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Information to Users INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter free, vdiile others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, b%inning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Hgher quality 6” x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. UMI A BeQ & Howell Infimnation Compai^ 300 NoithZeeb Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE FROM ONE TO MANY, FROM MANY TO ONE: SPEECH COMMUNITIES IN THE MUSKOGEE STOMPDANCE POPULATION A Dissertation SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By PAMELA JOAN INNES Norman, Oklahoma 1997 mil Number: 9724423 Copyright 1997 by Izmes, Pamela Joan All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9724423 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 FROM ONE TO MANY, FROM MANY TO ONE: SPEECH COMMUNITIES IN THE MUSKOGEE STOMPDANCE POPULATION A Dissertation APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY BY ® Copyright by Pamela Joan Innes 1997 All Rights Reserved Acknowledgments This data on Muskogee stompdance community language use norms and interaction stems from almost seven years' work with members of that community, from 1989 to 1997. Throughout that time, many people have welcomed me, to varying degrees, into their grounds, their homes, and their activities. My debt to these Mvskoke (Creek), Yuchi, and Seminole people is too great to ever adequately repay. Many of them have become close friends, and I value their friendship deeply. This dissertation would have been almost impossible were it not for the help of two Seminole women : Linda Alexander and Bertha Tilkens. They have been the best of teachers and friends throughout my time in Oklahoma. Their friendship opened the door to the Mvskoke, Yuchi, and Seminole stompdance community for me and their support and humor have strengthened me during hard times. This work also benefits from the guidance and insight of Dr. Morris Foster. Because of his support, I became involved in NSF grant #SBR9320991. Conducting the intensive research for this grant concerning Mvskoke and Yuchi people's health risk assessment and management also provided me with information regarding my linguistic interests. Dr. Foster's support during the data collection and writing stages has made this a much stronger IV dissertation than it would have been otherwise. Any mistakes in this work, in spite of the help and critiques that Dr. Foster and others provided, are the responsibility of the author. Finally, a word of thanks to my family for sustaining me through this process. Your willingness to listen to me, to laugh and cry with me are always appreciated. Without your prompting, I probably would not have gotten this far. For that, "ravto," kicis! Table of Contents Mvskoke (Creek), Yuchi, and Seminole History.... 1 The Prehistoric Period....................... 5 The Contact Period........................... 11 The Colonial Period.......................... 25 The Removal Period........................... 51 The Present Period........................... 64 Literature Review............................ 79 Theory and Methodology......................... 88 First-Order Speech Communities............... Ill Intermediate-Order Speech Communities........ 117 Lowest-Order Speech Communities.............. 130 Methodology.................................. 135 Applicability for Other Sociolinguistic Work.. 145 Individual Grounds as Speech Communities....... 149 The Nature of the Networks................... 159 Mvskoke (Creek) Stompdance Networks and Communities............................. 163 Individual Ground Networks................... 175 Osten Ground Language Use Patterns and Attitudes............................... 185 Hvmken Ground Language Use Patterns and Attitudes............................... 214 Tutcenen Ground Language Use Patterns and Attitudes............................... 226 Hokkolen Ground Language Use Patterns and Attitudes............................... 233 Cahkepen Ground Language Use Patterns and Attitudes............................... 237 Analysis of the Mvskoke (Creek) Grounds as Distinct Speech Communities............. 240 The Seminole Ground: Ostvpaken............... 248 Yuchi Stompdance Networks and Communities 255 Summary...................................... 267 Intermediate-Order Speech Communities.......... 283 Penultimate-Order Speech Communities......... 285 Hvmken, Lane, Epaken, Holatte, and Cate...... 290 Osten, Cahkepen, and Cenvpaken............... 296 Hvsossv, Hunera, and Aklatkv................. 302 Kolvpaken, Yvlahv, and Tutcenen.............. 307 Ostvpaken, Hokkolen, and Palen............... 312 Higher-Order Speech Communities.............. 321 The Yuchi Speech Community................... 323 The Mvskoke (Creek) Speech Community......... 325 The Seminole Speech Community................ 338 Analysis of Tribally Identified Speech Communities............................. 339 Nation-Based Speech Communities.............. 342 Language-Based Speech Communities............ 354 VI Table of Contents, cont'd. 5 The Most Inclusive Speech Communities...... 357 The Highest-Order Speech Community........... 357 Age-Based Speech Communities................. 370 Elder Ground Members as a Speech Community.... 371 Middle-Aged Ground Members as a Speech Community........................ 378 Young Ground Members as a Speech Community.... 388 Gender-Based Speech Communities.............. 394 Male Ground Members as a Speech Community 395 Female Ground Members as a Speech Community... 401 Utility of the Most Inclusive Intermediate- Order Speech Communities................ 409 Utility of the Highest-Order Speech Communi ty............................... 412 6................... Conclusion.................... 422 Social and Linguistic Criteria............... 423 Establish Speech Community Existence......... 426 Speech Community Ranking and Nesting......... 427 Use as Comparative Units..................... 429 Penultimate-Order Speech Communities......... 431 Focus on Variation........................... 434 Consider Both Emic and Etic Observations..... 439 Explicit Definitions of Speech Communities.... 440 Scale and Contrast........................... 442 Utility of the Various Orders................ 443 Summary...................................... 450 Bibliography...................................... 452 Appendix I Census Data.......................... 468 Appendix II Multiplex/Uniplex Relationships...... 486 List of Tables 1 Kinship Terms.................................. 23 2 Settlement Size in "Town" Tracts and BNAs........ 70 3 Settlement Size in "Urban" Tracts and BNAs...... 70 4 Household Income Levels....................... 72 5 Education Levels.............................. 73 6 Employment.................................... 75 7 Age........................................... 75 8 Self-Reported Linguistic Abilities............ 77 9 Multiplexity Averages for Each Mvskoke (Creek) Ground............................ 184 10 Multiplexity Averages for Yuchi Grounds......... 256 11 Mulitplexity/Uniplexity Averages of All Grounds............................... 277 V I 1 Table of Contents, cont'd. List of Illustrations Maps 1 Locations of Upper and Lower Creek Tvlwvlke 29 2 Census Tracts and BNAs Within the Muskogee (Creek) and Seminole Nations............... 68 3 Locations of Mvskoke (Creek), Seminole, and Yuchi Grounds.......................... 160 Diagrams 1 Density of the Osten Ground Network............ 176 2 Density of the Hvmken Ground Network........... 179 3 Density of the Tutcenen Ground Network......... 180 4 Density of the Hokkolen Ground Network......... 181 5 Density of the Cahkepen Ground Network......... 182 6 Density of the Ostvpaken Ground Network........ 250 7 Density of the Hvsossv Ground Network.......... 257 8 Density of the Hunera Ground Network........... 258 9 Ground-to-Ground Interaction Patterns......... 288 10 Interactional Patterns for all Mvskoke (Creek) Grounds.................... 327 11 Muskogee (Creek) Nation Ground Interaction Patterns....................... 344 V l l l Abstract Sociolinguists use speech communities as their units of analysis. While widely used, the concept of the speech community has never been defined precisely. Many sociolinguists assume the
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