Fik Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ1)

Geographical Features

• Terrain: mostly hilly and browse-rich (thick, thorny bush good for goats and camels). Some pockets of good grazing for cattle and sheep. Dagahbur zone • Shallow wells in seasonal river areas provide fairly reliable water sources, although water quality (saline)

deteriorates in dry seasons. Areas distant from seasonal rivers are more vulnerable to water shortages; here people use natural ponds where rainwater collects, available in the wet season only.

Population and Geographic Coverage District’s Rural Administrative Zone Districts % Popn in LZ Popn in LZ Popn Fik zone Fik 120,220 80% 96,176 Hamero 44,077 95% 41,873 Sagag 22,751 85% 19,339 Duhun 29,557 85% 25,124 Gerbo 30,847 90% 27,762 Dagahbur zone Dagahmadow 37,556 40% 15,022 Total population of Fik Pastoral LZ ( as % of Regional Rural popn = 5.9%) 225,296 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoral: camel, sheep/goats (shoats) and cattle. Opportunistic farming if the rains are good (but unreliable: only two successful harvests in the last ten years). Access to water: There are numerous water points, mostly shallow wells in seasonal riverbeds; but distant areas may suffer water shortages as they rely on rainwater ponds. Livestock and migration: Goats and camels are predominant due to the terrain; shoats (mainly goats) are important ‘liquid’ livestock in the local markets, therefore important for cereal purchases. Camels are important for transport and milk (consumption and income). Pasture is surveyed regularly (more in dry seasons); migration follows accordingly. Normal livestock migration is within the zone - nearer to permanent water points (dry season). In difficult seasons camels (including some milking stock) may move further afield to adjacent districts, zones or even to Oromia Region. In drought situations whole families may move with livestock. In bad years livestock migrates into Fik Zone from other areas. Food, income and expenditure: Food sources include staple (maize and sorghum) and non-staple (sugar) food purchases, milk and ghee. Income sources are principally the sale of livestock and their products (middle and better-off households), and livestock sale and collection/sale of bush products (poor households). Poor households spend most on staple food purchases and less on non-staple and household items (clothes, etc.); middle and better-off households spend relatively more on non-staple and household items, as well as on veterinary inputs and social services (gifts, education, medicine). Markets: Main livestock markets are Babile (especially for oxen and camel milk), Garbo (camels for export) and Dagahbur. Since the livestock ban (Sept 2000) there is no external demand to drive Garbo Market. Vulnerabilities and responses: High dependency on livestock means this population is vulnerable to: rainfall failure; lack/shortage of pasture; market disruptions; devaluation of the Somali Shilling; clan conflicts/general insecurity; poor road infrastructure; crop failure in neighbouring zones. Coping mechanisms include livestock migration, increase of livestock sales, labour migration and reduction of household expenses.

17 The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1996-97 and 2004-05. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1996-97 and 2004-05. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

W ealth Characteristics

1996/97 Poor Middle Better-off Household 7 – 9 7 – 9 7 – 9 size Livestock holdings: Shoats 30 - 40 60 - 80 100 - 150 Cattle 0 - 6 0 - 20 0 – 40 Camels 5 - 10 20 - 30 45 - 55 Donkeys 1 1 1 – 2 Wealth is determined by livestock holdings, particularly camels and shoats. Livestock holdings are more or

less similar in the old and the new reference years but ran ges have widened in the latter. This could be

attr ibuted to the fact that the baseline update figures are based on data obtained from two districts (instead of five as in the old baseline) which increases the margin of error as the more recent data would be less representative of all the districts than the former.

2004/05 Poor Middle Better-off Mainly due to recurrent droughts, the population proportion of middle wealth group households fell Household 6 - 8 (7) 8 - 9 (8) 9 - 11 (10) from 50% in 1996/97 to 45% 2004/05, whilst there size was an increase in poor households of 5%. This Livestock holdings: highlights the fact that the situation has affected the Shoats 30 - 50 60 - 90 150 - 200 middle wealth group more than the better-off as Cattle 4 - 6 5 - 15 10 - 20 the population proportion of the latter has not Camels 4 - 6 25 - 35 45 - 70 changed significantly. Fik and Hamaro districts are Donkey s 0 1- 3 1 - 3 generally less affected by shocks than Sagag, Garbo and Duhun districts as they have better market access being situated along the main road from Babile to Gode districts.

Food Sources

Food needs are calculated on the basis of 1,900kcal per person per day for the 1996-97 baseline but 2,100 kcal for 2004-05. All households depend on staple cereal purchases (maize) for most of their food, meaning they are vulnerable to market disruptions and cereal price rises. However, better-off households are able to off-set this dependency by being able to afford more non-staple foods (sugar) and having higher milk production. Better-off and middle wealth group households obtain milk and ghee from their animals; poor households do not make ghee.

18 Better-off households sell most of the ghee they produce. The contribution of livestock products to annual food requirement has increased in the new reference year for all wealth groups. This leads to a decrease in overall food purchases, which are inversely related to wealth (i.e., higher in the poor and lower in the better- off wealth groups). As the poor can not cover much of its food requirement from livestock sources due to low asset levels, they have to purchase more food for their needs, thus a larger proportion of their income is spent on food purchases. Food aid was a food source for all wealth groups in the new reference year, with gifts also becoming an important source of food for the poor.

S ources of Income Livestock sales, complemented by livestock product sales, are the main source of income for all wealth groups. Livestock products were not a source of income for the poor in the old baseline year but they are in the new one. In recent years rainfall has been significantly reduced and some better-off and middle households have migrated from the area. As a result the role of livestock products as a source of income has been reduced for both these groups. Most of the poor did not migrate and kept their milk-producing animals with them while the rest of their livestock

herds h erds migrated with better-off relatives. Staying close to urban areas with a few manageable milk-producing a nimals meant that they were able to sell livestock products - particularly camel milk and ghee - better than o ther groups and better than in the past. As income from livestock and livestock products is not enough to finance food and non-food needs, poor households need to diversify their sources of income by collecting and s elling bush products (firewood, myrrh, poles, gums). Income levels in the new baseline year are slightly lower th an that of the old for the middle and better-off wealth groups due to reduced income from livestock p roduct sales.

Expe nditure Patterns

Poor households spend a relatively high proportion of their income on staple purchases (mainly maize). Their spending on social services consists mainly of Koran teaching for two children, and they do not have to pay clan taxes or kaalmo (charitable donations). Middle households spend proportionately more on restocking their livestock; better-off households have the most flexibility and spend more on ‘luxuries’ making them better able to cope with shocks.

Comparison between the old and the new baseline years reveals slightly decreased expenditure on food for the middle and better-off. This is due to the increased contribution of livestock products to meet annual food needs. Expenditure on household items has increased for all groups under the new baseline year because of the increase in the cost of household items. Overall expenditure levels have declined due to fewer purchases in the new reference year compared with the old one.

Seasonal Calendar

Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Season Gu Hagaa Deyr Jilaal Hunger / stress periods Water levels / pasture condition Pasture observation (Sahan) Movement according to Sahan Livestock reproduction Milking period Livestock migration Livestock sales Cereal purchases

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses Significant herd size reductions, caused by recent consecutive droughts, have prompted generally unsuccessful attempts at opportunistic farming amongst some groups; others diversified into agro-pastoralism, joined the urban poor or became destitute and displaced after losing all their livestock.

Key vulnerabilities: Main risk-minimising strategies: • Rainfall failure • Pasture survey (sahan) and migration • Lack/shortage of pasture and water • Old and weak animals slaughtered or sold • Market shocks (livestock and milk markets) • Slaughter of new-born (nugul) livestock (cattle • Insecurity (clan conflicts which disrupt normal and sheep) migration) • Slaughter of one quality camel for household • Access to markets for imported goods in wet seasons consumption Main coping strategies: Poor wealth group: Middle wealth group: Better-off wealth group: • Increase livestock sales • Increase livestock sales As for the middle wealth • Old and weak shoats slaughtered for • Reduce/postpone non- group, and in addition: consumption essential expenses • Increase in milk sales • Labour migration to e.g. Djibouti, Bosasso • Livestock migration and • Sell some livestock to save • Seek agricultural labour/employment herd splitting the others by buying drugs, • Petty trade (selling sugar, maize, etc.) fodder and other • Increase in bush product collection and sale necessities.

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline

The 1996 reference year comprised a normal (or good) gu season, and 2007 [NEW STUDY YEAR] a below normal deyr season in terms of rainfall, pasture and livestock Poor gu and very poor deyr rains; livestock migration to Gode, Babile and Oromia; condition. There was no abnormal migration. This year was nick- market restrictions; increased food named ‘Gororduuf’ - after the name of a camel disease (symptoms of insecurity; malnutrition; livestock mortality which are nasal mucus discharge) which was common in that year. after the deyr season. 2006: near normal gu and good deyr rains; The new reference year (2004/05) is a normal year. plenty of pastures after the deyr; no livestock migration; calm jilaal season after the deyr rains; clan conflict; unknown camel disease. Reference Year Prices and Terms of Trade 1996/97 2005: very poor gu rains and below normal deyr rains. Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) 2004 [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] Normal gu and near normal deyr rains; no Terms of Trade: livestock migration; clan conflict. One local quality shoat = about 50kg maize or 10-15kg sugar; 2003: failure of both gu and deyr rains; One litre cow/camel milk exchanges for about 1kg of maize severe pasture and water shortages; food shortages and high malnutrition levels- 3 - 4 litres cow milk or 5 litres of camel milk = about 1kg sugar. emergency. Prices (ETB): 2002: normal gu and below normal deyr rains; no livestock migration outside the Shoat = 70 zone; poor livestock prices. Cow/Camel milk = 1 - 1.75 2001 [OLD STUDY YEAR] Maize/50kg = 60 - 75 Rains below average, some pasture; livestock condition good; in-migration, and Sugar/kg = 5 - 5.5 out-migration to Babile and Erer; good terms of trade due to relief 2000: rains, pasture, livestock condition, terms of trade poor; slightly better in deyr; Reference Year Prices and Terms of Trade 2004/05 shoat/cattle disease and mortality; out- migration to Oubi, Erer, Babile; some relief.

Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) Exchange rate: 1US$ = 8.65 ETB 1999: rains very poor, lack of pasture; Terms of Trade: livestock disease led to high mortality in cattle and shoats; high out-migration One local quality shoat = about 80kg maize or 20-30kg sugar; 6 litres cow/camel milk exchanges for about 5kg of maize 1998: rains and pasture normal; livestock condition good in gu season but below 4 litres cow milk/camel milk = about 1kg sugar. normal in deyr; good livestock and grain Prices (ETB): prices so terms of trade poor; livestock ban. Shoat = 100-200 1997: Gu: rains/pasture normal; livestock Cow/Camel milk = 1 - 2 condition good; Deyr: all + harvest good; Maize/50kg = 90 very good terms of trade; human/livestock diseases.

Sugar/kg = 6 1996 [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] Gu: rains/pasture normal; livestock condition good; Deyr: below normal rains/pasture; normal livestock condition; good terms of trade; camel disease. 1995: Gu: rains average; pasture good; Indicators to Monitor deyr rains less good but pasture/livestock conditions average; very good terms of  Rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution and amount trade.  Pasture and water conditions: Sufficiency, how long it will last, 1994: Gu: rains/pasture average; livestock condition good; Deyr: rains/pasture below alternative pastures normal; livestock condition normal;  Migration: Normal or abnormal for livestock and for humans - who, armyworm. where and why 1993: both rains/pasture below average; in-migration from Gode; out-migration to  Market conditions: Prices of livestock and grains, cereal availability and Babile, Bale and Erer terms of trade 1992: Gu: rains below normal. Deyr  Livestock conditions: Disease outbreaks, body condition worse; out-migration; poor terms of trade.  IDP movements and condition

 Human health and nutrition situation: Disease outbreaks  Coping strategies: Degree of resorting to and sequence

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Improve veterinary services by training para-vets or other vet professionals, and improve of extension services  Improve livestock markets and marketing by linking the pastoralists with the markets both at national and international levels. Cross-border livestock and commodity trade needs strengthening  Establish livestock health certification bodies that are internationally recognised  Make essential social infrastructure improvements, such as access to health, roads, water and education  Re-establish traditional rangeland management practices whereby certain parts of the zone are protected from grazing in wet seasons so as to enhance pasture availability in dry seasons  Rehabilitate those displaced by drought and conflict in the zone.

22 Shinile Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ2)

Djibouti Geographical Features

o Shinile Ayshia i r g • Altitude ranges from 950-1350m above sea a e Somalia Af R level; average annual rainfall is 500-700mm.

n • Terrain: undulating hills, stony outcrops o i Shinile Zone g JiDegahbu

e interspersed with plains of loose soil covered

R r Shinile Fik Warder a ji by bush and woody grasses. i

m Korah • Two rainy seasons: Gu and Karan.

ro g God e O e Afdem • Three seasonal (rainy season) rivers: Erer, a A Dambal Afde Erer Hurso and Chow. Also several dry riverbeds r d Lib aSomalia flowing north across the entire zone. Shallow an dl Meisso Kenya e wells dug in these riverbeds provide most of the water for pastoralists.

Population Figures

Admin. Zone Districts Rural Popn % Popn in LZ Popn in the LZ Shinile zone Shinile 96,988 80% 77,591 Dambal 77,321 40% 30,928 Aysha'a 50,043 100% 50,043 Erer 83,471 80% 66,777 Afdem 31,991 100% 31,991 Meisso 45,570 80% 36,456 Total Population of Shinile pastoral LZ (as % of Reg. rural popn) = 7.7% 293,786 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods The Pastoral Livelihood Zone covers most of Shinile administrative zone. Communities in other parts of the zone are mainly involved in agro-pastoralism. Fewer than 5% of the population are involved in commercial activities in urban or trading centres. Livelihoods: Pastoralism: livestock production (sheep/goats (shoats), cattle, camels). Cattle and sheep are generally predominant though camels and goats form the majority in mountainous/rugged areas. There is significant trading (livestock, imported goods) in the area, and there is some crop production in the south. Livestock and migration: There is little market demand for milk due to poor access to the few urban and market centres; when abundant, much is consumed and given as gifts. Wealthier households use most of their cattle milk to make ghee. In the dry season, the herd is divided into smaller groups, with sheep and milking animals staying with the core family (xaas) near villages, while hardier animals (camels, cattle, goats) are driven to further afield in search of water and pasture. In the rainy season all livestock remains around homesteads. Food, income and expenditure: The purchase of cereals and sugar – the main sources of food - is the main expenditure. Milk and milk products are the second most important food source; the sale of livestock is the main income source; camel rent is also important for wealthier households. Markets: The main markets for pastoralists are Meisso, Beki, Dire Dawa and Djibouti. Other less important markets are Bardode and Gadamaito (Garba Issa) - on the border with Afar. Meisso is the main market for the sale of livestock. Main markets for foodstuffs and clothing are Meisso and Dire Dawa. Vulnerabilities and responses: The main risks are those to do with rainfall, market failures and conflict. Coping strategies include migration, controlling mating, increased livestock sales, and increased seeking employment as unskilled labour.

23 The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1998/99 and 2004/05; the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1998/99 and 2004/05. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

W ealth Characteristics 1998/99 Poor Middle Better-off Household 6 - 8 9 - 11 15 - 17 size

Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets) Shoats 35-55 (13-17) 80-90 (20-30) 160-180(45-50) Cattle 8-12 (3-4) 20-30 (5-7) 50-70 (13-17) Camels 4-6 (1-2) 10-15 (3-4) 30-45 (10-13) Pack camels 1 2-3 3-4 Donkeys 2 3 3

W ealth is determined by the number of shoats, cattle and pack animals owned by a household. During the old reference year pack camels were more important than other camel types. Cattle were considered the most important holding by most pastoralists because they can produce milk and ghee, which can be sold in exchange for sorghum, sugar and tea/coffee. Shoats are considered of almost equal importance as they are ‘liquid cash’. Household size has declined remarkably – this could be attributed to the poor past two years which have discouraged households from taking in dependents.

2004/05 Poor Middle Better-off The new reference year is a year of recovery after two consecutive poor Household 6 – 7 6 – 8 8 - 12 size years. In bad years cattle are affected more than camels and shoats as Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets) pastoralists opt to hold on to the latter, Shoats 30-60(10-15) 70-100(20-25) 130-170(30-40) which are more drought-resistant. With Cattle 3-5 (1) 8-10 (2-3) 15-25 (4-5) the exception of the better-off wealth Camels 3-5(0-1) 10-16(2) 20-40(3-4) group, the number of cattle owned by Donkeys 1-2 2-3 2-3 households has declined. The number of lactating camels and cattle also declined due to low rates of conception during the two poor years. This has had an adverse implication on milk availability for all households.

Food Sources

For poor households the main source of food is the purchase of sorghum and sugar, followed by livestock

products (mainly milk). For middle households it is milk,

and then purchased sorghum and sugar. For better-off

households, milk and milk products are the most

important food source, followed by purchased sorghum

and sugar. Despite the declines in herd size and number

of lactating animals, and the change in calorie

consumption to 2100kcal per person per day, the

contribution of milk to household diets has increased in

the new reference year. Household size in all groups

decreased – this is particularly marked in middle and

better-off households, which show a 30-40% decrease.

24 In bad years livestock herders are not needed and they look for other livelihood options by migrating to towns and sometimes abroad. This reduction in size has allowed households to share available food among the remaining members and as such their dietary needs have been covered much better than in the old reference year. The contribution of purchased food decreased for all groups. Food aid decreased for middle and better-off households - this could be as a result of better targeting in recent years.

Sources of Income

Poor households get most of their income from selling shoats; the rest comes from remittances (from one son/daughter working in Djibouti, Dire Dawa or other towns), ghee sales, and pack camel rental. For middle households the main income is from the sale of livestock, followed by pack camel renting (informal cross-border trade); the rest comes from ghee sales and a small amount from remittances. Better-off households earn most of their annual income from livestock sales and pack camel rental; ghee sales are also important; remittance is the least important source of income for this group.

In the new reference year all households earned higher income from livestock sales as a result of rising livestock prices. The major change in income sources is the absence of income earned through renting pack animals. As a result of a clampdown on contraband trade the use of pack animals for transportation has almost ceased to exist. Income from the sale of milk did not feature in the old reference year, mainly because pastoralists live far from trading centres. Only those pastoralists living around villages and along the railway sell some milk. The proportion of milk sold increased in the new reference year as a result of increased demand from growing urban populations, though the income from this does not make a significant contribution to poor households’ overall income. Poor households earn additional income through gaining employment (usually as unskilled labourers) in urban areas.

Expenditure Patterns

Food (cereal and sugar) is the main expense for all wealth groups. Poor households have little, if any, flexibility, and can only afford some non-food essentials, including minimal health expenses (medicines) and some clothing, but cannot afford to restock their animals, nor to pay for any social services (education, health). Middle households have some flexibility and can replace livestock sold. Better-off households spend more on clothes, and a significant amount on restocking livestock purchases; they can also afford veterinary drugs and social

services (education, medicine, clan taxes).

Patterns of expenditure remained more or less similar to the old reference year. However households spent more on each of the items purchased as a result of the recent price increases. The effect of price changes is clearly visible on food. Despite a reduction in the contribution of purchased food to household diets, poor and middle groups spent more cash on food in the new reference year. Another expenditure in the new reference year which took significant proportion of the cash income is chat. The proportion spent varied from 5% to 15% from poor to better-off households respectively. This could be attributed to the expansion of chat distribution centres and increased access for pastoralists in the zone.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Jilaa (dry) Diraa’ Hagaa (dry) Karan (rainy) Jilaal (dry) (rainy) Rainfall Diraa’ rains Karan rains Pasture and water availability Low High Low High Low Milk availability Low; camel only Cattle / camel Cattle / camel High; cattle/camel Camel only Livestock migration Foothills/Jijiga/coastal Livestock around homes Cereal purchase Safar trips Livestock sales High Low Medium Bush product collection

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Rain failure or delay causing pasture and water shortages and poor livestock production • High dependency on livestock sales means highly vulnerable to livestock market shocks, e.g. Gulf export ban • Informal trade changes which reduce the need for pack camels e.g. tighter government controls, mechanisation, legalisation • Livestock disease • Conflict over resources and land (with Afar and sometimes Oromo) Main risk-minimising Main coping strategies strategies • Migration • Increased sale of livestock and sale of larger stock • Controlling breeding of • Storage of ghee until the dry season when prices are higher – (mainly rich animals, especially sheep and middle wealth groups) to get better income from ghee and save on • Pasture surveying (sahan), sale of shoats especially at the start of • Sending children to work in towns – particularly poor and middle the rainy season and in the households dry seasons • Slaughter of new-born calves or kids born in the dry season or a bad rainy • Selling of old/weak animals season and replacing with younger • Reduction in gifts of milk and milking animals from middle and better-off ones before the start of households; therefore bad for poor households. dry season • Increased collection/sale of wild products, especially among the poor and some middle households • Increased seeking of remittance from sons/daughters working as unskilled labourers in towns

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline 1998-1999 was a normal year and selected as the reference year. In a [NEW STUDY YEAR] normal year: 2006-07: Normal year One of the rains is good/average, one is near normal. 2005-06: Gu rain was good. • Livestock and cereal prices start • There is no livestock migration outside the zone, except to adjacent increasing foothills along the border with Oromia, Afar, sub-coastal areas of [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] northwest Somalia during Jilaal (dry season) and parts of 2004-05: normal, livestock start to Jijiga/Awabarre districts (Jijiga zone). go back to their home Livestock condition and production is good and there are no 2003-04: bad year, high livestock • mortality especially cattle. Abnormal outbreaks of disease. migration to Jijiga • Security is stable and there are no displacements. 2002-03; bad year, severe shoat disease and unknown camel disease [OLD STUDY YEAR] 2001-2002: Normal year; good 1998/99 - Old Reference/Normal Year Prices karan rains and livestock production; livestock ban continues; poor terms of and approximate Terms of Trade trade; no migration 2000 – 2001 : Bad year Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) Livestock ban imposed (September Terms of Trade: 2000); fair to poor pasture; good 1 local quality shoat = about 15kg sugar and about 50kg sorghum livestock condition 1999 – 2000 : Very bad year 2.5litres of milk = 1kg sugar; 1 litre of milk = 1.5 kg of sorghum Poor rains; migration to Oromiya, Afar Income from 1 trip camel rent = 60kg sugar and 220kg sorghum and Jijiga Zone; low livestock trade; In the dry seasons shoats fetch less sorghum and sugar high livestock mortality Prices (ETB): [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] 1998 – 1999 : Normal year Local shoat = 65 Livestock diseases; no migration Camel rent/trip = 300 1997 – 1998 : Normal year Milk/litre = 2 Very good rains and livestock Sugar/kg = 5 production (El Niño); high cereal prices Sorghum/50kg = 70 (Oromiya crops destroyed); poor terms of trade 1996 – 1997 : Normal year Very poor karan rains; migration to 2004/05 - New Reference/Normal Year Prices foothills within the zone (normal). and approximate Terms of Trade 1995 – 1996 : Good year Siin disease was seen in camels Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) Exchange rate 1US$ = 8.65 ETB 1994 – 1995 : Below normal Poor livestock production /markets Terms of Trade: 1 local quality shoat = 98kg sorghum and 29 Kg sugar 1993 – 1994 : Bad year Migration to Qiiqle; good ToT; 2 litres of camel milk = 1kg sugar; 1litre of milk = 1.78 kg of continuing security problems; sorghum migration to Cundhufo in Afar; cattle Income from 1 trip camel rent = n/a diseases In the dry seasons shoats fetch less sorghum and sugar 1992 – 1993 : Below normal Prices (ETB): Low cereal prices; locust infestation; security problems after fall of the Local shoat = 166 Derg; livestock disease Camel rent/trip = NA Milk/litre = 3 Sugar/kg = 6 Sorghum/50kg = 85

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Social infrastructure improvements, such as access to health, roads and education and permanent water sources  Developing and implementing conflict prevention and resolution systems  Development of a sustainable Early Warning system  Creating an environment of free trade (lifting of any existing restrictions for both livestock and other commodities trade) within and outside the country. The trade restrictions weaken the populations’ ability to cope with difficult economic conditions and seriously reduce their income alternatives  Formulation of a pastoral development policy  Implementation of a mobile extension and health service for pastoralists and their livestock.

28 Shinile Agropastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ3)

D jibout

io i Geographical Features r

Sg hinil Ayshia a ee Somalia Af R • Main rainy seasons are dira (late March – Mid-

Shinile Zone May) and karan (July – early Sept).

Degahb Ji a n i ur Shinil • The area comprises mainly lowlands with high

o Fi Warder i m g k e percolation and evaporation (gamoochi).

ro ji

e Korah God O R e ge A Afdem Damb Afde Erer al r d Lib a Somalia an a Meisso Kenya d le

Population and Geographic Coverage

District Rural Population % Popn in LZ Popn in LZ Shinile 96,988 20% 19,398 Dambal 77,321 60% 46,393 Erer 83,471 20% 16,694 Meisso 45,570 20% 9,114 Total popn in Shinile Agropastoral LZ as % of Regional Rural Popn = 2.4% 91,599 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Agro-pastoralism: mainly sorghum (but also maize); sheep/goats (shoats), cattle and camels. Land: Access to cultivable land is free unless there are clan animosities. Livestock, crops and migration: Livestock is the priority, although camels are the least important species. In normal years shoats and cattle stay around the settlements, while the camels move to northern pastoral areas. Dambal district is an exception: normal movements include migration to Chinahsan in Jijiga Zone. In a bad year livestock in Meiso may migrate to Afar and Oromia Regions. In particularly bad years animals are moved to mountain foothills (south and southwest) and hand fed. Mostly long cycle maturing crops (mainly sorghum) are cultivated. The main constraints to crop production include: limited knowledge and skills, lack of agricultural inputs (e.g., appropriate seeds, tools and draught power (oxen and tractor)), and difficulty in clearing new land or land that has gone fallow. Food, income and expenditure: Main food sources: own cereal production (mainly sorghum); own livestock production (milk and ghee); and purchases (cereals, sugar, oil). Main income sources: livestock, milk and ghee sales, pack camel rent for the middle wealth group, bush product sales for the poor and crop sales for wealthier families. There are also remittances from relatives working in Diredawa, Djibouti or Borana. The poor get some zakaat (religious tithe)/gifts. Markets: The main livestock markets include Dire Dawa, Mieso, and Denbel. Employment: Young men from poor households sometimes assist caravans transporting contraband goods, or migrate to Dire Dawa to work as hired labour. Vulnerabilities and responses: Rain failure is the main risk. High dependency on bush product collection by poor households exposes this group to risk if restrictions are imposed on these activities. Clan and other conflicts can block access to markets, farmland, and grazing and water sources. Risk minimising strategies include controlling livestock breeding, mixed cropping and planting of drought-resistant varieties (sorghum), and storage of crop residue for when pasture is scarce. Coping strategies include: increased sale of livestock, sending children to stay with wealthier relatives, increased employment seeking, reducing number of meals, substituting with less expensive foods, migration in search of pastures and water, and self- employment. Wealthier groups also reduce the amount of donations they give.

29 The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1998/99 and 2004/05. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1998/99 and 2004/05. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

W ealth Characteristics 1998-99 Poor Middle Better-off

Household size 6 6 6

Livestock holdings: (lactating in brackets) Shoats 4-10 (1-3) 10-20 (4-6) 20-30 (6-10) Cattle 2-5 (1-2) 5-10 (1-3) 8-15 (3-5) Camels 0-2 2-5 (1-3) 5-10 Pack camels 0 1 2 Donkeys 1-2 1-2 0 Land cultivated 2-3 3-5 4-6 (in kodi) [hectares in [0.4 – 0.6] [0.6 – 1] [0.8 - 1.2] square brackets]

W ealth is determined mainly by livestock holdings, especially cattle, followed by land holdings. The small size of poor household farms is not related to accessibility to land but to their capacity to cultivate.

2004-05 Poor Middle Better-off The new reference year is a year of

Household size 6-7 6-8 8-10 recovery after two consecutive poor years. In bad years cattle are Livestock holdings: (lactating in brackets) affected more than camels and Shoats 5–10 (2–3) 20–30 (5–7) 40–70 (8–10) shoats as households opt to hold Cattle 2–3 (1) 6–8 (2) 10–20 (3) on to the latter. With the Camels 0 6–8 (1) 5–15 (2) exception of the better-off wealth Donkeys – – – group, the number of cattle owned by households has declined. The Land cultivated 3 – 4 5 – 7 6 – 8 (in kodi) [hectares in number of shoats has increased [0.6 – 0.8] [1 – 1.4] [1.2 - 1.6] square brackets] because the recovery period for these species is shorter. As camels are less affected by moisture stress than other livestock, the number owned by middle and better- off wealth group households has increased. The poor have retained cattle rather than camels which may be attributed to the need for cattle for farming – on which these households have a greater dependence than the other wealth groups who have better income options from the larger number of animals they own. All households increased the amount of land they cultivated in the new reference year to make optimal use of the good rains that came after two years of very poor rains.

Food Sources

In the old reference year poor households consumed all the staple cereals they cultivated (sorghum and maize), they also purchased staples (mostly sorghum) and received gifts; they consumed 75% of the milk they produced. They did not slaughter animals or purchase meat. Middle households consumed 80% of their cereal production; milk production was important, and over two-thirds was consumed, including a small amount from ghee production. Meat consumption

was low. Better-off households consumed about two-thirds of their cereal production, and

purchased the remainder of their staple needs; they consumed 70% of their milk production, and meat consumption was low.

In the new reference year the consumption of own crops has increased for the poor and middle households. The better-off consumed fewer of their own crops and sold a portion of their produce. They have the option of purchasing better quality food as they earn more income through a greater number of livestock sales than other groups. The contribution of milk to the household diet has declined markedly in the new reference year as a result of the impact of the preceeding bad years. Conception decreases in bad years and a low birth rate means reduced milk production the following year - in this case the new reference year. With the exception of better-off households, the contribution of purchased food has also declined. Though more cash was spent on food in the new baseline year, the poor were not able to cover their annual food needs. Food aid was received by households in all wealth groups.

Sources of Income For all wealth groups, livestock and livestock product sales are important sources of income. However, poor households diversify more: bush product sales are important; some income comes from labour undertaken to assist caravans transporting contraband goods and from remittances from relatives working in Djibouti; but they do not sell any crops. Further income for middle households may come from lending out camels or driving them themselves to collect and transport contraband across the borders or transport grain to the highlands; bush products, remittances and crop production account for a small proportion of this group’s annual income. Better-off households also sell some of the cereals they produce

Income from sales of livestock has more than doubled for the poor and tripled for the middle and better-off households in the new reference year. This is due to good rain in both seasons which led to improved livestock body condition, as well as the general increase in livestock prices. Despite the decline in availability of milk, increased milk prices meant that middle and better-off households earned more cash by selling less milk and ghee than in the old reference year. The poor benefited from increased income from the sale o f bush products; high demand for firewood and charcoal has meant higher prices in recent years. All households receive remittances at least once a year while the poor also obtain cash or gifts in kind/zakaat.

Expenditure Patterns Poor households spend most of their income on food (mostly sorghum) as their own production is insufficient for their needs. They have little left to spend on non-food essentials such as clothes, education, health, etc. Middle households spend proportionately less on food, better-off households spend significantly less on food; both middle and better-off households have otherwise similar spending patterns, being able to afford more on clothes, education, health, inputs, etc. They can also afford to make small investments irregularly (e.g., buying a small bull after selling a mature one).

In the new references year, expenditure items remained the same. The major change observed is the need for more cash to purchase similar items both in terms of quality and quantity. This is the result of the recent price hikes for all purchased items. Other expenditure mentioned in the new reference year is chat which was not significant in the old reference year.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Jilaal Dira’ (rains) Hagaa Karan (rains) Jilaal Land preparation Sowing Weeding Harvesting / transport to store Own cereal consumption Middle / Rich only All WG Purchase of cereals Poor All wealth groups Camel / cow milk availability Camel only (very low) High Lower Camel only (low) Livestock sales For food purchase Other purchase Bush product collection Migration Less

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Rainfall failure • Market shocks e.g., livestock ban • Insecurity/conflict • Environmental degradation (when high dependency on bush products) Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Controlling livestock breeding • Increase (and start earlier) livestock sales • Mixed cropping (maize/sorghum) and • Intensify bush product collection (poor and middle) varieties • Minimise consumption and reduce meals and expenses • Children sent to relatives; casual labour in sought in towns • Migration to better water/pasture (middle and better-off) • More remittances and pack animal rental (middle and better-off) • Reduce gifts (better-off)

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline The performance of the dira and karan rains determines whether a [NEW STUDY YEAR] year is considered normal, good or bad. The reference year 2006-07: Normal year normal migration 2005-06: Normal year selected was 1998, as it reflected the most recurrent situation Gu rain was good; livestock and cereal prices across all the agro-pastoral areas. start increasing [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] The new reference year is 2004/05. It is a normal year after 2004-05: Normal year consecutive bad years. It is therefore a year of recovery. Livestock returned to homesteads 2003-04: Bad year Reference/Normal Year Prices Very poor rains; high livestock mortality especially cattle; abnormal migration to Jijiga and approximate Terms of Trade 1998-99 2002-03; Bad year Very poor rains; severe shoat disease and Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) unknown camel disease [OLD STUDY YEAR] Terms of Trade: 2001 - Below average to average 1 local quality shoat = 15kg sugar and 50kg sorghum Dira rains poor; migration to Fafan and Oromia; Karan rains average but late; grain prices very low 2.5litres of milk = 1kg sugar; 1litre of milk = 1.5 kg of sorghum due to relief. Income from 1 trip camel rent = 60kg sugar and 220kg sorghum 2000: Below average year In the dry seasons shoats fetch less sorghum and sugar Dira rains very poor; livestock prices poor; cereal prices very high; migration to mountain areas for Prices (ETB): huluuleysi (Dambal); food aid brought down Local shoat = 65 cereal prices in April. Camel rent/trip = 300 1999: Poor year Migration to (Jijiga), Fafan, Babile etc. Low Milk/litre = 2 livestock prices, high grain prices, livestock Sugar/kg = 5 disease. Mass death of livestock, movement of Sorghum/50kg = 70 livestock to Gololcha. Conflict (Afar /Somali). [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] 1998: Average to good year Karan rains better than dira’; livestock condition good Reference/Normal Year Prices 1997: Very good year and approximate Terms of Trade 2004-05 Too much unexpected water in the jilaal; good Raton crop harvest Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) Exchange rate 1US$ = 8.65 ETB 1996: Average to good year Livestock condition good; reasonable harvests; Terms of Trade: no migration outside zone. 1 local quality shoat = 98 sorghum and 29 Kg sugar 1995: Average to good year Livestock condition good; reasonable harvests; 2 litres of camel milk = 1kg sugar; 1litre of milk = 1.78 kg of no migration outside zone. sorghum 1994: Very poor year Income from 1 trip camel rent = NA Rainfall, pasture very poor; livestock production In the dry seasons shoats fetch less sorghum and sugar poor; no crop production. 1993: Poor year Prices (ETB): Rainfall, pasture average but conflict / confusion Local shoat = 166 continued; insecurity due to clan conflict caused Camel rent/trip = NA migration and no crop cultivation. Milk/litre = 3 1992: Poor year Rainfall, pasture average; year after Derg regime Sugar/kg = 6 fell; insecurity due to unstable government, Sorghum/50kg = 85 which stimulated clan conflict, resulting in migration and no crop cultivation.

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations In almost all parts of this livelihood zone, the main limiting factor for successful cultivation is the capacity to farm as opposed to land access restrictions. Lack of oxen, collective labour, appropriate farm tools and capital are the elements that constrain the success of the farmers. Recommendations include:  Improved access to markets  Improved agricultural inputs by e.g., designing appropriate extension packages  Improved veterinary services  Development of conflict prevention and resolution systems

Shabelle Riverine Livelihood Zone (LZ4)

Fik Zone Geographical Features

Denan Djibouti • Climate arid with two rainy seasons: Gu

n W.Imey Gode Zone

o (main) rains (late March - late June); Deyr i

r Korahe Zone g Shinile

a Gode e E.Imey rains (mid-October - mid-December).

Af R J Adadle Kelafo • Average annual rainfall is 300mm. i Ferfer Mustahil • Encompasses all of Gode Administrative

Degahbur j a n i

o Fik Wiarder Zone of which 95% is grazing land. The i m g

ro g e GodKe orahe Afder Zone remainder is arable (irrigated and rain-fed), O R a Somalia AfderA of which 20% is currently under cultivation d Liban – mostly under irrigation along the river. a Kenya dl • The soil is clay (can be difficult to till), but e high in fertility due to regular flooding bringing rich alluvial soils from upstream.

Population and Geographic Coverage Zone Districts Rural Popn Popn in LZ-% Popn in LZ Gode Ferfer 33,961 45% 15,282 Mustahil 53,227 70% 37,259 Kalafo 88,156 70% 61,709 Adadle 17,046 10% 4,870 E.Imey 33,930 70% 23,751 Gode 95,647 25% 23,912 Afder W.Imey 40,383 75% 30,287 Total Popn in Shabelle Riverine LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn) = 5.1% 197,070 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: livelihoods depend mainly on crop production: principally maize (under irrigation on riverbanks) and sorghum (rain-fed). Livestock is also kept: cattle and goats (for milk and ghee consumption and sale), chickens (egg consumption) and donkeys (for transport). Livestock holdings are relatively low. Land: land is inherited. Availability of land is only limited very close to the river, where irrigation is easier. Land is individually owned but managed (for disputes or sale only, not usage) by the community. Crop production: most farmers practice controlled flood-recession using irrigation canals. Production largely depends on rainfall in the mountains to the north, which determines river water levels. Local rainfall is more important for pasture regeneration. Uncontrolled flood recession takes place about every 3 years, when the river level is higher than normal. Other crops cultivated include sesame, cowpeas, vegetables and fruit. Around Mustahiil and Kelafo, wealthier households have recently introduced onions as a cash crop, requiring pump irrigation and high inputs. This provides a useful new source of employment for the urban- based poor. Food, income and expenditure: maize production is the main food and income source. Cowpea and sesame sales are also important for middle and better-off households. Local agricultural labour is important for poor households. Income from livestock and its products is small. The main expenditure (particularly for poor households) is on cereals and sugar; wealthier households also spend a fair amount on agricultural inputs. Markets: main markets for sorghum are central and northern regions of Somalia; maize is sold within the region and to Hiran and Bakool, and sometimes Mogadishu. Sesame is sold locally (at Mustahil, Kelafo, Belet Weyne), where it is processed and sold as oil. Cowpeas are mainly sold locally. Vulnerabilities and responses: the river level is much more important than local rainfall, and the main risks are from extreme flooding and conflict. The area is also susceptible to crop pest infestation and 34 insufficient rainfall that leads to low river levels. Major coping strategies include the sale of livestock, reduced sale of staple crops and reduced expenditure on non-essential items.

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1999/00 and 2004/05. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1999/00 and 2004/05. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

Wealth Characteristics

1999/00 Poor Middle Better-off

Household size 7 6 8

Livestock holdings

Shoats 5 – 10 10 – 15 15 – 25 Cattle 1 – 3 3 – 5 7 – 10 Donkeys 1+ 1 – 2 1 – 2 Chickens 10 – 15 3 – 5 5 – 10 Land cultivated 0.5 – 1 1.5 – 3 3 – 4 (hectares) Th e major determinant of wealth is cultivated land ownership.

2004/05 Poor Middle Better-off Despite poor years between the two reference years the asset profile of households Household size 6-9 7-10 9-11 was not seriously affected, and has changed Livestock holdings: positively in terms of the number of cattle Shoats 5 – 10 10 – 15 15 – 25 owned by all households. Flooding in the new Cattle 3 – 5 6 – 10 10 – 15 reference year had an adverse affect on the Donkeys 1+ 1 – 2 2 – 5 area of land cultivated and amount of crops

Chickens 10 – 20 10 – 15 5 – 15 planted, but improved pasture and water Land cultivated 0.5 – 1 0.5 – 1.5 1 – 3 availability so households earned more income (hectares) from sales of livestock in the year.

Food Sources

All households gain most of their food from their own production of maize, sorghum, cowpeas and pumpkin. The poor consume about 65%, the middle 20% and the better-off 15% of their total cereal production and sell the remainder. All groups purchase sugar and oil; middle and poor households also purchase cereals, and the poor skimmed milk. The middle group obtain milk from their goats and camels, and the better-off obtain milk and ghee from cattle and goats, as well as some meat from

slaughtered shoats. The new reference year was a year of major decline in the contribution of own crops to households diet. Flooding was the main cause of decline in crop production. As a result all groups purchased more food to

35 compensate for the crop production losses though they were not able to fill the gap in annual food needs. Food aid was therefore received by all households regardless of their wealth status.

Sources of Income About half of poor households’ income is generated from crop sales (maize, cowpea, sesame). Most of this produce is sold soon after the harvest as cash is required (despite low prices at this time). Agricultural labour (weeding and land preparation in the rainy seasons) is the next most important cash source. The sale of three shoats and the collection and sale of wooden poles for construction are the remaining income-generating activities. Most of the middle wealth group’s income is generated by the sale of crops (maize, cowpea, sesame). A small amount of milk sales and agricultural labour for better-off households adds to the middle group’s income. The better-off rely principally on the sale of maize. They also sell cowpeas and sesame, five shoats and one cow, as well as whole and skimmed milk.

In the new reference year the impact of crop production loss reflected on the income of the poor and middle groups. These groups also suffered from lack of agricultu ral labour income which they would normally earn by working for better-off households. Therefore they concentrated more on the c ollection and sale of bush products than in normal years. All groups, however, have benefited from livestock sales as a result of the relatively higher prices per head in the new reference year.

Expenditure Patterns More than 50% of poor households’ income is spent on cereals and sugar. A significant 21% is spent on clothes, an item which could be sacrificed in a bad year. Medical costs and Koranic schooling account for a relatively small proportion of expenditure. Other items include household basics such as soap, salt and kerosene. A relatively small proportion of income is spent on food by the middle group, although it is still the highest household expense. Agricultural inputs - particularly agricultural labour - are an important expenditure for the better-off. The latter spend a similar proportion of income as the middle wealth group on household items. There was no change in the items purchased in the new reference year. Increases in the prices of goods and services have forced households to prioritise their needs. E xpenditure on food, household items and inputs has increased but on clothes, social services and others it has remained low or declined.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Qoraxeed Gu Hagaai Deyr Rainfall High Low Pasture / water availability Dry, poor quality pasture High quality pasture Livestock movement El fadisi: animals to Strong animals: wet graze home Pasture observation Human movement Bush activities – market Herder/son with animals Breeding Delivery Cattle Main Main 2nd 2nd Mating Shoat 2nd Main Main 2nd Livestock sales High Low Milk Production Decreasing to Low High and decreasing Decreasing to Low High and decreasing Cultivation Land Harvest Sow Weed Guard prep Dry season activities Gums, resins, poles

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Very high or low river levels • Insecurity and clan conflict • Plant diseases and pests • Low cereal market prices Main coping strategies • Increased livestock sales • Minimising expenditure • Labour migration

Indicators to Monitor  Rainfall  Crop production and stage  Market prices: Farm produce, cereals and crop residue  River levels  Infestation of crops, pests and diseases  Coping strategies; Degree to which resorted to  Human health and nutrition  Livestock: Mobility, health, condition, pasture  Market access  Extension services: Availability and effectiveness

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline 1999 - 2000 were particularly stable years compared to the 2006/2007: Gu 2 ; Deyr 3 serious drought that affected much of Gode Zone. 2000 was Flooding caused difficulties but was less than taken as the reference year. compared with the previous year 2004 - 05 is the new reference year. 2005/2006: Gu 3 ; Deyr 3 Flooding caused difficulties; support was Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in reported [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] Reference Year 1999-2000 2004/2005: Gu 3 ; Deyr 3 Flooding caused difficulties; some labour Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) migration. Terms of Trade: 2003/2004: Gu 2 ; Deyr 1 One bag (50kg) cowpea = 1.5bags maize Abnormal migration into neighbouring One bag maize = 0.75 bag maize from the market Regions One bag of cowpea / maize = 25kg / 11kg sugar 2002/2003: Gu1; Deyr 2 Prices (produced items) (ETB): Digging of ponds in and along the river Shoat = 50 bank; sale of more livestock at cheap prices Maize = 45/qt 2001/2002- Gu 2 ; Deyr 2 Milk = 1 More livestock sale with lower price;

Cowpea/50kg = 100 prolonged livestock out migration 2000/2001 [STUDY YEAR] Prices (purchased items) (ETB): Normal conditions/production for crops and Maize/50kg = 60 livestock; favourable prices and ToT. Sugar/kg = 4 [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] 1999/2000: Conditions, prices, ToT good. 1998/1999: Deyr 3; Gu 3 Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in Normal conditions.

Reference Year 2004-05 1997/1998: Deyr 2; Gu 1

Very poor Deyr; El Niño flooding and damage;

: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) Exchange rate 1US$ = 8.65ETB human and livestock diseases. Currency Terms of Trade: 1996/1997: Deyr 2; Gu 2 Flooding caused difficulties; some labour

1 local quality shoat = 101Kg of Maize and 24 Kg sugar migration.

2 litres of camel milk = 1kg sugar; 1995/1996: Deyr 5; Gu 4 In the dry seasons shoats fetch less sorghum and sugar Very good production and marketing conditions. Prices (ETB): Local shoat = 91 1994/1995: Deyr 3; Gu 2 Milk/litre = 3 Normal conditions in the Gu but damaging flooding in the Deyr. Sugar/kg = 6 1993/1994: Deyr 2; Gu 3 Maize /50kg = 45 = 90/qt Recovery year following the very difficult two previous years. 1992/1993: Deyr 1; Gu 1 Drought, conflict, displacement. 1991/1992: Deyr 1; Gu 1 Drought, conflict and returnees from Somalia

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Social infrastructure improvements, such as access to health, roads and education and permanent water sources  Developing and implementing conflict prevention and resolution systems  Development of sustainable Early Warning and response systems  Creating an environment of free trade (lifting of any existing restrictions for both livestock and other commodities trade) within and outside the country. The trade restrictions weaken the populations’ ability to cope with difficult economic conditions and seriously reduces their income options.

38 Lowland Hawd Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ5)

Do jibouti i

r g

Se hinil f Geographical Features

A eR n Somalia Jiji Danot

ga • Semi-arid plateau. Vegetation is mainly n a

i Degahb Bokh o i

m ur Warder browse (thick, thorny bush) with localised g Fik Warde

o e r Korahr e Sheygosh God grazing areas. O R Warder Afdee rA Kebridahar • Soil: mostly red and sandy (ciid) – rich in d Galadi Liba Somalia n a Danan Korahe ferrous oxide and absorbs water quickly, so Kenya dl E.Imey Gode Doboweinn limiting run-off and land degradation. e Gode Shilabo • Average annual rainfall is 150-200mm. Adadle Kelafo • The water table is very deep, making access MustaFherfer il difficult. Berkads and balleys (natural depressions) are therefore the most important water sources.

Population and Geographic Coverage Popn in the Administrative Zone Districts District’s Rural Popn % Popn in LZ LZ Warder zone Warder 105,311 100% 105,311 Danot 41,533 100% 41,533 Galadi 111,756 100% 111,756 Bokh 83,420 100% 83,420 Korahe zone Shilabo 46,138 100% 46,138 Kebridahar 115,491 40% 46,196 Gode Zone Ferfer 33,961 35% 11,886 Total Popn of Lowland Hawd Pastoral LZ as % of Regional Rural 11.6% 446,240 Popn = Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoralism - camels and sheep/goats (shoats) are dominant with sheep outnumbering goats; cattle are less common although there are concentrations in some areas. Land: Land is communal. Herd migration takes people further afield. Clan conflict rarely occurs. Migration: In a normal year shoats move within a 20-30km radius of the homestead, staying near water points. Camels may move up to 50-60km away. In the peak of either rainy season all livestock stay with the core family. As conditions become drier, pack and some lactating camels, small ruminants and cattle stay with the core family whilst the remaining herd (Horowein) goes to distant areas for better pasture. Food, income and expenditure: Food sources are purchased cereal, sugar and oil, and own livestock products. The sale of livestock is the main source of income; poor households also rely on the sale of milk, labour and bush products. Food is the main expense; poor households may also spend a lot on water. Markets: The local livestock market is small (but the Ethiopian military in this area provides an important local market for cattle); traditionally all main livestock markets here supplied the Gulf countries (via Somalia), but they have been severely affected by the Gulf livestock ban. There are shoat markets in all district towns. Both shoats and camels are traded in Burao and then again in Hargeisa to Berbera. Livestock is also traded through markets and ends up in Bosasso and Mogadishu in Somalia. Imported non-food comes mainly from Somalia. Sorghum and maize comes from Korahe and Gode. Employment: Poor households work between 90 and 100 labour days per year. The work available is mainly related to the construction of berkads and houses. Vulnerabilities and responses: Major risks are rainfall delay/failure and livestock market disruptions. Coping strategies include increased migration, livestock sales, slaughter of own animals and a reduction in expenditure.

39 Social services: There is very poor infrastructure and few health and education facilities in this area which is one of the most remote in the region. There are only twenty schools in the region. The only secondary school is in Warder Zone. Other issues: Environmental degradation is a problem in the west and in parts of Bokh and Galadi.

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1998/99 and 2005/.06. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1998/99 and 2005/06. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

Wealth Characteristics

1998/99 Poor Middle Better-off

Household size 5 – 7 7 – 9 8 – 11 Livestock holdings: Shoats 55 – 90 90 – 130 100 – 200 Camels 7 – 10 40 – 55 70 – 100 Pack camels 1 1 – 2 2 – 4 Donkeys 1 – 2 1 0

Berkads 0 1 1 – 2

Poor Middle Better-off Livestock ownership (camels and shoats) is the Household size 6 – 8 8 – 10 9 – 11 key determinant of wealth. Berkads are Livestock holdings: another important asset. The groups are interdependent upon each other on various Shoats 65 – 85 115 – 165 150 – 235 ways: the better–off depend on the poor to a Camels 9 – 13 45 – 60 85 – 105 large extent for supply of labour; the better-off Pack camels 1 1 – 2 2 – 4 and middle groups give gifts (cash, milk and Donkeys 1 1 1 ghee) to poor households.

Berkads 0 1 1 – 2

Household size has not significantly changed between the old and the new reference years. Shoat holdings have increased for the middle and better-off wealth groups but not for the poor. Facing limited options for accessing food and income, poor households are hugely dependent on livestock sales and thus constraining herd growth even in good years. Camel holdings have increased more for poor and middle households than for better-off households.

Food Sources

Food sources for all wealth groups are similar (cereal, sugar, oil, livestock products) but the proportions differ. Poor households depend more on purchased cereals; middle and better-off households depend more on livestock products. Gifts from middle and better-off households are a key food source for poorer households. Wild fruits are also consumed, particularly by poor households, in bad years. More milk is consumed during the wet seasons than the dry seasons. Although meat is available (for middle and better-off wealth group families), consumption on a regular basis is rare.

40 Livestock production accounts for 31 to 84% of food consumption for all wealth groups. In the new reference year this increased for middle and better-off groups but did not change for the poor. As a result, food purchases went down to 42% and 38% for the middle and better-off groups respectively. Food aid accounts for 11% of the total food needs of the poor. This is explained by the fact that the poor participate in food aid distribution more than the other groups and often walk long distances to obtain such food aid, especially if the distribution is not in their area.

Sources of Income The sale of livestock is the main source of income for all wealth groups; poor households also rely on sales of milk, providing labour, and the collection and sale of firewood and wild fruits. Middle and better-off households sell ghee, have the option of income from remittances and savings, and, in berkad areas, income from the sale of water. Income from milk sales goes up during the five months of the wet season, especially for poor households. During the dry season there is an increase in income from livestock sales - and in some areas water sales - for the middle and better–off, and wild fruit sales for the poor

In the new reference year livestock sales account for the largest proportion of income for all groups, followed by livestock product sales. Livestock sales account for 55, 58 and 57 percent of total income for poor, middle and better-off groups respectively. The third largest source of income for middle and better-off groups is from remittances. Bush product sales decreased as

the availability of bush products in areas close to urban markets decreased.

Expe nditure Patterns

Expenditure patterns are related to livestock holdings, assets and the household size of each of the wealth groups. Expenses rise in the dry seasons as milk production falls and more cereals have to be purchased. Poor households spend most of their income on the purchase of food items; buying water in berkad areas may be a significant expense. Middle and better-off households employ labour to herd livestock to areas of water/pasture.

Expenditure on food is the largest category in both the old and new reference years, accounting for 24-59 percent of the total. While expenditure on food has increased for the poor, it has slightly decreased for the other wealth groups in the new reference year. Expenditure on social services has increased for all wealth groups due to increase in the price of services and inputs (e.g. drugs). Expenditure on other items decreased for the poor to compensate for the increase in food purchase. It increased for the other wealth groups as they have better income flexibility.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Jilaal Gu Hagaai Deyr Rainfall High Low Pasture availability Dry, poor quality High quality Livestock movement El fadisi: animals to home Strong animals: wet graze Pasture observation/salt Human movement Bush activities – market Herder/son with animals Gestation Camel 12 months Breeding Delivery Cattle Main Main 2nd 2nd Mating Shoat 2nd Main Main 2nd Livestock sales High Low Milk Production Decreasing to Low High and decreasing Decreasing to Low High and decreasing Bush products Sale Collection Sale

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Drought • Livestock disease (limited vet services) • Market shocks (e.g., livestock ban) • Lack of income diversification • Poor government services and infrastructure • Isolation – high prices for imported commodities Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Herd species diversification and splitting • Extra animal sales • Slaughter of newborn livestock • Change in food consumption and cutting expenditure • Migration • Splitting the household • Diversification of income sources • Wild food consumption • Managing resources • Self-employment – collection/sale of bush products (firewood, incense, gum) • Livestock migration further afield • Community-funded water trucking to areas of good pasture

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline The old reference year was 1998: Gu and Deyr rains were below 2007 – Bad year [NEW STUDY YEAR] normal but overall conditions were good due to previous heavy Poor gu and very poor deyr rains; livestock migration; poor livestock market; high cereal prices; Deyr rains. increased insecurity; clan conflict. The new reference year is 2005. 2006 – Good year Below normal gu and very good deyr rains; plenty of milk and cheap cereal prices; no livestock Reference/Normal Year Prices migrations; livestock movements into this zone from and approximate Terms of Trade 1998-99 across the border with Somalia; clan conflict. 2005 - Below normal year Below normal gu and deyr rains led to limited Currency: Somali Shillings (SoSh); Exchange rate: 1 US$= internal livestock migrations; market problems and 13,250 SoSh water scarcity in some areas; clan conflict.

Terms of Trade: 2004 – Average year Goat (export quality) = 160,000 or 45kg sugar or 50kg Near normal gu and deyr rains; average livestock rice/wheat flour production and market conditions; livestock immigration from Somalia; no livestock migration Goat (local) = 120,000 or 35kg sugar or 40kg rice/wheat flour into areas outside the zone. Labour/day = 10,000 or 3kg sugar or 3.3kg rice/wheat flour 2003 – Average year Milk/litre = 1,500 or 2.5 litres/1kg sugar or 2 litres/1kg Normal gu and near normal deyr rains; livestock that migrated out of the zone last year returned; no rice/wheat flour water scarcity Prices (Sosh): Sugar/Kg = 3,500 2002 – Bad year Poor gu and deyr rains; water scarcity leading to Rice/Kg = 3,100 water tankering; increase in disease prevalence; Wheat flour/kg = 3,000 malnutrition; livestock out-migration. Water/200 litres (dry season) = 250,000 – 1m 2001 [OLD STUDY YEAR] Gu: Very poor rains; out-migration. 2000 Gu: Poor rains; in-migration; livestock ban imposed Reference/Normal Year Prices (Sept); large food aid from May/June. Deyr: Very poor rains. and approximate Terms of Trade 2004-5 1999 Gu: Very poor rains; drought starts. Currency: ETB. Exchange rate 1US$ = 8.65 ETB Deyr: Very poor rains in west, near normal in east; in-migration. Terms of Trade: 1 goat (local)=44kg rice/wheat, 35kg sugar 1998 [REFERENCE YEAR] Gu: Poor rains; normal conditions. Prices (ETB): Deyr: Normal rains; livestock ban (Feb – Sept). Goat (export quality) = 200 1997 Goat (local) = 175 Gu: Very good rains and conditions. Labour/day = NA Deyr: Heavy, good El Niño rains; no serious flooding or diseases. Milk/litre = 1.75-2.5 (camel) 1996 Prices (ETB): Gu: Normal rains and conditions. Deyr: Normal rains and conditions. Sugar/Kg = 5 1995 Rice/Kg = 4 Gu: Slightly below normal rains and conditions; Wheat flour/kg = 4 relatively high camel mortality (coughing disease). Deyr: Below normal rains (better in the east) and Water/200 litres (dry season) = 8 conditions. 1994 Gu: Normal rains and conditions. Deyr: Slightly below normal rains

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Improvement of livestock markets and livestock marketing, including support to cross-border livestock and commodity trade. Assist in marketing to mitigate negative effects of livestock export bans and other trade restrictions  Establishment of more permanent water sources as the entire livelihood zone currently has very few (mainly the Dollo deep wells and a few boreholes)  Promote the marketing of milk and other livestock products 43  Improve social services and infrastructure – animal and human health, education, extension services, transport and communication infrastructure. This will expand production possibilities and strengthen coping strategies  Provide soft loans for pastoral groups in order to benefit during the dry season when livestock prices are very low and it does not make economic sense to sell  Improve management of natural resources, especially grazing and water sources as the proliferation of berkads is causing environmental deterioration.

Degahbur Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ6)

Djibouti

n o Geographical Features i

r Shinil g a e Somalia Af R Jijiga zone • Three agro-ecological areas: Ararso area - Somalia Jijig higher northern flank, predominantly a Degahb maize-growing area. Jerer valley - south-

ur a n i Fik Warde

o central, less potential; sorghum only i m r g Korahe ro e God Gashamo grown. Faafan valley – Degahmadow O R Aware e A District, western flank; hills (good grazing Afder Degahbur d and browse) and plains, mainly sorghum Liba aSomalia Degahbur n and maize. Kenya dl Degahmad e ow • Main water sources: shallow wells dug in dry riverbeds of Jerer and Faafan; perennial Korahe zone F wells in Bulale and Degahbur town i k

Population and Geographic Cz overage o Zone District Ruranl Population LZ % of population Popn number in LZ e Degahbur Degahbur 103,666 70% 72,567 Dagahmadow 37,556 60% 22,533 Total Popn of Degahbur Agropastoral LZ % of Reg.rural Popn = 2.5% 95,100 Source: Population figures – 2007 Estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Agro-pastoralism: livestock - shoats, camel and cattle – and rain-fed and flood irrigated crop production (mainly sorghum, some maize). Water: Main sources of water are deep and shallow, hand-dug wells in the valleys; berkads in the north. Crop production: In the Ararso area maize is the predominant crop (due to the quellea-quellea birds which destroy sorghum). Sorghum is the predominant crop in the other areas. In the dry seasons crop residue is used as fodder for livestock. Livestock and migration: Households do not move far from their home areas / grazing lands in normal years; but in bad years there is substantial movement and periods of absence from home. Food, income and expenditure: The main food source is own crop production though poor households need to supplement this with food purchases and gifts. The main income sources are the sale of livestock, livestock products and crops; crop and livestock sales are more important for poor households. Poor households spend proportionately more on food. Markets: Degahbur is the most important market for livestock, livestock products, cereals, etc. and Jijiga market for vegetables. Since the Gulf livestock ban, Babile has taken over from Degahbur as the main market for cattle and camel. In difficult times markets in Jijiga Zone are used for cereal, sometimes Babile; populations in the south of the zone will resort to Korahe market. Employment: Apart from in the Birkot area, agricultural labour opportunities do not exist; the only labour opportunities are livestock herding and own farm labour. Vulnerabilities and responses: High dependency on animal rearing and small-scale rain-fed farming means relying on seasonal rains that are frequently insufficient. Key risks therefore include recurrent drought, water shortages, livestock export restrictions and market failure, and poor social services. Middle and better-off households have some income flexibility, but not enough to help in a crisis beyond the short-term. Social Services: Health, education, water provision and road infrastructure are all poor in this zone.

45 The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1996/97 and 2005/06. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1996/97 and 2005/06. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

Wealth Characteristics

1996-97 Poor Middle Better-off Household size 7 8 9 Livestock holdings: Shoats 20 50 80 – 100 Cattle 5 – 8 20 – 30 40 – 60 Camels 0 15 – 20 30 – 40 Donkeys 1 – 2 1 – 2 0 - 2 Land cultivated (in kodi) [in hectares in 2 – 3 4 – 5 6 – 8 square brackets] [0.4 – 0.6] [0.8 – 1] [1.2 – 1.6]

W ealth is determined by livestock ownership (all species) and amount of cultivable land owned. In the old reference year the poor constitute 30%, the middle 50% and the better-off 20% of total households in this zone. Land and livestock ownership generally increases across wealth groups. Camel ownership is restricted to middle and better-off households. The average household size is 7, 8 and 9 for poor, middle and better-off groups respectively.

2005-06 Poor Middle Better-off The wealth groups in which households had been categorised Household size 7-8 8-9 9-10 remained the same. Households in the Livestock holdings: poor, middle and better-off groups Shoats 40 – 60 60 – 80 70 – 130 accounted for 35%, 45% and 20% of Cattle 3 – 4 7 – 20 25 – 33 total households respectively, thus Camels 0 – 2 20 – 25 35 – 50 showing a 5% shift from the middle to Donkeys 1 1 – 2 0 - 2 the poor compared with the previous reference year. There are also changes Land cultivated in the amount of different assets (hectares) 0.4 – 0.7 1.0 – 1.5 1.8 – 2.0 owned by households and the criteria used by the community to characterise Despite the droughts, the average number of shoat holdings and define wealth groups also changed increased. This can be attributed to their short reproduction time during the new reference year. (more than one conception per year) in recovery years, resistance In all wealth groups, cultivable land, to droughts (particularly goats) and relative ease in restocking after camel and shoat ownership has droughts with individual household resources and/or other social significantly increased while ownership support. In addition, all groups increased their amount of of cattle has decreased. The increase cultivable land to offset the production losses caused by drought in average camel holdings is mainly and also to grow fodder for livestock as a means of coping with attributed to changes their herd livestock fodder stresses. The number of cattle owned by composition in favour of more households’ significantly decreased due to high mortality rates in drought resistant animals which can drought years and households deciding to convert to more cope with pasture and water stresses drought resistant animals such as camel. due to frequent droughts occurred in the area since the old reference year.

Food Sources

All the wealth groups in this zone have similar food sources - own crops, staple and non-staple purchases, and milk and ghee. Own crop production is the most important food source for all wealth groups but in different proportions. In a normal year, poor households purchase the highest quantity of cereals,

while better-off households do not purchase any. Poor households receive a significant amount of food in gifts.

I n the new reference year the contribution of own crops cultivated for households’ annual food significantly decreased among all wealth groups. This is because of a decrease in average crop productivity and total production (despite an increase in the area of land cultivated), changes in average household size and the i ncrease in individual food requirement from 1900 to 2100kcal per person per day. The share of livestock p roducts, on the other hand, increased for all households. The change to more livestock product consumption i s mainly attributed to an increase in camel and shoat holdings (resulting in increased milk production) and a r eduction in the sale of livestock products in favour of consumption among middle and better-off households. T he contribution of purchased food has increased for all wealth groups. The share of cereals purchased d ecreases up through the wealth groups while that of sugar increases with wealth. Food aid (a new source of f ood during the new reference year) contributed significantly to household consumption across all wealth g roups, though the level of contribution from this decreases as wealth increases.

Sources of Income

In the old reference year income sources for the three wealth groups are similar and only differ in proportion. They are: sale of livestock, livestock products and crops. Crop and livestock sales are more important for poor than better-off households, because the latter get relatively more income from the sale of milk and milk products (ghee). The poor sell crops because they need the

cash, not because they produce surplus.

In. the new reference year the absolute income from crop sales increased slightly for all households mainly because of significant increases in price. Income from livestock sales increased while that of livestock products decreased for middle and better-off households. This is due to significant increases in livestock prices and a high reduction in the quantity of livestock products sold to off-set the significant price increase. On the contrary, poor households’ income from livestock sales slightly decreased while that of livestock products significantly increased. This is due to higher reduction in the number of livestock sold despite price increases to the level that more than off-sets the gain from price changes. The significant increase in income from livestock products for the poor, on the other hand, can be attributed to increases in price and quantity, particularly with their practice of selling goat butter. Poor households also obtained income from new sources like the collection and sale of bush products.

Expenditure Patterns The expenditure pattern of all wealth groups is also similar except that better-off households do not purchase staple cereals in a normal year (as do the two other wealth groups) since their harvest is sufficient for their needs. The poor spend a relatively higher proportion of their money on food purchases. The common items on which all the different wealth groups spend include non-staple purchases (sugar, tea leaves, and salt), social services (education, clan taxes, zakaat (religious gifts from rich to poor) and human medicines), household items (clothes, soap, etc.) and veterinary drugs (inputs). 47

Total household expenditure across all wealth groups has significantly increased largely because of the general increase in the prices of most items

since the old reference year. Moreover, expenditure on new items, including oil (under the non-staple food/others category) to some extent contributed to the increase in total expenditure. Expenditure on food, household items, clothes, social services and inputs remain parts of total expenditure for households across all wealth groups, despite some variation in their respective share of this expenditure.

Seasonal Calendar

Gu Hagaa Deyr Jilaal Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Rainfall Pasture Survey Land preparation / ploughing Sowing / Weeding Harvest Milking All Camel and cattle Camel Milk selling High Low Migration for grazing Wet Dry Cereal purchase

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Recurrent drought or extreme water shortages – reduce livestock production, cause mortality and crop failure • Livestock export restriction and general market shocks – heavy dependency on livestock sales thus reduces income • Animal and human disease - exacerbated by poor health and veterinary services and high mobility of animals • Deforestation and environmental degradation as a result of sedentarisation – leading to rangeland shrinkage • Poor transport and communication infrastructure – hinders market access and assistance in times of crisis Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Economic diversification – keep all • Livestock sale (small animals first) livestock species (except poor • Long distance livestock migration for water and pasture; households who do not own camels) and household splits except in severe conditions when entire plant crops families move • Water harvesting and conservation • Slaughtering animals for household consumption • Wealthier households store food grains • Reducing food consumption and can make savings (in asset form) in • Wild food consumption (scarcer in recent years) good years • Seeking support from relatives/sub-clan members (sending • Cultivation of drought-tolerant and early children to wealthier relatives or other forms of maturing varieties of crops assistance) • Seeking relief assistance

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline 1996 was identified as the reference year; it was also defined as a ‘normal’ 2006-2007 (STUDY YEAR) year with above normal Gu rains and below normal Deyr rains. Pasture Below average gu and good deyr rains. 2005-06 (REFERENCE YEAR) and crop production were good. Good livestock market prices except for Near normal gu and good deyr rains. camels that had ‘Gororduf’ disease. Plenty of pastures after the deyr. 2004 – 2005 Gu and Deyr: Rainfall failure; massive Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in Reference livestock mortality; food/water shortage. 2003 – 2004 Year 1996/97 & 2005/06 Gu: below normal rains, l/stock prodn. Near normal l/stock prices. Currency: Main currency in 1996/97 was the Somali Shilling (SoSh). Deyr: Normal/good rains, l/stock prodn and market. Main currency in 2005/06 is ETB 2002 - 2003 1996/97 2005/06 Gu: Normal rains, l/stock prices; good Currency: Ethiopian Birr pasture, l/stock prodn. Currency: Somali Shilling (Sosh) Deyr: poor rains, pasture, l/stock Exchange Rate: One Ethiopian Birr Exchange Rate: US$1 = 8ETB prodn = SoSh 1,000 Prices (ETB): 2001 – 2002 [OLD STUDY YEAR] Prices (SoSh): Purchased items - Deyr: Poor rains; Gu: v poor rains; (purchased items) Maize = 150/qt Poor pasture, no crop production. Food Sugar = 5.5/kg aid suspended. Maize/qt = 100,000 2000 – 2001 Sugar/kg = 6,000 Deyr: v poor rains; crop and pasture Sold items - failure (produced items) Shoat = 150-190 Gu: normal; food aid so ToT good Sorghum/qt = 80,000 Maize = 125/qt 1999 – 2000 Sheep/goat = 110,000 Milk/litre = 1.25-1.50 Deyr and Gu: drought; very scarce Butter/kg = 22.50 pasture, crop failure; out migration to Milk/litre = 600 Somali and Oromia regions; very high Terms of Trade (average): Terms of Trade (average): mortality (livestock and human). 1 shoat = about 110kg maize or about 1 shoat = about113Kg maize or 1998 – 1999 Deyr: v poor rains, pasture, 18kg sugar. Terms of trade are better about 31kg sugar (highest during production. during wet seasons and lower in dry the wet season) Gu: poor rains but food and pasture seasons. near normal; no crop production. 1997 – 1998 Deyr: very good rains, pasture and

crop production.

Gu: normal rains, pasture and crop production; army worm outbreak. Indicators to Monitor 1996 – 1997 [REFERENCE YEAR]  Rainfall: Seasonal follow-up of the rainfall distribution and amounts Deyr: poor rains, crop production. Gu: good rains, pasture and crop  Markets: Supply, livestock and cereal prices (seasonal); status of the production; good livestock market international market except camel; camel mortality due to out break of gororduf.  Crop performance: Crop situation, stand, diseases and pests, and crop 1995 – 1996 stage Deyr and Gu: Poor rains, pasture,  production. Insecurity - clan conflict. V Pasture/water situations for livestock: Seasonal water and pasture in the poor livestock market. important grazing points for livestock; what alternative pastures are available?  Livestock migration patterns: As above  Human / livestock diseases: Any outbreaks of human and/or livestock diseases  Security: Particularly clan conflict – who, why and effect on food security  Coping mechanisms: Which ones are being employed, the degree of resorting to and effectiveness  Situation of IDPs: Food/water availability, shelter, attempts to rehabilitate; by who/what organisation or governmental body; possible impact on food security among host community(ies)

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Improved extension services for both crop and livestock production  Improve human health and veterinary services, transport and communication facilities  Improve marketing and market information systems and put in place procedures for both local and international trading that make it easy to sell livestock and purchase other commodities;  Rehabilitation of IDPs by assessing their needs first  Facilitate effective rural-based savings and credit systems  Improve grain storage facilities to enhance grain storage during harvests or in times when there is no emergency in order to have grain available at affordable prices during emergencies and at other critical times  Institute measures to curb land degradation, preferably with community participation.

Afder Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ7)

Dji bout n o

i r i g a f She inil A e R Somalia Geographical Features Jijiga

Two distinct agro-ecological areas:

a Degahb n i o i m Fi ur Warde g o r e O R k r The ‘highland’ area (Gora-damole, Goro-bagagsa, parts of GodKorah • e e A Guradam Afde ole El Karre) - typical vegetation thick, thorny bush; r d W.Imi Liba aSomalia Goro Elkar Kn enya d Baqaqsa e • Semi-arid lowlands (Barey, Harghelle, Dolo-Bay, Charati, Afder le Chera Harg West Imey) - typical vegetation open shrub and grassland ti elle Barre y areas. Dolo bay • The zone has three rivers running through it: the Ganale Afder pastoral FEZ (camel, shoats) Dawa/Ganale Riverine FEZ (maize, and Shabelle Rivers are permanent; the Wayb is seasonal. sAhgoraotps,a cstaotrtalel )G r oups with in Afder Zone

Population and Geographic Coverage

Admin Zone Districts Rural popn % in LZ No. people Afder zone Hargelle 69,536 80% 55,629 Barey 84,909 85% 72,173 Dolobay 76,009 60% 45,605 Charrati 69,713 75% 52,285 Elkare 34,409 30% 10,347 Gorobaqaqsa 26,043 60% 15,626 Guradamole 92,277 90% 83,050 West Imey 40,383 25% 10,096 Gode zone Adadle 48,704 65% 31,658 Total population of Afder pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 9.8%) 376,469 Population figures - 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoralism: livestock production: mostly sheep/goats (shoats), camels (important) and cattle. Salt farming is also important as it provides a safety net (in the form of labour) for poor households. Land and water: Land to farm salt can only be afforded by middle and better-off households. The water in Gud-usbo area is too saline for consumption; potable water is expensive. Migration: Livestock migration is normally within Afder zone. Herds are split: the strong (horoweyn) move long distances in the dry season, leaving behind the vulnerable (nugul). Camels are taken far from the household in the dry season to higher land where grazing is available and there are permanent water points. Cattle move in the wet season to graze areas with seasonal water sources and in the dry season they return close to homesteads. Food, income and expenditure: Food purchases and own production of milk and ghee are the main food sources. Sales of livestock and livestock products are important for all groups, particularly middle and better-off households. Milk sales also increase with wealth. Bush products are collected and sold mainly by the poor; all wealth groups collect and sell gums and resins. Most expenditure is on food (water can also be expensive), but the better-off who can afford to restock livestock have considerable flexible income. Vulnerabilities and responses: Major risks include animal diseases, severe drought, high prices for staple foods, insecurity, decline in markets for livestock, gums/resins and salt, border closure and the Gulf livestock ban. Coping strategies include distant migration with animals; ‘attaching’ small herds to larger herds; reduced consumption; reduced spending on non-essential items; and splitting the household (in extremely hard times). 51 Markets: The main markets (livestock, grain, non-food) are Cherati, Dolo-Addow and West Imey within Somali Region, and Mandera (Kenya) and El Berde (Somalia). The main market for salt is the Ethiopian highlands. Employment: In the dry period poor households may sell water and engage in other self-employment activities. In difficult times young men from poor households work as labourers on salt farms. Other issues: There has been an increase in salt demand due to the lack of port access (Ethio-Eritrean war in 1999), road improvements (Gode/Negele and Gode-Harghelle), and an increase in good security which makes transportation easier. The main constraint is the local road to the salt plain which requires improvement. Growth in the salt trade has led to a growth in the size of God-usbo town.

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1998/99 and 2004/05. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1998/99 and 2004/.05. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

W ealth Characteristics

1998/99 Poor Middle Better-off

Household size 6 – 8 6 – 8 6 – 8 Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets):

Shoats 25 (4) 60 (10) 90 (15) Cattle 5 (2) 12 (3) 25 (4) Camels 7 (2) 17 (3) 45 (4)

Donkeys 1 1 – 2 1 – 2

Wealth within this zone is determined by livestock holdings, particularly camel and shoats. Relationships between the wealth groups are key to survival – irmansi or lending of milking animals during good years is an important part of the symbiotic relationship between rich and poor.

In the new reference year livestock

holdings increased for all wealth groups. 2004/05 Poor Middle Better-off Household size 6 7 8 – 9 There is no record of any adverse conditions affecting the zone since Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets): 1999/00 and there have been favourable Shoats 20-38 (6-7) 55-95 (7-8) 100-200 (0) conditions for herd growth. 2005/06 -

Cattle 6-10 (2) 10-20 (3-4) 30-50 (5) the year immediately after the new Camels 3-5 (1) 30-40 (4) 60-80 (7) reference year - was a poor year as a result of below normal rains and trade Donkeys - – – restrictions that negatively impacted the livelihoods of the people.

Food Sources During the old reference year food purchases were the main source of food for poor and middle households, followed by their own livestock products (milk for poor and milk and ghee for middle households). For poor households, wild foods also contribute a small amount. The main food source for better-off households is milk production (milk and ghee), followed by purchases of staple and non-staple foodstuffs. The better-off also typically contribute a couple of milking camels and one milking cow to poorer relatives as irmansi.

In the new reference year, the contribution of livestock products to household food has remained more or less

the same for poor and middle wealth groups showing a slight increase (about 10%) for the better-off

households (replacing food purchases). Purchases have

decreased for all households and have been replaced by food aid and gifts for poor households, and a small

amount of food aid to middle households.

S ources of Income In the old reference year, the sale of livestock products was the most important source of income, followed by sale of livestock, for all wealth groups. The sale of bush products is not significant, except for poor households where it is an important source of income in the dry season. The poor also engage occasionally in water-selling and self-employment during the dry season, but this is not usual in a normal year. In bad years young men migrate to God-usbo salt production area to work as labourers during the dry season. Under optimal conditions 30 quintals of salt can be produced each week from one salt farm.

A shift from sales of livestock products to live animal sales has been observed in the new reference year. In addition to the increased herd size per household, the rising livestock price has benefited households since they earned relatively higher cash income by selling the same number of animals as in the old reference year.

Expenditure Patterns Households from all wealth groups spend most on the purchase of food. Wealthier households can afford more in the way of inputs, social services (Koranic schooling, health, clan tax, etc.) and gifts. Better-off households can also afford significant restocking and have an additional Sosh 1 million ‘flexible’ cash. Households in God-usbo pay 6 birr for every 20 litres of brackish water taken from the river 30km away.

Despite the decline in the contribution of purchased food to household diets, expenditure on food has increased both proportionally and in absolute terms in the new reference year. This could be attributed to recent price increases in staple food and livestock.

Seasonal Calendar

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Seasons Deyr Jilaal/Qorahxeed Gu Hagaai Rainfall High Low High Low Pasture availability High quality Low quality Grazing area survey Movement Horoweyn / men: dry grazing Animals/humans in home area Milk Production/price Low production; high price High production; low price Watering animals Approx. 1 person / herd Approx. 3 people / herd Livestock sales/price Low sales; high price High sales; low price Cereal purchase High Low Cereal price High price Low price Bush products

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Disease outbreaks • Conflict over land/resources: rare nowadays, but this can result in unexpected and forced migration • Degradation of natural resources; overgrazing (excessive animal numbers) • Border closure: loss of marketing opportunities across the border • Confiscation of livestock by border authorities (customs) because the borders are officially closed. Main risk-minimising Main coping strategies strategies • Controlling mating The strategies listed below are mostly employed by poor households, though in • Herd splitting severe times also by wealthier groups. Wealthier groups can also take back • Storage of fodder irmansi animals and are more able to access credit and loans from traders. • Food storage (for those • Maximising income generation – usually collection and sale of bush who can afford to buy in products bulk and pay for storage) • Protecting animal assets (adding livestock to herds of better-off households; slaughter of young, weak livestock offspring) • Exploiting wild foods • Increased livestock and livestock product sales • Change in food consumption: more sugar is consumed, oil and meat are not eaten; relief food often available at cheap prices. • Reducing spending on non-essentials e.g., clothes, health • Seeking remittances from relatives locally or overseas • Splitting the household: the man may go to work at the salt farms whilst wife and children move to relatives in town where they find labour/self- employment

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline 1998/1999 was defined as the reference year as through 2006/2007 [NEW STUDY YEAR] Deyr: Good rains discussions with communities it was described as a normal year. 2005/2006 2004/05 was a normal year Gu: above average, Deyr: poor rains, trade restrictions 2004/2005[NEW REFERENCE YR] Good rains both seasons Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in 2003/2004 1998/99 [Old Reference Year] Deyr ‘03: below normal, Gu ‘04: good rains 2002/2003 2004/05 (New Reference Year) Deyr ‘02: below average to normal rains, Gu ‘03 normal rains 2001/2002 Currency: Somali Shilling [SoSh]/(ETB) Below average to normal rains 2000/2001 [OLD STUDY YEAR] Exchange rate: 1US$ = [15,000 SoSh](8.64 ETB) Poor rainfall and pasture; out-migration; Terms of Trade: 1 shoat = 50kg cereal(81kg) low terms of trade 1999/2000 Prices (SoSh/ETB): Extremely poor pasture; migration out of Shoat = [75,000 – 95,000] (100-110) zone; livestock diseases; livestock ban; Milk/litre = [1,000 – 2,000] (1.5-2 Birr – Camel) deyr rain failure; poor gu rains; men and livestock sent to war Cereals/kg=[1,200 – 1,500] (1.25-1.4) 1998/1999 [OLD REFERENCE YR] Sugar/kg = [4,500] (8) Good rainfall in both seasons; enough pasture; good milk yields and terms of trade 1997/1998 Torrential deyr rains (El Niño flooding); good pasture. Normal gu rains; livestock disease outbreaks.

1996/1997 Indicators to Monitor Deyr rainfall failure; very poor gu rains; poor market access; very poor pasture;  Rainfall: Distributions, sufficiency migration within zone.  Migration: Patterns – who, from where, magnitude 1995/1996 Deyr rain failure and poor pasture until gu  Coping strategies: Degree of resorting to rains; normal gu rains; migration within  zone; limited marketing; camel cough Market prices: Cereals, livestock, bush products, terms of trade 1994/1995  Human and livestock diseases Very good deyr rains; good gu rains; very good pasture; high milk yields; no  Environmental changes migration; favourable terms of trade 1993/1994 Deyr rain failure, poor gu rains; poor pasture; livestock losses; mass migration; low terms of trade; no market access; Oromo/Somali conflict 1992/1993 Good rainfall in both seasons; good pasture, water and terms of trade 1991/1992 No rainfall in both seasons; no pasture, no animal production; widespread animal diseases and mortality; migration out of zone; returnees back from Somalia; Derg overthrown

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Establish and manage community and private grazing areas and enclosures  Construct cemented birkads / wells in dry season reserves where pasture is available but no water; to be located and managed by communities  Improve access to livestock health facilities: pharmacies, para-vet training, scouts  Pasture reseeding programmes using aerial means – i.e., alfalfa  Early Warning System with information on pasture availability and prices  Infrastructure improvements  Run-off water is currently wasted: develop water catchment systems for when rains cause flooding 55  Livestock marketing opportunities would be improved by the opening of the Somalia/Ethiopia and Kenya/Ethiopia borders for free trade  Working towards the lifting of the livestock ban and take measures to avoid further bans  Improving access to grain by means of grain banks, market support and improvement of roads  Contingency planning

56 Dawa-Ganale Riverine Livelihood Zone (LZ8)

n o Djibi outi

g Oromiya Geographical Features e r a f ShinR il Region Afder A Somalia e Zone • Predominantly lowland (200m above sea Filtu level), except for small hills around Suftu. n Jijiga

i Degah Altitude increases towards Filtu. a g i

e bur m Fik Ward Liba o • Semi-arid; temperature range 35°C - 40°C. r R

O Koraehr Dolo Ado Gode Moyale n e Annual rainfall less than 200mm. A Afde d • Soil: sandy in pastoral areas, loam by rivers. r Liba aSomalia Kenya Vegetation: drought-resistant bushes and Kne nya dl e acacia in pastoral areas, fruit trees and geedcadey (toothbrush tree) along rivers. • The Ganale River (permanent) and the Dawa River (seasonal) merge near Dollow Ado to form the Juba River. There are also seasonal underground streams suitable for flood-recessional farming. • Shoats graze along the Ganale River; cattle are predominant along the Dawa River.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Admin Zone Districts Rural Popn % in LZ Popn in LZ Liban zone Filtu 117,822 5% 5,891 Dolo-ado 153,554 60% 92,132 Afder Hargelle 69,536 20% 13,907 Dolo-bay 76,009 30% 22,803 Cherati 69,713 25% 17,428 Total Popn of Dawa-Ganale Riverine LZ (as % of Reg. rural Popn = 4%) 152,161 Source: Population Figures – 2007 Estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Irrigated farming; livestock numbers (sheep/goats (shoats) and a few cattle) are small. Maize (food/cash) is the main crop in riverine areas, sorghum in rain-fed areas. Land: Irrigated land currently extends 144km along the Dawa and 80km along the Ganale rivers. Land ownership is important. Only areas unsuitable for cultivation or irrigation are un-owned or unoccupied. Crop production: In a bad year maize is cut early for fodder but in a normal year maize has a higher return. In a normal year average yield per hectare per season is an estimated 30 quintals (3,000 kg). Vegetables and fruit are grown mainly as cash crops (tomato, onion, banana, papaya and mango). Food, income and expenditure: Food sources: own crop production and purchase of staple and non- staple foods; livestock products are significant for wealthier households. Income: sale of crops (especially the better-off), milk, livestock, and bush products (especially the poor); also some labour at harvest and weeding times. Expenditure for poor households is principally on food. Middle and better-off households can afford to send more children to school, and the better-off also incur expenses paying for labour at weeding time. Markets: The main market for shoats, cereal, fruits, and vegetables is Dollow Ado. From there traders sell onwards to Mandera market. The Dawa river is better placed for the Kenya fruit, vegetable and milk market, but when it dries up farmers on the Genale exploit the gap in onion and tomato supply. Vulnerabilities and responses: Main risks relate to pump irrigation: access to fuel or pump breakdown. Droughts can be weathered with irrigation. Better-off households can minimise risks by storing their harvest; pump-owners spread the risk by having pumps in both rivers. Coping mechanisms for middle and better-off households consist mainly of increasing livestock sales. Poor households increase agricultural labour, bush product collection and (in more severe times) migration to urban areas for water sales, domestic work and relief food. Social services: access to education is limited for poor households.

57 The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 2001/2 and 2003/04. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 2001/02 and 2003/04. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

W ealth Characteristics

2000 - 01 Poor Middle Better- (Burjuwasi) off Household size 7 7 7 Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets) Shoats 3 - 7 (2) 20 - 30 (6) 50 - 80 (12) Cattle 0 - 3 (0 – 1) 3 - 7 (2) 2 – 5 (4) Donkeys 0 – 1 1 – 2 0 – 3 Chickens 0 – 4 0 0 Land cultivated 0.3 ha 0.25 0.3 Rain-fed land 2 ha 3 ha 5 ha +

The largest group is the ‘landless’ labourer or ‘burjuwasi’. These households do in fact own land but it is rain- fed and as such not productive in most years. Their assets are few; with no productive land and very small animal holdings they are almost completely dependent on production from leased farmland. The middle and better-off groups own increasingly larger numbers of animals and they own irrigated land.

2003 - 04 V. poor Poor Middle Better-off The percentage of households in each wealth group remained within Household size 6 7 8 10 the same range between baseline years. However, wealth groups Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets) have been re-classified into four Shoats 9 - 12 (2) 17 - 28 (3) 30 - 45 50 - 70(12) groups by dividing the poor into Cattle 0 - 2 1 - 5 (1) (7) 10 -16 (4) ‘very poor’ and ‘poor’. This re- Donkeys (0.5) 1 5 - 9 (2) 3 Chickens 1 - 2 - classification has been required to 3 - help target various interventions to Land cultivated - 0.5 - 2 1 - 3 1 - 3 the correct beneficiaries.

Very poor households are characterised by complete landlessness while the poor own some rain-fed plots which are less productive. The very poor receive crop shares through providing labour for the better-off and middle wealth groups. Increases in herd size were observed during the new reference year. Unlike the other livelihood zones in Somali region, this zone was not affected by the drought of 1999/2000. Moreover, no adverse conditions have affected the zone in the years between the old and the new reference years.

Food Sources All wealth groups consume their own cereal production; better-off and middle households consume all of it, whereas poor households have to sell about 30%. Middle, and in particular poor households, also have to purchase cereals, although in a normal year poor households may also obtain grain in return for work during the threshing period. Apart from non-staple needs, all households consume some of their own milk products.

In the new reference year the contribution of own crops to household food has increased for the poor whereas a slight to significant decrease has been observed for middle and better-off households respectively. This, according to key informants, is as a result of increased use of fodder for feeding animals in recent years. Livestock is fed immature crops and then either sold or its products sold – the latter are much better cash earners than agricultural crops which fetch relatively low prices.

Food aid was generally distributed across all wealth group s but contributed a relatively higher amount for very poor and poor groups (this could be attributed to their relatively lower numbers of household members). Purchases remained more or less the same for poor and middle households. The better-off wealth group purchased more food compared to the old baseline year due to decreased production of crops as a result of more use of fodder for livestock than crops after harvest.

Sources of Income In the old reference year the three wealth groups all had different principal sources of income: poor households relied mainly on the sale of bush products (poles and palm for construction and firewood), though crop sales were also important. Middle households relied on the sale of milk products, crops (maize, fodder, tomatoes, onions)

and bush products in roughly equal proportions. Crop sales were the most important source of income for better-off households, though milk products were also significant, as were livestock sales. Poor and middle households sold only a very small quantity of livestock; poor households also obtained some income from agricultural labour.

In the new reference year the pattern of income generatio n has changed for all households in the livelihood zone. The contribution of crop sales has almost disappeare d whereas there is growing importance of income from sales of livestock and livestock products. Cash in.c ome from sales of bush products has declined significantly due to the scarcity of such resources near villag es.

Expenditure Patterns In the old reference year the poor spent the biggest proportion of their income on food purchases (cereals and non-staple). They could afford for one child to go to school as well as clan tax and health costs. Their input costs included tax on crops or livestock sold in the market, and cart rental (for selling bush products). Middle and better-off households spent the largest proportion of their income on non-staple food (meat, oil, sugar). Middle households could afford to send two children to school, and they also incurred cart rental costs. Better-off households sent three children to school, and paid for labour during the weeding period.

In the new reference y ear patterns of expenditure remained similar for all wealth groups. However, in line with the changes in contribution of own food crops to household food, and the general decline in total income, some adjustments on expenditure can be observed in the different wealth groups. Among these are increased expenditure on food by better-off households, a general decline of expenditure on items such as clothes, social services and inputs, and a decrease in cash flexibility.

Seasonal Calendar

Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Seasons Gu Hagaa Deyr Jilaal Rainfall Highest Less than Gu Land preparation and maize planting Harvesting/threshing/storage/sale Bird/predator scaring Vegetable production Cultivation Harvest / sale Fodder production (river/s) Sale (Ganale) Production (both) Sale (both) Production (Ganale) Cereal purchase / livestock sales Crop/fodder sale Milk production 2 – 3 litres/cow/day 1 – 1.5 litres/cow/day Bush products collection

The ‘Burjuwasi’ Sharecropping System The ‘Burjuwasi’ system brings together the following groups into Fiqow (along the Dawa River) is an a tri-partite agreement: exceptional production area thanks to a • Land owners – who offer the large part of their land to a large 6-piston government pump (managed pump owner in return for water co-operatively). Farmers here cultivate • The Pump owner – who takes on labourers to cultivate the larger plots of land, and fruit production is land on a sharecropping basis important. Instead of the ‘burjuwasi’ • The sharecropping labourers (‘burjuwasi’) – who have no land system they cultivate the land using along the river of their own, are relatives of either the pump labourers who are paid in cash and given owner or the landowner. They give half their crop food. The richer land owners give land to production to the pump owner. poorer relatives with free irrigation.

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Drought: since the poor are sharecroppers more risk is borne by pump owners. They suffer with good rains because their labourers concentrate on rain-fed farming on their own land; in a very bad year they also suffer because they invest large sums of money and returns are often less • Deforestation and environmental degradation: this will result in a scarcity of bush products in the future • Conflict: the main risk is an overflow of insecurity from Somalia. Potential for conflict also exists over access to the river between farmers and pastoralists • Crop disease: this is a common problem and all groups are affected • Human disease (especially malaria): the ‘Burjuwasi’ agreement depends on labour in good health • Border closure (infrequent) • Lack of fuel, pump failure, etc. Each pump owner employs at least fifty families to work the land irrigated by each pump. Most fuel comes from Somalia (cheaper), so problems with supply are most likely in times of insecurity in Somalia. • Flooding: this is good for the landowners, bad for fruit trees except mango, bad for pump owners, good for the ‘burjuwasi’ who cultivate their own rain-fed land and can abandon agreements to share their crop. Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • The better-off stock grain until the next Middle and better-off households tend to increase livestock harvest. Some purchase grain when it is sales. Poor households may carry out the following strategies: cheap to sell later when the price increases. • Increase in number of household members undertaking Grain stores can keep grain in good agricultural labour over and above work for the share- condition for several years. cropping agreement. In a bad year, and dry seasons, • Fodder is tied into trees for storage there is often work available digging shallow wells • Risk for the burjuwasi is offset by the pump • Bush product collection can be intensified in a bad year owner as they have no input costs. The • Migration (severe times) to urban areas (especially pump owners often have pumps in both Mandera) for water sales, domestic work and food aid. rivers, and they employ many burjuwasi. • Consumption (human/livestock) of barde tree root.

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline Irrigation only began in 1996; it seems production potential has 2006-07 [NEW STUDY YEAR] Deyr: Very good rain, sufficient water and pasture; not yet been realised. 2000/2001 was the study year: despite no migration; production severely damaged by successive failed rainy seasons for the rest of the region, this flood and pest attack. zone had average production and below-average rains. Gu: no rains; livestock migration to Filtu. Irrigation from the river supplemented rainfall. 2005-06 Both Gu and Deyr season rainfall below normal; livestock diseases; crop pests and shortage of Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in pasture cause abnormal livestock migration. 2004-05 Reference Years 2000/1 & 2003/4 Deyr: rainfall below normal and poor Gu: livestock disease; insufficient intervention. Currency: The main currency in 2000/01 was the Kenya 2003-04 [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] Shilling (KSh). The Somali Shilling (SoSh) and the Ethiopian Deyr: rainfall near to normal Birr (ETB) are also used. Main currency in 2003/04 is ETB. Gu: normal harvest; no livestock disease; no migration. 2000/01 2003/04 2002-03 Exchange Rate: US$1 = Exchange Rate: US$1 = 8.6 Deyr: missing; poor pasture/water; livestock KSh75 ETB migration; drought and diseases affected livestock; Prices (KSh): Prices (ETB): crop diseases Purchased items - Purchased items - 2001-2002 [OLD STUDY YEAR] Maize = 800 Maize = 130/qt Deyr: rains poor; limited harvest and pasture; Sugar = 50 Sugar = 5/kg crop disease; migration within zone. Cart rent / load = 28 Cart rent / load = NA 2000 to 2001 [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] Sold items - Sold items - Deyr and Gu rains below normal; livestock Shoat = 600 Shoat = 90-100 migration to Bogol Mayo. Maize/bag = 600 Maize/bag = 50/50kg 1999-2000 Fodder/cart = 200 Fodder/cart = NA Deyr and Gu rains normal; harvest normal. Milk/litre = 10 Milk/litre = 2.5-3.5 cow 1998-1999 Farm labour/Sabo = 40 Farm labour/Sabo = 20/d Deyr below normal; Gu normal. 1997-1998 Terms of Trade (average): Terms of Trade (average): Deyr and Gu rains good: pasture/harvest good; 1 shoat = 70 – 100Kg maize 1 shoat =70 –75Kg maize (highest labourers farmed rain-fed land and abandoned (highest during the wet season) during the wet season) sharecropping arrangements; sorghum disease (so high prices); animal diseases; fruit trees damaged by water logging. 1996-1997 Indicators to Monitor Deyr: poor rain; pasture poor; livestock migration to Gedo; crop disease. Gu: good rains, harvest,  Rainfall pasture and terms of trade  Water levels in both the Dawa and Ganale rivers 1995-1996 Deyr: rains failed. Gu: rains, harvest, pasture and  Market prices animal production normal.  Unskilled labour rates 1994-1995  Security situation and population movements Deyr: poor rains, harvest and pasture. Gu: good rains, harvest and terms of trade.  Pasture and water availability and quality 1993-1994 Deyr and Gu rains: harvest/pasture below normal; low livestock prices, high cereal prices. 1992-1993 Deyr: rain failure. Gu: rains, harvest and pasture good.

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Development of community grain banks with credit facilities  Supply of irrigation pumps targeted at burjuwasi  Improved access to pesticides  Support maintenance of pumps through facilitation of supply of spare parts through co-operatives and dealers  Agricultural extension and the development of irrigation.

62 Gode Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ9)

FIK Zone Geographical Features Shini le S Denan Korahe zone • Gode Zone is 300-500m above sea level; with mean h E.Imey Gode Zone annual rainfall 300mm. i J ijig a Gode • Climate is arid with two rainy seasons: Gu (late Mar - Zo n e late June) and Deyr (mid-Oct – mid-December). n Degahb Kalafo Adadle • 95% of the zone is grazing land; remainder is arable iFi ur Ward Ferfer k Mustahil (irrigated/rain-fed), of which 20% is cultivated. Kora er l God • The soil is red and sandy; vegetation comprises hDe e e Somalia grassland in cattle and sheep areas, and shrub-land AfdeA ob r d o with browse suitable for camel and goats. Lib Z a w • High levels of water salinity remain a major problem in an dl ey the LZ during the dry season and are worse when o e n b n rains perform poorly or fail. e

Population and Geographic Coverage

Admin zone Districts Rural Popn % in this LZ LZ Popn No. Gode zone Ferfer 33,961 20% 6,792 Mustahil 53,227 20% 10,645 Kalafo 88,156 20% 17,631 Adadle 48,704 25% 12,176 Danan 37,421 40% 14,968 E. Imey 33,930 15% 5,090 Gode 95,647 40% 38,259 Total LZ Population (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 2.8%) 101,581 Source: Population figures- 2007 estimates based on 1994 population census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: crop production (mainly sorghum) and animal rearing. Nugul species are predominant - animals requiring water frequently and highly vulnerable to drought – cattle and sheep. These species have high economic value. The LZ was the epicentre of the 1999-2000 drought which had a devastating effect economically and to some extent changed the status of livelihood parameters (e.g. livestock holding, access to food, income etc). There were also other droughts/semi droughts like the one in 2005 that generally contributed to asset decline and increased vulnerability levels to drought and market related shocks across all wealth groups. Land: land is privately owned; ownership is managed by the sub-clan. Crop production system: flood recession farming (run-off water from higher land areas) combined with rain-fed agriculture. In areas of flood-recession cultivation there is a shortage of good farmland. In normal times, most of the LZ receives direct rainfall as well as flood recession. Sorghum is the main cereal cultivated and is more drought-resistant than maize. Livestock and migration: during rainy seasons livestock moves away from home areas to use distant pastures and water in natural ponds. Pasture observation is very important. In normal dry seasons animals return to their home bases and concentrate around permanent water points. Food, income and expenditure: main food sources are own sorghum and milk products, and purchased sugar. Livestock and their products are the main sources of income. Expenditure for poor households is predominantly on food; wealthier households can afford to spend more on clothes and social services. Markets: Gode (most important), Danan, Garbo (in Fik Zone; camels) and Dagahbur (in Dagahbur Zone; sheep/cattle). Vulnerabilities and responses: main risks are drought, crop/livestock diseases, poor livestock market. Main responses include increased livestock and bush products sales, reduction of non-essential expenditure, migration and reduction of the number of daily meals and food intake per meal in situations of extreme food shortage but this often results in severe malnutrition in the absence of timely and adequate intervention. Therefore it should not be considered as a normal coping strategy as it is rather an extreme one which should be prevented by intervention. 63

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1996-97 and 2004-05. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and usable for any decision- making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1996/97 and 2004/05. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal DPPA.

Wealth Characteristics

The population proportion of the poor and middle wealth groups has changed between the two reference y ears. The proportion of the poor increased from 25% i n 1996-97 to 35% in 2004-05, and that of the middle and b etter-off groups decreased from 50% and 25% to 45% a nd 20% respectively. This is attributed to the effects of th e 1999-2000 and 2005 droughts which had devastating e conomic effects.

1996-97 Poor Middle Better-off Household 7 7 9 - 12 The main determinant of wealth in Gode size Agro-pastoral LZ is livestock holdings Livestock holdings: (mainly cattle), followed by land cultivated. In the new reference year, however, a shift Shoats 30 – 60 100 – 130 200 – 300 from cattle to camel holdings is observed as Cattle 10 – 15 50 - 70 90 – 100 a result of the tendency of people to keep

Camels 0 0 0 - 20 more drought resistant animals since the Donkeys 1 – 2 2 2 – 3 1999/2000 drought. Land 20 tacab 20 tacab 25 - 50 tacab cultivated (2/3) (2/3) (1 – 1.5) (hectares)

2004-05 Poor Middle Better-off P overty has generally increased in the period b etween 1996/97 and 2004/05 as levels of Household 6 – 8 6 – 8 9 – 11 size l ivestock holdings have decreased due to droughts in the intervening period. For Livestock holdings: e xample, the shoat holding went down by 50- Shoats 15 – 35 50 – 80 100 – 130 58% for the poor, 50-62% for the middle and

Cattle 4 – 8 10 - 20 30 – 40 43-50% for the better-off wealth groups. For

Camels 0 – 5 13 – 25 30 – 40 cattle, the decline is 53-60% for the poor, 71-

Donkeys 1 – 2 2 – 3 2 – 3 80% for the middle and 60-67% for the better-

Land off wealth group. There has been no significant

cultivated 0.5 0.75 1.0 change in the size of land cultivated.

(hectares)

Food Sources For all groups the majority of food needs are met through Food sources their own production – sorghum and milk products. Sugar is 140 the only significant purchased item. 120 100 In the new reference year the contribution of own Food aid 80 production to annual food requirement has decreased for Gift/other 60 both crops and livestock products. The below normal and 40 Purchases 20 L/stock prod delayed start of gu rainfall contributed to the decline in crop 0 Own crop prod production. The contribution of livestock products has 1996- 2004- 1996- 2004- 1996- 2004- 97 05 97 05 97 05 decreased due to an overall decline in herd size and

Poor Middle Better off increased sales to compensate for the income gap. There Wealth Group was more pronounced food gap for the poor which is partly filled by gifts obtained from the better off.

Sources of Income For the poor the most important income sources are Income sources from sorghum and livestock sales. Small amounts of 9000 income also come from the sale of ghee, incense and 8000 agricultural labour. For the middle and better-off groups, 7000 Other - gift/zakaa 6000 most income comes from the sale of livestock and Bush product sale 5000 Labour income livestock products. 4000 L/stock prod sale Income levels have increased for all wealth groups in the 3000 Livestock sale new reference year. Despite better prices earned, 2000 1000 Crop sales income from livestock product sales has declined for all 0 wealth groups due to the decreased availability of 1996-972004-051996-972004-051996-972004-05 animals for sale. This is mainly attributed to the drought Poor Middle Better off Wealth group that occurred between the two reference years. Gode was the epicentre of the 1999/2000 drought where large numbers of animals have died. The middle and better- o ff households compensated the income gap from saleosff of milk while in addition to this the poor engaged in m ore bush product sales. The demand as well as the price of milk has increased in recent years because of th e growth of urban populations, presence of IDPs, and returnees and refugees from Somalia. Households also benefited from the shift made in livestock holding, especially of camel.

Expenditure Patterns

Expenditure Patterns Poor households spend a significant proportion of 9000 8000 their expenditure on food. Clothes and footwear

7000 Water also account for a sizeable proportion, and may be 6000 Flexibility 5000 Other (tax, gifts) forgone in a bad year to purchase more cereal. 4000 Inputs Middle and better-off households spend 3000 Social services 2000 Cloths proportionately less on food (mostly sugar) and 1000 Household items more on clothes/footwear and can afford more social 0 Food 1996-97 2004-05 1996-97 2004-05 1996-97 2004-05 services (clan tax, health and Koran education). They

Poor Middle Better off also have some flexibility, which poor households Wealth group barely do.

Expenditure on food has increased for all households in the new reference year both proportionally and in absolute terms. However most of the expenditure was used to purchase non-staple food especially sugar which contributed to 12%, 18% and 19% of annual food for the poor, middle and better-off households respectively. Though the amount spent on food is lower for the poor, purchased sorghum has covered about 18% of their annual dietary requirements. Similarly households spent more on inputs while reducing their expenses on cloths and household items.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Qoraheed Gu Hagai Deyr Hunger / stress periods Rainfall High Low Pasture availability Dry, poor quality High quality Livestock movement El fadisi: animals to home Strong animals: wet graze Pasture observation Human movement Bush activities – market Herder/son with animals Breeding Delivery Cattle Main Main 2nd 2nd Mating Sheep 2nd Main Main Main Livestock sales High Low Milk Production Decreasing to Low High and decreasing Decreasing to Low High and decreasing Land preparation Harvesting Sow Weed Guard Dry season activities Gums, resins, poles

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Drought: predominance of nugul species makes them particularly vulnerable to rainfall or pasture failure • Crop and animal diseases and pests • Market restriction Constraints to production • Poor access to markets (also Gulf Livestock Ban) • Poor crop production technology • Poor animal health services • Sporadic insecurity (clan conflicts or armed government opposition) • Environmental degradation and lack of range management Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Diversification of herd species – the rich • Increased livestock sales – all wealth groups more likely to include camels • Increased collection of bush products in the case of poor • Farming drought-resistant crops such as households; many middle households do this only in a bad sorghum year • Diversification of income sources – • Decrease in overall food consumption usually poor households, who • Splitting the household: men migrate far with livestock, collect/sell bush products and may whilst the rest of the family migrates to small villages/towns undertake casual labour to sell water, bush products and labour • Resource management: middle and rich • Wild food consumption – especially by children; but is not a households store grain underground significant source of food • Animal reproduction management • Self-employment: bush products and water collection and • Livestock migration – to prevent sale (poor increase these activities; some middle only engage overgrazing and depletion of pasture in bad years) • Milk stored as ghee • Livestock migration to other areas in the region, including Somalia

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline 1996/1997 was a good year in terms of rains, livestock and crop 2007/08 [NEW STUDY YEAR] Bad year production. 1995/6 and 1998 were relatively ‘normal’ but 2000/01 was Below normal gu and poor deyr rains; below average with limited crop production. market restrictions; insecurity; rapidly increasing food prices; very poor livestock 1996 was selected as the reference year. The year was characterised demand and prices; high food insecurity; by good production but livestock production was affected by disease. malnutrition; failure of crops; camel disease killing large number of animals in Some in-migration from other areas but resources were not over neighbouring pastoral LZ. stretched. 2006/07 - Good year Near normal gu; good deyr rains; good deyr crop production; easy going jilaal; no migration; plenty of pasture after the deyr.

Currency, Prices, Terms of trade in Reference 2005/06 – Drought year 1996/97 Poor gu and deyr rains; livestock migrations to neighbouring Fik zone; Currency: Prices (SoSh): failure of gu and deyr crops; livestock mortality due to feed scarcity; high food Mainly the Somali Shilling (SoSh). Purchased items - prices. Exchange Rate: Sorghum/50kg = 60,000 [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] 2004/05 - Normal gu rains and much 1 Ethiopian Birr = 1,000 SoSh Sugar/kg = 6,000 below normal deyr rians. Terms of Trade (average): Sold items – 2003/04 – average year Near normal gu and poor deyr rains; 1 shoat = 70kg sorghum /15kg Sorghum/50kg = 50,000 livestock recovered and below normal sugar Shoat = 80,000 crop production.

1 day agricultural labour = 2kg Incense/kg = 1,500 2002/03 –bad year sugar/5kg sorghum Milk/litre = 800 Poor gu and deyr rains; decline in livestock and crop production; livestock sales at 1kg incense = 1 kg sorghum Agricultural labour/ta’ab = lower prices and prolonged out-migration. 7 litres milk = 1 kg sugar 12,000 2001/02 [OLD STUDY YEAR] Deyr very poor; Gu below normal; stalk borer caused significant crop losses; Currency, Prices, Terms of trade in Reference livestock ban; in-migration from Kalafo, 2004/05 Denan 2000/01 Currency: Prices (ETB): Deyr poor, crop infestation; Gu good; good Ethiopian Birr (ETB). Purchased items - livestock condition and food production; large food aid distribution; low food Exchange Rate: Sorghum/kg = 1 prices; Gulf livestock ban imposed 1 USD = 8.65 ETB Sugar/kg = 9 September 2000. 1999/2000 Terms of Trade (average): Sold items – Deyr and Gu poor; drafting of soldiers and 1 shoat = 73kg maize /10kg sugar Maize/kg =1.2 livestock contributions made to the Ethiopian-Eritrean border war; severe Shoat = 80-95 drought; great livestock losses; high child mortality; late 1999 limited food relief Milk/litre = 2.5-3.5(camel) started. 1998/99 Very poor Deyr rains; below average Gu; good livestock condition continuing from previous year; insecurity; Horoweyn (larger stock) animals moved far away to Babile, Indicators to Monitor Jijiga, etc. 1997/8  Rainfall Heavy rains in Deyr; water-logging in some  Crop situation: Stand, pests, diseases areas. Good Gu season; good crops; good livestock condition and market.  Pasture and water situation 1996/7 [OLD REFERENCE YEAR]  Livestock health: Pests, diseases Deyr below normal, in-migration from Korahe, Degahbur, Garbo. Good Gu  Coping strategies season; good animal and crop production;  Human health cattle suffered anthrax; camel suffered “gororduf” camel cough/nose bleed; high  Income generating activities insecurity (clashes between the military  Markets: Prices, access and armed groups).

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations The dependency on stream cultivation means constraints to the amount of land households in this LZ can use; extra land can be used in areas not fed by streams, though this carries increased risk of crop failure due to inadequate rain. This is likely to be a problem for the future when existing farms are sub-divided for the families of the current generation of sons.  Increase diversity of animal herds (less dependence on nugul animals and increased herding of camel)  Re-establish traditional rangeland management practices whereby certain parts of the zone are protected from grazing in wet seasons so as to enhance the pasture availability in dry seasons.  Expand areas under cultivation by use of animal traction  Improve the crop production technology – ploughing, pest control, and storage  Improve market access and/or establish buffer stocks for grain  Improve animal health facilities such as training community animal health workers, promotion of private veterinary clinics and improving extension services  Improve crop protection by improving extension services  Improve road infrastructure to facilitate access to larger markets  Work towards the lifting of the livestock export embargo by the Gulf states, and avoiding future bans.

68 Liban Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ10)

D jibouti

n o Geographical Features i r Shinile g a f e Somalia A R • Altitude: 300-1500m above sea level. Average annual rainfall: 300-1,000mm, but higher along Jijiga

Degahbu the river (small mountain ranges). Two rainy

a n i r

o Fik Warder Filtu seasons: Gu (April-June) and Deyr (October- i m g o

r Korahe e Gode Liban Zone December). The climate is semi-arid and arid, O R Afder A Dolo ado with a temperature range of 19-38ºC. d Moyale Liban • Dolo-ado district lies between the Ganale aSomalia (perennial) and Dawa (seasonal) rivers. Kenya dl e • The land is very fertile: soil types include black soil (fertile, contains clay) along the river and at Haydimtu, and scattered red soils; Bakool soil is found in Seru and part of Ayinle; black-reddish mixes are also found. • Vegetation consists of grasslands, shrub, bush and forest.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Admin Zone Districts Rural Popn % Popn in LZ Popn in the LZ Liban zone Filtu 117,822 20% 23,564 Moyale 168,113 10% 16,811 Dolo-ado 153,554 10% 15,353 Total Popn of Liban Agropastoral LZ as % of Reg. Rural Popn = 1.5% 55,728 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Rain-fed agro-pastoralism: maize is the main crop; camels, cattle, goats/sheep (shoats). Land and water: Agricultural land is individually owned, and unlimited: the limiting factor is a household’s capacity to cultivate. Grazing land is communal and accessible to all within the clan (dogodia). Lack of permanent water sources is a major problem in dry periods, especially in central, populated areas. Groundwater is very deep; most water (poor quality) is obtained from communal rain-fed ponds. The only permanent water sources are a borehole at Seru and two new boreholes in the Kula-bul area. Shallow wells are both communally and privately owned; boreholes are government owned. Dry season water trucking by the government and NGOs is frequent; water prices can be very high in the dry seasons (4-5 Birr/20litres). Food, income and expenditure: Maize and livestock products are the main food sources. Livestock, their products, and cereal crop sales are the main sources of income (poor households may also engage in labour and bush product collection, and receive gifts including food). Expenditure mainly comprises the purchase of non-staple products, household items, social services and veterinary inputs. All wealth groups have some income flexibility. Markets: The main livestock markets are Negelle, Mandera and Moyale. Mandera and Moyale are markets for livestock bound for Somalia and Kenya. Kenya is the most important market for cattle; shoats are sold locally and to Kenya; camels are sold to Kenya and Somalia. Dolo and Filtu are the main local maize and sorghum markets. Negelle is also a key transit point for goods (cereals, wheat flour, kerosene, soap, candles) coming from other parts of Ethiopia. Many non-staple and non-food items are imported through Moyale and Mandera from Somalia and Kenya. Vulnerabilities and responses: Main vulnerabilities come from drought, market and conflict. Risk minimising and coping strategies include selling more livestock, splitting households and herds, cutting expenditure, increasing self-employment, migration and wild food collection and diversifying crop and livestock species. Relief food has increased since the 1999/2000 drought, though food aid has generally been poorly targeted, and the blanket distributions act as a disincentive for farmers.

69 Crops, livestock and migration: As well as maize, pockets of wheat, sorghum and beans are also cultivated. Sesame, groundnuts and early maturing (3-month cycle) maize varieties have recently been introduced in some areas. Poor households exchange their labour for the use of oxen/ploughs belonging to middle/better-off households. ‘Goob’ is a system of collective agricultural activities whereby farmers assist one another. Fodder from maize production is used for a household’s own livestock. Borana cattle and Somali camels, goats and sheep are reared. Milk sales (cattle and camel) are significant. Migration in the wet season is within the zone and mostly within the district; in the dry season (and drought years) animals move closer to the rivers and boreholes. In very bad years, livestock moves across clan borders. Social services: Permanent water sources and roads are the most pressing needs; health and education infrastructure are poorly resourced. Other issues: Introducing permanent water sources must be evaluated against environmental degradation; better pastures attract livestock from neighbouring districts, accelerating water/pasture depletion and spread of livestock diseases; sporadic conflict is ongoing (Borana/Dogodia) over pasture/water access and territory – in early 2002 an area of prime rangeland (120km x 60-70km) was abandoned due to insecurity; access to Negelle market is also affected by insecurity.

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1995-96 and 2003-04. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1995-96 and 2003-04. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

Wealth Characteristics

1995/96 Poor Middle Better-off

HH size 6 6 – 8 8 – 10 Livestock holdings (lactating: brackets) [pack camels: sq brackets] Shoats 10–15 (2-3) 20–30 35–50 (7-10) Cattle 2–5 (1) 10–12 (1-3) 15–35 (3-6) Camels 2–5 (1) [0-1] 10–15 (2-3) [1-2] 25–40 (4-6) [2-3] Donkeys 0 –1 0 –1 0 –1

Land 4–6 kamdi 6–8 kamdi cultivated (2/3–1 hectare) (1–1.33 hectares)

Livestock holdings and cultivable land ownership determine wealth. The same applies for the new reference year.

2003/04 Poor Middle Better-off Livestock holdings have increased in

HH size 6 – 7 7 – 8 10 – 11 the zone, particularly for the poor whose holding has significantly Livestock holdings (lactating: brackets) [pack camels: sq brackets] increased. The area of land cultivated Shoats 25–35 (8-10) 45–55(10-15) 70–90 (20-25) by all groups has also increased. The Cattle 4–6 (2) 15–20 (3) 15–25 (4) poor had no cultivated land in the old Camels 5–6 (1-2) 10–15 (4-5) 20–40 (6) reference year, whereas half to one Donkeys 0 –1 1 1– 3 hectare of land was cultivated in the Land new reference year. cultivated 0.5–1 1 – 2 1– 2 (hectares)

Food Sources

All groups rely predominantly on their own maize and livestock production; poor and middle households supplement this with purchases of maize, and all groups buy sugar and oil (especially the middle and better-off) mostly in the dry season when milk availability is lower. Contribution of own crops decreased for middle and better-off groups as consumption of livestock products increased for all groups - an indication of improved quality of diet. The decrease in the contribution of own crops could be attributed to the change in the daily kcal requirement and increased family size in the new reference year.

Consumption of purchased food has decreased for the poor and middle groups while that of the better-off has increased. The composition of purchased food, however, has changed for the middle and better off households. These groups purchased only sugar in the new reference year which correlates with the increased consumption of milk. On the other hand, middle and better-off households have better income options than the poor as they own larger numbers of livestock while the poor have to rely mainly on crops for their household food. Poor households purchase additional maize and receive milk gifts from other groups, as well as food aid (even in normal years).

Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns

C amel and cattle milk sales are the main income All households have similar spending patterns, source for all groups, with better-off groups also including social services (health, education, clan tax)

selling ghee. The sale of livestock is the next main and all have some flexibility (income surplus). This, source, and cereals provide a relatively small amount plus relatively low spending on staple purchases, of income for all groups. Poor households also gives all households some capacity to adjust to derive income from agricultural labour, self- shocks without too much disruption. Overall, employment (bush products collection) and wealthier households spend relatively little on zakaat/gifts. necessities and more on ‘luxuries’: better-off and middle households provide gifts and zakat to poor households. Better-off households produce sufficient maize for their needs and so do not need to purchase this.

Income from the sale of livestock products declined in the new reference year because this is not a major income option for all households in the zone. The new baseline covered a wider area - 6 districts with limited infrastructure, hence poor access to All wealth groups have a similar pattern of markets - compared to one district (Dolo-ado) in expenditure. All purchase sugar while the poor the old baseline. As a result the major source of spend more on cereals. The expenditure on food income for all households appeared to be sales of has increased in the new reference year in line with livestock followed by sales of livestock products for the price hikes between the two reference years. middle and better-off wealth groups. Poor wealth groups supplemented their income from increased sales of firewood and construction poles and from gifts/zakaats - in cash or in kind - received from others.

Seasonal Calendar

Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Seasons Gu Hagaa Deyr Jilaal Rainfall Livestock watering High Low High Low Land preparation / planting / weeding Harvest / threshing / storage / sale Milk production High Low Livestock sales High Pasture survey/migration - camels Cereal purchase Livestock salting Fencing Male livestock mating selection Handicrafts Bush products Collection

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Drought • Conflict • Poor government services and • High in-migration • Livestock/crop disease infrastructure • Lack of income • Market shocks • Environmental degradation diversification • Poor water quality and accessibility Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Diversification of activities • Increase animal sales • Planting early-maturing varieties; early sowing • Change food consumption and reduce expenditure • Some herd given to pastoral relatives • Move/split the household • Social insurance/support system (kaalm/zakaat) • Increase milk sales • Make ghee for dry season • Increase bush product collection • Exchange high value animals for lesser value animals

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline

1995/96: old reference year: it was a normal to good year. 2006/07 [NEW STUDY YEAR ] Deyr: good rains; crop production, pasture, water 2003/04: new reference year: it was also a normal to good year. availability, livestock condition and market price all good; unknown camel disease outbreak 2005/06 Deyr: poor rains; poor pasture, crop production Currency, Prices, Terms of trade and milk; out-migrations; livestock diseases and 1995/96 [Old Reference Year] death. Gu: normal rains; normal pasture; poor 2003/04 (New Reference Year) production; migration 2004/05 Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB), though Kenya and Somali Deyr: very poor - no rains; no crop production. Shillings also used in the old reference year. Gu: normal rains; good crop; normal pasture; normal migration. Exchange rate 2003/04 – 1US$ = 8.62 ETB 2003/04 [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] Deyr: normal rains/production; normal livestock Terms of Trade (average): market and milk production. 1 shoat = [60 - 80kg] (65) maize - dry season; [100kg] (85) - Gu: good rains; good production including milk. wet season. 2002/03 Deyr: good rains/production; Somali/Oromo Prices (ETB): conflict starts; livestock diseases; early maturing Purchased items crops flood damaged. Maize/kg = [1] (1.4 ) Gu: good rains and production. 2001/2002 [OLD STUDY YEAR] Sugar/kg = [6] (6.5) Deyr: poor rains; crop production, pasture, water Sold items availability all poor; livestock condition normal; Somali-Oromo conflict. Shoat = [65] (90-120) 2000/2001 Maize/50kg = [45-50] (50) Deyr: poor rains, pasture, crop production; out- Cow’s milk/madaal = [2] (1.5/lt) migration; displacement; livestock disease. Gu: normal rains/production. Camel’s milk/madaal = [1] (1-1.5/lt ) 1999/2000 Agricultural labour / day = [5] (n/a) Deyr: very poor rains/production; Somalia/Borana conflict. Gu: normal rains; crop pests; Somali/Oromo conflict.

1998/1999 Deyr: poor rains/production and livestock market; Indicators to Monitor migration to Dawa river; camel disease. Gu: good rains/production.  Rainfall, water and pasture: Sites and conditions of water, pasture, 1997/1998 browse, alternative pastures Deyr: good rains/production; Somali/Oromo conflict starts; livestock diseases; early maturing  Conflicts: Who, why, when, impact on access to pasture, impact on crops flood damaged. access to markets Gu: good rains/production.  Crop production: Stage, diseases, pests, prospects 1996/1997 Deyr: poor rains/production; normal livestock  Markets: Prices: cereals, sugar, livestock, milk, local crops; access conditions; camel diseases.  Gu: near normal rains/production. Livestock: Physical condition, disease, production, reproduction, 1995/1996 [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] movements, market/trade activities, ghee reserves Deyr: normal rains/production.  Coping strategies: Degree of resorting to Gu: good rains/production; camel disease. 1994/1995  Migration (in and out): Why, to where, from where Deyr: good rains/production; camel disease.  Loan repayment: Is it happening? Gu: good rains/production. 1993/1994  Changes in household size: Increase, decrease, who from/to Deyr: very poor rains/production. where Gu: below average rains/production.

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Improve road conditions – for both major and feeder roads  Improve human and animal health facilities - establish, equip, staff and supply health centres  Develop safe sustainable water sources in the central parts of the district  Improve access to education outside Filtu town - build, equip and staff more schools  Promote and support income-generating activities 73  Introduce short-maturing crop varieties and treated seeds (to reduce loss to pests and diseases)  Encourage and promote current efforts to do intercropping  Introduce safer grain storage methods to prevent post-harvest losses  Rehabilitate IDPs and urban poor who have lost assets (mainly livestock) due to conflict and/or drought.  Prevent asset depletion in bad times - introduce credit schemes targeting the poor  Prevent loss of assets to natural disasters - effective early warning and food security systems  Maintain peace and stability - establish a permanent Somali-Oromo peace body  Promote easy flow of livestock and other commodities to and from Somalia and Kenya - remove trade restrictions

74 Korahe Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ11)

Do jibout Geographical Features

i gi r

She ini

fa Somalia A leR n • Lowland, semi-arid zone with average rainfall 300 – 400mm; annual temperatures range from 22°C - 34°C

Jijig

on Degah a i a • Ciid areas (in Shilabo and north-eastern Kebridahar

gi bur m Fik Ward e ro Koraer Districts) are higher and cooler; the doox areas in the

O R God he e A Dagah -bour Afde Zone Fafan valley are lower and hotter. r d Lib Somalia Sheygosh • Two wet seasons: gu (Apr – Jun) and deyr (Oct - Dec) a Kane nya Fik Zone d Warder Zone • Water is accessed through wells, seasonal rivers and le Kebri-dahar berkads in the ciid areas; elsewhere the Fafan river is used Korahe Zone (shallow and semi-deep wells). Increases in the level of

Gode Dobowein salinity in permanent water sources (wells) poses a Zone Shilabo problem when seasonal rains fail. Faafan Valley Agropastoral LZ (sorghum and cattle ) Somalia Gode/ Korahe Pastoral L Z (Camel, shoats, cattle) Lowland Pastoral L Z (Camel, shoats & Birka dependent) • Vegetation: a mix of grass, thorny bushes and acacia trees • Soils: predominantly dark clay with potentially high agricultural productivity in the plains around Fafan Valley; red sandy soils with high water permeability commonly found in the ciid areas.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Zone District Rural Population LZ % of population Popn number in LZ Korahe Kebridahar 115,491 40% 46,196 Dobowein 71,881 40% 28,752 Sheygosh 26,712 30% 8,014 Total Popn of Korahe Agropastoral LZ as % of Reg. rural Popn = 2.2% 82,962 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Agro-pastoral: livestock - mainly shoats (goats and sheep) and cattle but some camels also, and flood-recession and rain-fed farming - mostly sorghum and some maize. Access to land: Land is owned individually but socially managed by the clan. Access to water: Water is mostly accessed through the seasonal rivers, wells in the Fafan river bed and berkads. Sheygosh and south/south-east Dobowein are vulnerable to water shortages. Sheygosh has only two permanent boreholes; all other water sources are seasonal. Food, income and expenditure: Purchase of cereals and sugar, own crop production and food aid are the main food sources; poor families also receive gifts. The sale of livestock is the main income source for all wealth groups, and the main expenditure is food purchases. Markets: Kebridahar town has the biggest market, linked to Bosaso for imported goods, to Bura’o for food and to Mogadishu and Hargeisa to a lesser extent. Other important markets are Shilabo (linked to Dagahbur), Dobowein and Sheygosh towns. Sorghum comes from Balatweyn and Qansaxdhere (Somalia) in bad years. Livestock market trade is mostly for local consumption, but irregular trade with traders from Somalia and Kenya is also important. The Gulf livestock ban has had a negative impact on demand and prices. Vulnerabilities and responses: Drought, livestock disease, market fluctuations, crop failure and human disease are the main risks for this population. Main responses include having diversified livestock holdings, livestock migration and splitting herds, and selling crops and livestock when marketing opportunities are good. Poor households also engage in gum and firewood collection and seek support from relatives. Livestock and migration: Nugul species i.e. cattle and sheep (most vulnerable to drought) are mostly reared, although some of the better-off households also have camels. In normal years migration does not involve leaving the Fafan valley. 75 Crop production: Flood-recession crop production takes place predominantly in the Fafan River valley (serving Kebridahar and Dobowein districts mostly), where flood waters come from distant areas (although it is under threat from deepening gullies which limit flooding). Other seasonal river floods are also used, but crop production there is more vulnerable to local rainfall failure. Rain-fed farming is less prevalent and is vulnerable to rainfall failure. Sorghum is grown in preference to maize: it is more drought-resistant and higher-yielding than maize. In a normal year, one sariir (0.5 ha) will yield 23 - 25 quintals of sorghum or 15 - 17 quintals of maize. Goob (farmers assisting one another in collective agricultural activities) is the main form of social support for farming activities. Social services: Access to health services is poor throughout the zone. There is one clinic in each of Dobowein, Shegosh and Shilabo District towns, and thirteen health posts dispersed throughout the rest of the zone. There are shortages of essential drugs and trained staff and poor levels of equipment. There are no livestock health facilities in the zone. Access to education is poor, with insufficient schools, particularly above primary level, poor facilities and poor teacher attendance/quality. Communications are poor: only Kebridahar town has reasonable telephone services, Shilabo town has very limited telephone services, and the rest of the zone no telephone services at all. The main road in the zone is the Gode – Dagahbour road, which is in poor condition; the rest are seasonal feeder roads. Kebridahar town has electricity for six hours a day.

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 2003-04 and 2005-06. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 2003-04 and 2005-06. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

Wealth Characteristics

2003-04 Poor Middle Better-off Household 6 – 8 8 – 10 10 – 12 size

Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets)

Shoats 16– 32 (4 – 6) 40 – 50 (8 – 10) 50 – 70 Cattle 3 – 5 (1 – 3) 7 – 13 (2 – 4) 15 – 25 Camels 0 0 0 – 15 (0 – 1) Donkeys 1 1 – 2 2 – 3

Size of land 1 sariir 1 – 2 sariir 1 – 3 sariir

cultivated (0.5) (0.5 – 1) 0.5 – 1.5 (hectares)

. Wealth is determined by livestock holdings and size of land cu ltivated. The proportion has not changed significantly for the different wealth groups as only one year elap sed between the old and the new reference years.

2005-06 Poor Middle Better- Land holdings have not significantly off changed over the years but livestock Household 6 – 8 8 – 10 10 – 12 holdings did slightly under the influence of size poor rains and unfavourable market conditions. Herd size of shoats decreased Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets) 6-37 percent for the poor, 30-37 percent Shoats 15–20 (6–10) 25–35(13–15) 35–45(20) for middle and 30-36 percent for the Cattle 2 – 4 (1.5–2) 6 – 8 ( 4) 10 – 12(6-7) better-off wealth groups. Camels 0 0 0 Donkeys 1 2 3 The herd decline is 20-33 percent for the poor, 14-38 for the middle and 33-52 for Size of land the better-off wealth groups. This herd cultivated (0.4-0.6) (1.2 – 1.5) 2 – 2.6 (hectares) size decline has negatively impacted on livestock products being a source of food.

Food Sources

In the old reference year, purchases (of mainly cereals and sugar) were the main food source, followed by own crop production, then food aid for all wealth groups. Poor families also received a substantial proportion of their needs through gifts, and for all wealth groups livestock production met only a relatively small proportion of their needs. Own production covers a lower percentage of the total annual food requirement in the new reference year. The difference is filled through purchases which implies that there was an increased

dependence on markets for food.

C omparing this to the old reference year, contribution of own production decreased for all wealth groups. T his is attributed to the influences in downward asset changes and lesser favourable conditions for crop and li vestock under the new reference year. This has pushed up levels of food purchases for all wealth groups. F ood aid covers small proportion of the food requirement and is higher in the poor due to better p articipation in the distribution activities (regular presence).

Sources of Income

Livestock sale was the main source

of income for all three wealth groups in the old reference year. Livestock product sales was next in importance for middle and better- off households, followed by crop sales, whereas for poor households crop sales was next, followed by livestock product sales. Poor households also had access to loans.

L ivestock is the main source of income for all wealth groups in the new reference year, replacing livestock product sales as the main income earner for the middle and better-off households. Livestock sales account for 73% of total income for the poor, 85% of that of the middle and 83% of that of the better-off. The contribution of livestock product sales has declined for the middle and better-off, but has increased for the poor. Also in decline is income from bush product sales due to the increased distances that have to be travelled for their collection. The poor group have increased sales of livestock products in the new reference year to compensate for income lost from other sources.

Expenditure Patterns

Food (cereals and sugar) was the main expense for all wealth groups in the old reference year. Expenditure on food purchases is the largest expense category. In the new reference year, food purchases represent 37% of total expenditure for the poor, 34% for the middle and 29% for the better-off. Compared with the old reference year, this has increased for all wealth groups due to the decline in the contribution of

own production to annual food needs. Expenditure on household items, social services and clothing follow in that order of importance in the new reference year. The first constitutes 18% of the total expenditure for the poor, 19.6% for the middle and 18% for better-off households. Social services account for 18% of annual expenditure for all wealth groups in the new reference year.

Seasonal Calendar

Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Seasons Gu Hagaa Deyr Jilaal Rainfall Land preparation Weeding Sowing Harvest / threshing / packing Selling livestock products Livestock sales Livestock movt. to wet/dry grazing Wet Dry Cattle calving Shoat calving Pasture / water shortage times Hunger periods Firewood collection

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities: • Drought • Market fluctuations • Human disease • Livestock disease • Crop failure Main coping strategies: All wealth groups • Diversified economy (agro-pastoral; having different livestock species) • Livestock migration and splitting herds into Irmaan (lactating) and Horwayn (non-lactating) • Crop and livestock sales when there are good marketing opportunities Poor wealth group Better-off wealth group • Self- employment (gum and firewood collection) • Purchasing medicine, traditional/herbal • Seeking relative support medicines

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline

April 2003 to March 2004, as the most recent complete year to the 2007/08 - poor time of the study, was chosen as the reference year; it was described as Poor gu and very poor deyr rains. a below-normal year. No floods from the Faffan river and large scale distress; livestock 2005/06 is the new reference year, it is a near normal year in terms of migrations and livestock mortality; rainfall and crop/livestock production high livestock prices and food insecurity. [NEW STUDY YEAR] 2006/07 - Near normal gu and Reference Year Prices and Terms of Trade - good deyr rains, leading to good 2003/04 livestock and crop production. Average livestock prices. Currency: The Somali Shilling (SoSh) is dominant, but the Ethiopian [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] Birr (ETB) is also used. 2005/06 - Average year Terms of Trade: Normal year: one average shoat = 130kg cereal Normal gu rains below normal deyr rains. Near normal crop and Prices (SoSh): Sorghum (50kg) = 80,000 livestock production. 2004/05 –Normal gu and below Reference Year Prices and Terms of Trade - normal deyr rains – near normal crop production, some internal 2005/06 migration but no out-migration. [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB). Exchange rate 1US$ = 8.68 2003/04 - Deyr 2; Gu 2 Terms of Trade: Normal year: one average shoat = 124 kg cereal Below normal; poor rains, pasture, Prices (ETB): Sorghum (50kg) = 62.5 water availability, livestock condition; rain-fed crop failures; flood recession Sorghum/sale: 1.1/kg crop production normal. Sorghum/buying: 1.25/kg 2002/03 - Deyr 2; Gu 2 Below normal; rain-fed crop failure; Shoats: 145-165 50% crops in flood recession areas. Stalk borer damaged crops during gu.

2001/02 – Deyr 3; Gu 3 Normal rains. No harvest in deyr as no planting had been done (fear of poor rains) but some harvest in gu.

Indicators to Monitor  Rainfall: Sufficient rain based on norm for the area, distribution and timeliness  Pasture: Sufficiency, distribution, availability, access, distance  Water: Availability, sufficiency and distance compared with normal, access and coverage  Crop condition: moisture availability, timeliness of planting, size of the land planted, number of households planted, crop stage, pests and diseases, prospects on potential yields before the harvest, actual yields per household  Livestock condition: body condition, reproduction and birthing rate, milk yields and duration, livestock health  Human health: disease prevalence, seasonality, access to health services, availability of health facilities, availability of essential drugs, medical personnel  Livestock health: disease prevalence level on livestock, crops and human beings, livestock body condition, any recent livestock mortality and the reason, how many animals died and why  Market conditions: prices of livestock per species, body condition of the marketed animals, demand, prices of cereals, type of cereals available  Livestock and population mobility: time of migration, distance, destination, scale and cause of migration  Security: what, where, when, who is involved and the magnitude of the effect  Crop pests and diseases: what disease or pests, which crops are affected, how serious  Water: availability/distance as compared to normal, access, sufficiency as compared to normal, coverage

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Introduction of modern agricultural inputs e.g. pesticides, drought-resistant seed varieties, agricultural implements and improved crop husbandry practices  Introduction of better water harvesting techniques and improving soil and gully erosion control  Improving human health services, veterinary facilities and access to clean water  Development of irrigation schemes/dams in the Kebridahar and Dobowain agricultural plains  Livestock predator population control  Asset building (through the safety net programme for instance)  The establishment of a buffer food system to absorb surplus and respond in times of cereal shortages  Relief interventions must reflect the difference between official population figures in Sheygosh district and the number of people actually on the ground  Improved malaria control measures  Strengthen traditional conflict resolution mechanisms with respect to resource-based tension between communities from different clans and livelihood zones.

80 Filtu-Dolow Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ12)

D jibouti

n Geographical Features o

i r Shinile g a f e Somalia Mostly lowland plain 200m (Dolow) to

A R • 1,300m (Filtu) above sea level. The climate is Jijiga arid; mean annual temperature 27ºC, rainfall Degahbu

a n i r Filtu

o Fik Warder less than 450mm (higher around Filtu, lower i m g o

r Korahe e Gode Liban around Dolow). O R Dolow Ado A • Pastoral vegetation consists of scattered tall Afder Moyale Zone d trees and shrubs (browse – where camels Liban aSomalia and goats are concentrated) and grassland Kenya dl e (cattle and sheep). Browse is more dominant than grassland. The area is rich in trees producing gums and resins. • Dry season grazing areas exist along the rivers and on either side of the Filtu-Dolow-Negele Borena road, near boreholes / permanent water points. Dolow area had very little pasture at the time of the study, and few animals were found there. • Water comes from large ponds, shallow wells and berkads.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Administrative Zone District Rural Popn % in LZ Popn in LZ Liban Filtu 117,822 75% 88,366 Dolo-ado 153,554 30% 46,066 Total population in LZ (as % of Reg.Rural Popn = 3.5%) 134,432 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoralism: livestock production (mainly camels/goats but also cattle/sheep). Water: After the rains surface water (ponds) allows herds to stay near home. Otherwise there are boreholes in Filtu district but not Dolow district. Borehole and sometimes pond water has to be paid for. During water shortages tension or fighting can break out around water points. Livestock and migration: Nomadic, although increasingly families split in the dry season with women and children remaining in villages, and men and strong boys going with the hardier animals. Normal year migration tends to be within Liben Zone. Food, income and expenditure: Middle and rich households have a milk-based diet during the wet season, while the poorer households have to supplement it with grain and sugar. Livestock and livestock product sales provide the main source of income; for poor households bush product sales are important. Poor households spend a large part of their income on maize and sugar; wealthier groups can afford more social services (and educate more children) and livestock inputs (drugs, etc.) but also have to pay higher clan taxes. Markets: Animals are sold to various markets through Dolow market: sheep/goats (shoats) mainly to Kenya, cattle to Negele Borena, and camels to Mogadishu. Dolow cereal market trades cereal in roughly equal proportions from Somalia and the riverine production area in the Ethiopian Somali Region. Since 2000 relief distribution has brought down the price of maize considerably. Vulnerabilities and responses: Being dependent on livestock, their products, and natural resources exposes these households particularly to drought and livestock disease. In a bad year coping strategies include additional livestock sales and increased bush product collection and sale. Social Services: only some middle and better-off households have access to formal education.Other issues: the following population groups in the area are of concern: very poor pastoralists; pastoral dropouts in urban areas; IDPs from Borana; refugees from Somalia; and returnees from Somalia.

81 The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1998/99 and 2003/04. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1998/99 and 2003/04. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

Wealth Characteristics

Population Distribution of Wealth Groups 1998/99 Poor Middle Better-off 60 50 HH size 7 8 8 50 45 1998-99 40 35 2003-04 Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets) 30 30 Shoats 25 – 35 (5) 50 – 80 (15) 100 – 150 (25) 20 20 Cattle 3 – 6 (2) 15 – 20 (5) 30 – 40 (11) 20 Camels 5 – 10 (1) 15 – 25 (4) 35 – 55 (8) 10 0 Poor Weal tMiddleh Groups Better-Off

Wealth is determined by livestock ownership. The community is very close-knit, with families depending on each other for assistance. A man with a large herd is likely to give out milking animals as irmansi to his poorer relatives, and give gifts of animals for sale either through zakat or other social welfare support.

The household size of all groups has increased in the new reference year 2003/04 Poor Middle Better-off HH size 7 – 8 8 – 10 10 – 12 with the better-off having the largest increase. This zone did not face Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets) adverse climatic conditions in between Shoats 30 – 45 (8) 70 – 95 (15) 105 – 140 (21) the two reference years. The average Cattle 5 – 7 (1-2) 15 – 25 (4-5) 20 – 30 (6) herd size of all households has shown Camels 8 – 12 (2) 25 – 35 (5) 45 – 55 (7) a slight increase especially for the poor and middle groups.

Food Sources Poor households own few milking animals, and may Food sources 120 receive irmansi goats or camels; their main food 100 sources are purchases of maize, plus some sugar and 80 Food aid oil. Middle households rely heavily on livestock 60 Gift/other products, especially in the wet season; they also 40 Purchases purchase cereal and sugar. Better-off households 20 L/stock prod purchase only a small quantity of cereal (more in the 0 1998-99 2003-041998-992003-04 1998-992003-04 dry season), and sugar to supplement milk from

Poor Middle Better off large herds. Wealth Group

T.h e contribution of livestock products to annual diet of households has increased in the new reference year. T he other change observed in the composition of food sources during the new reference year is the contribution of food aid to annual food needs of all households. All groups received food aid irrespective of their wealth. The contribution is however higher for the poor groups as a result of their lower number of household members. As a consequence purchases have declined considerably for the poor and middle households 82

Sources of Income

Main income sources for poor households are livestock sales and collection and sale of bush products; for middle households, income comes chiefly from livestock sales and milk sales (mostly camel milk); income for the better-off households comes predominantly from livestock sales, the remainder coming from the sale of milk.

Income sources have not changed between the two reference years. There was a slight decline in income from livestock products for better-off households. This group made up this income gap from increased livestock sales. The poor gained less income from the sale of bush products, but have partially compensated for this by selling livestock products (milk).

Expenditure Patterns Poor households spend much of their income on maize and sugar (more in the dry season). They also pay for social services (Koranic school, clan taxes and medicines for human illnesses - mainly malaria). Household items include a high amount for clothes. Middle households buy more expensive food, they spend more on inputs (salt and animal drugs), they have more children in school, they are able to spend more on human health and they have to pay a higher clan tax. Better-off households spend a significant amount on inputs (drugs, salt, purchase of animals for restocking). They have a similar number of children in school as the middle group, but are required to pay a higher clan contribution; they spend more on clothes and other household items.

Expenditure items remained the

same except for the addition of items such as tax and gifts. Proportionally the amount spent on food was high for better-off households as a result of the purchases of high value/quality items, such as sugar, by this group.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Jilaal Gu Hagaa Deyr Rainfall Water and pasture availability Pasture observation, movts, fencing Fence Male livestock selection for mating Milk production / sales / prices High production Low productn Low price High price Handicrafts Livestock salting Livestock watering Low……….High Low……….High Restocking Livestock sales Low……….High Low……….High Food purchase Low…………………. High Low………………………………High ToT Least favourable Favourable Well preparation and digging Bush products collection Firewood and Wild F/wd Gums/resins food only

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities: Main risk-minimising strategies: • Drought • Lack of water • Pasture observation • Insecurity • Lack of local markets • Storage of fodder tied in trees • Livestock disease • Predators • Slaughter of new-born animals • Drop in livestock prices • Fenced land near rivers • Controlled mating and castration of males at • Poor availability of drugs • Access to salt and birth pasture • Herd splitting • Increase pack animals Main coping strategies: All wealth groups Poor wealth group • Reduce expenditure on non-essentials then non-staple • Collecting and selling (and consuming) bush food products • Selling livestock (productive livestock in late stages of • Borrowing or receiving gifts from hardship) friends/relatives; or sending children to • Livestock product sales (hides and skins) to Mandera relatives • Relief (or else slaughter old camel, dry and consume • Labour migration to riverine areas (elder son) the meat) • Exemption from clan taxes, etc. Middle wealth group Better-off wealth group • Acting as broker for increase in livestock sales • Selling animals to focus expenditure on smaller • Increase petty trading herd • Migration (normally to the two rivers in Liben zone) • Migration (normally to the two rivers in Liben zone)

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline Reference year: 1998/99 – average. Rainfall, migration, milk 2006/07 yield/price all average; security situation calm; market access was Plenty of Deyr rainfall with Gu below normal; livestock body condition normal; unknown camel normal; borders open and there was free flow of food and non-food disease killed a few animals; AWD outbreak in items. 2003/04 – Normal rainfall. No migration; good livestock the livelihood zone. body condition; normal cereal prices. 2005/06 Both Deyr and Gu rain failed; mass livestock migration from Filtu to Oromiya; large livestock mortality, especially cattle, Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in 2004/05 Reference Years 1998/99 & 2003/04 Deyr poor rain and very poor rain received in Gu; poor livestock body condition; poor pasture and water; livestock migration from Filtu to 1998-99 - Currency: Mainly Kenya Shilling (KSh); Ethiopian Birr Afderzone and Oromiya . (ETB) and Somali Shillings (SoSh) also widely used. 2003/04 [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] Exchange rates: 1ETB = KSh 8-9.5; 1US$ = 10,000 SoSh; Normal Gu and Deyr rainfall; no migration; good livestock body condition; normal cereals prices. 1US$ = Ksh 75 2002/03 Terms of Trade: 1 shoat = 50-60kg cereal Rainfall Deyr failed; very poor Gu rains; poor livestock body condition; migration from Dollo Prices (KSh): to Filtu and Kenya; drought year. Sugar/kg = 40 Maize/50kg = 600 2001/2002 [OLD STUDY YEAR] Deyr: low rainfall; livestock condition poor; Milk/glass = 5-10 (SoSh2,500) Shoat = 600-750 immigration from Kenya and Gedo; poor ToT. 2000/2001 2003-04 - Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB) Below average rainfall; livestock condition good in Deyr; out-migration to Kenya and Afder in Gu; Exchange rates: 1US$ = ETB poor terms of trade. Terms of Trade: 1 shoat = 80kg 1999/2000 Deyr rainfall low; Gu: good rain, pasture, livestock Prices (ETB): condition and prices. Migration from Rhamu and Sugar/kg = 8 Maize/50kg = 65 (1.3/kg) Mandera (Kenya). Good terms of trade. Milk/litre = 1.3-2 camel Shoat = 90-120 1998/1999 [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] Deyr and Gu good rains, pasture, terms of trade; no livestock movements 1997/1998 Deyr rainfall high; Gu rainfall average; livestock condition good; shoat and camel diseases 1996/1997 Deyr: no rain; livestock condition poor; Gu rain Indicators to Monitor average; livestock condition improved; livestock  Rainfall: Distribution, intensity, sufficiency (timing?) migration to Filtu district. 1995/1996  Pasture and water availability Deyr: rain failure - livestock internal migration; Gu: rain above average – livestock returned; good  Livestock health and condition: Production, disease outbreaks TOT  Human health: Disease outbreaks 1994/1995 Deyr rain good; Gu rain below average; livestock  Livestock and human migration condition good, no migration or diseases  Markets: Prices: grain, sugar, livestock, milk, firewood 1993/1994 Deyr rain below average; Gu rain normal;  Security: Kenya; Somalia; border with Borana livestock condition good, migration in Deyr returning in Gu

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Improve water quantity and quality (wells and ponds)  Establish/develop traditional range management systems – pasture and water reservation, control of water points, etc.  Improving animal health services and training community animal health workers  Set up livestock marketing strategies – freeing cross-border livestock trade and helping to find both national level and international market for local livestock  Rehabilitation of pastoral dropouts, returnees and IDPs  Facilitate the transition to farming along the river: pumps allocated to groups of farmers  Develop natural resource management systems.

85 Korahe-Gode Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ13)

Geographical Features

• A low land area, mostly with undulating hills in the north and northeast and flat areas in the west and east. • Altitude ranges from 300 to 600 metres above sea level. Mean annual temperatures range from 30-40

C0. • Climate is arid/semi-arid, with two rainy seasons annually, Gu and deyr falling from April to June and October to December respectively. • It is a chisel shaped geographically, covering most areas adjoining Korahe and Gode zones and EImey district. • Red and sandy soils, with a variable vegetation in different but with fairly good cover of large thorny shrubs and acacia trees. • Water is accessed through shallow but permanent wells, seasonal ponds and temporary river-bed

wells, locally known as laaso.

• Water salinity is a major problem, limiting the qual ity of water mainly in the dry season.

Population and Geographic Coverage District’s Rural Administrative Zone Districts % Popn in LZ Popn in LZ Popn Korahe Kebridahar 115,491 20 23,098 Dobowein 71,881 20 14,376 Sheygosh 26,712 70 18,699 Gode Danan 37,421 60 22,453 Gode 95,647 35 33,477 Kalafo 88,156 10 8,816 Mustahil 53,227 10 5,323 E. Imey 33,930 15 5,090 Total popn in Korahe-Gode Pastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural popn) = 3.4% 131,332 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Livestock rearing forms the basis of survival, with camel and shoats being the main livestock species raised. Cattle are less important due to the influence of past droughts (e.g., 1999/2000) which severely reduced their economic importance and role as a source of food and income. Access to water: Water is accessed mainly through permanent shallow wells, riverbed wells known as sandy wells (laaso) and seasonal ponds. The permanent wells provide water throughout the year with usage declining in the wet season as other sources of water flourish following the rains. Riverbed wells are easily dug by one or two people, often in a few hours, and are mostly so abundant that specific rights of use and ownership are not maintained. Seasonal ponds can hold water only in the rainy season and soon dry up after the rains but are also significant source of water. There are several permanent and seasonal water sources in the zone. These are traditionally clan owned water points but which are, under normal conditions, accessed for use by herders from anywhere. When there is a clan conflict, social exclusion involving the members of the non-owning clan in the conflict can take place. Clan conflict is not historically a major cause of concern in the zone.

86 Livestock and migration: Migration patterns are influenced by the state of pasture and water availability, insecurity like clan conflict and to some extent disease prevalence and the market. Camel and cattle often move long distances in situations of stress as opposed to shoats which often stay around settlements of origin. Normal migration is within the boundaries of the zone but when pasture and water is scarce can sometimes involve crossing into neighbouring zones. In the old reference year, herd movements involved the two bigger species – camel and cattle. In the Gu rains livestock moved to Armale, Nune, Marate, Garigoan, Walansi and Labijibax. During the hagaa, Harbulsho, Kurdale, Garbidhanan and Elele were the destinations of migration and Harwein and Suga for the deyr rains. In the jilaal in Nagadweyne, livestock migrated to Shinile, Higloley and Lasdharkeynle. Most of these areas are within the zone. During bad years, migration pattern changes significantly both in destinations and distances moved by different species. Generally, no clear-cut migration exists in a bad year as this depends on the where the rainfall has occurred. However, some of the more regular areas moved to in difficult years are (a) Areas between Kalafo and Dobowein districts, (b) The ciid rangeland of Shilabo district, an area often having a good pasture and water reserves, (c) Nogobyarey which is an area of prime grazing and browse importance, and (d) Dulqabow rangeland that contains grassy pastures. Food, income and expenditure: Livestock products and food purchase are, in the reference year, the main sources of food for all wealth groups, with little contribution from food aid. Poor households depend more on food purchase than other groups. Gifts in the form of milk and cereals make a significant proportion of the food consumed by the poor. Wealth groups are inter-dependent with gifts from the middle and better- off groups relied on as a key food source for the poor. Due to the high reliance on purchase, any major shifts that affect access to markets or/and food prices would have a great impact upon all wealth groups and change their ability to cover their annual food requirements. Major sources of income for all wealth groups are livestock sales, followed by the sale of livestock products. Poor households rely on a combination of income gained through livestock sources, gifts and the collection and sale of bush products (e.g., firewood, gums and construction poles). There is a notable variation in the cash expenditure patterns of the three groups. The level of expenditure is directly related to livestock holding, asset possession and household size. The pattern of expenditure varies on seasonal basis with more expenses being incurred during dry seasons. Markets: Gode and Kebridahar are the main markets, with Danan and Garbo towns serving lower level needs and facilitating low scale transactions. Livestock marketing is irreGular due to the absence of large commercial livestock marketing enterprises and hence is sold at low prices. A decreasing number of animals are passing through the marketing channel to Somalia. This is partly due to the fact that external livestock markets have been severely disrupted by the last ban in September 2000. Although many animals are taken to market by foot, transport on trucks and lorries is also common and more so for shoats. In the absence of external markets, many animals are sold for local consumption. In other cases, livestock is sold to traders who transport livestock to Puntland and/or Somaliland ports and in turn import food and non-food items including rice, sugar, wheat flour and household items. The neighbouring Korahe and Agropastoral zones in the east and west of the zone respectively are the source of supply for staple food grains. Maize and sorghum are the main cereals consumed in the zone, with relief wheat being an occasional additional source of supply. Vulnerabilities and responses: major vulnerability factors and their responses include the following: Drought: This is the most difficult hazard that frequently affects the population and livestock in this zone. A drought is a period where rainfall failure in one major season or two consecutive seasons leads to a severe slowdown of the pastoral economy through prolonged feed/water shortages, inducing production and market related problems and hence food insecurity. As water sources dry up and pastures become depleted under conditions of drought, livestock herds migrate or/and gather around the points that are in use due to previous better rains, increasing the chances of resource-based conflict and cross-infection among livestock herds. In a prolonged drought the nutrient intake of animals falls below normal, resulting in poor growth for young animals and a lower rate of conception for adult females. Consequently, animals lose weight as they use up their body reserves, eventually leading to emaciation and subsequent deaths. Calves, lactating and old animals are the first to die from feed/water related stress and associated opportunistic diseases Water shortage: The zone has many chronically water insecure settlements which face severe water scarcity even during the dry season in normal years. This gets worse with poor rains which decrease the water table and productivity of permanent water sources and increase the levels of salinity, increasing health risks related to consumption. Danan town and Burqoyar are among the areas worst affected by water shortage in bad years. Human diseases: Because of the absence of health services and the unavailability of essential drugs in most parts of the zone, endemic diseases are a major problem and cause serious problems once they rise to outbreak levels.

87 Livestock diseases: Endemic livestock diseases are common and generally have negative effects on the body condition and production of livestock. Market shocks/failure: Lack of very active internal markets and poor links to external markets are a major problem directly affecting access to food and income. Through reduced/low livestock prices and high cereal prices, which are worse in during poor rains, the household purchasing power is eroded, making the population more vulnerable to food insecurity. Coping strategies: Bad year coping strategies include: increased sales of livestock, increased collection and sale of bush products (by poor households), reduction of expenditure on non-essential items, seasonal out-migration, reduction in the number of meals and food intake per meal, increased slaughtering of animals, killing of the new born and very young calves to save mothers (could be distress strategy), seeking food aid and remittance and herd splitting (middle & better-off households).

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on the reference year 2005-06. 2100 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs in the reference baseline year as per the DPPA thresholds for calculating food requirements.

Wealth Characteristics

Poor Middle Better-off HH size 7 9 11

Livestock holdings Shoats 30-50 60-95 100-155 Cattle 5-7(2) 8-18(4) 20-38(8) Camels 4-6(2) 14-20(4.5) 20-45(8) Donkeys 1 0 0

Poor households account for 25 – 45% of total population in the zone while the middle and better-off account for 35-55% and 15-25% respectively. Wealth is determined by livestock holdings. Because the poor have the least productive assets, they do not have food and income flexibility and are the most vulnerable to market and production related shocks during bad years. In the absence of timely and appropriate interventions, poor households tend to resort to extreme coping and distress strategies which could lead to them becoming pastoral drop-outs. This highlights the critical importance of timely and appropriate interventions, including asset protection measures, in the event of hazards/shocks

Food Sources In the reference year, all wealth groups are able to Food sources 2005-06 fully cover their food needs, with livestock 120 products and food purchases being the main 100 sources of food. Food purchases are the most

80 important source of food for poor and middle Food aid households and so are livestock products for the 60 Gift/other Purchases better-off. The contribution of livestock products 40 L/stock prod to covering annual food requirement is directly Own crop prod 20 related to livestock holding, making up 27% of

0 food consumed for the poor, 46% for the middle Poor Middle Better off and 62% for the better-off. Wealth Group

Po or households purchase the most and better-off the least food. Gifts play a lesser but still significant role in covering the food needs of the poor, with food aid contributing the smallest amount for all wealth groups

Sources of Income

Livestock sales and livestock product sales are the main sources of income, with self employment and gifts being other complementary sources of income for the

poor. Livestock sales contribute 59% of the total income of the poor, and 69 % for the middle and better-off. After this are livestock product sale (i.e. milk and ghee) which account for 18 % of the income of the poor and 36 % of that of the middle and better-off. Self- employment (collection and sale of firewood

and construction poles) and gifts/zakat are 13% and 10% of the income of the poor Because of the high relianc e on livestock as a source of rienscpoemctiev, ealyn.y shock that significantly affects the marketing quality and produ ction of livestock, livestock demand and prices will negatively affect access to income by all wealth groups, hence access to food.

Expenditure Patterns

Because of the high dependence on the market, food purchases take the largest proportion of annual expenditures, making 54% of total expenditure for the poor, 39% for the middle and 26% for the better-off. This is followed by social services which account for 16% for the poor and 18% for the middle and better- off. Clothing is the next largest expenditure category for the poor and so is expenditure on other items for the middle and better-off. This high expenditure on

other items indicates the relatively better flexibility of expenditure for better-off and to some extent for middle wealth groups. This expenditure flexibility can be switched to financing food needs during bad years. Market interventions that reduce the cost of staple foods would help in improving the access to food needs and saving income during bad years

Seasonal Calendar

Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Season Gu Hagaa Deyr Jilaal Hunger / stress periods Water levels / pasture condition Pasture observation (sahan) Movement according to sahan Livestock reproduction Milking period Livestock migration Livestock sales Cereal purchases

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Response

Key vulnerabilities: Main risk-minimising strategies: • Drought • Herd species diversification in favour of more • Human diseases (limited access to human health services) drought resistant animals and splitting • Livestock disease (limited vet services) • Slaughter of newborn livestock • Market shocks (e.g. livestock ban, high cereal prices, • Migration crackdown on cross-border trade) • Diversification of income sources • Lack of income diversification • Managing resources • Poor government services and infrastructure • Isolation – high prices for imported commodities • Insecurity and conflict. Main coping strategies: Poor wealth group Middle wealth group Better-off wealth • Increase of livestock sales • Increase of livestock sales group • Increase of the proportion of livestock products • Cutting non-essential expenditure As for middle wealth sold and shifting to food purchases group, and in addition: • Cutting non-essential expenditure and shifting • Reducing meals and food intake • using saved income food purchases per meal. • Increase of bush product collection and sales • Increase of livestock slaughtering • Increased seeking of gifts • Reducing meals and food intake per meal • Splitting the household • Wild food consumption

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline

2007- 08 [STUDY YEAR] Reference Year Prices and Terms of Trade Poor gu and very poor deyr rains; market restrictions causing very high food prices and low livestock prices; insecurity; food Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB), 1 ETB = 8.66 USD shortages; health problems. Terms of Trade: 1 average shoat = 65kg sorghum 2006 Below normal Gu rains and good deyr rains; Prices (ETB): no livestock migration; normal livestock Sorghum/50kg: 80 (1.6/kg) production. 2005 [REFERENCE YEAR] Milk: 1-2 camel Normal Gu rains, below normal deyr rains; Shoats: 95-110 average year; no large scale livestock migration due to better pasture availability Sugar: 5.5/kg from the Gu. 2004 Normal Gu rains and much below normal deyr rains; influx of livestock from Dagahbur during the Gu; livestock movments to parts of Korahe zone. 2003 Below normal Gu and deyr rains; livestock Indicators to Monitor migration to Afder zone; poor livestock production; increase in the prices of food;  Rainfall increasing food insecurity; poor livestock  Pasture availability and condition market due to the effects of the livestock ban.  Markets for cereals and livestock (demand, prices, access) 2002  Livestock condition (body condition and production) Normal Gu rains followed by below normal  Human and livestock health (disease prevalence, service and drug deyr rains; poor livestock market because of availability) the livestock ban imposed in 2000.  Livestock product marketing (prices, volumes)  Water salinity  Income generating activities (volumes, prices, who is involved) 90  Conflict and insecurity  Coping strategies (types, levels practiced, effects)

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Improve livestock marketing and the access to internal and external markets, through legalising and promoting cross-border trade which is critical in stabilising livestock demand and prices and hence will help in reducing the fluctuation in income at household level. This will also improve availability of essential food and non-food items.  Establish more permanent water sources to help overcome the water crisis and the health risks posed by high levels of water salinity in the dry season and during bad years.  Improve social services and infrastructure – animal and human health, education, extension services, transport and communication infrastructure. This will expand production possibilities  Promote the marketing of milk and other livestock products  Improve social services and infrastructure – animal and human health, education, extension services, transport and communication infrastructure. This will expand production possibilities and strengthen coping strategies  Provide soft loans for pastoral groups in order to benefit during the dry season when livestock prices are very low and it does not make economic sense to sell  Improve management of natural resources, especially grazing and water sources. Proliferation of berkads causing environmental deterioration.

91 Moyale Wayamo Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ14)

Djibouti

n o i Oromia Ganale River Geographical Features g e R

Shinile Region r Afder Zone

a Somalia f Zone Most of the district is lowland plains with A • Jijiga Zone Filtu

scattered hills, altitude ranging between 1,000 –

n Degahbur Daua River o i

g 1,350m above sea level. Two rainy seasons - gu e Fik R

Warder

a Zone i Korahe Zone (main) and deyr - give an average annual rainfall m

o Gode Dolo Ado r Zone

O Zone Moyale of 400mm; this is higher in Galgalu (east, closer Afder n o Zone i Kenya to River Dawa) and in the higher areas to the Liban Somalia g Somalia Zone e Oromia R north, bordering Oromia. The river Dawa Kenya Moyale Wayamo Pastoral FEZ (camel, borders the zone to the north and east. shoats, cattle) • Soil mostly wayamo; light, soft, reddish; also sandy red, and black and white soils. • Vegetation: thick-type bushes; wayamo associated with Acacia species, good for camels. Also scattered grassy plains, good for cattle.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Administrative Zone District Rural Population % in LZ No of people Liban Zone Moyale 168,113 90% 151,302 Hudet 65,932 100% 65,932 Total population in the Livelihood Zone as % of reg. rural Popn = 5.7% 217,234 Source: Population Figures – 2007 Estimates based on Census of 1994

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Pastoralism: camels (most important), sheep/goats (shoats) and cattle. Land and water: Land communally owned. Water points may be communally or individually owned. There are a few permanent water sources: at Ararsame, El Leh, El Gof, Kadaduma and Hudet, and the Dawa river. Livestock and migration: All livestock are milked except sheep. Ghee production is low in normal/dry years, but high enough in a good year for consumption/sale. The sale of milk is not common but occurs close to towns. Most normal livestock migration is within the district, towards permanent water sources. In dry seasons (if there is no conflict) Hudet pastoralists move to Arero areas bordering Oromia. Those in the west tend to remain in the vicinity, closer to water points; those living near the Kenyan border may move across the border. Most of the others move towards the river, except for small groups in the east, with camels, who move to El Leh and El Gof boreholes. In bad years, livestock will move to distant areas in Kenya and Borena. Food, income and expenditure: Major food sources: livestock products (milk/ghee) for all wealth groups, followed by purchased cereal (maize). Livestock sale is almost the only income source especially for the middle and better-off groups. The poor also make additional income by selling labour and collecting incense. Expenditure is varied: staple cereals, sugar, social services, clan tax, household items, livestock inputs. Markets: Major markets are Moyale and around major boreholes. The main livestock demand comes from Kenya. Cereal comes from the Ethiopian highlands unless relief levels in Kenya are high. Sugar, rice, pasta and clothes come from Somalia; cooking oil, jerry cans and mattresses come from Kenya. Cross-border trade is highest in the dry season. Closure of the Kenya-Ethiopia border has had a major negative impact. Vulnerabilities and responses: Main risk factors: rainfall failure or delay, conflict (between Somali and Oromo clans in the west, over water/grazing) and livestock diseases. Risk-minimising strategies include diversity of livestock species, pasture surveying, migration, castration, social support, controlling mating and culling of older animals to exchange for younger ones. Coping mechanisms include selling more livestock, changing food consumption patterns, cutting expenditure, household splitting, moving animals closer to towns 92 (increased milk sales), slaughtering newborn animals, and increasing bush product collection, loans and social support. Social Services: roads, health, education and veterinary services are all poor.

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 2000/01 and 2005/06. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 2000/01 and 2005/06. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

Wealth Characteristics

2000-01 Poor Middle Better-off

Household size 6 8 – 9 11 – 12 (12)

Livestock holdings (lactating: brackets) [pack camels: sq. brackets] Shoats 15-25 (5-8) 20-35 (5-10) 35-60 (10) Cattle 8-15 (2-3) 25-30 (5) Few if any cattle Camels 7-15(2-3)[1–2] 25-35(5-8)[4–5] 60–70 (8-10)[5–8] Donkeys 1 1 0

The main determinant of wealth is livestock ownership, mainly camels and shoats. Unusually, poor and middle households mostly keep cattle, but the majority of the rich do not. A small group (5% population) of very poor (poorer than the poor described above), are the main recipients of gifts from middle and better-off households.

2005-06 Poor Middle Better-off In the new reference year Household size 7-8 8 – 9 9 – 11 livestock remained the main determinant of wealth. Livestock holdings (lactating: brackets) [pack camels: sq. brackets] However, the number of Shoats 20-40 (9) 30-50 (12) 50-80 (24) camels for all wealth groups Cattle 4-10 (2) 10-20 (3) 20-35 (4) and cattle for poor and

Camels 6-9 (1-2)[0] 15-25 (4-5)[1–2] 35–45 (6)[1–3] middle households has Donkeys 0 1 1 declined.

Th e decline in herd size of camel and cattle could be attributed to poor seasonal performance of most years, clan conflicts, and the relative severity of the drought in 2002/03. On the other hand there has been improved access to cross border markets. This is due to the subsidence of clan conflicts between the Garri and the Borena in recent years which otherwise was a major hindrance to accessing markets, both in-country and across the border in Kenya. This has also encouraged the better-off groups to hold cattle - something they were not interested in before 2002.

Food Sources Milk is the main food source for all wealth groups. Poor households consume virtually nothing else during the peak wet seasons (four months); maize and sugar are purchased and consumed during the rest of the year. Middle and better-off households also purchase staples (mainly maize), as well as sugar and oil. Sugar is consumed throughout the year, oil only during the dry seasons.

93 Food sources 120 The contribution of milk to household diet has decreased in the new reference year as a result of 100 80 a reduction in the number of milking animals and Food aid 60 the use of livestock products for generating Gift/other income - something which was totally absent in 40 Purchases

20 L/stock prod the old reference year due to limited access to

0 cross border markets. The balance has been 2000-01 2005-062000-012005-06 2000-012005-06 covered by food purchases by all wealth groups. Poor Middle Better off Wealth Group For the poor wealth group, however, food

purchased from the market does not fully

compensate for the reduced availability of livestock products. Therefore 10-15% of their

food needs was covered by food aid and gifts.

Sour ces of Income

In the old reference year the main income Income sources

8000 source for the all wealth groups was from the sale of livestock, mainly in the dry 7000 seasons. The poor sold cattle and goats. 6000 Gift/zakaa They also collected incense to sell, and 5000 received gifts of food (mainly milk). The Bush prod sale 4000 middle households sold camels, cattle and L/stock prod sale 3000 goats, and only a small amount of incense. Livestock sale 2000 The better-off wealth group depended

1000 mostly on the sale of camels; they also sold

0 shoats but no cattle. Income from sales of 2000-01 2005-06 2000-01 2005-06 2000-01 2005-06 incense was minimal. Poor Middle Better off Wealth group .

The importance of livestock sales as a major source of income has continued in the new reference year with all wealth groups earning slightly higher income as a result of increased livestock prices. Livestock products em erged as sources of income in the new reference year due to increased access to internal and Kenyan m arkets - a result of subsidence of clan conflict between Garri and Borena in the years between the two reference years. Only the poor supplemented their livestock related income from bush product sales while the other groups have abandoned these sources as a consequence of decreasing availability and an increase in the distances needed to travel to find items like incense and wood for construction poles.

Expenditure Patterns In the old reference year poor households s pent most on staple purchases (maize) and social services (health, Koran school, government and clan tax), followed by household items. Non-staple food purchases comprised sugar. For middle households non-staple foods (sugar and oil) were the biggest expenditure, followed by social services and household items; they had some flexibility. For better-off households expenditure was evenly distributed on staple purchases, non-staple purchases and social services

94 Expenditure patterns remained the same while the proportion of income spent on staple food has increased for all households. The decline in the contribution of milk and the increasing prices of staple and non staple foods have contributed to increased expenditure on purchased food. Expenditure on household items and clothes has increased but this can be associated with recent upward price trends. Cash allocated to social services has decreased in all wealth groups and the poor and middle groups have also cut back on inputs.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Deyr Jilaal Gu Hagaa Rainfall Pasture observation and movements Preparation of male livestock for mating Milk production/sales/prices High prodn Low prodn Low price High price Livestock watering High High Livestock: sales salting High High Food purchase High High Well preparation and digging Bush products collection

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Drought • Conflict • Livestock disease • Border closure (Ethiopia-Kenya) • Poor government structures and services Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Diversification of herds (species) • Increased animal sales • Seasonal surveying - Sahan - and migration • Change in food consumption and cutting expenditure • Castration of livestock • Splitting the household (men and older boys migrate with • Social support (kaalmo – gift herd; children sent to urban or richer pastoral relatives) seeking/giving; zakaa) • Digging roots for milking camels • Controlling mating • Increase milk sales • Storing grain in trees • Igir (slaughter of newborn livestock) • Exchanging animals (older / bigger for • Wild products collection and sale smaller / cheaper) • Increase in kaalmo (gift seeking/giving)

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline Reference year: 2000/2001 – a poor but relatively common type of 2006-07 year. The good prices of this year compensated for the poor Gu: good rains; unknown camel disease. Deyr; near normal rains; below normal climatic conditions. The Kenya Shilling (KSh) was the main currency. livestock production, 2005-06 [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] Reference year: 2005/2006 – a poor but common type of year. Gu: poor rains. Deyr: very poor rains; livestock sales at low prices. Gu: sale of Prices of livestock were relatively cheaper. Prolonged livestock more livestock at low prices; prolonged migration. No prevalence of diseases. Ethiopian Birr (ETB) is the migration period main currency. 2004-05 Gu: poor rains, Deyr: poor rains; livestock mortality and diseases Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in Reference 2003-04 Gu: good rains; enough pasture and water. Year 2000-01 Deyr: good rains 2002-03 Currency: Mainly Kenya Shilling (KSh); Ethiopian Birr (ETB) also Gu: very poor rains; conflict; severe drought. widely used. Deyr: large livestock mortality; more livestock sales at low prices; prolonged Exchange rates: 1ETB = KSh 8-9.5 livestock out migration Terms of Trade: 1 shoat = 1 quintal (100kg) maize (dry season) 2001 – 2002 [STUDY YEAR] Deyr: poor rains; conflict (Hudet and El Gof); but less in normal wet seasons. in-migration from Mandera early 2001 Prices (KSh): (Kenya drought). Shoat = 600 – 1,000 [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] 2000 - 2001 Incense/kg = 10 Deyr: very poor. Gu: poor in the east, normal Sugar/kg = 55 in the north; sheep/camel diseases. Water/drum = 350 1999 - 2000 Deyr: poor rains. Gu: poor to normal rains; Maize/kg = 8 local conflict; displacement to Kenya. 1998 - 1999 Deyr: very poor rains; camel and cattle diseases. Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in Reference Gu: poor rains (normal in north) 1997 – 1998 El Niño Year 2005-06 Deyr: heavy rains; human and livestock diseases; poor ToT. Gu: poor rains; Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB). pasture/water still available from previous deyr rains Exchange rates: 1USD = ETB 8.69 1996 - 1997 Terms of Trade: 1 shoat = 70-75kg maize Deyr: very poor rains; migration to Dawa river; high cattle disease/mortality. Gu: good Prices (ETB): rains; human and livestock diseases. Shoat = 90 – 120 1995 - 1996 Deyr: poor rains; normal migration; peace. Milk = 1.25-1.75/lt, camel; 1/lt, cow, wet season only Gu: good rains; camel diseases. Incense/kg = NA 1994 – 1995 Sugar/kg = 7 Deyr and Gu good rains in both. Water/drum = NA 1993 - 1994 Deyr: poor rains; relief food/wheat widely Maize/kg = 1.5 available. Gu: poor rains. 1992 - 1993 Deyr: normal; no maize available; security situation tense. Gu: normal/good. 1991 - 1992 Drought; collapse of the Derg; livestock raiding by Borana; displacement to Kenya; deaths; gold assisted recovery.

Indicators to Monitor  Rainfall; Performance, timeliness and distribution  Pasture and water availability: Availability, condition, alternative pastures, pasture-water distance  Markets: Prices, demand/supply for livestock, milk, staple/non-staple foods, bush products  Livestock health: Disease outbreaks

96  Human health: Disease outbreaks  Coping strategies: Degree of ‘resorting to’ and their effectiveness  Security situation: Tensions, active conflict, blocked access to resources

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Improved veterinary and extension services for livestock production o Constraints: poor staffing and poor supply of veterinary drugs and services  Help community range management practices by helping to maintain dry and wet season grazing areas and by locating water points strategically o Constraints: land degradation and conflict in bordering Oromia areas  Improved human health services - provision of medical staff, training of community health workers and ensuring a regular supply of medicines for common ailments o Constraints: lack of qualified health staff, facilities, drugs and infrastructure  Conflict prevention and mitigation - setting up committees of elders and government officials charged with the responsibility of preaching peace and resolving problems quickly o Constraints: unclear federal boundaries and seasonal ethnic fighting  Improved water accessibility, especially in the wayamo, constructing big reservoirs and boreholes o Constraints: seasonal water and pasture shortage, causing stress  Improve road and transport infrastructure in the District and Zone; a bridge to connect Filtu (the Zone capital) and Moyale is a priority; market infrastructure and promotion of cross-border trade with Kenya o Constraints: roads to kebeles very poor, cross-border trade in livestock is largely illegal due to poor policy support/implementation

97 Jijiga Agro-pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ15)

Geographical Features • This livelihood zone has two distinct agro ecological areas - valleys and mountains in

the west and vast plains in the north-east

and south. • There are no permanent rivers running through the zone. The Fafan River, Jerer and Dakhata valleys are all seasonal. • Soil: mostly black clay (fertile) except in Babile District where there is sandy soil (used for groundnut cultivation).

The zone depends on the Diraa’ rains (mid-Mar – mid-May) and the heavier Karan rains (mid-Jul – mid-Oct), both of which are equally important for cultivation/maturation of crops, water availability and livestock pasture regeneration.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Admin. Zone Districts Rural Popn % in LZ No of people Jijiga zone Jijiga 297,895 10 29,790 Awbare 231,588 60 138,953 Kebribayah 174,484 100 174,484 Babile 96,987 100 96,987 Gursum 11,520 100 11,520 Harshin 70,560 10 7,056 Total Popn of the Jijiga Agropastoral LZ (as % of Regional Rural Popn = 12%) 458,790 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: rain-fed sorghum and maize production, and livestock - mainly sheep/goats (shoats) and cattle. Land and water: households belonging to all wealth groups have similar landholdings but may only cultivate part of these. They will also own some grazing land. Better-off households have the resources to cultivate wider areas. In a normal year there is enough water to support both human and livestock populations. Both the Fafan and Jerer valleys (running through the western part of Jijiga Zone) provide grazing when the dry season is prolonged. Crop production: main crops cultivated with the dira’ rains include long maturing varieties of sorghum and maize; households begin consuming green harvest in late June and harvest in November. During the karan rains short-maturing varieties are cultivated (barley and maize) and some groundnuts in Babile district; also small amounts of chickpeas, flax, peas, oats, lentils, Irish and sweet potatoes, onions, garlic, and chat (some as cash crops). Guus’ is the principal arrangement used to ensure all households are able to plough and cultivate some land: the owner of the land provides food and chat in exchange for one day’s farm labour. Livestock and migration: pasture is supplemented by crop residues between May and July (primarily for milking cows and oxen) and from the second harvest; livestock eat stored fodder from January to March). March is the most difficult month in terms of pasture and fodder availability. In years of poor rainfall, households with livestock move to the closest grazing areas: those from western and central areas go to the Fafan, Dhakato and Jerer valleys, those in the north-east go to Borama in Somalia and Dambal in Shinile zone.

98 Food, income and expenditure: food: mainly own crops, some livestock production, purchase, some food aid and gifts (poor households). Income: mainly crops/livestock production, also bush products for poor households, and remittance for poor households. Poor households can only afford to buy food and non-food essentials; middle and better-off households can afford schooling, and better-off households have savings. Vulnerabilities and responses: high reliance on rain-fed agriculture and pasture means that this population is particularly vulnerable to drought, Hamaday frost (October/November), crop pests and market price fluctuations. Main risk-minimising strategies include cultivation of higher-yielding crops (poor households), selling fodder and crops when prices are higher (middle and better-off households) and selling cattle (better-off households). Markets: main items traded within the zone include cereals (sorghum, maize, and wheat), livestock (mainly oxen for export) and shoats, and also small quantities of oil seeds, pulses and vegetables. Households rely on different markets for the sale and purchase of specific items. Markets do not react the same way in times of stress. They include Jijiga (crops and livestock, firewood, charcoal, some labour; seasonal fluctuations but stable in a bad year); Hartasheik (grain and livestock for export; large fluctuations in bad years); Chinahsan (oxen for Jijiga/Hartasheik; secondary market for chat; in a bad year prices do not fluctuate too much); Babile (oxen for Jijiga/Hartasheik; groundnuts; in a bad year prices fairly stable (some seasonal fluctuations)); Dire Dawa (major grain/livestock market - but not for export so less important).

Wealth Characteristics

Poor Middle Better-off

Household size 5-7 6-8 9-11 Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets)

Camels 0 (0) 4-8 (1-2) 16-20 (2-4) Shoats 6-10 (2) 20-26(2-3) 40-50(3-4) Cattle 2-4(1) 10-12(3) 16-18(5) Oxen 0-1 1-3 1-3 Donkeys 1 1 1 Pack camel 0 0 1-2 Land cultivated

(hectares) 1 1-3 3-4 T h e main determinants of wealth are livestock and area of land cultivated. Better-off and middle households own some camel while the poor have none. Cattle ownership determines the number of oxen that the household owns and hence the area of land that they are able to cultivate. Wealth in this zone is a direct result of agricultural activities and subsequent production.

Food Sources

Food sources 2004-05 Food is presented as a percentage of 2100 kcal per 120 person per day for the twelve-month period starting 100 from the 2004 main season (diraac) harvest. Own crop production contributes the largest share of 80 Food aid annual food for all wealth groups. Consumption of Gift/other 60 livestock products increases significantly with

Purchases increase in wealth. Purchases formed a substantial 40 L/stock prod contribution for all wealth groups. However, the Own crop prod 20 better-off and the middle households purchase more 0 sugar, which accounts for about 50% of their total Poor Middle Better off food purchase. Wealth Group

The poor purchase more cereals (two-thirds of total purchased food) to fill their food gap in a normal year. Fo od aid and gifts are the other sources of food for poor households. In normal years, people in this livelihood zone are relatively less dependent on the market for their food

Sources of Income Sales of crops, livestock products and livestock are the most important income sources for all groups. Poor households rely on the collection/sale of bush products especially fire wood and charcoal which are the major income earners for them. Sales of bush products increase in bad years when some middle households also resort to this. In recent years, the growing urban population has created increased demand for firewood and charcoal thus endangering the vegetation resources in the mid-highlands of the zone. The poor also benefit from remittances obtained from re latives living elsewhere.

Expenditure Patterns

Poor households can afford only to pay for essential food and non-food items. In bad years expenditure on clothes, kerosene and soap is reduced or stopped completely (firewood is collected and used instead of kerosene). Middle households can afford education for one child and guus-related activities. They make similar cutbacks to poor households in a bad year, paying for education when things improve again. Better-off households can afford to educate more children; they also have extra household members whose needs need to be catered for. They have better cash reserves for flexibility or saving.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Jilaal (dry) Diraa’ Hagaa (dry) Karan (rains) Jilaal (dry) (rains) Land prep and sowing Weeding Green consumption (poor only) Harvest/transport to store Own cereal consumption All wealth groups Middle/B-off Better-off only Cereal purchase Poor only Poor/Middle All Cow milk availability High Lower Livestock sales Livestock migration More Less Fodder shortage

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Drought • Hamaday frost (October / November) • Crop pests (locusts, birds, army worm) • Livestock diseases • Conflict • Market price fluctuations (e.g. when there is relief food distribution)

100 Main risk-minimising strategies Poor households Better-off households • Cultivate higher-yielding maize / sorghum, taking advantage of • Sell crops when they see prospects first rains for next harvest (hold off if prospects are poor) Middle and better-off households • Sell cattle and keep cash • Keep fodder after harvest, sell later

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline April 2004 – March 2005 was the reference year: an average recent year; key 2006-07 [STUDY YEAR] informants could easily recall details. Karan: good rains 2005-06 Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in Reference Year Good: Karan: good rains; Diraa’: very good rains [REFERENCE YEAR] Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB). Exchange rate: 1US$ = 8.65 2004-05 Normal: Karan: good Terms of Trade: In jilaal (dry season) 1 shoat = 90-95 kg of wheat rains; Diraa’: good rains; no or barley outbreaks of disease 2003-04 Prices (ETB): Average: Karan: below normal Shoat (local quality) = 130-150 rains; livestock migration, Diraa’: good rains Sorghum and maize (50kg) sold = 50 (jilaal); 50 (karan) 2002-03 Wheat/Barley = 1.5/kg Average: Karan: below normal Wheat flour/rice = 5/kg rains; livestock ban started; Diraa’: good rains Sugar = 6/kg 2001–02 Milk/litre = 1.5-2 (camel), 1.5-2 (cattle) Poor: two refugee camps closed

(Dharwanaji, Tefere Ber) Agricultural labour/day = NA 2000-01 Poor: army worm outbreak in plains; lack of rainfall 1999–00

Average: no main event Indicators to Monitor 1998-99  Average: average rainfall; locust Rainfall: Quantity, distribution, and timing attack in March (planting season)  Crop condition: Stage of development, pests and diseases 1997-98  Markets: Availability and prices of grain, crop residue, livestock especially oxen; Above average: El Nino year; market access above normal rainfall; birds attacked crops  Water and pasture availability  Livestock health: Pests and diseases  Labour migration  Human health and nutrition: Diseases  Coping mechanisms: Degree of ‘resorting to’

101 Jijiga Sedentary Farming Livelihood Zone (LZ16)

Djibouti i Geographical Features Shinile z l a

Awbarre n m o

Si hinile r • There are no permanent rivers running So a g

fa Somalia

A Re through the zone. The Fafan river, Jerer and

Gursum Jijiga Dakhata valleys are all seasonal. Jijig a Degahbur Babile • Soil: mostly black clay (fertile) except in

Jijiga Harshin

n Fik i Warder Babile District where there is sandy soil

o i

m Zone

g Korahe Kebribaya ro Gode (used for groundnut cultivation). O Re h AfderA Degahbur Zone • The zone depends on the Dira’ rains (mid- d Liban Mar – mid-Jun) and the heavier Karan rains aSomalia (mid-Jul – mid-Sep), both equally important Kenya dl e for cultivation/maturation of crops, water availability and pasture regeneration.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Admin. Zone Districts Rural Popn % in LZ Popn in LZ Jijiga zone Jijiga 297,895 90% 268,106 Awbare 231,588 40% 92,635 Total Popn of the Jijiga Sedentary farming LZ as % of Reg. Rural Popn = 9.4% 360,741 Source: Population figures – 2007 estimates based on 1994 Census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: Rain-fed sorghum and maize production, and livestock - mainly sheep/goats (shoats) and cattle. Land and water: Land is inherited; households belonging to all wealth groups have similar landholdings but households may only cultivate part these. They will also own some grazing land. Better-off households have the resources to cultivate wider areas. In a normal year there is enough water to support both human and livestock populations. Both the Fafan and Jerer valleys (running through the western part of Jijiga Zone) provide grazing when the dry season is prolonged. Crop production: Main crops cultivated with the dira’ rains include long maturing varieties of sorghum and (less) maize; households begin consuming green harvest in late June and harvest in November. During the karan rains short-maturing varieties are cultivated (wheat, barley, maize) and some groundnuts in Babile District; also small amounts of chickpeas, flax, peas, oats, lentils, Irish and sweet potatoes, onions, garlic, and chat (some as cash crops). Guus’ is the principal arrangement used to ensure all households are able to plough and cultivate some land: the owner of the land provides food and chat in exchange for one day’s farm labour. Livestock and migration: Pasture is supplemented by crop residues between May and July (primarily for milking cows and oxen) and from the second harvest; livestock eat stored fodder from January to March. March is the most difficult month in terms of pasture and fodder availability. In years of poor rainfall, households with livestock move to the closest grazing areas: those from western and central areas go to the Fafan, Dhakato and Jerer valleys, those in the north-east go to Borama in Somalia and Dambal in Shinile Zone. Food, income and expenditure: Food: mainly own crops, some livestock production, purchases, and gifts (poor households). Income: mainly crops/livestock production, also bush products for poor/middle households, and labour for poor households. Poor households can only afford to buy food and non-food essentials; middle and better-off households can afford schooling, and better-off households have savings. Vulnerabilities and responses: High reliance on rain-fed agriculture and pasture means that this population is particularly vulnerable to drought, Hamaday frost (October/November), crop pests and market price fluctuations. Main risk-minimising strategies include cultivation of higher-yielding crops (poor households), selling fodder and crops when prices are higher (middle and better-off households) and selling cattle (better-off households).

102 Markets: Main items traded within the zone include cereals (sorghum, maize, and wheat), livestock (mainly oxen for export) and shoats, and also small quantities of oil seeds, pulses and vegetables. Households rely on different markets for the sale and purchase of specific items. Markets do not react the same way in times of stress. They include Jijiga (crops and livestock, firewood, charcoal, some labour; seasonal fluctuations but stable in a bad year); Hartasheik (grain and livestock for export; large fluctuations in bad years); Chinahsan (oxen for Jijiga/Hartasheik; secondary market for chat; in a bad year prices do not fluctuate too much); Babile (oxen for Jijiga/Hartasheik; groundnuts; in a bad year prices fairly stable (some seasonal fluctuations)); Dire Dawa (major grain/livestock market - but not for export, so less important here; contraband from Djibouti/Somaliland).

The following section presents wealth characteristics, major sources of food and income and expenditure patterns per wealth group based on two separate reference years 1996/97 and 2004/05. These will be hereafter referred as the old and the new baseline/reference years respectively. The information based on the latter is relevant and useful for any decision-making on the current situation as it is the latest update on the existing livelihood characteristics. Together, the two sets of information can be used to make a comparative/trend analysis on how asset, food and income levels and sources and expenditure patterns changed over the period between 1996/97 and 2004/05. 1900 kcal/person/day was the basis for calculating food needs for the old baseline year while this was changed to 2100 kcal/person/day under the new reference year baseline following a change in the threshold for calculating food requirement by the Federal Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency (DPPA).

Wealth Characteristics

1999-00 Poor Middle Better-off

Household size 6 6 7 Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets)

Shoats 2-3 (0-1) 5-10 (2–3) 10-15 (3–5) Cattle 1–2 (0-1) 4-6 (1–2) 8-12 (2-4)

Oxen 0 1 2

Donkeys 1 1 either 1 0 0 or 1 Pack camel Land 5 - 12 13 - 22 23 – 40 cultivated kodi (1 - 2) (2 - 4) (4 - 7) (hectares)

T he main determinants of wealth identified by the community are oxen, labour, and area of land cultivated. Wealthy households can cultivate wider areas. Thus, wealth in this zone is a direct result of agricultural activities and subsequent production. This is unique compared with other LZs within the region.

2004-05 Poor Middle Better-off Determinants of wealth remained Household size 6 6 7 the same in the new reference year. However, area of land cultivated has Livestock holdings (lactating in brackets) significantly declined for all wealth Shoats 3 (1 - 2) 12 (5) 18 (7) groups. According to key Cattle 1 – 3 (1) 6 - 10 (2) 8 - 10 (3 - 4) informants, farmers in this livelihood Oxen 0 2 3 zone are highly discouraged by the 1 1 1 Donkeys availability of low priced relief food Land cultivated 1 2 3 on the market which also lowers the (hectares) value of agricultural crops.

Gu rains were also delayed in the new reference year affecting timely planting. In addition to these, the fuel price increase has also affected the better-off farmers who used to cultivate their land using rented tractors.

103

Food Sources

Food sources 2004-05 Crop production is the main food source for all wealth groups. 140 Poor households have to sell when prices are low, and purchase 120 cereals for food later when prices are high; they receive much of 100 their food needs through zakat. Middle households also have to 80 Food aid purchase maize and sorghum; they also buy sugar. This group 60 Gift/other Purchases also consumes their milk products, including goats’ milk, 40 L/stock prod Own crop prod although in a bad year they may sell milk. Better-off households 20 produce most of the cereal they require for food; they purchase 0 1999-00 2004-051999-002004-05 1999-002004-05 sugar, and consume about half their milk production, selling or Poor Middle Better off Wealth Group giving away the rest. Goats’ milk is given only to children.

In the new reference year all households cons umed most of the crops they produced. Despite this, however, the contribution of own crops to annual f ood needs has declined as a result of the changes in kcal requirements and the decline in the area of land cultivated. Purchases have increased to compensate for the loss in agricultural crops thus increasing households’ dependency on markets.

Sources of Income

Sales of crops and livestock products are the most important income sources for all groups. Poor

households also rely on seasonal agricultural labour and collection/sale of bush products; middle and better-off households sell livestock too. Middle households do not seek labour but they do collect/sell bush products. Better-off households sell maize and sorghum first, only selling wheat/barley when they know the prospects for the next harvest; they also cultivate chat as a cash crop.

In bad years poor households may migrate to neighbouring/urban areas in search of employment; middle h ouseholds may send family members away to seek employment, increase bush product collection/sale, and may sell up to two shoats; better-off households can normally absorb the effects of a bad year by high agricultural yields in a normal year. In the new reference year the change in sources of income correlates with the decline in agricultural crop production and the rise in the price of livestock. Livestock sales appeared to be a major income earner for middle and better-off households in the new reference year. Bush products are no longer a source of income for the poor as they are not available near villages due to over- exploitation. In addition to the income earned from sales of crops and livestock products, poor households started to engage in urban daily labour to compensate for the lost income from bush products.

Expenditure Patterns

Poor households can afford only to pay for essential food and non-food items. In bad years expenditure on clothes, kerosene and soap is reduced or stopped completely (firewood is collected and used instead of kerosene). Middle households can afford education for one child and guus-related activities. They make similar cutbacks to poor households in a bad year, paying for education when things improve again. Better-off households can afford education for two children, they pay more for guus-related activities, they also have extra household members whose needs need to be catered for. They have significant savings.

104 Expenditure on food has more than doubled during the new reference year. The decline in own crop production has necessitated more food purchases. This, together with the recent price increases, required increased expenditure of food. Flexibility or savings have also significantly declined as a result.

Seasonal Calendar

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Seasons Jilaal (dry) Diraa’ Hagaa (dry) Karan (rains) Jilaal (dry) (rains) Land preparation and Weeding sowing Harvest/transport to store Own cereal consumption All wealth groups middle/B-off Better-off only Cereal purchase Poor only Poor/Middle All Cow milk availability High Lower Livestock sales Livestock migration More Less

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Drought • Hamaday frost (October / November) • Crop pests (locusts, birds, army worm) • Conflict • Market price fluctuations (e.g. when there is relief food distribution) Main risk-minimising strategies Poor households Better-off households • Cultivate higher-yielding maize / sorghum, taking advantage of • Sell crops when they see prospects first rains for next harvest (hold off if prospects are poor) Middle and better-off households • Sell cattle and keep cash • Keep fodder after harvest, sell later

105

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline 1999/2000 was the reference year: an average year; key [NEW STUDY YEAR] informants could easily recall details. 2006-2007 2004-05 Normal year but Gu rains were delayed. Normal; both rainfalls received on time 2005-2006 Above normal; rainfall was Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in 1999- received, but crop production was 2000 below normal, because of delay in Gu rains Currency: Mainly Ethiopian Birr (ETB). [NEW REFERENCE YEAR] 2004 – 2005 Terms of Trade: In jilaal: 1 shoat = one 50kg bag of maize Normal; all livelihood activities or sorghum normal Prices (ETB): 2003-2004 Near to below normal; poor Shoat (local quality) = 95 (jilaal) performance of Gu rainfall Sorghum and maize (50kg) = 50 (jilaal); 97.5 (gu) 2002 – 2003 Wheat/Barley – 65 (jilaal); 130 (karan) Below normal; low Gu rainfall; karan was better; crop production Milk/litre = 2.5 below normal Agricultural labour/day = 5 [OLD STUDY YEAR] 2001-02 Poor; two refugee camps closed (Dharwanaji, Tefere Ber) Currency, Prices and Terms of Trade in 2004- 2000-2001 Poor; army worm outbreak in 05 plains; lack of rainfall [OLD REFERENCE YEAR] Currency: Mainly Ethiopian Birr (ETB). 1999-2000 Terms of Trade: In jilaal: 1 shoat = one 163 kg of maize or Average: no main event 1998-1999 sorghum Average: average rains; locust Prices (ETB): attack in March (planting season) Shoat (local quality) = 100 (jilaal) 1997-1998 Above average: El Nino year, Sorghum and Maize (50kg) = 55 (jilaal); 70 (gu) above normal rains; birds attacked Wheat/Barley 85 (jilaal); 110 (karan) crops Milk/litre = 3 1996-1997 Very Poor: very poor rains; very Agricultural labour/day = 6 high prices for crop; low prices for camels (300 birr) 1995-1996 Average: normal rains 1994-1995 Poor: poor rains

Indicators to Monitor  Rainfall: Quantity, distribution, and timing  Crop condition: Stage of development, pests and diseases  Markets: Availability and prices of grain, crop residue, livestock especially oxen; market access  Water and pasture availability  Livestock health: Pests and diseases  Labour migration  Human health and nutrition: Diseases  Coping mechanisms: Degree of ‘resorting to’

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Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Support research that explores ways of increasing yields through dry land farming  Strengthen the extension service within the region  Government policy should try to facilitate free trade, within the region, throughout Ethiopia, and to neighbouring countries.  Relief agencies such as WFP could explore the possibility of purchasing grain locally in a good year from within Somali Region for distribution elsewhere; alternatively, surplus could be purchased by the Ethiopian Grain Reserve.  Improve grain storage facilities

107 Harshin Dagahbur East Pastoral Livelihood Zone (LZ17)

Djibouti

n o Geographical Features i

r Shinile Jijiga Zone g a e Somalia Harshin Af R • Dagahbur Zone is predominantly semi-arid Somalia Jiji lowland: the east (all Harshin, Gashamo and Dagahb

most of Aware) is characterised by flat, Aware a

n ur i Fgika Warder o

i Gashamo treeless plateaux, few rivers and mountains; m g Korahe Dagahbur Zone ro e Gode treeless plains are gradually increasing – a O R AfdeAr Dagahbur future environmental concern. d Dagahmad Zone Liban The climate is generally hot and dry. Average aSomalia ow W • dl Korahe ananual rainfall is 300-400mm, falling during F e Zone r i twdo rainy seasons - Gu (Apr - Jun) and Deyr k (Oe ct – Dec). r • The Gu rains are the most importanZt for pastoralists. Sometim es Harshin receives Karan rains (Jul - Sep). • Soil is mostly red and sandy with higoh water permeability in allZ of Harshin, Gashamo and most of Aware. n o • Berkads and seasonal ponds are the em ain water sources; theren are no permanent or seasonal wells except in Aware town. This makes Harshin- Dagahbur East pastorael one of the LZs most vulnerable to water scarcity when the bi-annual rainfall cycles fail. The LZ cuts across the Ogaden and Isaac clan territories and has a history of recurrent conflict and insecurity often triggered by competition for land.

The baseline for this profile brings together information from two separate studies: one on Aware and Gashamo Districts, the other on Harshin District. The two areas are considered as sub-zones of a single Livelihood Zone. The sub-zones are Harshin sub-zone and Gashamo-Aware sub-zone.

Population and Geographic Coverage

Admin Zone District Rural LZ % of population Population in LZ Population Dagahbur zone Aware 67,700 100% 67,700 Gashamo 76,512 100% 76,512 Dagahbur 103,666 30% 31,100 Jijiga zone Harshin 70,560 90% 63,504 Total Population of this LZ (as % of Regional Rural Population = 6.2%) 238,816 Source: Population figures - 2007 estimates based on 1994 census

Livelihoods Livelihoods: pastoralism: livestock production from shoats (sheep/goats; most important species), camel and cattle (latter declining). Wealth is determined by livestock and berkad ownership. Land and water: land is owned by clans, but access to pasture/water is free. Water is mainly accessed through berkads (all year round; sold by better-off owners to poorer households) and seasonal ponds (communally shared). There are no permanent or seasonal wells in the LZ, except in Aware town. Soils are predominantly sandy, with little moisture retention capacity limiting crop production possibilities. Food, income and expenditure: food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of wheat, rice, flour, oil and sugar (and maize in Harshin District), with their own dairy products; also gifts for poor households. Livestock sale is the main source of income; poor and middle households also sell milk, rich households get income from selling water from their berkads; and poor households may also receive financial gifts from relatives. All wealth groups spend most of their income on food; the rest goes on household items, clothes, social services and inputs. Poor and middle households also have to buy water. Vulnerabilities and responses: main vulnerabilities are recurrent drought, extreme water shortage, livestock export restrictions and general market shocks, animal and human diseases, clan conflicts, poor transport and communication infrastructure. Risk-minimising strategies include livestock species diversification, water harvesting/conservation techniques, and saving money in good years. Coping strategies 108 include extra livestock sales, migration, slaughtering livestock for household consumption, reducing/adjusting food consumption, wild food consumption, seeking support from relatives / sub-clan members, and seeking relief assistance. Migration: migration tends to be within the zone in normal years, but may extend into neighbouring zones, even as far afield as the Ethiopian highlands and Somalia in bad years. Markets: the main external markets (livestock sale, cereal purchase, non-food) are Hargeisa, Buro’, Baligubadle and Bosaso, all in Somalia. Gashamo, Harshin and Aware towns provide the main internal markets for their respective districts, along with Hartisheik for Harshin District. Since the imposition of the livestock ban, livestock markets have slowed. Social services: health services are poor with one health centre and a few clinics; they lack essential medicines and are poorly equipped and staffed. Schools are also few and lack equipment and competent teaching staff; most children in the LZ do not attend school. Physical infrastructure is poor: there are only seasonal feeder roads; the only communications are a single line telephone operator system in Harshin, and government HF radios in Harshin, Gashamo and Aware towns. Other issues: relief food targeting in Harshin is problematic as i) it interferes with established (and more reliable) assistance networks within the community; ii) all households that sell livestock are affected by poor livestock markets; and iii) all pay taxes and therefore expect assistance in bad times.

Wealth Characteristics

Population Distribution of Wealth Groups Gashamo-Aware Subzone figures in green

Harshin Subzone figures in blue 20-30 Better-off 30-40 Poor Middle Better-off Poor

Household 6 – 7 7 – 9 10 – 12 size 5 – 7 7 – 9 8 – 10 30-50 Middle Livestock holdings: (lactating - brackets) [pack camels - sq brackets] Gashamo-Aware Sub-zone Shoats 40–50 (5–10) 60–100 (10–20) 100–200 (15–25) Wealth Breakdown 20 – 50 60 – 120 120 – 200 Cattle 0–5 (0–2) 10–20 (1–3) 20–40 (2–4) Harshin Pastoral Zone 0 – 3 0 – 10 0 - 10 Wealth Breakdown Camels 2–5 (0–2) [0–1] 15–35 (2–7) [1-2] 40–60 (4–8) [2-3] % of HHs 0 – 5 10 – 30 [1] 30 – 50 [1] 15-20% Donkeys 0–1 1–2 1-2 30-35% 1 – 3 Berkads 0 0-1 1-2 45-55%

Poor Middle Better off Harshin Sub-zone Wealth is determined by livestock holdings and berkad ownership. Wealth Breakdown

Food Sources Food sources for all wealth groups are predominantly purchases of cereals (wheat, rice, flour and maize) (in Harshin District), oil and sugar, supplemented by dairy products from own livestock, and also gifts for the poor wealth group. During the reference year in Harshin all households received 3-4 distributions of relief consisting of 10-15kg grain per distribution. Food purchases are often inversely related to wealth, higher among the poor and lower in the better-off. Purchases constitute about 78-85% of total food consumed annually for the poor, 68-76% for the middle and 66-85% for the better-off. Livestock products contribute about 10-15% of food requirement for the poor, 28-36% for the middle and 30-40% for the better off.

109

Food Sources in the Reference Year Harshin Pastoral Livelihood Zone: Sources of Food in Reference Year (02-03) 120% ) d

p 140% 100% p p

l a s 120% c d k e

0 e 80% 0 100% n

1 d

f o o

Other t 80% f

60% u l

o ( a

u Gift food s 60% e n c n r a Purchases u 40% o f 40% s o

Own L/stock prod d o % o

f 20%

20% l

Own Crops prod a u

n 0% n A 0% Rich Middle Poor Poor Middle Better-off Milk and meat Purchase Relief Wealth Group Food sources for all wealth groups in Harshin Food sources for all wealth groups in Sub-zone Gashamo-Aware Sub-zone

Sources of Income Expenditure Patterns

Income Sources and Totals Expenditure Pattern and Totals

10,000 10,000 9,000 9,000 Other 8,000 8,000 Remittances Flexibility 7,000 7,000 r Gifts (local gifts) r Other r r i i B B 6,000

6,000 Loans Inputs n n a a i i 5,000 Bush product sale 5,000 Social services p p o o i i Clothes & footwear

4,000 Labour income h 4,000 h t t E

E Household items 3,000 Livestock product sale 3,000 Food 2,000 Crop sale 2,000 Livestock sale 1,000 1,000 0 0 Poor Middle Better-off Poor Middle Better-off Wealth Group Wealth Group

Income sources for all wealth groups Expenditure patterns for all wealth groups in In Gashamo-Aware sub-zone Gashamo-Aware sub-zone Livestock sale is the main source of income for all All wealth groups spend the bulk of their income wealth groups; poor and middle households also sell on food; the rest goes on household items, livestock products (milk), and rich households get clothes, social services and inputs. Poor and income from selling water from their berkads; poor middle households also spend money buying water households may also receive financial assistance in the from the better-off. Although poor and middle form of gifts from relatives, and/or engage in labour- households have a small amount of income based activities. flexibility, the better-off wealth group enjoy a flexibility of 12% of their income.

Harshin Pastoral Livelihood Zone: Sources of Cash Income in Reference Year (02-03) Harshin Pastoral Livelihood Zone: Expenditure Patterns in Reference Year (02-03) 8000

8000

r 7000 r i b 7000 n 6000 i r

Other r e Other income i b m 5000 6000 Chat o n

Milk and ghee sales i c Clothes n e i r 4000 Shoat sales 5000 u h

t Medicine i s d a Cattle sales c n 4000 Vet drugs

3000 e l Camel sales p a

x Water u e n 3000 2000 l n Household items a A u

1000 n 2000 Other food n

A Cereals 0 1000

Rich Middle Poor 0 Rich Middle Poor Income sources for all wealth groups in Harshin sub-zone Expenditure patterns for all wealth groups in Harshin sub-zone

110

Seasonal Calendar

Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Seasons Gu Hagaa Deyr Jilaal Rainfall Hunger periods Pasture surveying Camel breeding Main Camel milking and all milk sales High Low Cattle breeding Cattle milking High Low Shoat breeding Goat milking Moving to dry season grazing areas Livestock sales Low High Cereal purchase Low High

Vulnerabilities, Risks and Responses

Key vulnerabilities • Recurrent drought • Extreme water shortage • Livestock export restrictions and general market shocks • Animal and human diseases • Poor transport/communication infrastructure • Clan conflict and insecurity Main risk-minimising strategies Main coping strategies • Economic diversification by keeping all • Extra livestock sale livestock species • Migration • Water harvesting and conservation • Slaughtering livestock for household consumption techniques • Reducing food consumption and adjusting eating habits • Saving money in good years • Wild food consumption • Seeking support from relatives and sub-clan members • Seeking relief assistance

111

Normal and Reference Year Definitions Timeline The reference year selected for Gashamo-Aware was 2003/2004 and for 2006-07 Harshin 2002/2003. Below average gu and good deyr rains. Year of recovery with plenty of pasture and water. No livestock migrations. Relatively cheap cereal Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year prices. 2003/04 2005-06 Below normal gu and deyr rains. Poor below average but not bad livestock Currency: Mainly Somali Shilling (SoSh), but the Ethiopian Birr (ETB) is production. Internal livestock gaining popularity in recent years. movements. 2004 – 2005 [STUDY YEAR] Exchange rates: 1US$ = 15,000 SoSh; Gu and Deyr: rainfall failure; massive Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) l/stock mortality; food/water shortage. 1 shoat = 30 – 45kg rice 2003–2004[REFERENCE YEAR] Gu: below normal rains, l/stock prodn; 1 shoat = 30 – 45kg wheat flour near normal l/stock prices. 1 shoat = 55 – 90kg relief wheat Deyr: normal/good rains, l/stock prodn and market. 2002 – 2003 Gu: normal rains, l/stock prices; good pasture, l/stock prodn. Currency, Prices, Terms of Trade in Reference Year Deyr: poor rains, pasture, l/stock 2004/05 prodn; big migration within LZ. 2001 – 2002 Currency: Ethiopian Birr (ETB). Gu: very poor rainfall and pasture; out-migration; poor l/stock condition. Exchange rates: 1US$ = 8.65 ETB; Deyr: poor rains, pasture; l/stock migration; food aid suspension. Terms of Trade: (dry/wet season averages) 2000 – 2001 1 shoat = 25 – 50kg rice Gu: normal rains; good l/stock market. 1 shoat = 25 – 50kg wheat flour Deyr: very poor rains; poor pasture; 1 shoat = 50 – 100kg relief wheat livestock migration; poor ToT. 1999 – 2000 Prices Gu / Deyr: Drought. Rain failure; far out-migration (highlands, Somaliland). Wheat/Maize/kg = 2 V high l/stock, also human, mortality. Rice/kg = 4 1998 – 1999 Wheat flour/kg = 4 Gu: poor rains, normal pasture. Deyr: very poor rains; poor pasture Milk: 2-3/lt (camel) production; beginning of drought. Shoat = 100 goat – 200 sheep 1997 – 1998 Gu: normal rains, pasture, l/stock prodn; army worm outbreak.

Deyr: very good rains, pasture, l/stock Indicators to Monitor production; good market. 1996 – 1997  Rainfall: Sufficiency, distribution and timeliness Gu: good rains, pasture, l/stock prodn,  Pasture and water situations: Quality, quantity, sufficiency, alternative pasture market; high camel mortality. Deyr: poor rains and l/stock prodn sites but balanced by left-over pasture.  Market conditions: Supply and price of livestock, cereals and imported items; 1995 – 1996 Gu / Deyr: poor rains, pasture, seasonal vs normal prices; prices of imported items production; very poor l/stock  Disease: Human and livestock disease outbreaks market; migration to Gode, Fik, Korahai.  Coping mechanisms: Degree of resorting to, and effectiveness

 Security situation: Clan conflicts – who, why and effect on food security; other conflicts and potential effects  Herd size: Unusual fluctuations in numbers  Camel milk sales: Unusual fluctuations in volume of sales

Long Term Food Security and Development Recommendations  Legalise cross border trade for both livestock and other commodities  Make bilateral agreements with livestock importing countries (especially Gulf Arab States) in order to ensure export animals are healthy and to prevent livestock bans in the future  Improve human health and veterinary services 112  Improve marketing systems for livestock products like milk, meat, ghee, hides and skins by encouraging the formation of marketing co-operatives and encouraging entrepreneurship  Improve transport and communication facilities in order to improve marketing and market information systems and to facilitate emergency interventions (when needed)  Sensitise the communities and political leaders about the protection of the environment  The effects of problems with predators – these have to be reported to the bureau of agriculture and livestock through which appropriate government action can be taken  Establish timely contingency and response planning for effective interventions during crises  Implications of importation policies resulting in price rises should be made clear to policy makers  Interventions to maintain berkads, to provide alternative sources (such as boreholes) and to improve water quality (such as covering berkads, or other water purification methods)  During droughts interventions to control internal livestock parasites and other diseases.

113