organizationWa r onWan t (Muller,1974) . TheGerma n languageversio n "Nestle totetBabies "cause d theNestl e courtcas e in 1975.-I nth eNetherland s twomajo r critical reportshav ebee npublishe d by theCommissi eJustiti a etPax ,198 0an d Landelijk OverlegBabyvoeding , 1982o n infant foodpromotio nwit hparticula r reference toth e roleo f the Dutchdair y industry. Needless tosa ythi scriticis m createduneasines samon g themajo r food industries,an deffort swer emad e toimprov e their image.Th ePa nAmerica n HealthOrganizatio n andUNICE F sponsored ameetin go fpediatrician san d representativeso f the infant food industry inBogot a in1970 .A first official statement containing recommendationsdirecte d toprofessiona l groups,government ,an d industrywa s theoutcom e ofa conferenc e inPari s in1972 ,organize db y theProtei nAdvisor yGrou po f theUnite dNations .I n 1974a meetin gwit h the infant food industrywa shel dunde r theauspice s of thePAG inSingapore ,whic h led toth eestablishmen t of an "International Council of InfantFoo d Industries (ICIFI)i n197 5 (PAG, 1975, pp.1-5; ICIFI, 1975,pp.4-5) . The ICIFI iscompose d ofa numbe r of major food industries,an d innovembe r 1975 itprepare d itsow nethica l code on thepromotio no fbreast-mil k substitutes,whic hwa samende d in 1976 (ICIFI,1977 ,1980) .A jointWHO/UNICE FMeetin g on Infant Feedingan d Young Childrenheld , inGenev a in1979 ,mad ea detaile d statement on infantan dyoun g child feedingan do nappropriat emarketin g and distribution of infant formulaan dweanin g foods.Base d on the statement and recommendationso f theWHO/UNICE Fmeeting ,th eWorl dHealt hAssembl y approvedwit ha noverwhelmin gmajorit ya n international codeo fmarketin g ofbreas tmil k substituteso n 21stMa y1981 . TheWH O codegoe smuc h further thanth eEthica lCod eo f the ICIFI in limiting themarketin g ofbreas tmil k substitutes.Variou smil k products mayb eused b ymother s for infant feedingdependin g on incomean d specific situation;condense d or evaporatedmilk ,mil k powder,an d thever y expensive infantformula . Towha t extent inappropriate promotionactivitie so f condensedmil k and milk-powder are responsible for thepresen tdeclin eo fbreast-feedin g is stilla poin to fdiscussion .T osuc hcomple xmatte r nodirec tanswe r can begiven .Sufficien t information isavailabl e tosho wtha t inappropriate foodpromotio nactivitie shav ebee nemployed .Ther e is,however ,a dange r ofoverestimatin g somewhat the influence thesepromotio nactivitie shav e had on changing foodhabits .A basic causeo f thedeclin e of breast-feeding seems tob e the rapid changing socio-economic conditionso f womenan d their households,particularl y inurba n situations.Increas e in theworkloa d ofwome n inth ehousehol d and incomeearnin gactivitie s are detrimental tobreast-feeding . (Seee.g . Popkinan d Solon,1976 , pp.160-162;Popkin ,1980 ,p.11 ;Vi san dHennart ,1978 ,p.205) . See e.g. Donathan dVa nVeen ,1936 ,"Onderzoekinge nbetreffend e de volksvoeding inNederlands-Indi e gedurended eperiod e 1850-1919"an dVa n Veen, 1936,"D e studieva nd evolksvoedin g inNederlands-Indi e ind e periode 1911-1935".Anothe r good source isth eannote d bibliography of Postntuse t al.1955 . -214-

3 Despiteth estron ginvolvemen to fth eDutc hwit hnutritio nresearc hi t shouldb erealize dtha thardl yan ysenio rIndonesia nstaf fwa strained . Wheni n195 0th eNutritio nInstitut ebecam econtrolle db yth eIndonesia n governmentther ewa sa lac ko ftraine dpersonne lt ocarr you tth e programmes (Soekirman,1974 , p.7).

2SOM ETHEORETICA LCONSIDERATION SO NCHANGIN GFOO DHABIT SAN DTH EPLAC EO FMIL K INTH EDIE T

1 denHarto gan dBornstein-Johansson ,1976 ,pp.113-11 5 2 Mead,1962 ,pp.51-5 2 3 denHartog ,1980 ,pp.298-30 1 4 Delmont,1983,p. 2 5 Harris,1969 ,pp.9-1 4 6 Sauer,1952 ,pp.28-29 .Se eals oCranstone ,1969 ,pp.247-24 8fo rth eplac e ofanimal si npresen tagricultura lsystems . 7 Clason,1977 ,pp.81-91 ;Clutton-Brock ,1981 ,pp.66-70 ;Sauer ,1952 , pp.84-85 8 Cole,1970 ,p.2 1 9 Simoons,1971 ,p.43 9 10 Sauer,1952 ,p.8 7 11 Hahn,1896 ,pp.89-103 ;Sauer ,1952 ,p.9 3 12 Isaac,1971 ,pp.458-46 0 13 deGroot han dVerwers ,1984 ,pp.41-4 2 14 Whyte,1974 ,p.1 7 15 Payne,1970 ,pp.38-3 9 16 Simoons,1974 ,pp.561-56 2 17 Ibid.,1973 ,pp.83-9 0 18 Brothwellan dBrothwell ,1969 ,pp.50-5 2 19 Forde,1961 ,pp.337-33 8 20 TheSaam ipeople ,th eprefere dnam efo rth eLapps . 21 Forde,1961 ,p.36 7 22 Brothwell,1969 ,p.50 ;Sauer ,1952 ,pp.92-9 3 23 Thecarbohydrat ei nmil ki slactos ewhic hi sa disaccharide .T ob e properlyabsorbed ,lactos emus tb ehydrolyse dint oit scomponen tsugars , glucosean dlactose .Essentially ,lactos ei shydrolyse db yth eintestina l enzymelactase ,whic hi sfoun di nth ebrus hborde ro fmatur evillu scell s inth esmal lintestine .Whil elactas ei sfoun di nal lpart so fth esmal l intestine,i ti smainl yactiv ei nth ejejunum ,th epar to fth eintestina l tractafte rth eduodenum .Clinica lconsequence so ffeedin glactos et oa n individualwit hlo wintestina llactas eactivit yinclud ebloatin go fth e abdomen,flatulence ,cramps ,loos estools ,diarrhoe aan dsymptom so f malabsorptionan ddiscomfort .I ti sinterestin gt onot etha tbreas tmil k contains7 %lactos ean dco wmil k4.5% .I twoul dappea rtha tlactos e intoleranceoccur safte rth eusua lperio do fbreast-feeding ,probabl y afterth esecon dyea ro flife . 24 Thisi sname dsecondar ylactos eintolerance .Congentia llactos e intolerancecause db yabsenc eo fintestina llactas ei sver yrar ean d occursimmediatel yafte rbirth . 25 Seee.g .McCracken ,1971 ,pp.479-517 ;Simoons ,1970 ,pp.695-71 0an d Simoons,1973 ,pp.595-61 1 26 Schafer,1977 ,pp.105-10 6 27 Goody,1982 ,p.10 7 28 Wheatley,1965 ;se ePar tII ,chapte r2. 1 29 Insom epart so fWes tAfric aa nindigenou sric especie sca nb efound , Oryzaglaberrima . 30 Schnell,1957 ,p.4 5 31 Braudel,1981 ,pp.108-10 9 -215-

32 Abel,1974 ;Aymard ,1979 ,pp.5- 8 33 Seee.g .Tannahill ,1975 ,pp.257-296 ;Teuteberg ,1975 ,pp.86-87 .Fo ra theoreticalanalysi so ftechnica lartefact sse eBijker ,1984 ,pp.55-60 . 34 Flinn,1980 ,pp.71-7 4 35 Schumpeter,1959 ,pp.88-89 .Schumpeter' stheor yo neconomi cdevelopmen t wasfirs tpublishe di nGerma ni n191 1(Theori ede rwirtschaftliche n Entwicklung)an drevise di n1926 .Th eEnglis htranslatio nappeare di n 1934. 36 Ogburnan dThomas ,1922 ,pp.83-94 ;Gilfillan ,194 5 37 Ogburnan dThomas ,p.9 2 38 Braudel,1981 ,p.10 9 39 Slicherva nBath ,1978 ,p.2 9 40 Buchanan,1982 ,pp.41-4 3 41 Hofstee,1962 ,p.4 3 42 Rogers,1983 ,pp.1-3 7 43 Grigg,1982 ,p.15 5 44 Ibid.,pp.154-166 ;Rogers ,1983 ,p.2 2 45 Hardeman,1984 ,pp.15-1 8 46 Wiegelmann,1974 ,p.2 2 47 Goodyha sgive na naccoun to nth eadoptio no findustria lprocesse dfood s byth evariou sclasse si nWes tAfric awit hparticula rreferenc et oGhana . (Goody,1982 ,pp.175-190) . 48 Ibid.,1982 ,p.17 4 49 Wigboldus,1979 ,pp.19-2 0 50 Goody,1982 ,pp.107-10 8 51 Cazanove,1936 ,p.235 ;Craddock ,1983 ,pp.78-7 9

3A NE WFOO DFO RURBA NCONSUMERS :CONDENSE DMIL K

1 Jagchidan dHyer ,1979 ,p.4 4 2 "Theymak eprovision sals oo fmilk ,thickene dan ddrie dt oth estat eo fa paste,whic hi sprepare di nth efollowin gmanner .The yboi lth emilk ,an d skimmingof fth eric ho rcream ypar ta si trise st oth etop ,pu ti tint oa separatevesse la sbutter ;fo rs olon ga stha tremain si nth emilk ,i t willno tbecom ehard .Th elatte ri sthe nexpose dt oth esu nunti li t dries.Upo ngoin go nservic ethe ycarr ywit hthe nabou tte npound sfo r eachman ,an do fthis ,hal fa poun di sput ,ever ymorning ,int oa leather n bottle,wit ha smuc hwate ra si tthough tnecessary .B ythei rmotio ni n ridingth econtent sar eviolentl yshaken ,an da thi nporridg ei sproduced , uponwhic hthe ymak ethei rdinner "(Marc oPolo ,1324 ;198 2edn ,pp.94-95) . Seeals oDevolde re tal. ,1984 ,pp.34-3 5 3 Drummonde tal. ,1958 ,pp.299-30 0 4 Bomgaars,1955 ,pp.19-2 0 5 vande rWoude ,1972 ,pp.567-568 ;Verdoom ,1965 ,pp.248-250 ;Tosseram , 1936,pp.146-15 2 6 Bruijnan dLucassen ,1980 ,p.12 2 7 Ibid.,pp.88-90 ;va nWersc han dd eKnecht-va nEekelen ,1973 ,p.35 9 8 Ibid.,p.120 ;Leuftink ,1953 ,p.11 0 9 vanWinter ,1955 ,pp.227-22 8 10 Gids,1968 ,p.2 3 11 Corley,1976 ,pp.13-14 ,se eals oWat te tal. ,198 1 12 Lief (notdated) ,p. 7 13 Ibid.,p. 7 14 Drummonde tal. ,1958 ,p.31 8 15 Morris,1958 ,p.4 2 16 Westermann,1939 ,pp.17-2 0 -216-

17 Inth eNetherland san dGerman yti nsmith soriginall ycam efro mth eguil d oflanter nmakers ,wh oextende dthei ractivitie st oth emakin go f householdutensil s (Westermann,1939 ,pp.56-57) . 18 Westermann,1939 ,p.6 0 19 Ibid.,1939 ,p.5 6 20 Clark,1977 ,p. 9 21 deHaan ,1935 ,p.52 9 22 Ibid.,p.52 9 23 Hobsbawn,1969 ,p.5 0 24 Morris,1958 ,p.4 2 25 Drummonde tal. ,1958 ,pp.321-32 2 26 Burnett,1979 ,p.13 4 27 Tannahill,1975 ,p.28 5 28 Teuteberg,1972 ,p.8 3 29 Westermann,1939 ,p.19 0 30 Ibid.,p.201 ,24 1 31 Ibid.,p.19 1 32 Ibid.,p.19 3 33 Clark,1977 ,p.1 4 34 Ibid.,p.2 7 35 Thiswa sdu et oth eintroductio no fBessemer' sstee lmakin gtechnique s (1855)an dwa slate rfollowe db yth eMartins-Siemen stechniqu e (Westermann,1939 ,p.45) . 36 Clark,1977 ,p.1 8 37 Grigg,1974 ,pp.194-196 .Fo rth esituatio ni nth eNetherland sCMC/Melkuni e (1979,pp.11-71 )an dTossera m(1936) . 38 Hunziker (1946,p.34 )liste da numbe ro fothe rinventor so fpreserve d milk.I nFranc ethes ewer eMalbe ci n182 6an dMarti nd eLigna ci n1847 .I n 1835Grimau dmanage dt ocondens emil kb yexposin ga thi nfil mflowin gove r anincline dsurfac et ocurrent so ffanne dair .I nth eUnite dStates , WilliamUnderwoo dexperimente dwit hmethod so fpreservin gmil ki n1835 . TheEnglishma nNewto ncondense dmil kb yaddin gsugar . 39 Drummonde tal. ,1958 ,pp.302-30 3 40 Hunziker,p.3 4 41 Rootan dd eRochemont ,1976 ,pp.159-16 0 42 Morris,1958 ,p.3 5 43 Rootan dd eRochemont ,1976 ,pp.187-18 8 44 Inth e19t hcentur yi nth eNetherland san dBelgium ,a si nothe rWes t Europeancountries ,ther ewa sa relatio nbetwee nbreast-feedin gan dth e levelo finfan tmortality .Amon gpopulatio ngroup ssuc ha surba n working-classwomen ,wher ebreast-feedin gwa softe nabsent ,infan t mortalitywa ssometime smor etha n20 0 /oo.Se ee.g .Vandenbroek ee tal. , 1983,pp.85-115 . 45 Heer,1966 ,p.5 8 46 Morris,1958 ,p.3 6 47 Hunziker,1946 ,p.33 3 48 Morris,1958 ,p.3 6 49 Burnett,1979 ,p.14 4 50 Hesselink,1913 ,pp.92-9 3 51 Budinbega ni nPari si n189 1an dHergot ti nNanc yi n189 0wit ha chil d healthcentre .Ther ewa sals o apolitica lmotiv ebehin dth esettin gu p thesecentres .Franc ewa sface dwit ha slowl ydeclinin gpopulatio ngrowth . Invie wo fFrench-Germa nrivalry ,th eFrenc hgovernmen twa smuc hconcerne d torevers ethi strend .Se ee.g .Schilpzan dan dUithof ,1980 ,p.112 ; Sussman,1982 ,pp.165-166 . 52 Teuteberg,1981 ,p.29 0 53 Drummonde tal. ,1958 ,p.37 6 54 Heer,1966 ,p.6 7 -217-

55 McCollum,1957 ,pp.217-21 9 56 Ibid.,pp.231-23 2 57 Ibid.,p.27 6 58 Drummonde tal. ,1958 ,p.37 7 59 Ibid.,p.37 8 60 Ibid.,p.37 8 61 Wilson,1970 ,p.7 3 62 Whetham,1976 ,p.6 6 63 Ibid.,p.6 7 64 Fussell,1966 ,p.35 7 65 Roberts,1973 ,p.10 5 66 Ibid.,p.10 8 67 Hunziker,1946 ,p.4 0 68 Bos,1979 ,pp.64-6 5 69 deJonge ,1976 ,pp.340-34 6 70 vanZanden ,1985 ,pp.346-34 7 71 Ibid.,pp.46-4 7 72 deJonge ,1976 ,pp.286-295 ;de nHartog ,1982 ,pp.60-6 3 73 deVries ,1977 ,p.1 1 74 Thebati gsald oo rprofi tpolic yo fenforce dcultivatio no fcoffee ,suga r andindig ob yth ecultuurstelse lo rcultur esyste mo nJav amad ea transfe r ofhug eamount so fmone yt oth eDutc hexcheque rpossible .Betwee n185 1an d 1860,31.5 %o fth estat erevenue swer ederive dfro mJav a (Seeals o Fasseur,1975 ,pp.118-120) . 75 vanZanden ,1985 ,pp.352-26 0 76 Bos,1978 ,pp.226-231 ;Kenwoo dan dLougheed ,1982 ,p.27 ;va nZanden ,1985 , pp.138-141 77 vande rPoel ,1967 ,pp.176-178 ;va nZanden ,1985 ,pp.264-26 5 78 Sneller,1943 ,pp.83-87 ;va nZanden ,1985 ,p.24 8 79 vanZanden ,1985 ,pp.246-24 7 80 Seee.g .Wilson ,1970 ,pp.16-3 2 81 vanZanden ,1985 ,pp.273-27 6 82 Hylkema,1922 ,pp.33-35 ;Minderhoud ,1943 ,p.40 7 83 Hollandia,1932 ,pp.2- 4 84 EigenHaard ,1884 ,pp.28-3 3 85 Hollandia,1932 ,p.11 ;I ti so finteres tt onot etha tHollandia , originallyse tu pt ocompet ewit hth esuccessfu lAnglo-Swiss ,wa stake n overi n192 9b yth eNestl ean dAnglo-Swis sCondense dMil kCorporatio n aftera perio do f4 8year so fheav ycompetitio n (Hollandia,1932 ,p.40) . 86 Hummelinck,1886 ,p.27 4 87 Ibid.,p.27 1 88 Wilson,1970 ,p.7 3 89 The"Leeuwarde rU s enMel kProdukti eFabriek "(Lijempf ,1937) .Som eothe r privatemil kcondenserie si nth eNetherland sbefor e191 4wer eth eBritis h firmWes tFriesch eGecondenseerd eMelkfabrie k inHoorn ,th eJanse n& Stormscondenser y"Neerlandia "i nWagenberg ,Va nHeel sCondense dMil k Companyi nNaarde nan dKampen ,th efirm sHoekstr aan dExcelcio ri n Woerden,an dth eGala kCondense dMil kCompan yo fRotterdam . 90 Heer,1966 ,p.10 1 91 Ibid.,p.101 .Th eautho rhowever ,doe sno tspel lou ti nwhic hAsia n countriesth econsumptio no fte awit hski mmil kincreased . 92 Illustrativei sth eabortiv eattemp tb ya numbe ro ffarmer si nth e Rotterdamregio nt ose tu pa cooperativ econdenser yi n1911 .Despit e promisingperspective si twa sa risk yventur efo rsmal lenterprise s lackingth erequire dcapital .I n191 9th ecooperativ e "VerenigdeZuivel - bereiders"wa sdissolve dan dtransforme dint oa limite dcompan y(Geluk , 1967,pp.110-111) .Mor esuccessfu lwa sth ecooperativ edair yfactor y foundedi nRoosendaa li n1903 .Durin g191 1an d191 2i tdevelope dint oa -218-

condenseryunde rth enam e"He tAnker "(Ibid. ,p.41) .Anothe rsmal l cooperativefactor ywa sth econdenser yo fMiddelstu mi nth eprovinc eo f Groningen. 93 Croesen,1931 ,p.18 2 94 Tjepkema,1961 ,pp.58-5 9 95 Ibid.,p.7 6 96 Hollandia,1932 ,p.1 1 97 vanEekelen ,1984 ,p.25 3 98 Sneller,1943 ,p.11 5 99 Verenigingva nFabrieke nva nMelkproducte n 100 Tenso fthousand so ftonne so fcondense dmil kwer estore di nbarrel si n governmentwarehouses .Storag eo fcondense dmil ki nbarrel swa sno tnew . Innorma ltime swhe ni nth esumme rth emil ksuppl ywa sto obi gt ohandle , themil ksurplu scoul db epreserve di nthi swa yfo rutilizatio ni nwinter . Duet oth ewa rcircumstances ,th eperio do fstorag eha dlaste dto olon g andth eorganolepti cpropertie san dmicrobiologica lqualit yo fth emil k deteriorated.Fermentatio noccurre dan dsom ebarrel seve nexplode d(Va n Dijk,1978 ,p.33) . 101 Bomgaars,1955 ,pp.62-6 3 102 A.Z.Melkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1917 ,pp.421-42 3 103 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.8 7 104 Wagenaar,1924 ,p.2 7 105 Sneller,1943 ,pp.117-11 9 106 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.15 3 107 Duringth eoccupation ,evaporate dmil kbecam ea substitut efo rth escarc e andver yexpensiv ecrea mand ,afte r1945 ,whe nsociet yreturne dt onormal , itremaine dpopula rwit hth econsumer .Th eKorea ncrisi sha da nunforsee n effecto nth efurthe rdevelopmen to fthi sproduct .Becaus eo fshortage so f rawmaterial smanufacturer swer eno tallowe dt ous etin sfo rproduct s destinedfo rth edomesti cmarket .Thi sresulte di nth eappearanc eo f evaporatedmil ki nsmal lbottle s(25 0cc )i n1951 .Th eintroductio no f evaporatedmil kint obottle sfo rth eus ea scoffe ecreame rmad ethi s productver ypopula ri nth eNetherland s (Ibid.,p.174 ,178) . 108 Bos,1978 ,p.41 6 109 Ibid.,p.25 2 110 Invie wo fthis ,i n192 3th eLinlithgo wCommitte econducte da nelaborate d inquiryint oth emethod san dcost so fdistributin ghom eproduce dmil kan d dairyproduc ei nth eUnite dKingdo m(Imperia lEconomi cCommittee ,1926 , p.20). 111 Nutrition,1937 ,p .11 7 112 Forrester,1927 ,p.vii i 113 ImperialEconomi cCommittee ,1926 ,pp.81-8 2 114 MilkIndustry ,1927 ,no .6 ,p.7 5 115 Ibid.,1922 ,no .2 ,p.53 ,5 5 116 Ibid.,1923 ,no .12 ,pp.55-5 8 117 Ibid.,1927 ,no .2 ,p.4 7 118 A.Z.Melkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1923 ,pp.278-28 0 119 Ibid.,p.27 7 120 OfficieelOrgaan ,1923 ,p.58 7 121 Theseperiodical sar eHe tAlgemee nZuive le nMelkhygienisc hWeekbla do f theprivat edair yindustr yan dHe tOfficiee lOrgaa n (vande nAlgemeene n NederlandschenZuivelbond )o fth efederatio no fth eDutc hCooperativ e DairyIndustry . 122 MilkIndustry ,1927 ,no .2 ,p.47 . Thesal eo ffoo dan ddrug sac to f189 9prohibite dth eimportatio no rsal e ofcondense dseparate do rski mmilk ,excep ti ntin so rothe rreceptable s whichbor ea labe lo nwhic hth eword s"machine-skimmed "o r"ski mmilk " wereclearl ydisplayed . -219-

123 A.Z.Melkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1927 ,p.31 1 124 vande rMolen ,1927 ,p.43 8 125 Gerritzen,1929 ,p. 3 126 Eventw omor erecentl ypublishe dbook so nth edevelopmen to fmil k condensingi nth eNetherland sd ono ttak ethes enutritiona laspect so f skimmil kint oaccount .Pa ti s' tkondensfabryk ,b yTjepkem apublishe di n 1963o nth eoccasio no fhal fa centur ycooperativ econdense dmil kindustr y inFrieslan dan dth eNederland sCondensboe kb yva nDij kpublishe di n197 8 tocelebrat eth e25t hanniversar yo fth eNetherland sAssociatio no f Manufacturerso fCondense dMilk . 127 OfficieelOrgaan ,1922 ,p.16 9 128 Tjepkema,1963 ,pp.99-10 2 129 MilkIndustry ,1923 ,no .2 ,p.7 1 130 Ibid.,no .3 ,p.4 3 131 Ibid.,p.4 4 132 ArthurNevill eChamberlai nwa sMiniste ro fHealt hfro m1924-192 9unde rth e conservativegovernmen to fStanle yBaldwin . 133 MilkIndustry ,1928 ,no .8 ,p.9 3 134 OfficieelOrgaan ,1926 ,p.47 1 135 Ibid.,1927 ,pp.619-62 0 136 A.Z.Melkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1928 ,p.4 7 137 MilkIndustry ,1927 ,no .3 ,p.5 5 138 Quotedb yOfficiee lOrgaan ,1929 ,p.35 6 139 Seee.g .Tjepkema ,1963 ,p.124 ;Mil kIndustry ,1927 ,no .6 ,p.5 1 140 Minderhoud,1943 ,p.50 5 141 Inth eperio d1930-193 3th eGovernmen ttried ,throug ha numbe ro f agriculturalcrisi sact ssuc ha sth eCrisi sDair yAc to f1932 ,t osuppor t theagricultura lsecto rthroug hpric einterventio ni na numbe ro f commodities.Afte rth efailur eo fth einternationa leconomi cconferenc ei n Londoni nth esumme ro f1933 ,th eGovernmen trealize dtha tmor e far-reachingmeasure sshoul db etaken .Th eAgricultura lCrisi sAc twa s proclaimedi n193 4an dgav eth eGovernmen tth eauthorit yt oregulat e production,distribution ,impor tan dexport ,an dth epric eo fa grea t numbero fvariou sagricultura lcommodities .A Crisi sDair yBoar d(Crisi s ZuivelCentrale )becam eresponsibl efo rth eexecutio no fth emeasure si n thefiel do fdairying . 142 Wolmerstett,1930 ,pp.294-29 9 143 Okkinga,1930 ,p.620 .Mr .P.Okkinga ,directo ro fth eCooperativ eDair y Factoryi nBedum . 144 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.14 1 145 A.Z.Melkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1936 ,no .53 ,p.44 3 146 Ibid.,p.44 1 147 Ibid.,p.44 0 148 Colenbrander,1926 ,p.45 8 149 Gerritzen,1929 ,p. 3 150 Ibid.,1930 ,p. 9 151 OfficieelOrgaan ,1937 ,p.28 7 152 Ibid.,1937 ,p.28 9 153 Sparrius,1948 ,p.90 .Mil kcondenserie swer emajo rcustomer so fth eDutc h tin-plateindustry .I nth eyear sbefor eWorl dWa rI Iabou ttwo-third so f theexpor to ftin-plat ewa suse db yth eDutc hcondense dmil kindustr y (Roosenschoon,1950 ,p.18) .

4DAIRYIN GAN DTH EUS EO FMIL KI NTROPICA LREGION S

1 Hahn,1896 ,p.7 7 2 SouthEas tAsi acomprise sroughl yBurma ,Thailand ,Cambodia ,Laos , Vietnam,Malaysia ,Singapor ean dth eIndonesia narchipelago . -220-

3 Burkill,1951 ,pp.443-44 8 4 vanLaanen ,1980 ,pp.254-255 ;se eals oTerra ,1953 ,pp.448-455 ;Ibid. , 1958,pp.157-18 2 5 Whyte,1974 ,p.1 7 6 Ibid.,p.1 7 7 Forde,1961 ,p.449 ;Nationa lResearc hCounci l (NRC),1983 ,pp.7-13 , pp.41-45. TheBo sjavanicu si sno wth eaccepte dname ,othe rname suse dbein gBo s sondaicuso rBo sbanteng ,Bal icattl efo rth edomesticate d form.Despit ea cattle-likeappearance ,th eanimal sar ea tleas ta sgeneticall yremot e fromcattl ea si sth ebison .Bot hproduc esteril emale swhe nhybridize d withEuropea ncattl e(NRC ,1983 ,p.7) . 8 Wheatley,1965 ,pp.577-59 0 9 vanLeur ,1934 ,pp.133-13 4 10 Wheatley,pp.568-58 7 11 Ibid.,p.58 7 12 VanEsterick ,1979 ,pp.9-1 0 13 Hahn,1896 ,p.78 ;Sommerfeld ,1923 ,pp.187-188 .I na stud yo nlivestoc ko n theislan do fMadur ah esai dtha tth earistocrac yo fHind udescen tkep t milka sa privileg efo rthemselve san dforbad eordinar ypeopl et ous eit . Henceth emil kdrinking-habi tdi dno ttouc hth epopulation ,an di nth e longru ndairyin gdisappeared .H ecompare dthi swit hth emilk-usin gTuts i tribeo fRwand aan dBurund ii nEas tAfrica .Th earistocrati cTuts i invadersha dfo rman ycenturie sdiscourage dth eus eo fmil kb yth e subjectedHut umajority . 14 Broekmeijer (1855,p.16 )reporte dtha ti nPasuruan ,Eas tJava ,shee pan d goatswer eraise dfo rmil kan dmeat .H edi dno tstat ewhethe rmil kwa s usedb yEuropean so rIndonesians .Bleeke r (1845,p.417 )mentione dtha ti n Bataviagoa tmil kwa ssometime suse db yth epopulation .On ema ywonde ri f thisobservatio ni sfull ycorrect .I ti smor elikel ytha tth eautho rha d Arabsi nmin dan dno tIndonesians . 15 Penning,1910 ,p.347 ;va nHall ,1944 ,p.10 6 16 Dupuis,1970 ,p.54 3 17 Gourou,1959 ,pp.53-6 4 18 Aalfs,1934 ,pp.40-41 . Thefollowin gmil koblatio nwa smentione db yAalfs :Wedij a (naiwedyam)a kindo fdelicac yconsistin go fmilk ,sou rmilk ,draw nbutter ,suga ran d honey. 19 Leurink,1946 ,p.35 2 20 Endendijk,1980 ,p.54 1 21 Kok,1921 ,p.1 7 22 NRC,1983 ,pp.14-2 0 23 Kok,p.6 3 24 Veth (1875)i nhi sclassica lstud yo nJav awrot ethat ,despit eth e presenceo fbuffalo san dcattle ,mil kwa sno tconsume dalthoug hth e Javanesewa sno tavers et obutter . 25 Raffles,1817 ,reprin t1965 ,pp.96-9 7 26 Wheatley,1965 ,p.58 7 27 Ibid. 28 Poerbatjaraka,1933 ,p.2 5an di nparticula rpag e67 . "Theinfluenc eo f(common )foo di sexceede deigh ttime sb yflour .Th e powero fflou ri sexceede deigh ttime sb ymil kthroug hcontinuou suse . Milki sexceede deigh ttime sb ysarpi s(Ghee )throug hcontinuou suse" . 29 Harmsen,1953 ,pp.139-149 ;Kreemer ,1907 ,p.956 ;Ibid. ,1956 ,pp.122-127 ; Lekkerkerker,1916 ,p.88 ;Merkens ,1927 ,pp.133-136 ;Vink ,1941 , p.164,17 0 30 Baudetan dFasseur ,1977 ,p.32 8 31 deGraaf ,1955 ,p.15 3 -221-

32 Bontius,Tropisch eGeneeskunde ,1931 ,p.73 ,reprin to fth e176 9Englis h translationb yNotema ni nLondo no fth eLati ntex tpublishe di n1642 , Leidenb yF .Hackius .Jaco bBontiu s(1592-1631 )wh oca nb econsidere da s oneo fth efirs tfounder so fth etropica lmedica lscience sgav ea naccoun t ontw onutritio ndiseases ;"weaknes so fsight "an dberi-beri .Accordin gt o Bontiusblindnes scoul db erelate dt oth eeatin go fho t(temperature ) rice.H ewa sth efirs tt ogiv ea medica ldescriptio no fberi-beri ,whic h herelate dno tt ofoo dbu tt oth ehumi dclimat e (pp.171-173,pp.107-111) . Onth esignificanc eo fBontiu sfo rth edevelopmen to ftropica lmedicin e onema yconsul tth eintroductio nmad eb yva nAnde lt oth e193 1editio nan d Lindeboom,1984 ,pp.342-346 ,354-360 . 33 Boxer,1965 ,p.25 2 34 Dumasy,1980 ,p.15 1 35 deGraaf ,1955 ,p.153 .Dr ycooke dric ean da variet yo fmea tan dvegetabl e dishesfor mth econstituent so frijsttafel .Wha ti sknow na sIndonesia n cuisinewa sdevelope dfro mth ecourt so fJava .I nparticula rth ecuisin e ofMiddl eJav areache dgrea trefinement .Th eJavanes ear to fcookin g incorporatesIndian ,Arabi can dChines eelement s(Vuyk ,1973 ,pp.19-22) . Inth eNetherlands ,th erijsttafe lan di nparticular ,som eo fit s components,becam epopula ronl yafte r194 5durin gth eproces so f decolonization.Th erepatriatio no fth eDutc han ddemobilizatio no fDutc h conscriptswh oha dacquire da tast efo rIndonesia nfood sdurin gthei r servicei nIndonesi aar emajo rcontributin gfactors . InSuriname ,a countr ywit ha comparativel ysizeabl epopulatio no f Javaneseorigin ,rijsttafe lwa sno tdevelope da ssuch .Th eJavanes ewer e takent oSurinam ei nth eyear safte r186 3a scontrac tlabourers .Unde r thesecircumstance sn ospecifi ccultura lexchang etoo kplac ebetwee nth e Dutchan dJavanes ei nSuriname .Outsid eth eNetherland san dIndonesi ath e rijsttafelca nb efoun di ncontemporar ySout hAfric ai nth eCap eamon gth e populationgrou po fMala ydescent ." A tabl elade nwit hit sman yspice d dishes,it sbowl so fric ean dit snumerou scondiment sit ssuggestiv eo f theBatavia nrijsttafel ,an di sn oles ssumptuou sa mea ltha nth eol dCap e colonistsuse dt oenjo yi nth enineteent hcentury "(Gerber ,1978 ,p.23) . Duringth eperio do fth eVO CMalay swer etake nt oth eCape .I twa sth e Malayslave swh oa sdomesti cservant st oth eDutc hsettler sdevelope dth e Capeversio no fth erijsttafel . 36 deGraaf ,1955 ,p.15 4 37 Bleeker,1844 ,p.45 8 PietBleeke rarrive di nBatavi ai n184 2wher eh ewa sappointe da smedica l officert oth egarrison .H ewa sa clos efrien do fEduar dDouwe sDekker , knowna sMultatul i (van' tVeer ,1977 ,p.49 , 94). 38 Munnich,1847 ,pp.170-171 .G.J .Mulde r (1847)i nhi sstud yo nnutritio ni n theNetherland san dth enationa lspiri tha da mor escientifi capproach .A nationaldie tlo wi nprotein san dbase do npotatoe swa sdetrimenta lt oth e physicalan dmenta ldevelopmen to fth epopulation . 39 Bleeker,1844 ,p.45 9 40 C.L.va nde rBurg ,D egeneeshee ri nNederlandsch-Indie ,1883 ,Volum e1 . Thebook ,publishe di nBatavia ,consist so fthre evolumes .I twa smean t forphysician sworkin gi nth earchipelago .Th eautho rstarte dhi scaree r asa narm ysurgeon ,late rbecam ea privat ephysicia nan dspen tmos to fhi s lifei nIndonesia .H eshowe da grea tinteres ti nIndonesia nfoods . 41 Scheltema,1936 ,p.1 4 42 Seee.g .Schellekens ,1980 ,pp.198-20 0 43 Nieuwenhuys,1973 ,p.39 1 44 Baudetan dFasseur ,1977 ,p.328 ;Nieuwenhuys ,1973 ,p.342 ;Taylor ,1983 , pp.128-129;Wertheim ,1948 ,pp.57-5 8 -222-

45 Nieuwenhuys,1973 ,p.342 ;va nGoor ,1979 ,p.285 .Thi sproces so f Europeanizationwa sfel tb yLoui sCouperu si n1922 ,whe nh erevisite dth e countrywher eh espen tpar to fhi schildhoo dfo rth esecon dtime ."Ther e isi nth eIndie sa tendenc yt oEuropeaniz eth ewhol ewa yo flif e Europeanizationgoe sspeciall ywit hth enea rabolishio no fth erijsttafel . Informe rday sth erijsttafe lwa sth eappropriat elunch ,bu tdurin gth e lastten ,fiftee nyear s- wh ostarte dit?! ,- i tha sbecom eth efashio nt o lookdow no ni ta sunhygieni can dIndonesia n .."(Couperus ,1981 ,p.225) . 46 Jansen,1938 ,p.5 6 47 Bruijnan dLucassen ,1980 ,pp.113-114 ,12 1 48 Schofferan dGaastra ,1982 ,pp.221-22 2 49 Boekel,1929 ,p.12 2 50 Ibid.,p.12 2 51 vanHeuven ,1928 ,pp.804-80 7 52 Bensen,1854 ,p.30 5 53 Scheltema,1931 ,p.25 0 54 Meilink-Roelofsz,1962 ,pp.286-28 7 55 Vande rChijs ,1885/1897 ,Nederlandsch-Indisc hPlakaatboek ,1602-1811 . 56 Ibid.,par t1 ,p.28 3 57 Ibid.,Par t2 ,p.49 5 58 Ibid.,Par t8 ,pp.568-569 ,81 7 59 deHaan ,1935 ,pp.527-52 8 60 Staatva nde nlandbou wo pJava ,1846 ,pp.61-6 4 61 Bleeker,1845 ,p.41 7 62 Bensen,1857 ,p.999 ;Bernelo tMoens ,1860 ,p.425 ;Broekmeijer ,1855 ,p.1 6 63 Noordwijkan dva nde rWeijde ,1856 ,pp.170-174 ,17 8 64 Muller,1845 ,p.35 2 65 Ibid.,1845 ,p.35 3 66 BernelotMoens ,1860 ,p.425 ;Helfrich ,1859 ,p.32 7 67 Cayaux,1883 ,p.31 7 68 'tHoen ,1920 ,p.46 0 69 deHaan ,1911 ,pp.538-56 2 70 Bontius,1769 ,reprin t1931 ,pp.15-1 6 71 vande rChijs ,Par t5 ,p.30 8 72 Quotedb ySchoute ,1929 ,p.25 0fro ma repor tb yva nde rParra ,30t h December1755 .Th eGoverner-Genera lMosse lgav eva nde rParr a (whohimsel f becameGoverner-Genera lfro m1761-1775 )th eassignmen to fdraftin ga pla n foreconomizin go nth eexpenditur eo fth eVO Ci nBatavia .Va nde rParr a alsolooke dclosel yint oth ehospital san drecommende deconomizin go nfoo d purchases. 73 vande rChijs ,Par t16 ,p.309 ,31 1 74 Ibid.,p.464 ,46 6 75 Muller,1846 ,p.52 3 76 Groothoff,1901 ,p.26 6 77 Wetzelaaran dGieben ,1901 ,pp.270-28 1 78 vanMaurik ,1897 ,pp.181-18 2 79 deGraaff ,1704 ,p.12 .Nicolau sd eGraaf fmad esevera lvoyage st oth eEas t Indies,1644 ,1688 ,167 6an d1683 . 80 TheBataviaasc hGenootscha pde rKunste ne nWetenschappe nwa sfounde di n 1778b ya grou po fDutc hscholar san dintereste dpeople . 81 Terne,1814 ,pp.1-2 5 82 Ibid.,p. 2 83 Ibid.,p. 6 84 Ibid.,p.8- 9 -223-

85 Ibid.,p.10 .Nil sRose nvo nRosenstein' s (1706-1773)boo k "Thedisease so f childrenan dthei rremedies "whic hwa sfirs tpublishe di nSwedis hi n1753 , wastranslate dint oman ylanguages ;a Dutc hversio ni n176 8an d177 9an d anEnglis hon ei n1776 .I twa sth emos tauthoritativ eboo ko npaediatric s inth e18t hcentur y (vonRosenstein ,1977 ,reprint) . 86 Hartshornwa sformerl ya chie fsourc eo fammoni aan duse dfo rexampl ei n medicalpreparation sfo raffection so fth edigestiv etrac t(se eals o Bakker,1928 ,pp.265-266) ;Terne ,1814 ,p.1 6 87 Thephysicia nPetru sCampe rpublishe da treatis eo nchil deducatio ni n 1763.H ewa si nfavou ro fmil kfo rinfan tan dchil dfeedin gan di n particularo fgoa tmil k (seeBurema ,1953 ,pp.205-206 ) 88 Terne,1814 ,p.2 0 89 Ibid.,p.2 2 90 Cayaux,1883 ,p.30 4 91 vande rBurg ,1883 ,p.24 0 92 Ibid.,p.241 ;va nEekelen ,1984 ,p.23 9 93 Cone,1981 ,p.5,7 ;va nEekelen ,1984 ,p.239 ;Wood ,1955 ,p.47 6 94 deGraaff ,1704 ,p.12 ;Terne ,1814 ,p. 5 95 vande rStok ,1888 ,p.1 1 96 Sussman,1982 ,pp.27-29 ,182-18 5 97 vande rBurg ,1883 ,p.24 0 98 vande rStok ,1888 ,p.1 7 99 Ibid.,p.2 4 100 Cayaux,1883 ,p.136 ;va nde rBurg ,1883 ,p.156 ;1904 ,pp.123-12 4 101 Ibid.,p.30 4 102 Boorsma,1901 ,p.51 6

5A DEMAN DFO RFRES HMIL KAN DTH ERIS EO FMODER NDAIRYIN GUNDE RTROPICA L CONDITIONS

1 vande nBerg ,1976 ,p.9 .Reprin to fa pape r"Ee nda gi nIndie" ,anonymous , whichappeare di na Yout hJourna laroun d188 5i nth eNetherlands . 2 Lekkerkerker,1938 ,p.676 ;Schrauwen ,1930 ,pp.129-130 ;Ibid. ,1931 ,p.29 8 3 Lekkerkerker,1938 ,p.676 ;Szekely-Lulofs ,1942 ,p.6 0 4 vanDam ,1942 ,p.16 4 5 Lekkerkerker,1938 ,p.676 ;Schoorel ,1889 ,p.27 0 6 Vrijburg,1903 ,pp.15-3 4 7 Szekely-Lulofs,1942 ,p.6 0 8 Wormser,1942 ,pp.302-30 3 9 Staatva nde nlandbou wo pJava ,1846 ,pp.61-64 . Therepor twa sprepare db ya commissio no fagricultur e(hoofdkommissi e vanlandbouw )se tu pi n182 6b yth eGovernor-Genera lo fth eNetherland s Indies,Viscoun tL.P.J ,d uBu sd eGisignies .H eshowe dgrea tinteres ti n theagricultura ldevelopmen to fJav ab yprivat eEuropean san denterprise s (Stapel,1941) .Th erepor twa sprepare di n182 9an dfinishe di n1830 ,whe n thegovernmen twa shande dove rt oth ene wgoverno rJ .va nde nBosch .I ti s ofinteres tt onot etha tth erepor twa spublishe di n184 6i nBrussel si n Belgium,d uBus' snativ ecountry ,thre eyear sbefor ehi sdeath . 10 Asearc ho fth eVeeartsenijkundig eblade nvoo rNederlandsc hIndi e(Veteri ­ naryJourna lfo rth eNetherland sIndies )o fwhic hth efirs tissu eappeare d in1886 ,showe dtha tunti learl y1900 ,mos tcontribution swer ewritte nb y militaryveterinarian san dwholl yo rpartiall ydevote dt ohorses . 11 Seee.g .Schat ,190 5 12 Kraneveld,1958 ,p.9 8 13 Merkens,1923 ,p.1 9 14 deBlieck ,1927 ,pp.234-23 5 15 Vrijburg,1887 ,p.17 2 16 GouvernementsKommissari sinzak eveepest ;Kraneveld ,1958 ,p.10 1 -224-

17 Tuandokte rSnaphaan ,whic hliterall ymean sSi rdocto rmatchlock . 18 Kraneveld,1958 ,p.102 ;Vrijburg ,1914 ,pp.1104-110 5 19 Merkens,1923 ,p.3 1 20 Ibid.,pp.37-3 8 21 vanDalfsen ,1906 ,pp.153-196 .Neijtzel ld eWilde ,lecture ra tth e TrainingColleg efo rIndonesia nSolicitor s(Opleidingsschoo lvoo rInlands e Rechtskundigen)i nWeltevreden ,wrot ei nhi sboo ko nth ewelfar eo fth e Indonesianpopulation :"I ti sstrikin gtha tJava ,despit eth epresenc eo f manyEuropeans ,stil lproduce sn oo rhardl yan ybutter ,mil ko rcheese.. " (Neijtzell,1911 ,p.61) . 22 'tHoen ,1906 ,pp.324-32 5 23 Merkens,1923 ,p.2 2 24 Ibid.,p.46 .Th efar mGeneraa ld eWe twa sfounde db ytw ofarmer sfro m Transvaal (Hirschlandan dva nZijl )i n1903 ,wh olef tthei rcountr yafte r theBoe rWar .I tbecam ea majo rstoc kfar mfo rdair ycows ,' tHoen ,1930 , p.104. 25 E.va nN.I. ,1939 ,pp.1511-1512 ;Huitema ,1982 ,p.238 ,262 ;Widod oe tal. , 1980,p.8 3 26 Merkens,1923 ,p.4 4 27 Ibid.,1926 ,pp.525-51 6 28 IndischeGids ,1905 ,p.1529 .Quote dfro mth enewspape r "DeLocomotief" ,2 2 July1905 . Modernwell-know ndairie so nJav ai nth eyear s1920-194 0were :linge ri n Weltevreden,Batavia ;Generaa ld eWe ti nCisarua ,Bandung ,fo rbot hmil k productionan ddair ycattl ebreeding ;Gebroeder sUrson ei nLembang ;M.E . Bervoetso fth eCultuurondernemin gDjongrangan ,Klate nwhic hwa sver y involvedi ncattl ebreeding ;va nBalgooy ,Tegalsari ,Purwokerto ;va nLan g inGarut ;Jentin ki nSurabaya ;an dCouvreu ro fth eVeeteeltondernemin g Idjeno nth eIje nPlatea u(' t Hoen,1920 ,p.461 ;' tHoen ,1923 ,34 ,p.465 , 469;' tHoen ,1930 ,p.104 ;Nederlandsch-Indisch eBlade nDiergeneeskunde , 1947,pp.220-221) . 29 'tHoen ,1923 ,p.49 2 30 Hoover,1924 ,p.7 4 31 Stapensea,1915 ,pp.402-403 ;' tHoen ,1923 ,p.49 2 32 Stapensea,1915 ,p.40 3 33 'tHoen ,1923 ,p.49 3 34 Wetselaaran dGieben ,1901 ,pp.270-281 ;se eals oWeehuizen ,1918 , pp.161-163. 35 Wetselaaran dGieben ,1901 ,p.27 9 36 vande nAkker ,1929 ,pp.201-202 ,Kraneveld ,1958 ,p.10 7 37 'tHoen ,1923 ,p.49 2 38 DeLocomotief ,1936 ,2 0July ,p. 3 39 Kraneveld,1958 ,p.10 8 40 Raabe,1920 ,p.118 2 41 Kraneveld,1958 ,p.10 8 42 Lobele tal. ,1937 ,p.53 2 43 A.R.Min .v .Kol. ,1901-'45 ,M.v.O .Residenti eBatavia ,L.G.C.A .va nde r Hoek,29-5-1934 ,p.7 4 44 Nederlandsch-IndischeBlade nDiergeneeskunde ,1923 ,p.473 ;' tHoen ,1923 , p.50 3 45 A.R.Min .v .Kol. ,1901-M5 .verb .no .3762 ,5-5-1938 ,no .13 ;Leake , 1980,p.69 . 46 deHaa san dMeulemans ,1937 ,pp.1177-117 8 47 Merkens,1922 ,p.143 ;' tHoe n(1919 ,p.82 )estimate dth emaximu mmil k productiono fa Javanes eco wa t3 litre spe rday . 48 Ibid.,1949 ,p.2 8 49 Basedo nIndisc hVersla g1935 ,par tII ,p.23 1 50 'tHoen ,1923 ,p.46 4 -225-

51 Doeve,1922 ,p.47 1 52 Bakker,1945 ,p. 2 53 Nederlandsch-IndischeBlade nDiergeneeskunde ,1923 ,p.47 3 54 Thecommissio nwa scompose do fA.H .d eJong ,Controleu r (DistrictOfficer ) ofBandung ,va nde nAkker ,municipa lveterinarian ,J .Merkens ,manage ro f thefar mGebr .Urson ei nLembang ;Ibid. ,1923 ,pp.473-481 . 55 15bottle si sabou t1 0litres ,' tHoen ,1923 ,34 ,p.46 9 56 Gonggrijp,1934 ,p.74 . 57 In192 4th eaverag eincom ei nJav aan dMadur acoul db eestimate d atf 29 6a year .Fo rcivi lservant sthi swa sf 1008 ,fo rlabourer sworkin g inEuropea nenterprise sf 44 5an dfo rirregularl yemploye dworker sf 12 5a year (vanLaanen ,1979 ,p.135) . 58 A.R.,Min .v .Kol. ,1901-'45 ,M.v.O .Preange rRegentschappen ,L .d e Stuers,1922,p.146 ;M.v.O .Midde nPriangan ,P.E.W .va nGessele rVerschuir , 30-9-1929,p.72 ;M.v.O .Priangan ,J.H.B .Kuneman ,11-6-1933 ,p.4 1 59 Stapensea,1926 ,p.415 ,418 .I nth eNetherlands ,mil kwa ssol dra wt oth e consumers.I nth e1880' ssom edair yplant sstarte di non ewa yo ranothe r withth epasteurizatio no fmilk .Th efirs tpasteurize dmil ki nbottle s appearedaroun d188 7o nth emarke ta tth einitiativ eo fForster ,Professo r ofMedica lHygien ea tth eAmsterda mUniversit y (Mol,1980 ,p.168) .Mil k solddirectl yfro mth echur nb yth evendor st oth econsumer scontinue dt o dominateth emil ktrad efo rman yyear st ocome . 60 AlgemeenLandbouwweekblad ,1928 ,p.163 2 61 Vrijburg,1926 ,pp.481-48 2 62 Stapensea,1926 ,p.41 8 63 Ibid.,p.42 3 64 Ibid.,pp.425-42 6 65 Ibid.,pp.424-42 5 66 Morse,1935 ,p.30 9 67 Vrijburg,1926 ,pp.481-48 2 68 Ibid.,p.48 7 69 Ibid.,p.483 ,48 7 70 Stapensea,1927 ,pp.63-7 4 71 AlgemeenLandbouwweekblad ,1931 ,p.67 9 72 'tHoen ,1923 ,p.464 ,Donath ,1938 ,p.125 9 73 Schrauwen,1931 ,p.29 7 74 OfficieelOrgaan ,1933 ,p.430 ;Th eful lnam eo fth emil kdepo twa s BandoengscheMelkcentrale ,an di twa sru nb yth eN.V .Maatschappi jto t Exploitatieva nMelkcentrale si nNederlandsch-Indie . 75 A.R.,Min .v .Kol. ,1901-'45 ,verb .no .3553 ,23-3-1935 ,no .1 3 76 vande nAkker ,1934 ,p.1 2 77 A.R.,Min .v .Kol. ,1901-'45 ,verb .no .3553 ,23-3-1935 ,no .13 ;Officiee l Orgaan,1933 ,p.43 0 78 OfficieelOrgaan ,1934 ,p.78 7 79 A.R.,Min .v .Kol. ,1901-M5 ,verb .no .3553 ,23-3-1935 ,no .1 3 80 Ibid.,verb .no .3606 ,21-12-1935 ,no .23 . 81 ArchiefCCF ,lette rfro mth eDirecteu ro fCC Ft oInternatio ,1 3Marc h193 5 82 Ibid. 83 Nederlandsch-IndischeBlade nDiergeneeskunde ,1935 ,p.333 ,338-33 9 84 Schrauwen,1936 ,p.59 4 85 A.R.,Min .v .Kol. ,1901-'45 ,verb .no .3492 ,14-6-1934 ,no .2 4 86 AlgemeenLandbouwweekbla dvoo rNederlandsc hIndie ,1940 ,p.28 0 87 Forfurthe rdetail so nth eVolksraa dse eChapte r7.3 . 88 Themotio nwa smove di nAugus t193 8b yth emember sD rW.Ch. ADoeve , Batavia,P.A .Mandagie ,Sulawesi ,R.Ng .Djoj oAchme dHoedojo ,Yogyakarta , andM rK oKwa tTiong ,Semarang .Th emotio nwa saccepte dwit h3 1i nfavou r and1 9against .(Handelinge nva nd eVolksraad ,1938-1939 ,34 everg. , 16August ,1938 ,p.995) . -226-

89 vande rBurg ,1904 ,pp.65-6 6 90 'tHoen ,1923 ,p.48 1 91 Merkens,1949 ,pp.32-33 ,Leurink ,1946 ,pp.358-35 9 92 A.R.,Min .v .Kol. ,1901-'45 .M .v .0 .Residenti eKrawang ,J.J.A.A . Popelier,11-10-1929 ,p.45 ;Algemee nLandbouwweekblad ,1931 ,pp.1423-1424 ; Kempski,1924 ,p.54 ;Lulofs ,1905 ,p.22 2 93 vande rBurg ,1904 ,p.6 5 94 Whenconsiderin ggoat' smil kfo rinfan tfeedin gi tshoul db eremembere d thatth elevel so firon ,cobal tan dfoli caci dar einadequat e comparedt oco wmilk .Infan tfeedin gentirel ybase do ngoa tmil kwil l leadt osever eanaemia .French ,1974 ,p.116 ;Schilpzan dan dUithof ,1980 , pp.93-95. 95 Donath,1932 ,p.70 5 96 Shurtleffan dAoyagi ,1979 ,p.17 2 97 Quotedb yAykroy dan dDoughty ,1969 ,p.5 2 98 Jansenan dDonath ,1923 ,p.8 3 99 Donath,1932 ,pp.728-72 9 100 IndischeGids ,1935 ,p.861 ;Bulleti nHyg .Organisatie ,1935 ,pp.1-1 0 101 Lanzingan dva nVeen ,1937 ,p.60 ;Bulleti nHyg .Organisatie ,1937 ,pp.3-5 ; Theide ao fsoy amil ka sa substitut efo rco wmil kremaine dfo rman yyear s tocome .I n195 6th eEnglis hnutritionis tPiat twarne dtha tth eter msoy a "milk"wa smisleadin ga sth eproduc tha snothin gi ncommo nwit hco wmil k (quotedb yAykroy dan dDoughty ,1969 ,p.52 ) 102 Bulletinno .26 ,Hyg .Organisatie ,1935 ,quote db yLanzin gan dva nVeen , 1937,p.60 . 103 deHaas ,1935 ,pp.1685-1686 ;va nVeen ,1937 ,pp.2814-281 5 104 Nutrition,1937 ,p.31 7 105 Lanzingan dva nVeen ,1937 ,p.6 0 106 Ibid.,1937 ,p.7 3

6MIL KPRODUCT ST OINDONESI A

1 Heer,1966 ,p.6 8 2 In188 8e.g .th eHollandi acondenser ysol dsweetene dcondense dmil kt o boatswit ha servic et oth eIndie s(Hollandia ,1888 ,p.47) . 3 Heer,1966 ,p.10 4 4 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.13 5 5 CentraalKantoo rvoo rd eStatistiek ,192 2 6 Nienhuis,1906 ,p.9 7 7 Ibid.,1906 ,p.10 0 8 Heer,1966 ,p.4 2 9 Cayaux,1883 ,p.31 6 10 deHaan ,1935 ,p.52 9 11 Westermann,1939 ,p.19 1 12 Ibid.,p.201 ;Th eAce hWa rwa sth elonges to fth ecolonia lwar si nwhic h theDutc hwer einvolved .I tdragge do nfro m1873-1904 ,an di nfac tth e NetherlandsIndie sgovernmen tneve rsucceede di ngettin gth eare a completelyunde rcontrol .Fo rmor edetail sse eth estud yb yP.va n' tVeer , 1969,D eAtjehoorlog . 13 vande rBurg ,1883 ,p .13 6 14 Cayaux,1883 ,pp.318-31 9 15 Ibid.O npag e31 8th eautho rgive sth efollowin gfigures : 2.5litre sfres hmil k 135g protei n 97.5g fa t 2.5litre sdilute dcondense dmil k 56.25g protei n 47.25g fa t 16 Iti sobviou stha tparticularl yi ntropica lcountries ,th edevelopmen t andpractica lapplicatio no fth evariou stechnique so ffreezin gan d chillingwa sa grea tasse ti nth econservatio no fperishabl efoods .I nth e 1830'ssevera lice-makin gmachine swer edevelope di nBritai nan dNort h -227-

America.Aroun d185 0Jame sHarriso nfro mGlasgo wwh omigrate dt o Australia,designe dan dimprove da nether-compresso rwhic hmad ei t possiblet ooperat ea nic efactory .I nth emeantim eAmerican smastere da techniqueo fexportin ggrea tblock so fnatura lic efro mMassachusett st o asfa rawa ya sCalcutta .Late ro nammonia-compressor swer euse dan d ice-makingan dcoo lstorag efo rperishabl efood swer eimprove d(Tannahill , 1975,p.286) .I nth eNetherland sIndies ,European sfirs timporte dic efro m theUnite dStates .A shi ploade dwit hnatura lic ecomin gfro mBosto n arrivedaccidentall yi nBatavi ai n1846 .Fro mthe no nAmerica nship swit h icearrive dregularl yi nBatavi aan dth egovernmen teve nintroduce da bonussyste mt oencourag eic eimports .Th eic ewa sstore di na specia lic e house (Yshuis)i nMolenvliet ,Batavi awher ei twa so nsal et oth epublic . Icewa ssen tt oth einterio ri nspecia lic eblanket s (deHaan ,1935 , p.513).I ti sver ylikel ytha tth emakin go fic ecrea mi nIndonesi abega n inthi speriod .Befor eth earriva lo fnatura lice ,well-to-d oEuropea n householdshad ,i nth e18t hcentury ,a side-boar di nthei rlivin groo m whichwa sprovide dwit ha coolin gtank .Th ecoolin gtan kwa sfille dwit ha mixtureo fsaltpetr ean dwate rfo rchillin gbottle so falcoholi cbeverage s (deHaan ,1935 ,p.513) .A tth een do fth e1870' sther ewer ealread yic e factoriesi nmajo rtown so nJava ,an di nsmalle rplaces ,smal lmachine so f Carrewer ebein guse db yprivat eindividual san dsometime sb yth e government (vande rBurg ,1883 ,pp.218-221) . Inth ehome so fEuropean sic ewa suse di nth eic echest ss otha tdrink s andfoo dcoul db ekep tcool .I twa squit esom etim ehoweve rbefor ea refrigeratorfo rdomesti cus ewa sdeveloped .Condition sbecam efavourabl e whenWestinghous e inNort hAmeric a (1880)introduce dth eTesl aelectri c motor.I nChicag oi n1913 ,th efirs telectri crefrigerato rfo rdomesti c usewen to nsale .Th ecoolin guni thoweve rha dt ob epu ti na separat e roomo rcella rbecaus eo fit ssize ,nois ean dth efac ttha tsulphu r dioxidewa suse da scoolin gfluid .Th efirs tself-containe d refrigerators fordomesti cus ewer eintroduce do nth emarke ti nChicag oi n1925 ,th e Kelvinetteelectri can dth eElectrolu xga soperatin grefrigerato r(d e Haan,1977 ,pp.19-22) .Fro mthe no nth eelectri crefrigerato rbecam epar t ofth estandar dequipmen to fNort hAmerica nhouseholds .I nWester nEurope , itremaine da luxur yite munti lth ebeginin go fth e1950's .European s livingi nth etropic squickl yrealize dth eusefulnes so fthi sequipment . Byth een do fth e1930' sa refrigerato ro ra tleas ta simpl eic eches t wherebutter ,mil kan dmea tcoul db estore dwa squit ecommo ni nmos t Europeanhousehold si nth eNetherland sIndie s(Wormsen ,1942 ,p.298) . 17 Baudetan dFasseur ,1977 ,p .32 8 18 Nienhuis,1906 ,pp.94-9 5 Theconten to fth etin swa sabou t35 0cc ,4 8tin sbein gpacke di na crat e ofwood . 19 SollewijnGelpke ,1880 ,p.56 9 20 vande rBurg ,1883 ,Volum eI ,p.13 6 21 ArchiefCCF ,Internatio ,Palembang ,2 0jul i193 7 22 Hoover,1924 ,p.7 4 23 'tHoen ,1923 ,p.48 1 24 Straub,1927 ,p.51 ,pp.57-6 3 25 Ibid.,p.8 6 26 deHaas ,1932 ,p. 5 27 Ibid.,p. 3 28 Apersona lcommunicatio nmad eb yD rd eHaa so nAugus t1980 . 29 deLangen ,1929 ,p.15 0 30 Rothe,1935 ,p. 7 31 Hoover,1924 ,p.7 4 32 Donath,1929 ,p.15 3 33 vanLaanen ,1979 ,p.13 8 -228-

34 Wertheim,1958 ,pp.128-129 ,22 3 35 deLangen ,1929 ,p.15 0 36 ArchiefCCF ,Internatio ,Rotterdam ,24-8-1931 ,Batavi aKantoor . 37 Ibid.,Palembang ,20-7-193 1 38 Kwe-kwe,o rloca lsweets . 39 ArchiefCCF ,Hughes ,lette rno.122 ,Palemban ge nDjambi ,9-7-1937 . 40 Teapot,sweetene dcondense dmil ko fth efir mFusse l& Co. ,Hollandi awhic h belongedt oth eNestl econcern . 41 ArchiefCCF ,Staverman ,lette rno.40 ,Pontianak ,9-9-1939 . 42 Ibid.,Semarang ,13-8-1939 . 43 deHaan ,1935 ,p.51 3 44 vande rBurg ,1883 ,p.22 1 45 ArchiefCCF ,Ysmixtures ,5-1-1935 ,p. l 46 Ibid.,pp.1-2 .Befor eth ecomin go fic elollies ,smal lentrepreneur s boughtelectrica lrefrigerator so ninstalmen twit hth epurpos eo fmakin g littleoblon gblock so fic ewit ha flavou ri nth esmal lfreezin g compartments.Th eic eblock swer ewrappe di npape ro rcarto nan dsol dfo r thepric eo f1 cen teach .A sth erefrigerato rwa sdestine dfo rhousehol d useonly ,th eproductio nwa slow ;8 0block si n3 hours .Whe nth esmal l Japaneseice-makin gmachine s (Kahuiki)wer eintroduced ,wit ha capacit yo f 3500ic elollie sa day ,th emakin go fic eblock sfo rsal edisappeare d (ArchiefCCF ,Ysmixtures ,5-11-1935 ,pp.5-6) . 47 Ibid.,p. 6 48 Ibid.,p. 5 49 Ibid,p. 2 50 ArchiefCCF ,Internatio ,Rotterdam ,25-11-1931 ,rappor tBatavia ;Ibid. , Internatio,Palembang ,20-7-193 1 51 Ibid.,Internatio ,Rotterdam ,22-6-1935 ;Ibid. ,15-5-1936 ,reisrappor t Palembang,Benkoele n 52 Ibid.,Hughes ,Lette rno.34 ,Bandoeng ,17-6-193 9 53 deHaa san dMeulemans ,1937 ,p.117 9 54 Inter-islandtrad ema yhav eoccured ,mil kimporte dint oSumatr ama yhav e beenlate rshippe dt oJava . 55 Blink,1926 ,pp.128-129 ;Burger ,1975 ,Dee lI ,p.149 ;Geertz ,1963 , pp.110-115 56 Rothe,1935 ,p. 7 57 Totalnumbe ro finhabitant si n193 0accordin gt oth ecensu swa s60. 7 million,an di n193 8estimate da t65. 5million .Th emil kproductio nfo r 1935wa saroun d27. 2millio nlitre spe ryea ran di n193 8aroun d29. 8 millionlitre s(se eals oChapte r3.2) .I nth eNetherland sdat ao nfoo d availabilitype rcapu tpe ryea r (foodbalanc esheet )hav ebee ncollecte d from1936/193 8onward sb yth eMinistr yo fAgricultur ean dFisheries .A s fara smil kan dmil kproduct sar econcerne dth efigure spe rcapu tpe ryea r for1936/3 8ar emil k165. 3kg ,mil kpowde r1. 5k gan dtinne dmil k0. 5k g (Mulder,1962 ,p.572) . 58 Mulder,1962 ,p.57 6 59 Ochsean dTerra ,1934 ,p.14 3 60 Donath,1934 ,pp.296-29 7 61 Seeals oChapte r7.1 . 62 LoePin gKian ,1941 ,p. 6 63 deBruijne ,1985 ,pp.235-236 ;Gutkind ,1974 ,pp.24-27 ;King ,1985 , pp.13-15 64 Tichelman,1980 ,p.149 ,16 7 65 Wertheim,1951 ,p.3 1 66 Locher-Scholten,1979 ,p.20 7 67 Gonggrijp,1940 ,pp.182-18 3 68 Wertheim,1951 ,p.3 1 69 Ibid.,pp.34-3 5 -229-

70 Ibid.,p.31 ;Ibid. ,1958 ,pp.24-25 ,30-31 ,37-38 ;se eals oBoeke ,1931 , p.2 71 Dumasy,1980 ,p.15 5 72 In191 3i nSurabay aa medica lschoo lwa sopene dfo rtraining ,calle d "Indonesianphysicians" ,an dgav eemphasi st oth epractica laspect so fth e medicalprofessio n (Nederlandsch-IndischeArtsenschool ,N.I.A.S.) .Thi s wasanticipate db ya nearlie rtrainin ginstitut efo rIndonesia nphysician s (Schoolto tOpleidin gva nIndisch eArtsen ,STOVIA) . 73 Dumasy,1980 ,pp.157-158 . 74 McTurnanKahin ,1980 ,pp.180-18 1 75 Ibid.,p.17 9 76 Ibid.,p.18 6 77 vanLaanen ,1979 ,p.13 8 78 Schoffer,1980 ,p.2 3 79 deHaas ,1936 ,p.630 ;Ibid. ,1938 ,p.147 6 80 vanStockum ,1938 ,p.85 7 81 NationaalRapport ,1937 ,p.126 .A sfa ra smothe ran dchil dcar eo fth e plantationworker si sconcerne dse ee.g. ,Heinemann ,1935 . 82 Gish,1979 ,p.20 5 83 Mettau,198 4 84 Ibid.,p.12 7 85 Posthumaan dd eHaas ,1940 ,pp.892-89 3 86 vanStockum ,1938 ,p. l 87 Habich-Veenhuijzen,1920 ,p.8 5 88 Wille,1933 ,p.28 3 89 Inth eNetherlands ,fo rexampl ei nth eprovinc eo fFriesland ,mother sha d learnedfro mexperienc etha ti nth eabsenc eo fbreas tmilk ,buttermil kwa s easilydigeste db yinfants .I n177 1th ephysicia nPetru sCampe rstresse d theimportanc eo fbuttermil ka sa basi sfo rinfan tfeeding .I n186 5A.M . Ballotpointe dou tt oth emedica lprofessio nth eimportanc eo fbuttermil k forinfant sbelo wth eag eo fon eyear .A tth een do fth e19t hcentury ,L . deJage ran dTexeir ad eMatto stoo kth ematte ru pagain .I n190 4i nth e Netherlandsth efir mo fNutrici abega nwit hth eproductio no fa condense d buttermilkan di n192 1wit ha nunsweetene dproduc t (Schilpzandan dUithof , 1980,pp.81-88) ;va nLookere nCampagne ,1942 ,pp.213-220) . 90 Straub,1927 ,pp.59 ,61 ,6 7 91 deHaas ,1932 ,pp.58-60 ;1936 ,p.635 ;Meuleman san dd eHaas ,1940 , pp.2466-2467 92 Anaccoun to nth elif ean dwor ko fD rd eHaa si sgive nb yd eWijn ,1985 , pp.218-219an dDunning ,1977 ,pp.130-13 2 93 Formor edetail so nth epreparatio no fsoure dmilk sfo rinfan tfeedin gi n thetropic sse ed eHaa san dMeulemans ,1940 ,pp.59-73 . 94 Personalcommunicatio nmad eb yD rd eHaa so n26-8-1980 . 95 deHaas ,1949 ,p.8 5 96 Tesch,p.12 5 97 Ibid.,p.3 8 TheHygieni cCentr ewa spar to fa Stud yWar dfo rHygien eunde rth e auspiceso fth eQuee nWilhelmin aInstitut efo rHygien ean dBacteriolog y andth eMedica lSchool ,Weltevreden ,Batavia . 98 Ibid.,p.Il l 99 Ibid.,p.12 5 100 NationaalRapport ,1937 ,p.12 6 101 vanStockum ,1938 ,p.876 .I nth e1920's ,mil kkitchen swer eestablishe di n theout-patien tdepartment so fSemaran gan di nth eWilhelmin aOphthalmi c Hospitali nBandung . 102 NationaalRapport ,1937 ,pp.178-17 9 103 vanStockum ,1938 ,p.86 0 -230-

104 Straub,1927 ,pp.163-171 ;Si eBoe nLian ,1929 ,p.1099 ;d eHaas ,1931 ,p.1 0 105 Wille,1933 ,p.28 3 106 Posthumaan dd eHaas ,1940 ,pp.893-89 4 107 Ibid.,p.89 5 108 McCollum,1957 ,pp.234-23 5 109 ArchiefCCF ,Hughes ,Lette rno.114 ,Batavia ,10-6-193 7 110 Ibid.,Internatio ,Rotterdam ,24-5-193 9 111 Wormser,1942 ,p.33 0 112 Kamerling,1980 ,p.21 8 113 Ballendux,1951 ,pp.34-3 5 114 Burger,1975 ,p.6 9 115 Schrieke,1929 ,p.23 9 116 Seee.g .Vleming ,1926 ,pp.193-20 3 117 LiemTwa nDjie ,1947 ,p.6 6 118 Ibid.,pp.67-7 0 119 Furnivall,1939 ,p.43 2 120 Dairyinghowever ,wa sno tentirel yabsen tfro mJapan .Ther ear e indications thatdurin gearl yBuddhism ,som eco wmil kha dbee nuse da s theconsumptio no fmea tbecam eprohibited .Graduall yth emilk-usin ghabi t fadedawa y (A.Z.Melkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1913 ,p.294) . Moderndairyin gbega ni nJapa nafte rth eenforce dopenin go fth e countryi n185 3int oth eworl deconomy .Graduall ysom eEuropea nfood ssuc h asbrea dan dmil kwer edeveloped .Frisia nan dHolstei ncattl ewer e imported (A.Z.Melkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1913 ,p.294 ;Timmerman ,1985 , p.225).I n191 3Nestl eopene di nJapa na sale soffic e (Heer,1966 ,p.104) . Duringth eFirs tWorl dWar ,whe noversea ssupplie sbecam edifficult ,som e Japanesefirm sstarte dwit hmil kcondensin gbase do nlocall yavailabl era w materials (Schulzan dLembke ,1968 ,p.7) . Inth eearl y1930' sJapa nbega n toexpor tmil kproduct s(Nederlands-Indisch eBlade nvoo rDiergeneeskunde , 1937, pp.24-25).I nth eNetherland sIndies ,Japanes efirm strie dt o promotesweetene dcondense dmil ki nth eJapanes eowne dtokos .Bran dname s includedSpoon ,Weegschaal ,Olympic ,Ange lan dMorinag e (ArchiefCCF , Leeuwarden,Staverman ,lette rno.38 ,Surabaya ,3-8-1939) .O nth ewhole , theJapanes epresenc ei nmil kproduct sremaine dmodest . 121 A.R.,Min .v .Kol. ,1901-M5 ,verb .no.3465 ,20-2-1934 ,no.1 9 122 Ibid.,verb .no.3654 ,19-10-1936 ,no. 4 123 H.v.d .Vr. ,33 everg. ,1 4August ,1936 ,p.94 7 124 A.R.,Min .v .Kol. ,1901-'45 ,verb .no.3654 ,19-10-1936 ,no. 4 125 Cayaux,1883 ,p.31 4 126 Lulofsan dva nVuuren ,1918 ,p.2 5 127 Heer,1966 ,p.10 1 128 Hoover,1924 ,p.7 4 In192 4i nBatavi ath efollowin gmil kbrand scoul db efound :Mil kMai d (sweetenedcondense dmilk ,evaporate dmilk) ,Lio n(sterilize dmilk) , Danishmil k (sweetenedcondense dski mmilk) ,Bea r (sterilizedmilk , evaporatedmilk) ,Hollandi a (sterilizedmilk ,sweetene dcondense dmilk , evaporatedmilk) ,Nutrici a (sterilizedmilk ,evaporate dmilk) ,Picni c (sterilizedmilk) . 129 OfficieelOrgaan ,1932 ,p.45 4 130 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.13 2 131 Ibid.,p.13 4 132 ArchiefCCF ,Hepkem aRappor tIndisch eReis ,1930 ,pp.7- 8 Inth eer ao fth epassenge rship sfro mEurop et oth eNetherland sIndies , theislan do fSaban gwa sth efirs tpoin to fentry ,afte rth epor twa s establishedi n1896 . 133 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.13 4 134 Ibid.,p.13 5 -231-

135 ArchiefCCF ,Hepkema ,Rappor tIndisch eRei s1930 ,p.6 .Whe nHepkem a visitedColombo ,on eo fth emanager so fth eHollan dCeylo nHande l Maatschappij,Barte nwh oworke dfo rNestl ei nJava ,supplie dhi mwit h informationo nNestle . 136 Ibid.,p.2 1 137 Ibid.,p.2 2 138 Ibid.,p.23 .Prolonge dstorag eo fsweetene dcondense dmil kunde rhig h temperaturefo ran yconsiderabl eperio do ftim ecause dth emil kt odarke n incolour ,thicken ,sho wmol dbutton san ddevelo pa stal eflavour .Thi s mayhappe nwhe na shipmen to fcondense dmil ki splace do nboar dto oclos e toth eboile rroom ,an dremain sfo ra lon gperio di na ho tstor eroo mo r atth epor to fentr yo ri nshops . 139 ArchiefCCF ,Hepkema ,Rappor tIndisch eReis ,1930 ,p.2 2 140 Ibid.,p.2 4 141 Ibid.,pp.24-2 5 142 Ibid.,p.2 5 143 Ibid.,p.2 8 144 Ibid.,p.2 9 145 TheN.V .International eCrediet -e nHandels-vereenigin g "Rotterdam", (Internatio)wa screate di n186 3wit hth emai noffic ei nRotterdam .Th e firmoriginall yintende dt otrad ewit hcountrie sbot hi nAsi aan dLati n America.Howeve ri tgraduall yconcentrate dit seffort so nth eNetherland s Indies.Ther ei tbecam eon eo fth emajo rimportin gan dexportin gfirms , withinterest sals oi nplantations .I n1864 ,a noffic eha dalread ybee n openedi nJava .I n193 8th efir mha d1 4office si nth earchipelag o includingone sBatavia ,Bandung ,Cirebon ,Semaran gan dSurabay ao nJava . Anoffic ei nSingapor eensure dtha tth efir mgaine dhol do nth eimpor tan d exporto fproduct sfro mNetherland sIndie sthroug ha ninternationa l tradingcentr e (Gedenkboek,1938) . 146 Stout,1963 ,p.3 5 147 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.13 3 148 ArchiefCCF ,Hepkema ,Med .Alg .Verg. ,7 Novembe r193 0 149 Ibid. 150 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.13 5 151 ArchiefCCF ,d el aMar ,1931 ,p. 6 152 Ibid.,Hepkema ,Rappor tIndisch eReis ,1930 ,pp.11-1 2 153 Ibid.,d el aMar ,1931 ,p. 7 154 Ibid.,p.1 0 155 Ibid.,p.1 0 156 Ibid.,p.1 2 157 Ibid.,p.1 1 158 Ibid.,p.1 7 159 Ibid.,p.1 7 160 Ibid.,p.2 0 161 Ibid.,p.19 .I n193 3Internati omad ea collectio no fmedica l referenceso n sweetenedcondense dmil kfro ma grou po fnin eDutch ,Chines ean d Indonesianphysician sworkin gi nth eIndie sa sgenera lpractitioner so ri n hospitals.Th ereference swer ewritte ni nDutch ,Mala yan dSundanese . Afterhavin gpraise dth equalit yo fth eproduct ,fiv ephysician sstate d thati twa sver ysuitabl efo rchil dfeeding ,tw otha ti twa ssuitabl efo r infantfeedin gan dtw ofo rth efeedin go fpatient si ngeneral .Onl yon e physicianstate dtha ti tcoul db euse dfo rbottl efeedin ginfant s(Archie f CCF, InternatioCertificaat ,gecondenseerd egesuikerd evoil emelk ,1933) . 162 TheCC Factivitie swer eo fcours eno trestricte dt oth eNetherland sIndie s andth eadjacen tStrai tSettlemen tan dFederate dMala yStates .I n193 2an d 1933th emarket so fth eFa rEas twer eexplore db yT.H .Hughes .I nChin a andHongkon gth ebran dnam eLongevit ybecam ewel lknown .Bouwes ,i n -232-

closecooperatio nwit hth etrading-fir mWis e&Co .i nManilla ,intensifie d thesal ei nth ePhilippine si n193 8(Tjepkema ,1963 ,pp.146-151) . 163 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.14 5 164 Ibid.,p.14 5 165 Theanimatio nfil m"Avonture nva nK od eKoe" ,wa son eo fth eearl y animationfilm si nth eNetherlands .I tshow sho wK oth ecow ,sleepin gi na hammock,receive sa nurgen tcabl et osen dtinne dmil kt oth eNetherland s Indies.A rocketbring she rt oth etropics .K opay sa vis tt oa sanatoriu m andgive sbac khealt ht owea kboy sb yofferin ga ti no fevaporate dmilk . Theblac kan dwhit efil mend swit ha han dcoloure dFrisia nFlag ,th eTja p BenderalTh efil mi sstil li ngoo dconditio ni nth earchive so fCCF . Thankst oth ecourtes yo fCC Fw ewer eabl et ose ei to na vide otap e (ArchiefCCF ,Avonture nva nK od eKoe ,1937) . 166 ArchiefCCF ,Lette rInternatio ,Batavia ,16-3-193 1 167 Ibid.,24-8-193 1 168 Thewor dAna kMa smean sa favourit eo rfavoure dchild .Accordin gt oMa x Havelaar (EduardDouwe sDekker )th ewor doriginall ymean ta slav ewh owa s notbough tbu tbor ni nth ehous eo fhi smaster .I twa sals ouse dfo r childrenwh ower eeducate da sfavourite si nth ehous eo fa lord ,o rfo ra n adoptedchil d (Wertheim,1978 ,p.49) . 169 ArchiefCCF ,Staverma nLette rno.7 ,Medan ,22-12-193 8 170 Ibid. 171 Ibid.,lette rno.11 ,Medan ,3-2-193 9 172 Ibid.,lette rno.12 ,Medan ,10-2-193 9 173 Ibid.,10-2-194 0 174 Ibid.,lette rno.23 ,Medan ,17-4-193 9 175 Ibid.,lette rno.33 ,Batavia ,10-6-193 9 176 Ibid.,Semarang ,19-3-193 9 177 Kopitubru ki sprepare db yputtin ggroun dcoffe ebean si na cup ,pourin g boilingwate ro nan daddin gsugar . 178 ArchiefCCF ,Staverman ,Semarang ,13-8-193 9 179 Ibid.,lette rno.32 ,Batavia ,31-5-193 9 180 Ibid.,Friesch eVla gKookboek ,Leeuwarde nCCF ,1s tprin t1936 ,2n dprin t 1940,p.28 1 181 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.14 5 182 Theconsume rwa sadvise dt oshak eth eti nwel lbefor eopening .Thi swa s necessarybecaus eo fa percipitatio no fchocolat eparticle s (ArchiefCCF , FriescheVla gKookboek ,p.45) . 183 ArchiefCCF ,Internatio ,Palembang-Be nKulen ,15/2 8-4-193 6 184 Ibid.,Internatio ,Batavia ,26-6-193 6 185 Ibid.,Internatio ,Batavia ,26-6-193 6 186 Ibid.,Staverman ,lette rno.35 ,Ceribon ,27-5-193 9 187 Ibid.,lette rno.39 ,Semarang ,24-8-193 9 188 Informationobtaine dfro mvariu sinformant swh olive di nIndonesi abefor e 1942.

7TH ESWEETENE DSKI MMIL KQUESTIO N

1 Blusse,1985 ,pp.72-74 ;Burger ,1975 ,I ,p.5 9 2 deVries ,1937 ,p.14 8 3 Ibid.,p.15 1 4 Ibid.,p.15 3 5 Gonggrijp,1955 ,p.16 6 6 Ibid.,p.169 ;Fasseur ,1975 ,pp.85-9 0 7 Ibid.,p.17 2 8 Geertz,1963 ,p.8 4 9 deVries ,1961 ,pp.268-27 0 -233-

10 Underth eleadershi po fth eResident ,H.E .Steinmetz ,th einquir ybega ni n 1904an dwa scomplete di n1914 .Th efinding swer epublishe di n1 2Volume s (Onderzoeknaa rd eminder ewelvaart) .A summar yo fth estudie swa s preparedb yHasselma ni n1914 . 11 Nieuwenhuys,1973 ,p.31 0 12 Locher-Scholten,1979 ,p.20 9 13 Overzicht,1938 ,p.1 6 14 vanDoom , 1982,pp.4-5 ,15-2 1 15 Thissuppor tfro mth eStat eo fth eNetherland swa srathe rmodes tcompare d withth eprofi tmad edurin gth eperio d1851-187 0o nth egovernmen t productso fth ecultur esystem .Thi sha sbee nestimate da ta f 49 1millio n (Fasseur,1975 ,p.118) . 16 Creutzberg,1974 ,p.xxi x 17 Lulofsan dva nVuuren ,191 8 18 Ibid.,p.2 5 19 Scheltema,1936 ,pp.12-1 7 20 Seeals ova nLaanen ,1980 ,pp.260-26 1 21 Seeals oWigboldus ,1979 ,pp.19-2 0 22 Geertz,1963 ,pp.80-8 2 23 vanLaanen ,1980 ,pp.258-26 0 24 Creutzberg,1974 ,p.xxxi i 25 Postmuse tal. ,1949 ,p.23 1 26 Ibid. 27 Donath,1936 ,p.48 0 28 Creutzberg,1974 ,p.xxxi v 29 IndischeGids ,1939 ,pp.1029-1030 ;Postmu san dva nVeen ,1949 ,p.23 1 30 Gish,1979 ,p.205 ;King ,1985 ,pp.24-2 5 31 Seee.g .th estud yb ySchout e (1935)o nmedica lscienc ei nth eNetherland s Indiesdurin gth e19t hcentury ,an dJonkers ,1948 ,pp.193-204 . 32 Donath,1936 ,p.491 ;Donat han dva nVeen ,1945 ,pp.75-7 8 33 Donathan dva nVeen ,1936 ,pp.112-11 3 34 Eijkmanalway sdoubte dwhethe ro rno ta relatio nexiste dbetwee nth e incidenceo fberi-ber ian dth eabsenc eo fa certai nunknow nsubstanc ei n anunbalance ddie tbase do npolishe drice .I twa sth ehealt h superintendentA.G .Vorderma nwh oi n189 4mad ea surve yo nth eincidenc e ofberi-ber ii nth eprison so fJav aan dMadur aan ddemonstrate da relatio n betweenth etyp eo fric ediet san dberi-beri .Grijn san dno tEijkma n developedth eidea ,base do nexperimenta lwor ko ffeedin gchicken so n dietso fric ean dbeans ,tha tberi-ber iwa sno ta ninfectiou sdiseas ebu t anutritiona ldisorder .Eijkma nhowever ,receive dth eNobe lPriz ei n192 9 andhardl yan yreferenc ewa smad et oGrijns 'origina lidea s(Reith ,1971 , pp.180-195). 35 Ibid.,p.18 6 36 Postmusan dva nVeen ,1949 ,p.23 1 37 Seee.g .va nVeen ,1936 ,pp.136-138 ;1950 ,pp.374-38 3 38 vanVeen ,1950 ,p.12 5 39 Theide ao fa Nutritio nInstitut efo rth ebenefi to fth eIndonesia n populationwa sno tnew .I n191 9th eAssociatio nfo rth eStud yo fColonia l SocialProblem s(Vereenigin gvoo rStudi eva nKoloniaa lMaatschappelijk e Vraagstukken)recommende dth eestablishmen to fa ninstitut efo rth estud y ofth ecompositio no fth enutritio no fth eIndonesia npopulatio n(Smits , 1919,p.148) .Thi srecommendatio nshoul db esee ni nth econtex to ffoo d supplydifficultie sdurin gth eFirs tWorld-War .I nth eNetherland s however,i tle dt oth ecreatio ni n191 9o fth eNetherland sNutritio n Institute (NederlandsInstituu tvoo rd eVoeding ,NIW) . Butth ehar d lessonso fth eFirs tWorl dWa rwer esoo nforgotten ,an dwhe nface dwit h financialconstraint si nth eearl y1930's ,th eNI W hadt oclos eit s -234-

laboratory.I n193 8D rB.C.P.Janse nmanage dt oreviv eth eInstitut ei n Amsterdam (Dols,1979 ,p.219) .Thi smean sthat ,see ni nabsolut eterms , thenutritio nstudie sprogramm eo fth eNutritio nInstitut ei nIndonesi a wasmor eextensiv ei nth eyear s1934-194 2tha nit scounterpar ti nth e Netherlands. Therewer evariou sresearc hinstitute swhic hdeal twit hth efoo dan d nutritiono fth e population.I nth efirs tplac ether ewa sth eMedica l Laboratory (GeneeskundigLaboratorium )i nWeltevreden ,Batavi awhic hha s beenestablishe di n1888 .I n193 7th enam ewa schange dt oEijkma n Institute.Th elaborator yha da nadvisor yfunctio nan dcarrie dou tfo rth e governmentan dprivat einstitution shygienical ,bacteriological , serological,parasitologica lan dchemica lstudies .Eijkma nan dGrijn swer e associatedwit hth eMedica lLaboratory .I n192 6Janse nan dDonat h succeededi nthei rlaborator yt oisolat eth evitami nB .i nth ecrysta l form.The ybega nwit hlaborator yproductio no fchea pvitami nB -tablets . Thechemica llaborator yi nBuitenzor go fth eDepartmen to fEconomi c Affairsan dth echemica llaborator yo fth eMedica lSchoo lwer einvolve di n analyseso fIndonesia nfoods .Th eNutritio nInstitut ewhic hbega na sa privateorganization ,wa slogge di na win go fth eMedica lLaborator yan d in194 0i tcam eunde rth ePubli cHealt hServic e (Seeals ova nVeen ,1950 , pp.374-383). 40 Donath,1936 ,pp.493-49 4 41 Postmus,1939 ,p.41 6 42 Fora nextensiv erevie wo fth edietar ysurvey sbefor e194 0on ema yconsul t Postmusan dva nVeen ,Dietar ySurvey si nJav aan dEast-Indonesia ,1949 . 43 Creutzberg,1974 ,pp.454-46 2 44 E.vanN.l. ,1932 ,p.79 6 45 E.g.W.F .Donath ,B.C.p.Janse nan dA.G .va nVee nwer emember so fth eFoo d Commission. 46 E.va nN.I. ,1932 ,p.79 6 47 Voorschriftenvoo rhe tonderzoe ke nbeoordelin gva nlevensmiddelen ,I . Melk. 48 Artikel38 6Indisc hWetboe kva nStrafrecht .Se eals oRothe ,1935 ,p.4 . Thisarticl eo fth ePena lCod eprohibite dadulteratio no ffood ,drink san d medicines,bu tno tstatement swhic hwer efals ean dmisleading .I nth e Netherlands,a moder nfoo dla wan da networ ko ffoo dcontro lservice swer e onlyestablishe di n1919 . 49 Rothe,1935 ,p. 6 50 IndischStaatsblad ,1935 ,no.16 1(E .vanN.l. ,1939 ,p.1783 ) 51 Rothe,1935 ,pp.9-1 0 52 Ibid.,p.1 3 53 Ibid.,p.1 4 54 E.va nN.I. ,1939 ,p.178 3 55 Tiddens,1936 ,p.25 3 56 MilkIndustry ,1924 ,p.2 5 57 A.Z.Melkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1928 ,p.3 1 58 Donathan dva nMarie ,1931 ,p.29 6 59 Donath,1929 ,pp.152-21 1 60 Smallbird swer eused ,Muni amaj aan dlate rMuni aLeucogastroides . 61 Seee.g .firs taddres sa sProfesso ro fChemistr ya tth eMedica lSchoo li n Batavia (Donath,1931 )an dd eLangen ,1957 ,pp.154-156 . 62 Donath,1929 ,pp.210-21 1 63 deLangen ,1929 ,p.15 0 64 Cayaux,1883 ,p.32 0 65 deHaa san dMeulemans ,1937 ,pp.1168-1186 .A nEnglis hversio no fth epape r appearedi n1937 ;Ibid. ,pp.48-59 . 66 deHaa san dMeulemans ,1937 ,p.117 5 67 Ibid.,pp.1179-118 0 -235-

68 Donathan dva nMarie ,1931 ,pp.295-29 7 69 deHaa san dMeulemans ,1937 ,p.118 0 70 Ibid.,p.118 0 71 Ibid.,p.118 4 72 Sluiter,1937 ,pp.3376-337 8 73 Itwa sD rd eKad twh olai dth efoundatio nfo rth eresearc hwor ko fCCF . Becauseo fth ebruta lviolenc eo fth eNaz ioccupier sagains tth eJewis h populationD rd eKad tan dhi sfamil ydecide dt otak ethei row nlive s (Tjepkema,1963 ,p.164) . 74 deKadt ,1937 ,pp.2818-282 6 75 deHaas ,1937 ,pp.2827-282 8 76 Ibid.,p.282 8 77 Devoedingstoestan dva ngezinne nva nondersteund eUtrechts ewerklooze ni n 1935-1936.Gemeent eUtrecht ,1937 ,p.118 . 78 Baartd el aFaille ,1937 ,pp.3060-306 1 79 A.R.Inventari sva nhe tfamilie-archief ,Baar td el aFaille ,A.R .2.21.1 5 80 Miiller,1937 ,pp .3237-323 8 81 Ibid.,p.323 7 82 deHaas ,1937 ,p.328 7 83 Ibid.,1938 ,pp.204-20 5 84 Ibid.,1937 ,pp.3043-3045 ;d eHaa se tal. ,1940 ,pp.939-94 0 85 Donath,1938 ,pp.1258-126 7 86 Donath,1936 ,p.481 .I tseem stha tth eaverag erea lincom eo fth e Indonesianpopulatio nwa sles seffecte db yth ecrisi stha ni softe n thought (Polak,1943 ,pp.81-83) . 87 Seeth ehistoriographica lintroductio nb yWigboldu si nth estud yb y Burger,1975 ,pp.xxiii-xxiv ;Indisch eGids ,1933 ,pp.265-267 ;Ibid. , pp.469-471;Koloniaa lTijdschrift ,1937 ,pp.665-666 . 88 Donath,1936 ,pp.480-481 . 89 Ibid.,1938 ,p.126 7 90 Adviesva nhe tInstituu tvoo rVolksvoeding ,1938 ,pp.1406-1407 . 91 LoePin gKian ,1941 ,pp.1-6 .Si nP owa sa newspape rfo rth eChines e communityan dha da polic yo fnon-cooperatio nwit hth eauthoritie san dwa s greatlyoriente dt oChin a (Writser,1936 ,p.93) . 92 Ibid.,p. 6 93 Ibid. 94 Gonggrijp,1955 ,p.185 ;va nde rWal ,1982 ,p.20 6 95 vande rWal ,1982 ,p.20 4 96 TheIndonesia nmember swer eelecte db yth evariou sloca lcouncil so f twelveconstituencies .Th eDutc han dforeig noriental swer eelecte db y theirrespectiv erepresentative so floca lcouncil si nth ewhol eo fth e archipelago. 97 Furnivall,1939 ,p.28 2 98 vande rWal ,1982 ,p.20 6 99 vande nAkker ,1934 ,p.1 1 100 DrW.Ch .A .Doeve ,retire dinspecto ro fth eVeterinar yService ,Batavia , membero fth eVolksraa dafte r1935 . 101 H.v.d .Vr. ,1936-1937 ,7 everg. ,1 0jul i1936 ,p.10 4 102 Ibid.,31 everg. ,1 2aug .1936 ,p.88 4 103 Ibid.,33 everg. ,1 4aug .1936 ,p.94 6 104 Ibid.,1937-1938 ,16 everg. ,2 1jul i1937 ,p.36 0 105 Ibid.,p.36 1 106 Ibid. 107 Ibid.,28 everg. ,6 aug .1937 ,p.77 7 108 Ibid.,1938-1939 ,12 everg. ,1 8jul i1938 ,p.28 7 109 H.Kruyne ,Physicia ni nMalan gan dmembe rafte r193 5o fth eVolksraad ;H . v.d.Vr. ,1938-1939 ,17 everg. ,2 6jul i1938 ,p.42 5 110 H.v.d .Vr. ,1938-1939 ,18 everg. ,2 7jul i1938 ,pp.460-46 1 -236-

111 Ibid.,25 everg. ,5 aug .1938 ,p.70 6 112 Ibid.,p.70 7 113 Ibid.,1939-1940 ,14 everg. ,2 1jul i1939 ,p.34 9 114 Ibid.,p.35 0 115 DrH.J .va nMoo kbecam ei nDecembe ri n194 1Lieutenan tGovernor-General . Heplaye da nimportan trol ei nth edecoloniazatio nproces so fIndonesi ai n theyear s1945-1948 .Se ee.g .Bijkerk ,1982 . 116 H.v.d .Vr. ,1939-1940 ,26 everg. ,8 aug .1939 ,p.74 9 117 Ibid.,27 everg. ,9 aug .1939 ,p.807 ;Ibid. ,29 everg. ,1 1aug .1939 , pp.865-866 118 Ibid.,27 everg. ,9 aug .1939 ,p.80 7 119 Ibid.,34 everg. ,1 7aug .1939 ,p.103 2 120 Ibid.,64 everg. ,8 febr .1940 ,p.160 3 121 Ibid. 122 Ibid. 123 Quotedfro mLo ePin gKian ,1941 ,p. 6 124 deHaa se tal. ,1940 ,p.928 ;Lo ePin gKian ,1941 ,p.6 .Th eBalines e TjokordeGd eRak eSoekawat ibecam ePresiden to fth eStat eo fEaster n Indonesiai n1946 ,whic hforme da par to fth eshort-live dFedera lStat eo f Indonesia. 125 vanStockum ,1938 ,p.86 2 126 Ibid.,pp.869-87 1 127 Ibid.,p.87 2 128 deHaa se tal. ,1940 ,pp.928-95 0 129 Ibid.,p.93 0 130 Ibid.,p.93 9 131 vanStockum ,1938 ,p.87 6 132 ArchiefCCF ,Hepkem aRappor tIndisch ereis ,1930 ,p.2 8 133 Ibid.,Internati oRotterdam ,193 0 134 Ibid.,Huge slette rno.108 ,Batavia ,1-6-193 7 135 Ibid.,lette rno.119 ,Batavia ,5-7-193 7 136 Ibid.,lette rno.123 ,Batavia ,12-7-193 7 137 Ibid.,lette rno.125 ,15-7-193 7 138 Ibid.,lette rDirecteur ,26-8-193 7aa nI.V.V. ,N.O.I . 139 DrCD . deLange nwa sappointe di n191 4a sa lecture ra tth eSchoo lto t Opleidingva nIndisch eArtse n (Stovia),th eTrainin gInstitut efo r IndonesianPhysician si nBatavia .H ewa sver ymuc hinvolve di nscientifi c andpubli chealt hactivities .I n192 7h ebecam eProfesso ro fInterna l Medicinea tth enewl ycreate dMedica lSchoo li nBatavi aan di n193 8h e tooka professorshi pa tth eUniversit yo fUtrech ti nth eNetherland s(I m Memoriam,1967 ,pp.221-223) .D rA .te nBokke lHuinin kwa sth efirs t Professoro fPediatric sa tth eMedica lSchoo li nBatavia .I n193 3h elef t theMedica lSchoo lt otak eu pth esam epos ta tth eUniversit yo fUtrech t (VanEekelen ,1960 ,pp.45-47) . 140 Thetex twas :"Ongeschik tvoo rzuigelingen ,tid aterpaka iboewa tbaij" . 141 ArchiefCCF ,lette rDirecteur ,26-8-193 7aa nI.V.V. ,N.O.I. .Unfortunatel y a replyfro mth eNutritio nInstitut ecoul dno tb efound . 142 DrBai swa sver ymuc hintereste di nnutritio nan ddurin gth einternmen to f theDutc hi nth eJapanes eperio dh epointe dou tt ohi sfello wprisoner s thedeficiencie so fth ecam pdie t (vande rVelde ,1982 ,p.110) . 143 ArchiefCCF ,Staverman ,lette rno.51 ,Meda n18-3-194 0 144 Ibid. 145 Ibid. 146 Ibid. 147 Muller,197 4 148 Craddock,198 3 149 Ibid.,pp.66-6 7 150 Ibid.,pp.80-8 1 -237-

151 OfficieelOrgaan ,an dth eAlgemee nZuive le nMelkhygienisc hWeekbla d 152 OfficieelOrgaan ,1933 ,p.44 6 153 AlgemeenZuive le nMelkhygienisc hWeekblad ,1936 ,pp.440-44 1 154 Sluiter,1937 ,pp.3376-337 8 155 Internatioha da subscriptio nt oa pres sclipping sservic e"N.V . NederlandschIndisc hPersarchief ,NIPA" ,i nBatavia ,coverin gDutc han d Malaylanguag enewspapers .I ti sver ylikel ytha tclipping swit h informationabou ttinne dmil kwer esen tt oCC Fi nLeeuwarden .Amon gth e variousclipping savailabl ei nth eCC FArchie fonl ya fe wo nth eski mmil k questioncoul db efound .Th enewspapers ,th eLocomotie fan dJav aBod ewer e searchedi nth eRoya lTropica lInstitut ei nAmsterdam . 156 DeLocomotief ,Overze eediti evoo rNederland ,2 2jul i193 9 157 ArchiefCCF ,Internatio ,Rotterdam ,4-8-193 1 158 Nederlandsch-Indie,1937 ,1 5april ,p.5 8 159 vanHelsdingen ,1938 ,pp.82-8 3 160 ArchiefCCF ,Indisch eCourant ,9-1-1939 . 161 Seee.g .th estud yb yZwaan ,1980 .

8POSTCRIPT :MIL KI NMODER NINDONESI A

1 Leake,1980 ,p.6 9 2 Nederlands-IndischeBlade nDiergeneeskunde ,1947 ,p.22 0 3 Ibid.,pp.220-22 1 4 Tjepkema,1963 ,p.17 1 5 Stout,1963 ,p.45 ;Tjepkema ,1963 ,p.18 8 6 Soetrisno,1983 ,p.3 5 7 Dick,1985 ,p.7 4 8 Sadli,1983 ,p.60 .Fo ra discussio no nth edevelopmen to fa nIndonesia n middleclass ,it spositio nan dstability ,on ema yfurthe rconsul tth e Muhaiminpaper s(1983 ,pp.22-32 )an dWirosardjon o(1983 ,pp.61-63) . 9 Dick,1985 ,p.7 4 10 VanEsterick ,1979 ,p. 2 11 Freedman,1955 ,p.53 ;Palt ean dTempelman ,1981 ,p.8 1 12 Everitt,1978 ,pp.85-86 ;FAO/DANIDA ,1984 ,pp.46-48 ;Leake ,1980 , pp.69-70;Tjokrohoesod oan dGrossman ,1975 ,pp.45-52 ;Widod oe tal. ,1980 , p.83,pp.95-96 . 13 Tjokrohoesodoan dGrossman ,1975 ,p.4 6 14 vande nBer gan dZemmelink ,1980 ,p.1 2 15 vande nBerg ,1984 ,p.62 3 16 FeasibilityStudy ,1982 ,pp.1.10-1.1 1 17 Ibid.,pp.9.3-9. 5 18 Zemmelink,1983 ,pp.22-2 3 19 Lebdosoekojo,1982 ,pp.79-8 3 20 Huitema,1982 ,pp.276-277 ;Tjokrohoesod oan dGrossman ,1975 ,p.5 0 21 Leake,1980 ,p.6 9 22 Sarmaan dYeung ,1985 ,p.7 8 23 Schenk,1973 ,p.445 .I n195 8i nth eNetherland sth eproble maros ea st o whethero rno tDutc hfirm sshoul db einvolve di nforeig ncountrie si nth e productiono ffille dmilk .I nth esam eyea ri nth ePhilippine sth eCC F assistedth efir mMil kIndustrie si nth eproductio no ffille dmil ki ntin s basedo nimporte ddrie dski mmil kan dloca lfat so fvegetabl eorigin . However,th eQualit yContro lStatio no fDair yProduct simpose da nexpor t embargowit hth ejustificatio ntha tunde rthes ecircumstance sth epurit y ofdair yexpor twa sa tstake .I nvie wo fth eseriou sconsequence sfo r dairyexpor tth eMiniste ro fAgricultur eapprove dthi styp eo fexpor t activities (Tjepkema,1963 ,pp.197-198) . -238-

24 Themetho do fproducin gsteril emil kcalle dultra-hig htemperatur e treatment (UHT)cam eint ocommercia lus earoun d1956 ,whe nspecia lcarto n containersan dmachiner yha dbee ninvente dwhic hmad easepti cfillin g possible.UH Tmil kenjoy smos to fth eadvantage so fpasteurize do r conventionallysterilize dmil kan dha sfe wo fthei rinconveniences .I tha s alon glastin gqualit yand ,compare dwit hsterilize dmilk ,hardl yan y cookingflavou r (Kon,1972 ,pp.24-25) . 25 Leake,1980 ,pp.69-70 . 26 Devendra,1979 ,p.37 ,39 ;Soedjan aan dKnipscheer ,1984 ,p.13 ; Tjokrohoesodoan dGrossman ,1975 ,p.4 6 27 Tjokrohoesodoan dGrossman ,1975 ,p.5 0 28 Harmsen,1954 ,p.18 8 29 Freedman,1955 ,pp.64-6 5 30 Ibid.,p.65 .A napparentl ywel lknow ndair yfar mi nPasa rMingg uwa sD e FriescheTerp ,Hemer aZoa ,1954 ,pp.88 ,160 ,40 4 31 VanEsterick ,1979 ,p. 8 32 Ibid.,p. 9 33 vande nBer gan dZemmelink ,1980 ,pp.13-1 4 34 Basedo nTimme re tal. ,1983 ,pp.24-2 5 35 Josephson,1982 ,pp.81-8 2 36 Whyte,1974 ,p.11 8 37 FooGai kSim ,1980 ,p .19 ,2 1 38 Wolffers,1980 ,pp.33-3 4 39 Suharyono,1981 ,pp.8- 9 40 Therei sa nextensiv eliteratur eo nthi stopic .Befor eth eWH OAssembl y acceptedth eInternationa lCod efo rth emarketin go fbreas tmil k substitutesi nMa y1981 ,th ewhol eissu ewa ssummarize di nth eJourna lo f FoodPolic yfro mth epoin to fvie wo fbot hth einfan tfoo dmanufacturer s andthei ropponent s(Sparks ,1980 ,pp.220-225 ;Chetley ,1980 ,pp.225-228) . 41 Blom,1983 ,pp.15-18 ;CCF ,1981 ;Intercom ,1981 ,pp.6-8 ;International e Samenwerking,1984 ,p.2 1 42 Kardjatie tal. ,1977 ,pp.43-4 4 43 Ibid.,p.4 5 44 Suharyono,1981 ,p.9 ;Soekirman ,197 8(pp.147-148 )speak so fa tendenc yt o artificialfeedin gi nurba nIndonesi a 45 HumanLactatio nCenter ,1979 ,pp.100-101 ;Suharyono ,1981 ,p. 8 -239-

ARCHIVES

ARCHIEF COOPERATIEVECONDENSFABRIE K FRIESLAND,LEEUWARDE N

- Correspondence and reports;Hepkema ,S. ;Huges ,T.H. ; Internatio, Staverman,G.J.F . FriescheVla gKookboek ,Leeuwarden ,CCF ,1940 ,2n dprint .28 1pp . Nederlandsch IndischPersarchief ,NIPA ,Batavia .Variou snewspape r clippings. Photoan d advertisementfile . RapportAlgemee nAdvertenti e Bureau.A .d e LaMar ,Amsterdam . Indische Afdeeling,Batavia ,1931 .2 5pp . Rapport Indische Reis,Hepkema ,S. ,1930 .4 4pp . - Soesoe "TjapNorma" ,Nestl ean dAnglo-Swis sCondense dMil k Co.,no tdated . 36pp .

ALGEMEENRIJKSARCHIEF ,DE NHAA G

Ministerieva nKolonien ,1850-190 0 Indexo pd eMailrapporten ,1869-189 9 Ministerie van Kolonien,1901-194 5 Openbaarverbaal ,1901-194 5 Geheimverbaal ,1936-194 0 Memoriesva nOvergave ,1905-194 0 Batavia,Krawan g Preanger,Prianga n CostJava ,Soerabaja ,Modjokert o Sumatra'sOostkus t -240-

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AdelPete rde nHarto gwa sbor ni nGroninge ni n1937 .Afte rcompletin ghi s secondaryeducatio ni nth eHagu e(HBS-B )h edi dhi smilitar yservic efro m 1957-1959.I n195 9h ebega nt orea dhuma ngeograph ya tth eUniversit yo f Utrecht (agriculturalgeograph ya smai nsubjec tan dsociolog yan deconomic sa s subsidiarysubjects) ,graduatin ga sDoctorandu si n1966 .Fro m1967-197 6h e workeda sa nutritio noffice ri nth efiel do ffoo dhabit sfo rth eFoo dan d AgriculturalOrganizatio no fth eUnite dNation s (FAO),firs ti nAccra ,Ghan a andlate ra tFA OHeadquarters ,Rome ,Italy .I n196 1h efollowe dth e NUFFIC-supported internationaldiplom acours ei nfoo dscienc ean dnutrition , whichwa sthe nhel di nth ecompoun do fth eCIVO/TN OInstitut ei nZeist .Sinc e 1977h eha sbee na senio rlecture ri nth eDepartmen to fHuma nNutrition , AgriculturalUniversity ,Wageningen .Hi smai ninterest sar eth edevelopmen to f themoder nDutc hdiet ,foo dan dnutritio no fmigran tcommunitie si nth e Netherlands,an dnutritio nan ddevelopmen ti ntropica lcountries .H eha s participatedi nvariou smission st odevelopin gcountrie sfo rth eDutc h governmentan dothe rinstitutions .H ei sco-autho ro f"Nieuw eVoedingsleer " (1980),edito ran dcontributo rt o"Voedin gal smaatschappelij kverschijnsel " (1982)an dco-autho ro f"Manua lfo rsocia lsurvey so nfoo dhabit san d consumptioni ndevelopin gcountries "(1983 ,reprin t1985) .