Approaching Methodology

Edited by Frog and Pauliina Latvala

A Special Issue of RMN Newsletter № 4

May 2012

RMN Newsletter is edited by Frog Helen F. Leslie and Mathias Nordvig

Published by Folklore Studies / Dept. of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies University of Helsinki, Helsinki

ISSN/ISSN-L: 1799-4497 www.helsinki.fi/folkloristiikka/Englis1 h/RMN/

CONTENTS

APPROACHING METHODOLOGY

Preface and Acknowledgements ...... 5

Opening Cross-Disciplinary Dialogue: A Virtual Workshop on Methodology ...... 7 Frog in collaboration with Pauliina Latvala

Part I: Method in Practice

Method in Practice: An Introduction ...... 20

Method and Fieldwork in a Hermeneutical Perspective ...... 23 Espen Suenson

Building a Visual Vocabulary: The Methodology of ‘Reading’ Images in Context ...... 31 Jill Bradley

The Parallax Approach: Situating Traditions in Long-Term Perspective ...... 40 Frog

The Ghost of Methodologies Past: Untangling Methods, Methodologies, and Methodologists in Black Studies ...... 59 Sonja Peterson-Lewis

Part II: Constructing Data

Constructing Data: An Introduction ...... 72

Qualitative Research and the Study of Language Use and Attitudes ...... 75 Francisco Martínez Ibarra

Dialogic Methodology and the Dialogic Space Created after an Interview ...... 80 Venla Sykäri

Editing Skaldic Verse and the Problem of Prosimetra ...... 88 Erin Michelle Goeres

Ethnographic Questionnaires: After Method, after Questions ...... 97 Dani Schrire

Part III: Culturally Sensitive Reading

Culturally Sensitive Reading: An Introduction ...... 105

The Anglo-Saxon Charms: Texts in Context ...... 108 Rebecca M.C. Fisher

The Sensitive Interpretation of Emotions: Methodological Perspectives on Studying Meanings in Written Life-Historical Narratives ...... 126 Pauliina Latvala and Kirsi Laurén

Design Poiesis: An Inquiry on Outcomes in the Use of Method and Methodology ...... 136 Thelma Lazo-Flores

Younger Icelandic Manuscripts and Old Norse Studies ...... 148 Helen F. Leslie

Ferocious Beast (óarga dýr) between North and East ...... 162 Fjodor Uspenskij 2

Part IV: Function, Structure and Statistics

Function, Structure and Statistics: An Introduction ...... 169

Categorising Christ within an Age-ǫld Paradigm: The ‘Kenning System’ and Shifting Cultural Referents ...... 172 Emily Osborne

Poetic Formulas in Late Medieval Icelandic Folk Poetry: The Case of Vambarljóð ...... 181 Haukur Þorgeirsson

A Method for Analyzing World-Models in Scandinavian Mythology ...... 196 Mathias Nordvig

A System of Techniques and Stratagems for Outlining a Traditional Ethnic Identity ...... 209 Vladimir Glukhov† and Natalia Glukhova

COMMENTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

Conferences and Seminars

Conference Report: Old Norse Folklorist Network Meeting ...... 217 Triin Laidoner

Conference Announcement: VAF III: Identity and Identification and the Viking Age in Finland (with Special Emphasis on the Åland Islands) ...... 219 Joonas Ahola and Frog

Meeting of the Retrospective Methods Network’s Old Norse Scholars ...... 221 Helen F. Leslie

PEOPLE

Research Reports

Frog Shamans, Christians, and Things in Between: Riddles of Cultural Transition in Medieval Karelia ...... 222

Natalia Glukhova Systemic Reconstruction of Mari Ethnic Identity ...... 223

Mart Kuldkepp Travel and Holy Islands in Eireks saga víðförla and Eiríks saga rauða ...... 223

Ilkka Leskelä Within and between Languages: Spheres and Functions of Different Languages in Written and Oral Practical Communication in the Late Medieval Baltic Sea Region ...... 224

Sonja Petrović The Battle of Kosovo (1389) in Oral Epic Tradition: Story Models, Forms, Ideologies..... 225

Published Articles

Frog Circum-Baltic Mythology? – The Curious Case of the Theft of the Thunder Instrument (AT 1148b) ...... 226

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Triin Laidoner The Flying Noaidi of the North: Sámi Tradition Reflected in the Figure Loki Laufeyjarson in Old Norse Mythology ...... 227

Helen F. Leslie ‘The Matter of Hrafnista’ ...... 227

Eila Stepanova Reflections of Belief Systems in Karelian and Lithuanian Laments: Shared Systems of Traditional Referentiality? ...... 228

PhD Projects

Leszek Gardeła Entangled Worlds: Archaeologies of Ambivalence in the Viking Age ...... 229

Svetlana Tsonkova Charms, Prayers, Amulets: Verbal Magic and Daily Life in Medieval and Early Modern Bulgaria ...... 234

CALLS FOR PAPERS

Would You Like to Submit to RMN Newsletter? ...... 236

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APPROACHING METHODOLOGY

Preface and Acknowledgements

Approaching Methodology is the first special to considering some aspect of culture in one issue of RMN Newsletter. RMN Newsletter period through evidence from another, later appeared in response to the need for a period: ‘retrospective’ methods. Such medium of contact and communication for comparisons range from investigating members of the Retrospective Methods historical relationships to the utility of Network (RMN). The test of the interest in analogical parallels, and from comparisons and viability of this publication resulted in a across centuries to developing working remarkable and unexpected response from models for the more immediate traditions scholars around the world – from places as behind limited sources. Nevertheless, methods diverse as India, Australia, North America and methodology received surprisingly little and South Africa. This revealed that the focused attention: they tended to be more publication not only filled an immediate need implicit than explicit; scholars exhibited a for the RMN, but that it simultaneously met a general inclination to emphasize results rather much broader international interest. than means. A special issue provided an RMN Newsletter is published by Folklore excellent strategy for stimulating discussion Studies, University of Helsinki, and on in this problematic area. Pauliina Latvala February 1st, 2011, a session of the (University of Helsinki) was invited to be a department’s research seminar was devoted to guest editor of the special issue with Frog a discussion of this publication, its potential (University of Helsinki), and together they as a resource, the direction it was headed and immediately set about organizing the how to negotiate that direction with publication project. contributors and the readership. At this For making the Approaching Methodology seminar, Professor Emerita Annikki Kaivola- publication project possible, we would like to Bregenhøj (University of Turku) emphasized thank the contributing participants: Jill that, however important they are, method and Bradley (Radboud University, Nijmegen), methodology have always been challenging Rebecca M.C. Fisher (University of for researchers. Kaivola-Bregenhøj suggested Sheffield), Vladimir Glukhov† & Natalia that these challenges should be directly Glukhova (Mari State University), Erin addressed in RMN Newsletter by preparing a Michelle Goeres (Oxford University), Haukur special issue devoted to methods and Þorgeirsson (University of Iceland), Kirsi methodology, a suggestion complemented by Laurén (University of Eastern Finland), Helen Carsten Bregenhøj’s contribution to the F. Leslie (University of Bergen), Thelma discussion. This was the seed of Approaching Lazo-Flores (Ball State University), Francisco Methodology. Martinez Ibarra (Towson University), Mathias The editorial staff of RMN Newsletter had Nordvig (University of Aarhus), Emily observed the challenges described by Osborne (Cambridge University), Sonja Kaivola-Bregenhøj in earlier submissions to Peterson-Lewis (Temple University), Dani RMN Newsletter and at the RMN’s 2010 Schrire (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), meeting (Bergen, Norway). The RMN is Espen Suenson (Åbo Academi), Venla Sykäri united by an interest in the problems, (University of Helsinki) and Fjodor Uspenskij approaches, strategies and limitations related (Institute of Slavic Studies, Russian Academy

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of Science Moscow, and Higher School of essential role in the development of the Economics); and also the consulting working papers into the present collection. participants: Daniel Sävborg (University of We are grateful to Helen F. Leslie (University Tartu) and Michael Bates (University of of Bergen) and Mathias Nordvig (University Sheffield). Without the hard work and of Aarhus) for their assistance and hard work motivation of these individuals, this project in the final stages of editing the collection and would not have been possible. We would also for the Herculean effort required in those last like to thank the external respondents to the weeks to meet our publication deadline. working papers of the collection: Joonas Finally, we would like to thank our friends Ahola (University of Helsinki), Tonya Kim and colleagues, both those concentrated at the Dewey (University of Bergen), Henning Department of Folklore Studies of the Fjørtoft (Norwegian University of Science University of Helsinki and those spread and Technology), Charlotte Hedenstierna- internationally around the globe, for their Jonson (National Historical Museum, support and enthusiasm through the process of Stockholm), Karina Lukin (University of bringing this project to fruition. Helsinki), Emily Lyle (University of Edinburgh), Debbie Potts (Cambridge Frog and Pauliina Latvala University), Jyrki Pöysä (Finnish Literature May 25th, 2012 Society), and Ulla Savolainen (University of Helsinki, Finland Helsinki). The insights, perspectives and understandings of these individuals played an

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Opening Cross-Disciplinary Dialogue: A Virtual Workshop on Methodology Frog, University of Helsinki, in collaboration with Pauliina Latvala, University of Helsinki

Interests and priorities in a range of unexpected insights and innovations and the intersecting research disciplines have been production of new knowledge. This same changing rapidly. Methods and methodologies process would lead Approaching have become an increasing concern, yet Methodology to be a unified collection of discussions on these issues have been multidisciplinary relevance. developing to some degree independently of The present paper stood outside of the one another in different fields and in the discussion and debates of the virtual research traditions of different countries. The workshop. It presents instead an introduction Retrospective Methods Network emerged to the virtual workshop method through with a concern for functional methods as well which the collection was produced. This as the problems and approaches to introduction includes a metadiscursive methodologies. We are therefore opening an discussion of the implementation, execution international, multidisciplinary discussion on and evolution of this method as an experiment method in the emerging discourse space of in the Approaching Methodology project. The RMN Newsletter with this special issue. The metadiscursive quality of this discussion venue of RMN Newsletter allows and extends to the theme of the workshop. As a promotes engagement in vital cross- consequence, this introduction will open by disciplinary dialogue, both within the current outlining some problematics of academic collection and also in future issues, where discourse on method and methodology that scholars may contribute responses to pieces are at the foundations of the Approaching published here. Methodology project. It will then turn to the Approaching Methodology is a challenges of opening cross-disciplinary coordinated, multidisciplinary collection of discussion. Finallt, it will present the virtual short essays on different methods, workshop method and the present case of its methodologies and the problems and implementation as a strategy for overcoming potentialities accompanying them. It consists those challenges. of eighteen articles by nineteen international scholars representing widely diverse academic Some Distinctions and Definitions traditions. These scholars are united by the A central reason for opening cross- challenges and possibilities that methods and disciplinary discussion on these topics is that methodologies pose both to specific questions of method and methodology often undertakings and more abstractly or prove both problematic and elusive. ‘Method’ generally. In accordance with the theme of the easily becomes conflated with theory, project, a new and alternative ‘virtual questions or goals of research, and also with workshop’ method was tested and developed argumentation. Not uncommonly, ‘method’ for the coordination of contributions in this and ‘methodology’ are treated as synonyms multidisciplinary collection.1 without recognizing any distinction between The virtual workshop opened with more them at all. Methods frequently remain than twenty participants, expanding to more unspoken as ‘self-evident’ and/or customary than thirty as respondents were invited sets of strategies that have either evolved internationally to engage in discussion of the through the history of discourse in a field or developing papers. Participants represented they are narrower (and sometimes rather many disciplines and national traditions of loose) imitations of the strategies of more scholarship. The editors promoted opening prominent scholars. Methodology, on the and exploring the intersections of issues of other hand, is often not just unspoken, but method and methodology across these diverse also unconscious, importing associations, research areas and topics. This was done with inferences and valuations that shape the hope that the diverse perspectives would conscious analysis. Moreover, disparities prove reciprocally informative, leading to between the methodology employed in 7

research and the methodological arenas in triangulating multiple methods in tandem which primary and secondary sources and (Martínez Ibarra, this volume). These may literature were produced are frequently subsequently be addressed within a hierarchy unrecognized and misunderstood, potentially or hierarchies of methods of varying scope, compromising argument or leading to unfair and with varying degrees of dialogue between criticisms. These problems are all largely them (e.g. Apo 2001; Glukhov & Glukhova, attributable to a low awareness of or this volume). For purposes of research, a sensitivity to issues related to method and method may be described as a prescriptive set methodology on the one hand, and on the of techniques, strategies and their other to an undeveloped distinction between relationships in application to appropriate them in intersections and interactions with material. Put simply, a method in research is other concepts. A general model relating the particular and definable ‘what’ and ‘how’ method and methodology to and of doing something to something else, such as distinguishing these from other concepts will producing data from a raw social environment therefore preface the presentation of a virtual or producing information (and thereby workshop on methods and methodology. knowledge) from selected data through its The term method derives from Classical organization and/or analysis. Greek μέθοδος. This is the contracted form of Methods for the selection or analysis of μετά ὁδός [‘following after, pursuit’], and data are not unbiased: they are functional defined more narrowly as the “pursuit of tools oriented to goals of a researcher. As a knowledge, investigation” and – by consequence, they are often conditioned by association – the “mode of prosecuting such their complementary relation to another inquiry, method, system” (Liddell & Scott method or other methods of analysis and 1996: s.v. ‘μέθοδος’). In Modern English, a associated research priorities of method can be any interpretation. Interpretation is the ascription of meaningfulness to data, whether at the special form of procedure adopted in any branch of mental activity, whether for the level of raw data being identified (and hence pursuit of teaching and exposition or for that defined) and categorized, or at the outcome of of investigation and inquiry. (OED s.v. analysis, followed by the translation of that ‘method’.) meaningfulness into language – clarifying or explaining. Interpretations normally follow In a scientific context, emphasis falls on a from research questions or research goals, systematic use of the procedure, with the which inform the priorities of interpretation implication that the particular method will be (cf. Osborne, this volume). It may seem self- applied objectively and consistently across all evident that research questions about syntax data. In the humanities, however, many or navigation will not normally lead to methods rely heavily on subjective interpretations about gender roles, even if considerations of the researcher (e.g. these are reflected in the data: questions qualitative analysis). In addition, the diversity unasked in an investigation will normally of data addressed in a single investigation remain unanswered. Method provides the may require selecting the method or methods bridge from research questions/goals to the to be applied on an almost case-by-case basis interpretations of information pursued as the (cf. Bradley, this volume). Different methods final outcome of an investigation. It is not may also be employed in a complementary simply a tool, but a tool effective for doing fashion. For example, the selection, certain things more than others (cf. Frog, this organization and analysis of data may involve volume). Method therefore becomes shaped three discrete methods applied in a simple by the intentionality of answering particular linear sequence (cf. Nordvig, this volume). research questions or responding to certain Different methods may be required by a research goals, whether at stages of analysis diversity of data (Lakomäki, Latvala & and interpretation or already in the selection Laurén 2011: 7–10), or desired in order to of data. The shaping of methods is frequently construct a more dynamic model by a historical process that may span generations

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of scholars (cf. Foley 1988). As a method generally or with the methods of a consequence, methods become particular discipline or field of study” (see preconditioned to the production of OED: s.v. ‘methodology’). It is now often information or data that is relevant and used simply as ‘a method or body of methods appropriate to certain types of interpretation used in a particular field of study or activity and certain interpretive research goals. and how these are used’, which is a The ability of a method to be predicated to significant factor in the term’s varying use an interpretive goal and interpretive across research disciplines. The understanding framework is dependent on its interface with of this term has evolved rapidly in the wake theory: theory provides the basic models of of Post-Modernism. Through the emergence understanding within which the method and of fields of area studies such as Women’s its application are ascribed validity and Studies, methods have been increasingly against which the information produced by highlighted as tools – resources – that can be that application can be appropriately employed across different disciplines rather interpreted. As Espen Suenson puts it: than characterizing them. As a consequence, the term ‘methodology’ has adapted to refer a theory explains what is relevant about the subject matter and how the relevant parts to how methods are used by or in a particular relate to each other. It is a point of departure discipline, field of study or school. Within for our understanding. Thus, theory ideally this frame, Sonja Peterson-Lewis highlights tells us how we expect things to be before that: we start an investigation into the matter. [A] methodology consists of the underlying (Suenson, this volume: 9.) network of philosophies, beliefs and values In constructing a bridge from research – the worldviews – that shape and inform questions to interpretation on the framework how the researcher conceptualizes the of understanding provided by theory, method problem and how and with whom he/she also interfaces with argument. The term implements the method. (Peterson-Lewis, this volume: 60.) argument derives from Latin argumentum: Methodology thus extends beyond the bridge- The means by which an assertion or assumption may be made clear, proved, an building interface of theory and method to the argument, evidence, proof (and in particular, broader ideologies in which these are situated. that which rests upon facts, while ratio is As such, a methodology can never be wholly that which depends upon reasoning). (Lewis unbiased in research practice: even ideals of & Short 1969: s.v. ‘argumentum’.) objectivity are bound up with intentionality, both in research processes and in the use of In its most ideal form, argument is the research products. This includes valuations of explanation that answers a research question what research questions are or are not worthy by explaining, in accordance with theory, the of attention, what interpretive goals are or are production of information through the use of not interesting, hierarchizing particular method and its interpretation (cf. Kaakkuri- methods and their uses, and so on. Knuuttila & Hakonen 1998 [2007]: 63). Methodology simultaneously constructs and Difficulties in distinguishing between method frames a dialogue between theories and and theory, method and argument and even methods, providing a means for the method and interpretation – blurring the production of knowledge. Within that frame, boundaries between these in discussion – methods provide essential tools by which appears related to the fact that all of these these processes are regulated and together form a complex and interconnected accomplished, while theories supply system in which method never functions knowledge and understandings in relation to independently. which methods are applied. Methodology can The distinction between method and therefore be described as an ideological arena methodology has generally proven still more in which the research questions are posed, challenging. Methodology originally referred data is identified, selected and organized, to “the branch of knowledge that deals with

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where theories and methods are deployed and socially accepted, handled in later discourses negotiated, data is analyzed, and interpret- as ‘facts’. The construction of data through ations are generated (cf. Liljeström 2004: 10). collection, selection, editing and representation are more often overlooked in Methodology and Knowledge Production these processes. Nevertheless, the process of Research is, by definition, goal-oriented identification is itself a process of toward the production and maintenance of interpretation and categorization in which the knowledge. The relationship of the production ascription of definitions is implicit (Lakoff of knowledge to methodology is therefore a 1986). Similarly, representation inevitably concern relevant to all research disciplines. involves recontextualization, the distinction of Fields of research and approaches to them are significant from non-significant elements, and demarcated precisely by dominant their ‘translation’ into a new (ideal) form, methodologies (cf. Dark 1995: 196–197). At which necessarily produces information their interfaces with different research (Lotman 1990). The collection of folklore or paradigms, these methodologies condition ethnographic data is thus a form of knowledge what research is done and in what ways. production, and large, collectively produced Consequently, it conditions what research is archives are certainly not ‘neutral’ not done, and thereby areas where knowledge representations of cultures and traditions. is neither produced nor maintained. This may Methodology plays an essential role in even lead to response within an academic precisely the processes of delimiting and community (cf. Heide 2010). This is the so- defining the research objects (cf. Kaakkuri- called ‘politics of knowledge production’, Knuuttila 1998 [2007]: 329), and the which has been particularly prominent in methodology of collection (Schrire, this studies related to cultural history and cultural volume) and presentation (Goeres, this expression. Such research was essential to volume) constructs the object of research Romantic nation-building, evolutionary itself, producing the knowledge of that object. anthropology and its products have been This must be acknowledged because whatever employed as tools in these and other political sources are used in research – both primary discourses for centuries. Both methods and and secondary – the information or methodologies can themselves become knowledge is always conditioned by one or politically charged through these processes more methodologies. (cf. Peterson-Lewis, this volume). Earlier methodologies may not be The production of knowledge in research is compatible with or appropriate to always accomplished within the arena of a methodologies in the present. Like individual methodology and negotiated across methods, whole methodologies develop in methodologies. All research produces relation to social and historical circumstances. knowledge, although it may be subject to Knowledge is inevitably situated in a cultural different valuations or have different social and historical present; research practice functions. Prestige areas are ‘innovative’ and cannot escape the choices of selection and ‘ground-breaking’; much knowledge representation in the production and production is a maintenance of existing development of situated knowledge. Sources knowledge, by testing, developing and and earlier studies in use today have been reinterpreting; even surveys synthesizing and collected, organized and evaluated in different condensing existing knowledge are dependent times and places, connecting them to on a form of knowledge production to the methodologies that interfaced with social, degree that they produce new perspectives historical and cultural circumstances current (which may be implicit in translating earlier at that time. That knowledge may become knowledge into the arena accessible to current problematic for current use in the wake of methodologies). Knowledge production is changing paradigms that interface with most easily thought of in terms of different dominant methodologies, because ‘conclusions’, the ‘findings’ of a research that knowledge was conditioned to different investigation or ‘interpretations’ that become questions, different types of answers, and/or

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different understandings of the phenomenon Challenges of Cross-Disciplinary addressed (cf. Fisher, this volume). This is Communication particularly apparent in knowledge resources Research disciplines do not exist in isolation that antedate Post-Modernism. Changes in from one another. Method and methodology methodology foregrounded context, situation, are frequently adapted from one discipline to the role and identity of the individual, non- the next, often under the ægis of broader dominant perspectives and internal/subjective intellectual movements such as Romanticism perspectives and understandings – in general or Post-Structuralism. As a consequence, highlighting a diversified spectrum of aspects questions and challenges faced in these areas that had remained largely ‘invisible’ to earlier may not only be typologically similar across research (cf. Lotman 1990). The interpretation different disciplines but directly related. of historical, cultural and political contexts for Possible solutions may equally hold making sense of earlier research products has interdisciplinary relevance. Tensions and become essential for the appropriate handling difficulties arise because representatives of of produced knowledge. At the same time, different disciplines are working from these shifts in paradigms and new different frames of reference. Each is awarenesses led to different types of embedded in a disciplinary discourse that methodological crises (Peterson-Lewis, shapes the concerns, priorities and even the Sykäri, this volume). As a historical process, very language of its representatives – using new research is filling these gaps, leading to the same words in different ways and new and more diversified representations of different words for common concepts. It is knowledge (cf. Latvala & Laurén, this from here that methodology derives. Ludwig volume). This new knowledge is nevertheless Wittgenstein (2009: 235, II.xi.327) succinctly conditioned by (different) methodologies. describes the problem of incompatible frames Critical deconstruction is therefore crucial in in the statement: “Wenn ein Löwe sprechen order to frame current argumentation and könnte, wir könnten ihn nicht verstehen” [‘If justify interpretations. a lion could talk, we would not be able to Knowledge production functions as a understand it’].3 In spite of their social process, and it must therefore always interrelationships and interdependence, interface with socially established frames, communication presents an obstacle between reassessing, contesting or revising models disciplines, where their representatives, within those frame or building from such immersed in a particular academic discourse’s frames to advance in new or neglected concerns and priorities, effectively speak directions. An interface is essential: there different languages. must be a connection with socially maintained The problem of cross-disciplinary interests and socially maintained valuations communication was heightened during the for new knowledge to be recognized as movement to disciplinary separatism and relevant and valid. Areas which have been specialization across the latter half of the 20th neglected, devalued or censored by dominant century. Just as methods are shaped within a methodologies may be challenging to field as a historical process, so are broader penetrate and require social networking. methodologies, along with their conventional Methodology, whether implicit or explicit, priorities and interests in particular research plays an essential role in the production and questions, their preferred methods, theories maintenance of knowledge. Each discipline is and strategies of argumentation. Within a also dependent on knowledge produced by discipline, changes in methodology result in other disciplines.2 Increasing awareness and the obsolescence of particular methods, their sensitivity to these processes can help devaluation or their complete rejection. researchers to overcome problems in Theories which were dominant earlier may no knowledge production today, and to advance longer provide frameworks appropriate to to greater long-term stability and sustaining the method; ideologies change sustainability of knowledge produced and of alignments as well as values, priorities and knowledge production more generally. research interests. These processes

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nevertheless occur differently and at different research. The role of proximity and national rates within each discipline. Methods that adjacence in the development of disciplines is have remained vital in the comparative study beginning to break down in the wake of of religions have been rejected in fields of electronic technologies. Lack of common medieval literature and medieval oral culture; frames of reference still remain an obstacle. methods which have remained vital in those Not infrequently, a voice from another fields are rejected by modern folklore studies discipline is heard as a lion’s roar, and what is and anthropology. The more different said seems like ‘jabberwocky’ – excited and disciplines became closed to one another, the incomprehensible talk. The problem of more these aspects developed independently engaging with this beast has been actualized as a historical process, until they became (perhaps unintentionally) by Lewis Carroll mutually unintelligible – not simply on the (1871 [1970]: 191) in the warning: “Beware level of language, but methodologically, even the Jabberwock, my son! The jaws that bite, to the degree that interest or relevance of the the claws that catch!” Incomprehension is very research questions and research goals inevitably intimidating, presenting a two- seem incomprehensible or absurd. Methods sided threat. The lion’s roar is threatening in may be adapted over these thresholds, but itself, as such beasts may bite, and it is easiest once adapted, they are adapted to a new to shy away and let the lions speak of lion methodology and begin their evolution with things. On the other hand, without the next discipline. comprehending its language and Variation between disciplines is methodological frame of reference, using the complemented by variation across national expressions of a lion and the knowledge it has and cultural borders. Each discipline develops produced carries the hazard of in relation to others in the frame of linguistic misunderstanding and error by which the and cultural environments, and its knowledge “claws that catch” may inadvertently tear production is impacted by historical processes apart an entire argument. Nevertheless, that and identity. Just as disciplines became closed same obstacle holds great promise. At its to one another to the degree that they lacked most basic, succeeding in communication – reciprocal communication, the same can be negotiating the language barrier to open seen on national and international levels: cross-disciplinary discussion – allows each disciplines in Finland differ from those in discipline’s knowledge to be engaged with Sweden, those of the Nordic countries differ that of the other. This both provides and from those of the rest of Western Europe, and grounds resources in research, as well as so forth. For example, Barbro Klein recently enabling practical resources for resolving stated that, quite simply, folklore studies in common methodological problems in research Europe and in the U.S. were “different practice. The construction of stronger disciplines”.4 Similar observations were made methodological relations across inter- in the present project concerning Western disciplinary data will inevitably follow in the scholarship generally and research in the wake of this process. More generally, such Russian Federation, while humanities negotiation becomes a negotiation of research in many parts of India today methodologies themselves, with the potential functions within methodologies that have not to offer new insights and understandings of been current in Europe for most of a century. methodology and its role in knowledge This type of variation is a consequence of production more generally – if we can get historical processes in the development of past the lion’s roar. methodologies and their engagement with their objects of research in social (and The Virtual Workshop political) realities, but it is tempered by the A Strategy for Coordinating a Publication history of contact across national and cultural Overcoming disciplinary ‘language’-barriers borders. and opening cross-disciplinary discussion has Disciplinary separatism has now moved in been a founding aim of RMN Newsletter. In the opposite direction toward interdisciplinary accordance with those aims, the publication

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project of Approaching Methodology became discussion among workshop participants. an excellent testing-ground for a method to Consulting participants are scholars who do open these cross-disciplinary discourses. This not submit articles, but they receive all was the ‘virtual workshop’ for producing a packages of participant materials and their coordinated publication outside of a contact information is circulated in this conference or seminar. Whereas a publication material so that they may be consulted as from a conference often reflects that the specialists. A respondent is a scholar with an participants have gone their separate ways official capacity of responding to a specific following a meeting, the virtual workshop working paper. This function is equivalent to brings together participants though the a peer-reviewer in the virtual workshop alternative means of electronic technologies, environment. Here, most participants were unbounded by national borders, and gradually internal respondents for one or sometimes two opens discussion between them. However contributions. External respondents are diverse the fields and subjects of the international specialists invited to participate contributions to this collection, they form a in the virtual workshop as respondents to web of intersecting interests and concerns. specific working papers. They are presented We promoted opening and exploring these with general information about the project intersections in the hope that they would offer and virtual workshop, but they do not receive unexpected insights and innovations leading full packages of participant materials. to new knowledge and lead Approaching The category of consulting participant Methodology to be a more unified collection emerged in the execution of the virtual of multidisciplinary relevance. workshop as a practical strategy. It was A ‘virtual workshop’ is a workshop in initiated a) to allow scholars who were which participants are brought together interested in contributing an article but through electronic technologies. This virtual uncertain about the time-line to be involved in workshop method was organized around three the project from the beginning; and b) to phases, initiated following the selection of allow editors of the host journal to be fully proposed contributions. It was adapted in aware and up to date on the project, its relation to the nature of the interdisciplinary progress and development. The distinction collection and also to practical constraints of between contributing participant and the time-line for the publication as a special consulting participant is intentionally fluid, issue of a journal (one year following the distinguished only by the intention and initial call for papers). The virtual workshop practice of contributing an abstract and (later) also evolved in relation to practicalities in a working paper. A scholar could begin as a implementation.5 Frog was responsible for the consulting participant and advance to a concept of the virtual workshop method, contributing participant during the project, as which was then coordinated and executed happened in three cases. This category also with Pauliina Latvala. It was both enjoyed allows initial contributing participants to and appreciated by participants and highly continue as a participant in the project even if successful in coordinating contributions. plans for a contribution became unviable. The category of consulting participant proved an Participant Roles extremely valuable innovation. On the one The editors are the organizers and moderators hand, more specialists from different fields of the virtual workshop. Three additional became available for consultation in the roles for participants are: contributing multidisciplinary environment. More participant, consulting participant, and significantly, consulting participants made external respondent. All participants are excellent internal respondents: they were involved in the workshop from the start. already familiar with the project, Contributing participants are those who plan contributions and participants. In the future, and contribute articles to the implemented potential respondents might be anticipated at collection; their abstracts and (later) working the implementation of the project and invited papers are circulated for consideration and as consulting participants from the outset.

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Structure of the Virtual Workshop together experts at many different stages in The origin of a collection is a factor in how their careers and with many different the phases, around which a virtual workshop responsibilities. Participants may therefore is organized, are realized and whether all of not always be able to respond as quickly or them are relevant. In the case of Approaching as fully to a question or comment as he or she might like. Methodology, the virtual workshop was implemented following the selection of Long abstracts (500 words) were requested in participants on the basis of paper proposals order to offer participants a more developed and other responses to the call (i.e. consulting picture of individual papers. It was hoped that participants). The first phase was the period this would help authors to develop their during which papers were initially prepared. contributions in complementary ways at the The second phase was the opening of initial phase of composition while avoiding discussion, in which working papers were repetitions and competing discussions within circulated and during which respondents were the collection. active and papers were discussed. The third The second phase of the virtual workshop phase was the period of revision following strategy (opening general discussion) was discussion and the comments of the initiated following the submission of all respondents. The initiation of the first two contributions. The package of participant phases was marked in each case by the closed materials included all working papers, distribution (i.e. distribution via e-mail rather organized into a single pdf document than publically posted on-line) of a ‘package’ circulated to participants via e-mail. In this of materials among participants. Each case, the document was around 200 pages, package of participant materials was in the making a table of contents essential. An form of a single pdf document (with table of introduction to the virtual workshopping contents) prepared by the editors. The third strategy was provided, as well as much of the phase was marked by the presentation of information initially included with the respondent reports and comments to the abstracts in phase one. The (redundant) authors on an individual basis (i.e. not recirculation of information from the first circulated among all participants). Publication phase made all relevant information available followed directly on the third phase. in a single document. The introduction also The beginning of the first phase (the phase included a list recommending four other of composition) was marked by the papers for each contributor to look at. This list distribution of a package of participant was generated by the editors suggesting materials that included: contributions that the author might find relevant and interesting to relate to his or her  General information about the priorities and own article. Each recommended paper was emphasis of the collection  An explicit statement of the desire to appended by a note “Concerning:”, followed coordinate contributions in the collection by key-words or a phrase indicating the  Participant contact information particular point that might be of interest. This  Some basic guidelines about contacting list helped orient each contributor to consider other participants relationships to (at least a few) concrete  The style-sheet contributions in the collection. When the  The time-line number of papers was large and very  Long abstracts of participant papers multidisciplinary, the relevance of a contribution might not otherwise be The statement of desire to coordinate the immediately recognizable on the basis of the collection requested participants to actively title. engage one another’s contributions in The editors organized two respondents for dialogue, for which participant contact each paper in this phase of the workshop. One information was provided. The general respondent approached the paper from the guidelines for contacting participants included perspective of a specialist, and the other was a reminder that the project brought selected as a non-specialist respondent. A

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priority of the collection was cross- editors) to individual authors. In conjunction disciplinary accessibility. In order to help with this process, the editors included assure this, the non-specialist helped consider additional specific comments from the the accessibility of terminology, concepts, perspective of the collection. In several cases, methodology and argumentation from outside these comments included concrete the discipline. The non-specialist respondent suggestions for cross-referencing and normally had interests and specialization engaging other contributions in discussion. relevant to some aspect of the subject or material addressed in the paper. Realities of Opening Dialogues on Respondents were given a brief overview Methodology of the publication project, an introduction to The Approaching Methodology publication the virtual workshop, and they were provided project faced many challenges. The first and with a respondent report form. This form most rudimentary was that the concept and asked for a summary of the article, included a strategies for coordinating contributions for list of basic yes/no questions relevant to the the collection as a whole were unfamiliar. The editors, and asked that specific comments be principles and strategies for coordinating divided into “requirements”, “recom- papers and producing an integrated collection mendations” and “observations”. Respondents of essays through cross referencing other were not provided with any packages of papers and engaging them in discussion are participant materials. In the future, a pdf generally unfamiliar and not normally a package of abstracts of the working papers priority. This is particularly true in cases might be recommended in order to provide where the contributors have never met, where the respondent with a more concrete frame of they represent diverse disciplines or diverse reference (e.g. when considering cross- schools of scholarship, and where they are referencing and discussion across papers concerned with different specific topics. within the collection). In larger collections, a Approaching Methodologies is all of these. list of working titles of papers might be a The first phase of the virtual workshop, in sufficient alternative. The present collection is which contributors’ abstracts were circulated, oriented to opening dialogues and further was important in laying the foundations of the discussion, and therefore all respondents and collection: “Reading the others’ abstracts was participants were offered the opportunity to inspiring” (Espen Suenson, e-mail: 7 May, present a formal response that could appear as 2012 21:44). The abstracts seem to have an appendix to the article in publication, played a valuable role in shaping although none did so. contributions in terms of the collection as a The respondent system was functionally a context: working drafts of papers developed process of open peer-review (i.e. the in relation to the abstracts – and thereby in reviewers and contributors were not made relation to the collection. Nevertheless, papers anonymous). External factors may formally seem not to have developed more directly in prescribe single-blind or double-blind peer- relation to one another in this phase: there review for a collection. Situating that process was no evidence of even minimal cross- in a ‘virtual workshop’ with ‘working papers’ referencing between the submitted working where reviewers are identified as papers. This was interpreted as reflecting ‘respondents’ can nevertheless (potentially) contributors’ lack of familiarity with the reshape the discourse in a positive way. The concept and strategies employed for vocabulary itself invites positive and coordinating contributions into a more unified constructive feedback over critique and collection. This would presumably change criticism, or at the very least invites proposing through the engagement in future publication solutions to criticisms rather than simply projects as the process and its potential condemnation. became more familiar, and also as the use of The third phase of the process (the period such methods becomes more common in of revision) was marked by the redistribution general. Put another way, contributors of respondent reports (mediated by the apparently did not actively engage in the

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virtual workshop at this stage because they dialogue with other papers. The fact that one lacked a frame of reference for how and why of the yes/no questions in respondent reports to do so. was “Does the manuscript engage other The second phase of the workshop was contributions in discussion?” may have received in different ways. First of all, the highlighted that this should be considered editors’ list of papers recommended to each important. Authors were also specifically contributor seems to have had a stimulating asked to open contact with one another when effect. For the most part, participants appear engaging other papers in order to at least to have interpreted this list as required reading confirm that the relevant point of reference or for their participation in the virtual workshop. discussion would still be relevant in the Some later commented in e-mails that when revised version of the paper. Although they did not incorporate a particular cross- communication between contributors reference, they sought alternatives. The generally remained ‘behind the scenes’, a circulation of working papers also had a more watershed event was when Jill Bradley sent generally stimulating effect. As Emily out a single group e-mail listing the Osborne remarked: contributors’ papers she engaged in her own and on what points. This group e-mail Knowing that our contributions would be published in the same volume, I was more provided an exemplar for fulfilling a task, inclined to engage critically with other requested by the editors, of contacting other papers and to consider correspondences and participants when developing cross- differences, and reconsider my own references. It sparked a series of similar e- approaches. (e-mail: 11 May, 2012 21:22.) mails to groups of participants. The conscious introduction of this type of examplar Respondent roles interfaced with this process. communication could be employed as a Participants and respondents both commented strategy in future virtual workshops: it does positively on the use of an open peer-review not simply present an unassuming means of model, although it was also observed that accomplishing a task; it incites individual greater thought and care had to be given participants to open contact with each other where criticisms were necessary. Introducing on their own initiative, and this seems to have a non-specialist respondent to the process was been a significant platform for further found stimulating to both research and to communication on an individual basis. discussion. Framing the roles of respondents The experiment of the virtual workshop in the virtual workshop seems to have further method employed in the Approaching stimulated discussion, as comments were not Methodology publication project has proven restricted to respondent roles. And Haukur successful. As Francisco Martínez Ibarra Þorgeirsson remarked, “I liked having the commented: opportunity to comment on several working papers of my choice” (e-mail: 8 May, 2012 I feel in the end the virtual workshop proved 13:10). to be an essential instrument in order to Inviting and facilitating contributors to strengthen cohesion in such an open communication directly with one interdisciplinary piece of work. (e-mail: 7 May 2012 19:58.) another simultaneously left the editors largely unaware of the number and scope of This method and strategy has great potential, communications between participants during and Jill Bradley observed: the development of the collection. It seems, While the face-to-face contact of however, that the second phase of becoming conferences is unique, in these days of small familiar with other working papers in the budgets, budget cuts, finding your own collection was less vital in opening discussion finance and having to make time and money between participants than the third phase, stretch, virtual workshops could offer a good during the revision process. This is in part a substitute for those of us with little time practical function of revision and suggestions and/or finance to become acquainted with regarding cross-referencing and opening other research, other theories, methods and approaches. The eighteenth century had its 16

‘Republic of Letters’ so why not a twenty- between method and methodology; first century ‘Republic of scholarly e-mails’? Constructing Data, examining the production (e-mail: 4 May 2012 14:58.) and development of data variously through ethnographic fieldwork and through data Developing Perspectives through a Virtual selection and editing processes; Culturally Workshop Sensitive Reading, turning from data The present collection attests to the successes construction to analytical approaches to data of the virtual workshop. The actualization of as the object of research and its relationships coordinating contributions through explicit to frames of culture and more specific cross-reference appears as only one rather contexts; and Function, Structure and small part of the overall effects of developing Statistics, turning from particular cases to the collection within a virtual workshop abstracting broad social and cultural patterns. environment. The circulation of participant The first section of the collection presents materials seems to have had a general generally oriented articles anticipating the stimulating effect on participants, simul- following sections in which contributions taneously inspiring and prompting reflection form complimentary sets of more specific and reassessment. Although every participant contributions that open dialogue with one entered the workshop with the ability to speak another – a discussion which can become still in the incomprehensible roar of a lion, more fully realized when engaging the reader. disciplinary ‘lion-speak’ was only one Together, the articles of Approaching possible mode of expression. In practice, a Methodology allow the discussions of each significant part of the workshop was part of the collection and of the collection as a promoting sensitivity to the mode of whole to offer a much richer and more expression for the translation of ‘lion-speak’ dynamic perspective on methods and into a common, interdisciplinary language, methodology than any one article could and sensitivity to disciplinary and also possibly accomplish alone. national/cultural frames of reference for the The disciplinary communication barrier is elucidation of ‘the world as seen by the lion’. not insurmountable. Cross-disciplinary By negotiating toward common frames of discussion is enabled by a) an awareness of reference in the workshop environment, the differences in language and frames of potential intimidation of growling beasts reference, and b) accommodating for these by shifted to conversations with colleagues. negotiating them through the translation of Although disciplinary languages and frames both disciplinary language and disciplinary of reference were not always inter- perspectives. Translation across languages of disciplinarliy accessible, communication disciplines demands reframing, re- opened as a process, negotiating ‘translations’ contextualizing and resituating the methods, of ‘lion-speak’ and ‘the world as seen by the concepts and information. This process is not lion’ into a common language and common only necessarily done from a perspective, it frames of reference. also produces new perspectives as a process. In our case, contributions developed The outcome of the translation process networks of interrelationships with one thereby produces information (Lotman 1990: another, uniting the whole of the workshop 11–19), and potentially new knowledge. The into a more coherent web. Within the knowledge produced by translation is workshop as a process, contributions also different than any one discipline could forge advanced naturally into constellations as they alone, and can be hypothesized to increase in developed in relation to one another. These proportion to the distance between the constellations are realized in the collection as languages and frames of reference of four thematic sections: Method in Practice, participants. addressing a number of generally relevant The virtual workshop has proven to be a issues related to data, research questions or method for opening cross-disciplinary research goals, theory, argument and their discussion on a broadly international basis, interface with method, as well as relationships breaking down the thresholds earlier

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conditioned by proximity and separation. In (see further Ahola & Frog 2011; Aalto 2011). addition, it has proven to be a method for Second, the same essential frame of the workshop and corresponding respondent form and generating new perspectives and new information were provided, but respondents knowledge through the very process of remained anonymous in single-blind peer-review, negotiating cross-disciplinary communication. and working papers were not circulated among Opening cross-disciplinary discussion on participants until respondents had presented their method and methodology has therefore been a reports. Third, the collection was not intended for the special issue of a journal and therefore was not rich and rewarding enterprise. subject to the same time-constraints. Consequently, this presented the possibility to circulate briefly the Acknowledgement: We would like to thank Kirsti revised working papers for final cross-referencing Salmi-Niklander for her comments and suggestions considerations. The international multidisciplinary while preparing this article for publication. collection Genre – Text – Interpretation (organized and edited by Kaarina Koski and Frog: see note 1, Notes above) developed on the platform of the seminar 1. This virtual workshop method is currently also in “Laji nykytutkimuksessa” [‘Genre in Current process in the coordination of two other essay Research’] (organized by Folklore Studies, collections. The first of these is the selected University of Helsinki, December 2010), with an proceedings of the multidisciplinary “Viikinkiaika open international call for papers and additional Suomessa – Viking Age in Finland” project. This invited specialists participants. In this case, will produce the collection Defining and respondents are organized on the basic virtual Contextualizing the Viking Age in Finland (working workshop model with the essential report form but title), organized and edited by Joonas Ahola executed as double-blind peer review. Although (University of Helsinki) and Frog (University of Koski had no direct involvement with the virtual Helsinki). The second is the international workshop of Approaching Methodology and Ahola multidisciplinary collection Genre – Text – was only engaged in the capacity of an external Interpretation (working title), organized and edited respondent, comments and discussion with both by Kaarina Koski (University of Helsinki) and Frog scholars informed and benefitted the development (University of Helsinki). On the differences of the virtual workshop for the present collection. between these different projects and its relationship to the implementation of the virtual workshop Works Cited method, see note 5, below. These variant Aalto, Sirpa. 2011. “Conference Report: The Viking applications are presently testing the versatility with Age in Finland Seminars: 28th–29th April, and 11th– which this virtual workshop method can be 12th November, 2011, Helsinki, Finland”. RMN employed. Perspectives gained from those ongoing Newsletter 3: 38–42. virtual workshops also help inform the present Ahola, Joonas, & Frog. 2011. “Viikinkiaika Suomessa description. – The Viking Age in Finland”. RMN Newsletter 2: 2. This was recently highlighted at the Viking Age in 59–60. Finland multidisciplinary seminars, where Apo, Satu 2001. Viinan voima: Näkökulmia “participants from every discipline were dependent suomalaisten kansanomaiseen alkoholiajatteluun ja on other disciplines in order to successfully frame -kulttuuriin. SKS, Helsinki. their research” (Aalto 2011: 41). Berger, Peter L. & Thomas Luckman. 1966. The Social 3. Richard Macksey employed this quotation in the Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology same capacity nearly half a century ago, when he of Knowledge. New York: Anchor Books. opened the international symposium “Les Carroll, Lewis. 1871 [1970]. Through the Looking- Languages Critiques et les Sciences de l’Homme” Glass and What Alice Found There. In The [‘The Languages of Criticism and the Sciences of Annotated Alice. Ed. Martin Gardner. Middelsex: Man’] (Macksey 1971: 13). Penguin. Pp. 166–345. 4. This was at the panel discussion “Talking Folklore: Dark, K.R. 1995. Theoretical Archaeology. Ithaca: A Conversation with Leaders in the Field” at the Cornell University Press. 2011 Annual Meeting of the American Folklore Foley, John Miles. 1988. The Theory of Oral th th Society, 12 –15 October, Bloomington, Indiana. Composition: History and Methodology. 5. The implementation of the virtual workshop for the Bloomington: Indiana University Press. selected proceedings of the multidisciplinary Harris, Marvin. 1979. Cultural Materialism: The “Viikinkiaika Suomessa – Viking Age in Finland” Struggle for a Science of Culture. New York: project (organized and edited by Joonas Ahola and Random House. Frog: see note 1, above) involved three significant Heide, Eldar. 2010. “Why a Network for Retrospective differences. First, papers were based on seminars Methods?”. RMN Newsletter [1]: 6–7. with invited participants, and these seminars were Kaakkuri-Knuuttila, Marja-Liisa & Ilpo Hakonen. 1998 themselves methodologically organized to open [2007]. “Argumentaatioanalyysi ja hyvän cross-disciplinary communication and discussion argumentin ehdot”. In Argumentti ja kritiikki:

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Lukemisen, keskustelun ja vakuuttamisen taidot. Ed. Marianne Liljeström. Tampere: Vastapaino. Pp. 9– Marja-Liisa Kaakkuri-Knuuttila. Helsinki: 22. Gaudeamus. Pp. 60–113. Liddell, Henry George, & Robert Scott. 1996. A Kaakkuri-Knuuttila, Marja-Liisa. 1998 [2007]. Greek–English Lexicon. 9th edn. Oxford: “Käsitteenmuodostus”. In Argumentti ja kritiikki: Clarendon. Lukemisen, keskustelun ja vakuuttamisen taidot. Ed. Lewis, Charlton T., & Charles Short. 1969. A Latin Marja-Liisa Kaakkuri-Knuuttila. Helsinki: Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon. Gaudeamus. Pp. 328–367. Lotman, Yuri M. 1990. Universe of the Mind: A Laine, Timo. 2007. “Miten kokemusta voidaan tutkia? Semiotic Theory of Culture. Trans. Ann Shukman. Fenomenologinen näkökulma”. In Ikkunoita Bloomington: Indiana University Press. tutkimusmetodeihin II: Näkökulmia aloittavalle Macksey, Richard. 1971. “Lions and Squares: Opening tutkijalle tutkimuksen teoreettisiin lähtökohtiin ja Remarks”. In The Structuralist Controversy: The analyysimenetelmiin. Ed. Juhani Aaltola & Raine Languages of Criticism and the Sciences of Man. Valli. Jyväskylä: PS Kustannus. Pp. 28–45. Ed. Richard Maksey & Eugenio Donato. Baltimore: Lakomäki, Sami, Pauliina Latvala & Kirsi Laurén. John Hopkins Press. Pp. 1–14. 2011. “Menetelmien jäljillä”. In Tekstien rajoilla: OED = Oxford English Dictionary I–XX. 1989. 2nd Monitieteisiä näkökulmia kirjoitettuihin edn. Oxford: Clarendon Press. aineistoihin. Ed. Sami Lakomäki, Pauliina Latvala Radstone, Susannah (ed.). 2000. Memory and & Kirsi Laurén. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Methodology. Oxford, New York. Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp.7–30. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. 2009. Philosophical Liljeström, Marianne. 2004. “Feministinen Investigations. Ed. P.M.S. Hacker & Joachim metodologia: Mitä se on?”. In Feministinen Schulte. 4th edn. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. tietäminen: Keskusteluja metodologiasta. Ed.

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Part I: Method in Practice

Method in Practice: An Introduction

The four articles that comprise the opening this may prove incommensurate with the section of Approaching Methodology address method and research questions: as realities of different aspects of the interface of method or data become apparent, methods may require methodology with questions or goals of adaptation or replacement, or it may become research, theory, and objects of research to apparent that the actual data is not suited to which methods are applied. Although the role the initial questions, which themselves must of methods in research tends to be presented be revised before the particular data can be as both ideal and objective, realities of their productively interrogated. use and valuation develop through broad In a discussion that will be of value to any patterns of social practice in different researcher and that provides excellent disciplines (cf. Bourdieu 1977). These foundations for the reader of Approaching processes of social practice, engaging in Methodology, Espen Suenson (Åbo Academi) academic discourses, construct, evolve and addresses these issues both broadly and communicate the habitus of conscious and efficiently in “Method and Fieldwork in a unconscious methodologies. The Hermeneutical Perspective”. This article contributions in the opening section, Method opens a number of questions fundamental to in Practice, emerge from widely different and the collection, such as interfaces and complementary perspectives, with both differences between ethnographic research on general and specific discussions of challenges living cultures and research on pre-history. and realities of carrying out research within The contribution outlines a general frame of methodological frameworks. These articles reference from which later articles in the simultaneously provide foundational section build. In addition, it provides a discussions that anticipate the subsequent constructive foundation that anticipates the thematic sections of the collection, as well as discussions in the second section of the providing essential introductions to central collection, Constructing Data. Perhaps most themes that weave the contributions to importantly, Suenson (this volume: 26) Approaching Methodology into a more highlights that “[s]cience is, at its heart, a coherent whole. persuasive activity”. This emphasizes that However many questions may surround research is not simply an undertaking by methods, perhaps the most fundamental is the individual researchers who produce question of which method or methods to use descriptions and discussions of their research. when initiating research. In order for methods The presentation of research is bound to to construct the bridge from research discursive practices that engage other scholars questions or goals to outcomes, a method within the frameworks of current must be commensurate with the material to methodologies. The success of research is which it is applied, yet both the material and assessed according to those engagements, and the method(s) must also be commensurate without engagements on appropriate terms, with the research questions or research goals. arguments will not be accepted, findings or At first glance, this may appear to rely on a interpretations will not be acknowledged, or simple, universal equation. However, the research itself will pass wholly unnoticed. relationships between the material, methods Almost every study faces the question of and questions or goals are not necessarily the relationship of individual cases or items of one-sided: they frequently enter into dialogue data to broader cultural patterns or to a corpus and adapt in the research process. As research as a whole. Changes in theoretical produces and constructs data and information, frameworks of interpretation during the 1960s

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and 1970s levelled earlier hierarchies of scope is related to the priorities of an authority related to the origin and history of investigation. Individual cases or examples individual texts (e.g. Barthes 1967). Every are not only engaged in spatially and source or example thus became worthy of temporally localized dialogues; they consideration in a broad range of fields (cf. simultaneously participate in dialogues with Leslie, this volume). This was largely owing patterns of ever-broadening scope. Bradley’s to an awareness that materials neglected in discussion of negotiating generalizations earlier research practice could be interrogated produced by broad surveys of data and the with different sorts of questions (cf. Suenson, investigation of specific cases is relevant to this volume). At the same time, earlier both historical investigation and current hierarchies of the ‘best’ materials for use in anthropological research. research practice were simultaneously Methods and methodologies are shaped by destabilized because, as Jill Bradley (this social and historical circumstances, yet they volume: 34) points out, the ‘best’ informants, are continuously situated and resituated in artefacts or textual sources “are usually the discourses of the present. At the same time, ones that are in some way exceptional”. The research in the present frequently relies on relationship between individual examples and research produced in different times and broad cultural phenomena has become a places, and which is consequently bound to necessary consideration to almost any methodologies associated with different investigation, yet clear methods for social, historical and cultural circumstances. approaching these relationships frequently As methodologies change, these may become remain undeveloped and ambiguous. problematic for current use, incompatible with In “Building a Visual Vocabulary: The current research questions, or appear more Methodology of ‘Reading’ Images in generally obsolete (cf. Fisher, this volume). Context”, Jill Bradley (Radboud University, This is particularly apparent in research that Nijmegen) presents an accessible introduction antedates Post-Modernism, and the general to a method that she has developed for shift in paradigms from reconstructing approaching visual culture – a method which original forms to specific sources and contexts is readily adaptable to diverse modes of of production; from continuity to variation; expression. Methodologically, her outline of from monolithic interpretations to pragmatics broad perspectives and generalizations as a and subjective reception. A ‘fact’ of earlier context for approaching specific cases research “is relative in relation to the introduces essential principles discussed in universum of culture” and changes in a contributions to the third section of this dominant methodology – the frame of collection, Culturally Sensitive Reading. In reference in relation to which a ‘fact’ is this article, Bradley concentrates on understood – result in the dissolution of approaching cultural phenomena in the various ‘facts’ and their social authority Middle Ages, opening the theme of (Lotman 1990: 220). The findings of earlier retrospective methods, relevant to more than research and the truth-potential of the half of the contributions in Approaching methods on which they relied were Methodology. This introduction is valuable in problematized in these processes. This its breadth and scope, from cross-cultural phenomenon in the history of research is patterns and examples across centuries down another theme encountered in this collection, to specific cases. Bradley advocates that in addressed in aspects ranging from problems areas of study where sources are limited, posed by resources produced under earlier surveys of materials should attempt to be as methodologies (Goeres, this volume) to extensive as possible (cf. Haukur Þorgeirsson, adapting earlier methods to new questions in this volume). Many types of data may current research (Nordvig, this volume). intersect in a single study, and as Suenson In “The Parallax Approach: Situating points out, different types of data may be Traditions in Long-Term Perspective”, Frog interrogated with different types of questions. (University of Helsinki) addresses precisely This highlights that the determination of these issues. He builds on Bradley’s

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discussion of developing general perspectives authority. Precisely this process is challenged and working models of traditions and their by advancing the perspectives of minority semiotics, but turns from contextualizing groups. (Berger & Luckman 1966; Bourdieu individual cases in a historical ‘present’ to 1977.) Research participates in these developing dynamic systemic models (cf. processes occuring within and across research Glukhov & Glukhova, this volume) offering disciplines. Dominant methodologies and perspectives on historical processes. The associated research paradigms condition what adaptation of earlier comparative methods to research is done in a field and in what ways. current methodological contexts results in an Consequently, they condition what research is outline of a usage-based approach to folklore. not done, and thereby areas where knowledge This gives attention to the role of social is neither produced nor maintained. negotiation in historical processes – a role In “The Ghosts of Methodologies Past: which has often stood beyond the scope of Disentangling Method, Methodology and research. Suenson advocated a dialogic Methodologists in Disciplinary Studies of negotiation between research questions and Marginalized Groups”, Sonja Peterson-Lewis their commensurability with data, anticipating (Temple University) offers a valuable discussions in Constructing Data; Bradley discussion on the relationship and distinction advocated developing extended perspectives of method and methodology. Her discussion of an extensive corpus and working models opens the theme of relationships between for traditions and cultural semiotic resources knowledge and power structures with which in anticipation of Culturally Sensitive several articles of the collection connect in Reading; Frog extends from these discussions different ways (e.g. Goeres, Schrire, this to the examination of social patterns in volume). The article is concerned with variation within a corpus as an outcome of perspectives of individuals, social groups and historical processes, anticipating Function, cultures that are the objects of investigation, Structure and Statistics as the final section of and is one of the many contributions this collection. This article is a central work challenging long-dominant perspectives on retrospective methods, but it simul- advocated by the hegemony of academic taneously offers more general insights into discourse. Decoding cultural trails from the relationships of method, theory and Middle Ages or from contemporary and interpretation. The method introduced is recent history reveal the practices of everyday concerned with situating traditions in long- reality, offering perspectives on how the term perspective, but the article situates both surrounding world is reflected through itself and problems faced in current research intention and expression, and how it has been within the long-term perspective of the history made understandable for a community in a of disciplinary research. particular context. Peterson-Lewis highlights The discussion of social negotiation in the that those perceptions are also shaped historical processes of the transmission of historically, and that they reciprocally impact traditions provides a springboard to draw the research and emerging generations of opening section of Approaching Methodology researchers for whom ideologies may full circle, returning to the reality and stigmatize those methods with which they challenges of social negotiation in research become associated. The intersection of practice, in the education of emerging knowledge, popular discourse and organized generations of scholars, and in the interactions education are revealed as a nexus of social between research practice and broader social negotiation and a potentially politically realities. Language and cultural knowledge charged arena. These perspectives show that are relational and produce boundaries not only is research conditioned by (different) between different social groups, creating methodologies, but that critical deconstruction cultural centre(s) and cultural margins. is crucial in order to frame current Canonical knowledge has historically been argumentation and justify interpretations maintained by the hegemony of power and within the broader frames and discourses of has reciprocally reinforces that power and society in which we participate.

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Works Cited Berger, Peter L. & Thomas Luckman. 1966. The Social Anthropology 16. Cambridge: Cambridge Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology University Press. of Knowledge. New York: Anchor Books. Lotman, Yuri M. 1990. Universe of the Mind: A Bourdieu, Pierre 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Semiotic Theory of Culture. Trans. Ann Shukman. Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Method and Fieldwork in a Hermeneutical Perspective Espen Suenson, Åbo Akademi

The background of the present text is my and Clifford Geertz. The discussion of the ongoing work on a doctoral dissertation at influence of anthropology on fieldwork will in Åbo Akademi, a dissertation that is jointly in this text be limited to the work of Bruno ethnology and computer engineering. My Latour and Steve Woolgar. academic background is similarly partly ethnology and partly computer science. My Science as Persuasion professional experience as a programmer, Science is, at its heart, a persuasive activity. along with my interest in ethnology, prompted Any given research result will at some point me to begin an ethnological study of be presented either in written form, as a book, computer programming. article or report, or in oral form, as a talk at a This text is a reflection on the fieldwork I conference or even as a remark during an have done to collect data for my dissertation. informal chat between colleagues. The The fieldwork consists of interviews with and purpose of presenting scientific results is of observations of computer programmers course to convince the audience of the collected during the spring and autumn of scientific truth of said result. The ideal of 2011. I discuss my method along with an scientific practice is that through free and example of an ethnological historical study frank discussion and exchange of arguments and I put it all in perspective by arguing for a between scholars, scientific truth will hermeneutical understanding of scientific eventually prevail. The real test of scientific method. validity lies not in citation count but in the The purpose of this text is to show how ability to convince educated and informed hermeneutics can help in understanding what colleagues of the truth of the matter on the happens during the scientific process. basis of the given scientific evidence. Since Hermeneutics is the classical study of what argument is the form of all persuasion, this requisites there are to understanding. It has means that scientific activity is a form of been particularly developed within Bible argumentative activity. Certainly, a scientific Studies – biblical exegesis – but has also been insight may be ever so true, but, if it cannot be applied to other fields such as law and, presented convincingly, that is, if it cannot be increasingly since the 19th century, to texts in argued, then it will have no impact on science. general. Ethnology is the study of folk culture We might ask of ourselves now whether and as a discipline has always been informed argumentation is really an essential part of the and inspired by other traditions, not least by scientific process as such. After all, it is the hermeneutical tradition and by possible to imagine that the scientist first anthropology. reaches his scientific conclusions without The hermeneutical influence can be found giving any thought at all to how they are to be in the works of ethnological figures such as presented and only later constructs the Troels-Lund and H.F. Feilberg in Denmark, arguments with which to present them. and Helmer Tegengren in Finland. The According to this way of thinking, anthropological influence in ethnology can be argumentation is added to scientific results felt especially in the discussions on fieldwork, almost as an afterthought – as something that and is connected with authors such as, for is certainly necessary to the spread of example, Bronislaw Malinowski, Franz Boas scientific knowledge but which is not an 23

intimate part of how the scientist comes to the are a special case of argumentation in general. knowledge. Argumentation is seen as This view is clearly at odds with the idea that something external to science. This view, scientific discovery should be independent of however, is not defendable in light of 20th subsequent presentation. Accordingly: century philosophical knowledge of Aussi, de notre point de vue, c’est l’analyse argumentation and of science. de l’argumentation adressée à autrui qui Chaïm Perelman and Lucie Olbrechts- nous fera comprendre mieux la délibération Tyteca published in 1958 their Traité de avec soi-même, et non l’inverse. (Perelman l’argumentation [‘Treaties on Argu- & Olbrechts-Tyteca 1958: §9, p. 54.) mentation’], which was the result of ten years Also, from our point of view, it is the of intensive studies of argumentation. In their analysis of argumentation directed to others work, they present what is called “the new that makes us better comprehend rhetorics”, a modern theory of argumentation deliberation with oneself, and not the that rehabilitates Aristotle’s classical thinking converse. on rhetoric and connected it with present day thinking on argumentation. They compare the That is, the analysis of arguments directed to way a person addresses an audience with the others informs the study of private conviction way he considers a matter in the privacy of and not the other way around. Perelman and his own mind: Olbrechts-Tyteca point out that this way of understanding argumentation allows an L’individualisme des auteurs qui accordent explanation of how a person can be convinced une nette prééminence à la façon de of something and yet not be able to express conduire nos propres pensées et la his conviction in a way that can persuade considèrent comme seule digne de l’intérêt others. This is because the argumentation that du philosophe – le discours adressé à autrui n’étant qu’apparance et tromperie – a été suffices to convince himself can be based on pour beaucoup dans le discrédit non arguments that are valid to him alone. But, seulement de la rhétorique, mais, en général, such arguments, though they may be true and de toute théorie de l’argumentation. Il nous valid as far as the individual is concerned, are semble, par contre, qu’il y a tout intérêt à not scientific arguments, since they are not considérer la délibération intime comme une held by the general scientific community to be espèce particulière d’argumentation. valid. The practice of science requires the (Perelman & Olbrechts-Tyteca 1958: §9, p. uncovering of arguments that are more 54.) generally accepted than personal conviction The individualism of those authors who or opinion. We see thus that, in the light of bestow pure pre-eminence on the way we argumentation theory, we cannot completely conduct our private thoughts and consider it separate scientific discovery from the way it exclusively worthy of philosophical interest is to be presented to a scholarly audience. – discourse directed to others is but Such is the judgment of argumentation appearance and guile – has done much to theory on the matter at hand. We turn now to discredit not only rhetorics but in general all philosophical thought on the subject. Hans- theory of argumentation. It appears to us, on Georg Gadamer published in 1960 his the contrary, that it is in every interest to consider private deliberation as a special magnum opus Wahrheit und Methode [‘Truth case of argumentation. and Method’], in which he practically founded the field of philosophical That is to say that to consider a person’s hermeneutics and summed up the preceding deliberation with himself and his private centuries’ thoughts on the essence of convictions to be the primary object of scientific interpretation and scientific philosophical and scientific thought, and to understanding. Gadamer points out that consider that arguments directed to an understanding is inescapably linked to audience are but an afterthought, is both application. Application is not something that wrong and harmful to the theory of comes after understanding, but is given in argumentation. Instead, private convictions advance and determines the whole of

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understanding. An interpreter of history seeks In law, the application of a text is obvious. to apply his interpretation, and the use of it is Regarding history, it seems less immediate. In not something that comes strictly after a history, the essential application is to interpret general understanding of the text: texts and other sources in order to obtain a coherent and meaningful understanding of the Auch wir hatten uns davon überzeugt, daß past: die Anwendung nicht ein nachträglicher und gelegentlicher Teil des Verstehens- Für den Historiker tritt jedoch der einzelne phänomens ist, sondern es von vornherein Text mit anderen Quellen und Zeugnissen und im ganzen mitbestimmt. … Der zur Einheit des Überlieferungsganzen Interpret, der es mit einer Überlieferung zu zusammen. Die Einheit dieses Ganzen der tun hat, sucht sich dieselbe zu applizieren. Überlieferung ist sein wahrer Aber auch hier heißt das nicht, daß der hermeneutische Gegenstand. (Gadamer überlieferte Text für ihn als ein Allgemeines 1960: II.II.2.c, p. 322.) gegeben und verstanden und danach erst für besondere Anwendung in Gebrauch For the historian, the individual text genommen würde. (Gadamer 1960: II.II.2.b, combines with other sources and witnesses p. 307.) to form a united whole of received tradition. The unity of this whole of tradition is his Also, we are therefore convinced that true hermeneutical subject. application is not a subsequent and occasional part of the phenomenon of That is, for the historian, each single text that understanding but rather determined from he studies joins with other texts and sources the start and by the whole. … The interpreter and forms a whole that expresses the that is working with received tradition seeks understanding of our past. The unity of this himself to apply it. And again, it is not the whole is the true hermeneutical purpose of case that the received text is first understood history. generally and factually and then only What is of special interest to us in this is hereafter taken in use for some particular that, accordingly, scientific understanding application. must be understood in terms of scientific Gadamer gives an example of what this application. For a scholar, the immediate means in the practice of judicial application of research is not the eventual hermeneutics. In judicial hermeneutics, the practical usefulness of the results, but rather application of understanding is the action of the necessity of persuading other scholars passing judgment. In order to understand the and, as we understand from the above, original intent of a law, the interpreter must oneself. An example of this that should be understand how the law is used for passing familiar to many is what we experience when judgment. This means that he must undergo we teach a difficult subject for the first time. the same process of mental reasoning, of Even though we feel that we have mastered thinking through the consequences of the law, the subject ourselves, we find that the fullest as the judge who is actually passing judgment understanding comes to us only when we try according to the law. On the other hand, a to teach it to others. judge passing judgment in the present We have argued that, both from a situation must understand the intent of the communicative and a philosophical law. That means setting aside the matter at perspective, science is best understood as a hand for a moment, in order to understand persuasive activity. However, though what the original circumstances were in which Gadamer’s thoughts apply to all the law was to be used. Since circumstances understanding in general, he is first and always change over time, the letter of the law foremost concerned with the phenomenon of alone is not enough in passing just judgment. understanding within Geisteswissenschaft, a The concept of application of the law is what term that can be somewhat imprecisely links the judge of the present with the translated as ‘the humanities’, but one that lawgiver of the past. (Gadamer 1960: really means something like ‘the sciences II.II.2.c.) concerned with free human thought’.

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Nevertheless, this does not mean that the of in more detail. In the classical theory of persuasive aspect can somehow be avoided in rhetoric, Aristotle divides the means of certain fields of science. demonstration that can be used in an The exact sciences are argumentative in argument into two classes: the non-technical exactly the same way as all other sciences. and the technical, where ‘technical’ is to be Indeed, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca understood as rhetorical.2 (Aristotle: 1355b, (1958: §6, p. 37f.) point out that there is no Α.II.2.) Non-technical means are here to be such thing as pure objectivity. This is not to understood as the evidence that is given and say that objectivity does not exist. Rather, available to the argument in the form of objectivity must always be understood in documents, witness explanations and the like. terms of a subject that regards the object. It is non-technical (not rhetorical) because it Without subject there is no object. It is is not common to argumentation in general as because of this that application has such a such, but is particular to the matter being central place in Gadamer’s explanation of debated. Put another way, when we argue understanding, for it is precisely application scientifically, we need both something to that establishes the relationship between speak about, which is the scientific evidence, subject and object, in that the subject and a way of forming our speech. Scientific performs some action on the object in order to evidence is not the same thing as proof. reach a goal. (Højrup 1995: 65–69.) Rather, evidence is the means of proof. A In 1979, Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar piece of evidence can be interpreted in published the book Laboratory Life, an different ways, yielding different conclusions. anthropological study of how science is done The problem of obtaining the scientific in a neuroendocrinological laboratory based evidence, the data, is the subject of much on two years of observation. Neuro- scientific method. Sometimes the evidence is endocrinology as a field is at the very heart of more or less given, as in an archive of exact sciences and the book has since become collected material that is just waiting to be a modern classic in the field of science and analysed. However, in most cases there are technology studies. Latour and Woolgar show some specific questions that we want to how science is indeed a highly rhetorical, answer and our first problem is how to get persuasive activity. Facts and findings are any evidence at all. At first glance, it would constantly being argued for, questioned and seem that the situations are very different for recast in new formulations, with the historical and contemporary research. In scientists’ credibility and rhetorical skills historical research, the material available is being important factors in the eventual that which is preserved. We can never hope to acceptance or dismissal of their ideas. The get more, short of an unexpected discovery of rhetorical persuasion is so effective that in the previously unknown sources. In contemporary end, the scientists are not even aware that they research, on the other hand, our informants have been persuaded, but come to regard the are still available; the life we are studying is accepted arguments as objective, immutable unfurling around us. We can generate as much facts. (Latour & Woolgar 1979: 240.) As data as we want to. Latour and Woolgar show conclusively, not A closer examination, however, reveals even in the exact sciences are the bare facts in that this depiction is not entirely accurate. themselves enough to make up a scientific True, the past is the past and in that sense finding.1 more historical evidence cannot be produced; it is limited to what has been preserved. The Scientific Argument However, the decision of how much of the As shown above, science is an argumentative preserved evidence should be included in a activity. In other words, science is persuasion scientific argument is left to the scholar’s – though not ‘mere’ persuasion, but a special discretion. form of persuasion that is especially To take an example: When studying a convincing. It is therefore of interest to Danish peasant doing construction works on examine what a scientific argument consists his fields in the poor moorlands of

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Vestjylland in 1834, it is evidently useful to sense to me. Of course, since the research is know something about which fields were contemporary, I can always collect more considered of high quality at that time and in evidence, either by talking to the engineers that area. (Gormsen 1982: 13.) Perhaps it again or by finding some other engineers to would also be relevant to know about the ask. There is, though, a limit to how much general economic conditions in Vestjylland at evidence I can process – I cannot talk to every the time. Perhaps in all of Denmark. Maybe it single engineer in the world. And even if I would be informative to know about the could, the problems of understanding the earlier history of farming techniques, to find engineers are still there. If there is something out from where the peasant got his knowledge I do not understand, I can ask the engineers of construction works. The construction again, but it is perfectly possible that I will works were not particularly successful, so still not understand the answer. perhaps it would also be useful to have some The essential problem of the availability of knowledge of farming techniques in later contemporary scientific evidence is, as in the times in order to interpret the lack of success case of historical research, one of – not to speak of comparing similar interpretation. This is, of course, assuming construction works in the area at the time. that the people I am studying want to let me Also, the construction works were just a small interview them in the first place. People have aspect of the peasant’s activities. their reasons for wanting to talk to me or not, As we see, the limited availability of and that is a factor outside my control. The historical evidence is only apparent, since access to the field of study is a fundamental much more historical evidence has been limitation in contemporary research. This is preserved than a single person can possibly akin to historical research in that, for some process in its entirety. The real limit on the reason or other, the people of the past chose to availability of evidence is that the evidence write some things down and not others, as in does not always speak about the things that the diary mentioned above where the peasant we want to know about. The peasant’s diary chose to write about his work, not his speaks mostly of farming tasks, of emotions. That cannot be changed. This construction works and money loans, when limitation evidently does not preclude what we are really interested in is the farmer’s contemporary studies of a field that is difficult perception of his existence, a classic to access or historical studies of a sparsely ethnological subject. Any historical research documented subject, but the available involves a selection of the relevant historical evidence will be more indirect and the task of evidence. This selection is a limitation that the interpretation accordingly more difficult. historian imposes on herself in order to be This discussion of the availability of able to make an interpretation; see for evidence reveals that it is of crucial example Jill Bradley’s discussion of how to importance when talking about scientific select material for image research in this method to know what it is that we want to volume of RMN Newsletter. Thus, the know something about – the research goal. fundamental limits on the availability of We mentioned that the scientific argument has historical evidence is in essence a problem of to have something to speak about and a way interpretation rather than quantity. of saying it, and a final requirement is of Let us now examine the case of course that there is something we want to say. contemporary research. My current research This something, which is the research goal, is involves conducting interviews by phone with determining for the interpretation of evidence, engineers in other countries, transcribing and this is the reason that Gadamer devotes so those interviews and finally analysing what much effort to the relationship between the engineers tell me. It is often quite difficult interpretation and application in Wahrheit und to make out what the engineers say over a bad Methode. Gadamer puts it this way: phone connection and in a language that is Der Historiker verhält sich zu seinen Texten foreign to both of us. Even if I can understand wie der Untersuchungsrichter beim Verhör what they are saying, it does not always make von Zeugen. Indessen macht die bloße 27

Feststellung von Tatsachen, die er etwa der companies all work with safety-critical Voreingenommenheit der Zeugen ablistet, systems, that is, they make automobiles, noch nicht wirklich den Historiker, sondern airplanes, medical equipment and so forth. erst das Verständnis der Bedeutung, die er in The second part consists of notes from four seinen Feststellungen findet. (Gadamer weeks I spent as an observer in a small 1960: II.II.2.c, p. 321.) company that makes computer games. I was The historian’s relationship to his texts is present during work hours: ordinary office like that of the examining magistrate’s hours, usually nine to five. The time was relationship to the interrogation of a witness. spent predominantly in observation and taking Meanwhile, the mere establishment of facts notes, without interacting with the people stripped of the bias of the witness is not concerned. This is supplemented by enough to make a historian, save for the interviews with the employees and a understanding of meaning that he finds during this establishment. collection of some photographs and written material. That is, the historian’s relationship to the The collection of the first part of the data is historical document is like that of a judge to a a prime example of how the availability of witness being interrogated. The raw facts in evidence can influence method. I was offered, themselves, stripped of the bias of the as part of another research project, to witness, are not interesting but for the participate in making the interview series. The understanding of meaning that the historian interviews were to be focused on how finds during the discovery of facts. software engineers describe their work, as that was the focus of the other research project. Examples of Method in Fieldwork My original intent was to perform As argued above, availability of evidence and observations on site in companies. However, research goals are factors that are important in it is time consuming to find informants who forming scientific method. I will now give are willing to be studied. Moreover, from my some examples from my ongoing research of contacts in academia, I knew that it could be how scientific method is influenced by these difficult to get access to companies in this factors and how it in turn influences them. particular branch of the software industry My research is concerned with the work because they are sometimes secretive about practices of computer programmers. The goal their detailed operations. Thus, when it is to present a characterization of became possible to gain access to informants programming work based on my observations from all these companies with whom it might and on an ethnological perspective on culture, otherwise have been difficult to establish and to compare this characterization with the contact, I chose to collect data with the programmers’ own understanding of their prescribed method of the other research work practice. The focus on work practice and project – telephone interviews – instead of my its connection to cultural context makes my original preference, observation on site. research comparable to studies such as This, on the other hand, also offers an Arbetets flytande gränser by Billy Ehn from example of how method can influence 1981, in which Ehn presents the results of the research goals. The telephone interview seven months he spent as a factory worker in method and the focus on the informants’ the medical industry. Gudrun Gormsen’s 1982 descriptions of their work practices was not as study of the diary of a moorland peasant in well suited as the observation method for my the years 1829–1857 is also an inspiration for prime research interest at the time, the my research, since Gormsen’s work can be concrete day to day work practice. With the perceived as a historical work study. telephone interview material, I have to infer The data I have collected for my research the work practices from the conversations falls in two parts. The first part consists of with the engineers instead of observing it interviews conducted by telephone with directly. This could be seen as a deviation software engineers from about twenty from my original intent; however, I realized companies from all over Europe. The that the material offers other possibilities.

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Specifically, the telephone interview material can be felt. Because I was more interested in shows in a much more direct way than the programmers’ interaction with each other observations of practice how the programmers than with me, I sought to minimize my describe their work and thus how they interaction with them. This meant that understand their work. The programmers’ explanatory comments and casual remarks understanding of their work and the relation it directed to me, evidence in their own right, has to their work practice thus became a much became much scarcer. The relative more important aspect of my research goals availability of two kinds of evidence that to a than previously. This also goes to illustrate degree exclude each other was affected by my the point of the preceding section, that choice of method. availability of evidence is more a question of interpretation than of quantity. The Role of Scientific Theory The influence of research goals on method Let us now take a look at how we can is in many cases immediately obvious: a understand the role of scientific theory in the method is chosen for its ability to generate scientific argument. At a very general level, a evidence that can reveal something about that theory explains what is relevant about the which we want to investigate. This influence subject matter and how the relevant parts also applies to the collection of the second relate to each other. It is a point of departure part of my data. To observe work practice as for our understanding. Thus, theory ideally directly as possible, I chose to use immediate, tells us how we expect things to be before we direct observation. This choice may perhaps start an investigation into the matter. seem obvious, but it is not the only option The question of prerequisites to available. I could have chosen to rely understanding is treated in depth by Gadamer. exclusively on interviews, to do a pure What he arrives at is that there can be no academic literature study or to collect written understanding without prejudice (Vorurteil). evidence from the internet. All of these (Gadamer 1960: II.II.1.a.α.) Prejudices are methods have their merit. However, as I seek perspectives and opinions, and we all always to investigate programming not only as it is hold some prejudices. No mind is a blank understood but also at is it concretely slate. Without prejudice we cannot even begin practiced, I chose the method that has the to comprehend. For example, if I try to read a most immediate connection to concrete Greek play without knowing Classical Greek, practice, namely to be present during the the text will just appear to me as work. Or rather, there exists an even more incomprehensible scribblings. A first immediate method – which is to actually do prerequisite is to have a basic understanding the work, as Ehn did in his factory study. I of facts, e.g. to know the letters and the decided not to do the latter, partly because it words. This basic understanding would take longer than I was prepared to (Vorverständnis) is a part of prejudice. spend on the study and partly because I (Gadamer 1960: II.II.1.c, p. 278.) When this already have years of practice as a is present, the actual process of understanding programmer and thus judge myself capable of can begin. Here prejudice is crucial. Prior to understanding the practice that I observe reading the text, I will have formed an idea, without carrying out the practice myself. accurate or not, of whether the author is to be The influence of method on the availability trusted to tell the truth or whether he for some of evidence is also exemplified by the second reason lies. If I read Aristofanes’ plays as a part of my data collection. Choosing on-site literal description of ancient Greek society, observations as my method limited the my understanding will falter. To make sense availability of companies to study. Having an of the plays, I need to have the proper observer present affects the workplace and prejudicial view that they do not literally tell this can be seen as an unnecessary burden on the truth – that they exaggerate and distort it the company. I was thus turned down by one in order to amuse, and to criticize society. The company on this ground. Even within the task of hermeneutics is to distinguish between observation situation, the choice of method

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true and false prejudice. (Gadamer 1960: activity and as dialogue. We can then ask II.II.1.c, p. 282f.) what characterizes scientific speech, what is We can thus understand scientific theory as the prototypical form of scientific argument. a part of our prejudices in the sense of Here we can find a model in the classic Gadamer. We always have prejudices, rhetorical concept of epicheireme. Ordinarily, whether we acknowledge them or not. an argument3 does not state fully and Scientific theory is a form of prejudice that completely all of its premises; something is we are conscious of, have made explicit and left out and meant to be tacitly understood. have written down. What makes it prejudice – The epicheireme is the fully elaborated as opposed to simply judgment – is that we argument where the major premises, minor take the theory as a starting point whenever premises and conclusion are stated in their we encounter new evidence. Exactly because entirety. (Kennedy 1984: ch. 1, p. 17.) This, this explicit prejudice is not unconscious and then, is the ideal model for the scientific taken for granted, we are able to have a argument where everything is laid bare for scientific discussion about it. We need to keep other scholars to examine. Of course, in in mind, though, that understanding is a practice, most scientific writing is not continuous process. (Gadamer 1960: II.II.1.d.) composed of epicheiremes and most scientific In good scientific practice, theory is investigations are not even epicheiremes in constantly confronted with evidence and themselves; instead, they build upon each revised. As understanding deepens, theory other. As an ideal though, the epicheireme is changes. the rhetorical concept that best characterizes science. Science as Dialogue If we view scientific understanding as a Choosing good metaphors is an essential part dialogue with the field, then method becomes of science. A metaphor for scientific the way of engaging in the dialogue, of posing understanding itself is that it is a dialogue questions and listening to answers. Good with the evidence, the field. The scientist method, then, is to let the dialogue guide the poses a question by looking at the evidence in method in such a way that we always engage a certain way. The ‘answer’ is the new in the dialogue in the most fruitful manner. understanding that the scientist gains, in turn Bad method is to choose once and for all to leading to more questions, and more answers. fix a method and let it impose arbitrary and The process of understanding is described in unwarranted restrictions on the dialogue with this way as an ongoing dialogue between no regard to how the said dialogue is scientist and evidence. evolving. In other words, both the subject of Is this metaphor justified? Gadamer scientific research and the increasing himself points out that questions play a scientific understanding need to be both the central role in understanding (Gadamer 1960: determinant for and to be above method. II.II.1.c, p. 283) and the entire last third of Wie man sieht, ist das Problem der Methode Wahrheit und Methode is devoted to ganz von dem Gegenstand bestimmt... examining the relationship between language (Gadamer 1960: II.II.2.b, p. 297.) and understanding. As we have seen earlier in this article, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca What is seen is that the problem of method consider private deliberation to be a special is wholly determined by the subject... case of argumentation, which means that it Acknowledgements: This research is graciously funded can also be considered a special kind of by a grant from Svenska Kulturfonden. Thanks to my dialogue. reviewers Frog and Sonja Peterson-Lewis for their As McCloskey writes in a treatise on the insightful comments. scientific rhetoric of the field of economics, science is not a privileged way of knowing, it Notes is a way of speaking about things (McCloskey 1. Compare with the quotation from Gadamer in the 1985: ch. 4, p. 67). This fits well with our end of the next section. 2. Since Aristotle considers rhetorics to be a technique, characterization of science as a persuasive τέχνη, which means something like an art or a craft 30

– something that can be taught. (Aristotle: 1354a, Højrup, Thomas. 1995. Omkring livsformsanalysens Α.I.2.) udvikling. København: Museum Tusculanums 3. In rhetorical terminology: enthymeme. Forlag.† Kennedy, George A. 1984. New Testament Works Cited Interpretation through Rhetorical Criticism. Chapel Aristotle. Rhetoric. Here cited according to: Retorik. Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Trans. Thure Hastrup. København: Museum Latour, Bruno, & Steve Woolgar. 1979 [1986]. Tusculanums Forlag, 2002. Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. 2nd edn. Princeton: Princeton University Ehn, Billy. 1981. Arbetets flytande gränser: En st fabriksstudie. Stockholm: Prisma. Press (1 edn.: Sage Publications). McCloskey, Donald (Deirdre) N. 1985 [1998]. The Gadamer, Hans-Georg. 1960 [1965]. Wahrheit und nd Methode. 2nd edn. Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr (Paul Rhetoric of Economics. 2 edn. Madison: Siebeck). University of Wisconsin Press. Gormsen, Gudrun. 1982. “Hedebonden: Studier i Perelman, Chaïm, & Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. 1958 [2008]. Traité de l’argumentation: La nouvelle gårdmand Peder Knudsens dagbog 1829–1857”. th Folk og Kultur 1982: 58–101. Here cited according rhétorique. 6 edn. Bruxelles: Editions de † l’Université de Bruxelles. to: Offprint in the series Ief småskrifter. † With an English summary.

Building a Visual Vocabulary: The Methodology of ‘Reading’ Images in Context Jill Bradley, Radboud University, Nijmegen

In attempting to understand attitudes and context, but they also help shape that context ideas of the past, obviously the best method is and influence traditions (see Bradley 2011b). to consult the people of the time, and many Images are metaphors and these can be historians have given us pictures of societies altered or lose their original meaning due to as seen through the eyes of various changes in context and mind-set or way of individuals, or of events and persons that they thinking, as well as in the preoccupations of feel reveal attitudes and ideas (see e.g. Brann society (see Osborne, this volume). This paper 2002); this is a valuable tool, but here the offers a method of building a vocabulary of broader view is considered – that which was visual metaphors, not as an absolute, but as an seen and understood by a society or groups in acknowledgement of the pressures of context a society. (time and location, in both the narrow and Images are more than simply broader sense) and thereby an opportunity to representations: they are the conveyers of deepen the understanding of both the image ideas. They have their own vocabulary and and the context. Such a visual vocabulary is validity, frequently complementary to written an attempt to do justice to the ideas, attitudes texts, but independent of them. Nor is the and preoccupations of the society that vocabulary static or absolute, but rather varies produced the work. In a sense, it is with the society and changes through time reconstructing a lost language or learning a (see Frog, this volume, for context and new one. Examples will come chiefly from tradition). Just like words, images are used to the medieval period in north-western Europe, broadcast a message and must take into but the method is applicable to a broad range account the visual vocabulary of the intended of cultures and periods, including modern audience. At first sight, the images of another works. culture are usually incomprehensible: we may appreciate them aesthetically or interpret them Images as Sources according to the norms of our own society, Visual sources are still regarded as suspect by but this is to misread their message and ignore some, chiefly because of the element of their intended function (see Frog 2011b; interpretation. Some historians have warned Bradley 2011a). Nevertheless, our present that it is dangerous to take representations as society is influenced by others, past and factual reports of the life of the time, or of the present, and images not only adapt to their event depicted, since paintings, sculpture and

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other such objects frequently had a high visual sources are becoming more acceptable symbolic content. In fact, it is just this and more often used by a wide range of symbolic content that is one of the most historians, often as a subsidiary source, but valuable aspects of visual sources, especially nevertheless as sources in their own right. when we try to understand the thought and However, the use of visual sources demands a mentality of a period. There are several careful and rigorous methodology. If we are reasons for this: the first of these is that to treat images as sources in their own right, depictions (of the medieval period) almost then they must be subject to the same always give the prevalent view, at least of the academic standards as anything else, but the group among which they circulated.1 Written means by which to achieve this have been sources, especially those of an educated elite, uncertain. The pre-eminence of documents, can give a limited or personal viewpoint, or chronicles, charters, letters and such, has left they can deal with matters that were felt historians with no real tradition of unsuitable for or not the concern of the more methodology when it comes to images. Art general public. Even miniatures, which served historians have usually concentrated on style a minority, give a broader view of current and aesthetics, although now there is a much ideas than the tracts and exegesis of a small broader approach followed by many, group of theologians. Of course, some idea of including material research, patrons and, of the acceptance and popularity of written particular interest in this case, iconology. sources can be deduced from contemporary Groundbreaking work was done by such library catalogues and the number of times pioneers as Panofsky, Warburg, and Mâle.4 works are cited or mentioned. However, there In his introduction to Studies in Iconography, is less indication of whether such ideas Panofsky (1962) defined iconography as circulated among the average Christian dealing not with form, but with subject and worshipper. Illuminations were seen by the meaning, thereby bringing images closer to literate but not necessarily very learned, while the history of ideas and mentalities. Although the paintings and statues in churches – or at Panofsky saw the importance of context, least a considerable number of these – were iconology has concentrated on using texts to seen by the public at large. It may be argued understand images: images could refer to one that such ‘public’ works represent what the or several texts. Panofsky devoted a Church, or other patron, wanted to be seen – considerable amount of his best-known work and believed – rather than the views of the Studies in Iconography to the transmission of general populace, but such things are also classical texts and how these were known and some of the few sources for popular piety and interpreted visually. This is still holding belief. A great deal can be learned about written texts as a sort of ultimate authority; popular belief and custom from such things as for images to be seen as sources in their own votive images, pilgrims’ badges, and other right, sources that can confirm, complement religious souvenirs, often derived from or even contradict other sources, different ‘primary’ images,2 and these indicate the methods are needed, and these methods must degree of acceptance of what the Church be clear, rigorous and functional in order to taught.3 While it is true that much has been combat accusations of selection bias, lack of suppressed or lost, we can get an idea of relevance, subjectivity, and idiosyncratic belief and attitudes, popular and elite, from a interpretation. careful and close examination the various visual sources available to us. Selection of Material The first challenge is adapting a research In Search of a Method question to a visual formula – in other words, All too often, images have been used to how can the subject of investigation have illustrate a point, confirming other sources, or been expressed visually? This is similar to even been used inaccurately, out of context, finding metaphors in other fields, a question as decoration, or at best as a confirmation of of what that society regarded as analogous to more traditional written sources. Today, the idea they were trying to express (see

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Osborne and Glukhov & Glukhova, this time, of people and of institutions, both past volume). This search must be viewed from a and present. It can happen, even quite late in diversity of angles, some less obvious than research, that one or two newly-found others. If we consider medieval images and examples must be taken into account, ideas, kingship, for example, can be found not sometimes requiring a revision of preliminary only in ruler portraits but also in images of findings. Internet resources are a boon, but biblical stories such as those about David, examining original images in situ should be Saul, Solomon, and in miniatures in done as much as possible, for only then can Romances, such as those of Chrétien de the researcher see more or less what the Troyes, or in histories. It is a question of original recipients saw, not photographs seeing how such figures serve as a metaphor enhanced by zoom, flash and all the benefits or parallel for an idea or ideal. Changes in of modern photography (see Bradley 2008: ideas can best be studied over a long period 553–564).7 Another important point is that and the spread of ideas in a defined area, or photographs, especially older ones, can give by comparing defined areas and the contacts the wrong impression; what can seem a telling between them. However this choice is not detail could be a shadow, a chip or crack, or completely free: it can happen that there is as I found out – fortunately before publication little or no visual evidence in a particular – a fault in the parchment. period, area or medium, thus requiring a reassessment of the situation, and possibly Relevance adjustment of the research questions. The A more difficult question is the relevance of research context can change or modify both the sources. The earlier the period, the less the the research question and the approach to it chance that something was depicted or the (see Suenson, this volume). Lack of material depiction has survived, and later depictions could mean that the topic was not considered reflect the ideas of the times in which they of interest, or if confined to élite media, were made. Indeed, images are a good way to considered dangerous for the general public – chart how ideas and attitudes vary from place or that the senders had nothing to gain by to place and from period to period, especially broadcasting a message in that form, which in if they deal with a basic subject, such as itself is revealing.6 In many ways the people biblical narratives. Each society has its own of the time dictate the choice of corpus. preoccupations and uses standard subjects as Material should be gathered to get as broad metaphors for their concerns and messages. a view as possible in order to understand what Moreover, each society has its own style, its people meant by a particular concept or idea: own way of seeing, and this affects our use of the avoidance of selection bias demands all images in several respects. Images are you can find, rather than only the familiar, vulnerable to destruction and damage either beautiful, or exceptional. Only by working out intentional, unintentional or through natural what was known and accepted can any decay; they can also be altered to fit the way general idea be formed. Using statistics of of seeing of other generations, making them spread and frequency on which to base ‘fitting’ for the ideas of that time. Many general conclusions makes it possible to find people are shocked by the restored common elements in an almost exhaustive polychrome of churches because the vividly corpus (Glukhov & Glukhova, this volume; colored interiors and exteriors clash with the Frog 2011a). Almost certainly there will be present-day mental image of a calm, sober something overlooked, but an honest attempt place, and even Gothic exuberance restrained to track down and take into account by gray or cream-colored stone. People can everything possible should give relatively find early medieval images shocking, reliable results. As with most fields dealt with humorous, irreverent or ugly, so it is a in this volume, research is not done under question of putting aside (present-day) controlled laboratory conditions, but deals aesthetics and attitudes and regarding an rather with the products of the human mind image in the context of its time in order to and society, and in many cases the vagaries of assess its proper message. In a number of

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important cases, we can draw on earlier later the period, the more images of a copies of works that have been destroyed, lost particular subject are likely to be found or greatly altered, such as those made by simply because of survival rates. In absolute various 19th century scholars of Hortus terms, a subject can appear in more images in Deliciarum (Green 1979) or Grimaldi’s the 12th century, but its relative frequency drawings of the frescos of Old St. Peter’s and might be less than in the 11th century. John VII’s Oratory in Rome, destroyed in the A detailed description of each image – 17th century. These works are invaluable, but although sometimes wearying – means that it must be remembered that they were seen the frequency of iconographic elements can through the visual conventions of the time: be noted and, from this, the ‘standard’ this does not mean that the copies qua content elements become apparent, and the less are not valid, but some of the more subtle common or even unique ones can be seen for points, perhaps a softening of features, cannot the exceptions they are.10 This knowledge of be attributed to the original.8 the standard iconographic elements and the relationship between them enables the Description, Analysis, and Basic Type construction of a ‘basic type’. It is important If aiming at a snapshot of a particular period to realize that this is an abstraction – in fact it or place, then analyzing the geographical and is rare to find a real image that conforms chronological spread of the corpus is not exactly to a basic type – a mental construct of necessary, but, when considering larger areas the elements most commonly found in the and longer periods, revealing information can corpus, or part thereof (see Frog on the emerge from such an analysis. Changes in parallax as an abstract concept, this volume). metaphor and treatment can indicate a change It is an image that the majority of a society of ideas or attitude, while the persistence of a would recognize and regard as an adequate type of image or metaphor can reveal that a depiction of the subject/metaphor. This basic particular basic attitude has remained type serves three main purposes. First, it gives unchanged. For example, the well-known an indication of the generally accepted view; skeleton or transi as a personification of death second, it makes what can be a very large emerged around the first quarter of the 15th corpus manageable; and third, it is also an century and has remained stable up to today, instrument of measurement against which while older versions – giants, demons, individual works can be compared. dragons, and a woman – have been lost or The first function gives a real basis for absorbed into other meanings and metaphors. saying that this is how the people of the Often a particular subject can be found in period – or the section of the population under clusters, both in regard to time and place, investigation – thought about the subject and indicating that the subject for which the scene expressed their thoughts visually. The is a metaphor was more important at popularity of a subject, iconographic feature, particular times and places than others. The or manner of handling indicate the extent to same is true of iconographic elements: such which the ideas expressed were current, and analyses reveal how each period or area how they were taken over time or area can handled the subject, which elements were reveal differences in context (see Glukhov & emphasized, and thereby general shifts in Glukhova, this volume).11 In literature and attitude. This is analogous to the careful and exhibitions we tend to see the same works detailed reading discussed by Pauliina Latvala time and again – and these are usually the and Kirsi Laurén (this volume): how a subject ones that are in some way exceptional, is handled is as revealing as what is handled particularly fine or beautiful, different in in uncovering why it was important and its treatment or content to other works, unusual relevance for that particular society. in choice of subject or approach, or they Comparing the frequency with that of other might have an illustrious or fascinating subjects can also deliver insights. When history – or they might just have drawn the assessing frequency within the corpus it is attention of a scholar who published widely important that this is relative frequency. The on them. However, they cannot be regarded as

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typical, and must be seen against a ground while the mother and other adults look background of other works; indeed, their very on cannot be seen as a case of child abuse or differences mean that we cannot rely solely neglect. Nor can depictions of Mary reading on them for an indication of generally held while Joseph makes porridge or dries a diaper attitudes. be seen in terms of women’s emancipation or The second function is a very practical male parenting skills. Used as a source for one. In many cases the corpus of works can be discovering how people of a certain time very large and even if there are time and thought, the frame of reference must be the facilities for a very detailed analysis of each one of that time, and when using later work and its context, there remains the drawings or reconstructions, it should be problem of finding a way through the mass of borne in mind that these are seen through information and trying to draw conclusions double lens spectacles – those of the ‘copy’ from it. Establishing a basic type or types society and those of our own – and that gives a simplified picture in which the allowances need to be made. common details are clear. In comparing a In most cases, images are not intended to series of basic types, either over time or be ‘factual’ representations of events but the across regions, differences, changes and events are used to serve the concerns of the similarities become apparent: features that society in which the images are made. The could be obscured by such things as style, way in which a subject is handled reflects coloration and decoration, are more easily attitudes and ideas, but it must be remembered compared when brought back to their basic that these attitudes and ideas are influenced constituents. by tradition, including visual tradition. Images It could be said that such an approach does must be regarded as “having a life of their not do justice to individual works, but here own which does not have to be based on the the third function comes into play. By actual world” (Hourihane 2003: 5). These measuring individual works against the basic traditions can influence not only the way in type we can see what makes them different; which we visualize something, but how we their individuality and uniqueness is think about it. This is particularly true when highlighted, we can see if they hark back to a dealing with conflated scenes because the previous tradition, or stand at the start of modern tendency is to see an image as a another. Moreover, we can ask why a work single scene. An example of this are the deviates from the norm, what circumstances temptations of Adam and Eve, which were gave rise to its particular idiosyncrasies, and given as two separate events in the biblical in so doing add to our knowledge of factors texts and are depicted thus in many early and that can influence and change ideas. It can Byzantine images; but, due to the pictorial also prevent us making unwarrantable tradition of conflating the scenes, the majority assumptions and gives justification for the of western societies think of Eve on one side selection of images for more detailed study. of Tree of Knowledge offering an apple (itself quite a late innovation) to Adam on the other, Interpretation with the serpent wound round the tree with This brings us to the thorny problem of another apple in its mouth. This sort of interpretation - not only the primary level of conflation was often due to constraints of identifying the metaphor, but how this is space, trying to give a full pictorial narrative handled and what can be said of that way of in a single historiated initial or on the side of a dealing with a subject. By reducing the sculpted capital, but then frequently variations of all the individual works and developed into an iconographic tradition.12 incorporating the ‘standard’ iconographic The medium can also affect how a scene is elements, it is possible to try to interpret this depicted and it is at this point that the basic general view. type can reveal whether something that in an It is obvious that present-day standards or individual image can be surprising is in fact value judgments cannot apply – a new-born ‘standard’ for the period. Some depictions can infant lying on a small white cloth on the cold seem startling – a case in point is reliefs of the

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Fall of Man in which Adam grips his throat intellectual climate. In periods like the Middle “as if the forbidden fruit had become stuck” Ages that saw symbolism in almost (Stoddard 1981). By comparing the one relief everything, following a train of thought that with others from the same area and period it is leads to a metaphor can help lead to an clear this is a standard gesture. Moreover, the understanding of both textual and visual contexts of many of these works show that it sources, and the more familiar the researcher is more likely to denote doubt and hesitation is with this process, the more easily both can rather than the result of eating the forbidden be read and the chances of false interpretation fruit, a notion strengthened by the miniatures due to a present-day cast of mind are reduced. of the time in which Adam frequently holds Such sources might conflict, but such conflict his hand in front of his face as a standard lends itself to greater insight into a question. gesture of recoil – something much more It is also of importance to realize that images difficult to execute in relief than in paint. are powerful, not only in their own time, but Thus by placing an image within a broader color the present-day view; for example what context of similar images, by being aware of we know of the disagreements and wars how something is dealt with in other media, it between the sons of Louis the Pious is colored is possible to reduce the level of uncertainty by the picture presented in both words and and subjectivity in interpretation. images by Charles the Bald and his partisans. Pragmatism means that the all available The Larger Context sources must be considered, but both text and At this point, it is necessary to look at a much image have elements of propaganda. larger context, that of the world in which the If considering a longitudinal study or one images were made. What were the with a geographical spread, it is sometimes circumstances that gave rise to the recognition noticeable that a particular subject becomes of the basic type embodiment of various ideas more popular in certain circumstances such as and attitudes? Other primary sources can be a political unrest, bad harvests, changing means of checking and rechecking an relationships between parts of society or interpretation, of modifying or even between Church and state. If this is the case, completely revising it. Of course, this then it helps our insight into how people demands an interdisciplinary approach, and thought, how they chose their metaphors and the choice of these primary sources is dictated expressed their concerns: in other words, their by the research question and need not be choice of metaphor and how that is handled confined to written texts: buildings, material reflects a way of seeing their world. The objects, textiles and such like can often shed interaction between world and expression, light on both subject and image. In many between context and image, illuminates both. cases these sources, particularly written texts, The image helps to see the point of view of can clarify something that is puzzling about the makers, and without the context, the elements of the basic image, but the image image loses most of its meaning. Here, can also prompt new understandings of the secondary sources can be of great use, since text. Combined, the background they can indicate areas and even images that circumstances, texts known to be used, and have not been considered in the preliminary the basic image can give a general idea of a analysis. They can also be a touchstone for society’s attitude to issues and, to a certain any preliminary conclusions. Other scholars extent, even of which factors shape particular have different viewpoints, have considered views. Obviously, the areas to be considered other aspects that could be relevant, and have both for context and texts or other sources areas of expertise that can be used to deepen cannot include everything, but they should understanding and to check findings. include the circumstances that could have influence on the medium, its production, and Individual Works the subject – that is to say those relating to The basic type gives a general view and also patrons, makers and other interested parties. shows what is different in individual works. They should also include the moral and This makes the choice of individual works to

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be examined – case histories – less subjective. isolation because our present-day way of This detailed examination can be regarded as seeing is based less on images as texts and a form of ‘close reading’ (see Latvala & more as illustration or decoration. Medieval Laurén, this volume) to infer attitudes and images were made to inform and persuade, to emotions – things that can be expressed in the stimulate meditation, devotion and memory, smallest elements, the tilt of a head, direction to make the abstract concrete and give of a gaze, or the way an object is depicted.13 validity and veracity. They “were the pivot Images can be chosen because they come around which revolved a series of activities” close to the basic type and allow a more (Marks 2004) that were central to the life of detailed analysis of both specific work and both communities and individuals. Finding context or because of their deviance from the the relationship between the idea and the standard highlights different or exceptional visualization demands that images be seen in circumstances. In addition to a deeper context, and this applies to individual works pictorial analysis, in order to reduce the as well as the basic type. The same steps subjectivity still further, it is important not to apply in examining the specific context as the look at an image in isolation but within its more general context – primary and secondary iconographic context. This also guards against sources being used to gain as full a picture as over-hasty assumptions of the identification possible. In the case of specific works, these of a particular metaphor. One of the are obviously more detailed and can often drawbacks of working from the often involve trying to find the meaning of puzzling excellent images to be found in books and on details, as well as the role of specific patrons, the internet is that so often the image is seen geographical, social and political position, as independent, and most images were meant and the intellectual and moral climate. to be ‘read’ in context.14 Fortunately, now Unfortunately, medieval writers rarely many library websites allow consultation of described sculpture, paintings and such. all pages, or at least all images, in a However, we occasionally have accounts of manuscript, while many sites give ‘virtual what the designers wanted to achieve, such as tours’ of churches etc. These tours are far Suger de Saint-Denis’s (ca. 1081–1151) De from ideal, but do give a better sense of the administratione (Panofsky 1946). In other whole message, rather than just a ‘word’ or cases, a writer might have expressed the ideas ‘sentence’ found in single images or details. without actually referring to a building or any In fact, ‘reading’ an image demands that material object, but can throw light on how attention is paid to the whole rather than to these might have been translated into visual just a small part. This is where it is important terms. The reverse is also true: the visual to see as much in situ as possible, and try to metaphors can help understand texts – after see it as an entity rather than as an individual all, people often think visually (Ryle 1990 image. [1949]: 232–263). Even if no such direct Images often complement and reinforce indications can be found, primary (written) each other, adding new layers of meaning. A sources can give the flavor of the context, ruler’s portrait gains in dimension if the letting us see what part ambition, prosperity, ruler’s stance and features are echoed in a uncertainty, or change of leadership or picture of Solomon, for instance. Moreover, allegiance played in the life of the seeing an image in the context of the entire communities that made and used the works. work is to see its role in the whole program and therefore how it relates to the message as Conclusion a whole. The meaning of words can be altered Churches and liturgical objects were a focal or even destroyed if taken out of context, and point in any medieval Christian community, this applies to images too. By being read in whether enclosed, urban, courtly, rural, context the message becomes apparent, and learned, or illiterate, and what people saw was not just the building blocks: the forest is linked to this central factor of their lives. In revealed, not just the individual tree. There is many cases the church was the only place in always a tendency to view each image in

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description of research questions choice of corpus gather material works/objects

statistical analysis statistical analysis provisional anaylsis construction of (iconographic (geographical basic type(s) basic type(s) features) spread and dating)

primary written/other sources

visual secondary material sources

interpreation of basic type(s) in context

choice of specific works/objects

measure against basic type and general context

context of secondary specific work sources

conclusions

Figure 1. The use of visual sources – schematic representation of method of work using basic types (© Jill Bradley 2009). which people saw light, color and form used mystery all lifted people from their everyday to make representations, the only place in world, made abstract ideas of heaven and which words, music and ritual combined with salvation real and concrete – and the horrors the visual for a sensual experience aimed at of hell more threatening. Images can help us the anagogic experience. Beauty, richness, understand how they saw heaven and hell, the 38

relationship between man and God, between Gombrich’s Aby Warburg: An Intellectual man and lord, between men and women, man Biography (1970). 5. In particular, chapter 1 in which he discusses and nature, adults and children. They can method. show us modes of thought, views of right and 6. While the value of negative evidence is always wrong, of love and intolerance, how they saw debatable, it is reasonable to assume that if a the past and what they hoped or feared for the particular subject is not found or is only sparsely future – indeed anything that concerns the found in a period, medium or area, while other 15 subjects are found, then the lack of the subject human condition. under investigation is not due solely to external Having an overview makes it possible to considerations or loss over time, but was not of see how the individual works fit into this particular importance in the selected areas. context, to see both the general and the 7. It must be remembered that lighting and furnishings specific in relation to each other. To achieve can alter how something appears, and polychrome was normal in the Middle Ages. Even if this has this still requires moving between context and been restored, it is as well to take into account how work, context and basic type, checking and conscientiously this and other restoration work has adjusting. It is against this background that been done. links and patterns can be discerned that enable 8. Again, allowances must be made for the researcher’s the formation of a solidly based and yet own perception of earlier scholars’ copies. 9. For similar questions in other fields see Glukhov & differentiated interpretative theory of the Glukhova (this volume) and Haukur Þorgeirsson subject (see the schematic diagram in Figure (this volume), for diachronic strategies and 1). problems, see Frog (this volume). 10. Standard elements are found in a majority of works Notes of a certain area or period. All of these and the 1. Even today, illustrated books are considerably more relationships between them should be noted in expensive than text-only books. In the medieval order to come to a general idea of what was seen as period, the cost of making images meant that it was an adequate representation. the established authorities that were the chief 11. For example, the difference in the incidence of the Fall of Man in England and the Germanic countries patrons. Although popular culture can be seen as a th more reliable gauge of the attitudes and in the early 11 century indicates very different preoccupations of the majority of people than the attitudes. The change from the ‘living Christ’ products of elite, just as today, economic and power crucifixions to the ‘dead Christ’ depictions is relationships played a part in medieval production. indicative of a fundamental shift in attitude towards 2. By primary image, I mean wall-painting, reliefs and human–divine relationships. (Bradley 2010b.) other ‘public’ works. Generally speaking, subject 12. Another relatively common tradition – certainly in and treatment are usually found first in the more cribs – is to conflate the adoration of the shepherds elite miniatures and then later in works for the with that of the magi – or the coming of the magi, events narrated in different gospels (Luke 2 and public, often in an adapted form. th 3. The anonymity of medieval painters and sculptors, Matthew 2 respectively), e.g. the 12 century the styles of scriptoria and workshops (Brink 2001; nativity window at Canterbury Cathedral or Spronk 2011) preclude idiosyncratic artistic Ghirlandoaio’s ‘Nativity’. expression as understood in a modern sense. It can 13. For example, giving Adam an iron shod spade to be said be said that medieval ‘art’ is community till and clothing him in the roughest of animal skins expression, not individual. How far artistic freedom indicate the perception of a difficult life outside is/was to be found in later periods is a question of paradise. Another example is to be found in Paris, the patron–artist relationship within the particular Bibliothèque Geneviève, ms. 8 f.7v, where contrary context. Even today, we can say that artists are to most images of the expulsion from Paradise, dependent on patrons in the form of museums, Adam puts his arm protectively around Eve, and collectors and state subsidies. In other words, thereby gives another reading than the usual almost all professional images can be seen as (also) interpretation. expressing what someone other than the artist 14. Sindig-Larsen (1984) was instrumental in the thinks. development of my ideas, particularly his insistence 4. Mâle was a prolific writer: better known works that church art must be seen in the context of the include L’art religieux de la fin du Moyen Age en liturgy of the period. See also Hourihane et al. France: Etude sur l’icongraphie du Moyen Age et 2003. ses sources d’inspiration (1908) and Religious Art: 15. Naturally this also applies to a greater or lesser From the Twelfth to the Eighteenth Century (1949). extent to all periods. The role of the family, Warburg’s writings were not really publishable; the attitudes to violence and gender relationships, for best account of his ideas is to be found in Ernst example, are all expressed in modern visual media.

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Works Cited Brann, Ross. 2002. Power in Portrayal: Green, Rosalie (ed.). 1979. Hortus deliciarumi. By Representations of Jews and Muslims in Eleventh Herrad of Hohenbourg. London. and Twelfth-Century Islamic Spain. Princeton, Hourihane, Collum. 2003. “Introduction”. In Objects, Oxford. Images, and the Word. Ed. C. Houlihane. Bradley, Jill. 2008. You Shall Surely Not Die: The Princeton. Pp. 3–10. Concepts of Sin and Death as Expressed in the Mâle, Emile. 1908. L’art religieux de la fin du Moyen Manuscript Art of North-Western Europe c. 800 to Age en France; etude sur l’icongraphie du Moyen 1200. Leiden, Boston. Age et ses sources d’inspiration. Paris. Bradley, Jill. 2010. “Visual Vocabulary, Visual Mâle, Emile. 1949. Religious Art: From the Twelfth to Strategy”. RMN Newsletter [1]: 19–23. the Eighteenth Century. Princeton. Bradley, Jill. 2011a. “A Matter of Interpretation: Ideas Marks, Richard. 2004. Image and Devotion in Late on the Genesis B Miniatures’ RMN Newsletter 2: Medieval England. Stroud. 15–19. Panofsky, Erwin (ed. & trans.). 1946. Abbot Suger on Bradley, Jill. 2011b. “Re: Distinguishing Continuities: the Abbey Church of St-Denis and Its Art The Case of Discontinuities in Conceptual Treasures. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Schemas”. RMN Newsletter 3: 18–23. Panofsky, Erwin. 1962. Studies in Iconology: Brink, Peter van den (ed.). 2001. De Firma Brueghel. Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance. Ghent. New York. Frog. 2011a. “Circum- Baltic Mythology? – The Ryle, Gilbert. 1990 [1949]. The Concept of Mind. Strange Case of the Theft of the Thunder- London. Instrument (ATU 1148b)”. Archeologia Baltica 15: Sindig-Larsen, S. 1984. Iconography and Ritual: A 78–98. Study of Analytical Perspectives. Oslo, Bergen, Frog. 2011b. “Distinguishing Continuities: Textual Stavanger, Tromsø. Entities, Extra-Textual Entities and Conceptual Spronk, Ron. 2011. All by Himself? – Remarks on Schemas”. RMN Newsletter 2: 7–15. Painting Technique and Attributions in Regard to Gombrich, Ernst. 1970. Aby Warburg: An Intellectual Hieronymus Bosch. Nijmegen. Biography. London. Stoddard, Brooks W. 1981. “A Romanesque Master Carver at Airvault (Deux-Sevres)”. Gesta 20: 67– 72.

The Parallax Approach: Situating Traditions in Long-Term Perspective Frog, University of Helsinki

Drawing on models from historical linguistics precluded interest in or motivation to renovate and philology, the Parallax Approach is a earlier diachronic methods or to produce method and methodological framework for alternatives. The Parallax Approach is investigating the history of a tradition or other developed to offer new possibilities for phenomenon of cultural expression. It is historical perspectives on traditions. It seeks particularly well-suited to developing long- to circumvent and resolve problems of earlier term perspectives and to developing methods by advancing a methodology understandings of socially established appropriate to modern understandings of synchronic variation within a corpus (i.e. social, cultural and semiotic processes. different local and regional forms), especially This method may be applied to a range of where reflexes of a common tradition are cultural phenomena. These include traditions found across diverse cultures. The which develop social variation rapidly development of methods and methodologies (modern slang, children’s traditions of play); for the diachronic study of traditions has genres characterized by semiotics, mode of atrophied across the past half-century: those expression and communicative function rather employed in earlier research were rejected as than specific texts or contents (e.g. laments, research paradigms shifted focus to insult verses, political speeches); genres synchronic performance, variation, genre- characterized by socially maintained textual systems, meaning-generation, and so forth. entities (proverbs, ballads); as well as more These shifts simultaneously overthrew the flexibly reproduced genres characterized by earlier diachronic research on methodological conventional content such as specific grounds while the shift to a synchronic focus narratives describable in terms of extra- 40

textual entities (legends, fairytales).1 The Rather than illustrating the method through method can also be applied to small formal a particular case study, the present overview units such as the poetic formulae (cf. Haukur is developed from several earlier studies to Þorgeirsson, this volume) or kennings (cf. which the reader will be referred for examples Osborne, this volume), as well as more and further discussion. Discussion opens by broadly applied to Jill Bradley’s (this volume) introducing the fundamentals of a parallax ‘visual vocabulary’ and larger patterns of model followed by theoretical considerations semiotic cultural competence (cf. Glukhov & that provide an essential background for Glukhova, this volume). considering social variation. Most diachronic In addition to its value for historical study, studies will face scattered and fragmentary the Parallax Approach constructs a platform textual and contextual data that cannot for understanding synchronic differences provide: across living traditions. Tradition, by a solid field of observation conducive to the definition, actualizes connections with the understanding of prime ‘causes’ or sources past through cultural practices, and therefore of variation, i.e. the mental processes of oral cannot be fully understood without textualization and construction of meaning. consideration of the past that has given rise to (Honko 2000: 17.) it. More recent performance-oriented approaches to folklore have a synchronic Some strategies for identifying material for focus (cf. Sykäri, this volume) and are comparison and necessary distinctions generally ill-equipped for considering socio- associated with that process are therefore historical processes. The platform provided outlined. Contextualization is highlighted for by the Parallax Approach is complementary approaching available data as outcomes of to performance-oriented approaches by socio-historical processes in the development situating them in relation to socio-historical of continuum models of historical processes that extend through the present. The developments. ‘Ethnocultural substratum’ is contextualization of traditions in social introduced as a tool for lateral indexing across processes is what distinguishes the Parallax these models. Overall, the Parallax Approach Approach from early diachronic approaches. is oriented to developing broad systemic This is essential to the analysis of any data models of the historical development of produced through an application of the cultural semiotics. These models are intended method. to construct relevant frames of reference for This introduction to the Parallax Approach case studies in future research. will draw examples primarily from mythology and mythological narrative. The social and Metaphor and Principles semiotic centrality of mythology allows these The term ‘parallax’ is employed here as a traditions a longue durée comparable to that descriptive metaphor for addressing the of languages and language ideologies. This relative ‘depth’ of cultural phenomena in longue durée makes fundamental processes of history. A ‘parallax’ is the difference in the historical variation more readily observable. apparent position of an object from two or Mythology therefore provides a valuable more lines of sight. The relative distance of model for approaching other traditions in the object is gauged by the intersection of which innovations may become established those two lines, just as the parallax of our two much more rapidly, just as conservative oral- eyes enables our continuous, intuitive sense of poetic traditions can provide a valuable model visual depth perception, as illustrated in for considering formulaic language in more Figure 1. changeable unmarked discourse.2 A longue The Parallax Approach is inherently durée makes it possible to paint historical comparative and diachronically oriented: two developments swiftly and in broad strokes, or more forms of a tradition are approached, without scrutinizing subtleties of a tradition to considering which developments are ‘closer’ reveal variation – thereby losing a reader in a or ‘farther away’ as perceived in what may be labyrinth of details.

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discontinuity and thus a terminus post quem. Point A Point B A few such simple distinctions rapidly describe a complex relative chronology – albeit without defining whether the chronology spans five years or ten thousand. The correlation of diverse evidence may also prove mutually informative, especially in cross-cultural comparisons where a broader history of contacts often provides a general Parallax at frame for when contacts were probable or intersection improbable. For example, it may be difficult to assess the relative depth of culture-specific developments and thus a terminus ante quem for cultural exchange in one culture, while Figure 1. Illustration of a parallax. another culture may present evidence from an early period likely to post-date exchange, as a largely synchronic corpus, or in very illustrated in Figure 2. different corpora. The Parallax Approach is built on the premise that conventionally Tradition in culture A Tradition in culture B established variation between historically (19th century evidence) (medieval and later) related phenomena is the outcome of Culture-spec. develop. terminus diachronic social processes. From this it ante quem follows that developments that characterize Culture-specific development conventionally established variation are Culture-specific relevant indicators of said diachronic social development implied by parallax of processes. The distribution of the tradition intersection and the developments characterizing its terminus specific forms are gauged at intersections of ante quem relative historical ‘depth’ – i.e. their probable Broad parallax of points or periods of intersection along a intersection for continuum of relative chronology. the cultural traditions Intersections may potentially be very broad, possibly spanning hundreds of years. An terminus investigation may begin by simply estimating post quem a general terminus ante quem [‘terminus Continuum of relative before which’] and/or terminus post quem chronology [‘limit after which’] of the object of research. Figure 2. Simplified visual representation of Such termini will almost certainly be in developing a ‘parallax’ through cross-cultural comparative evidence. Practicalities of a two- relative terms. For example, a tradition must dimensional diagram limit the number of traditions exist in some form before it can spread to be represented (cf. Figures 6–7). Comparison across only found in different cultures. This reveals a two cultures is normally highly problematic. relative terminus (or termini) ante quem for the tradition’s emergence – i.e. it had to Assessing the relative historical depth of emerge ‘before’ it spread and changed – developments in a tradition along a relative (which is simultaneously a terminus ante chronology is an essential step in approaching quem for spread and change ‘after’ these developments and the emergence of a emergence. At the opposite end of the tradition itself as relevant indicators of socio- historical continuum, the tradition can be historical processes. The resulting continuum framed in long-term perspective in relation to model allows the development of interfaces the earliest identifiable linguistic-cultural between a particular tradition and a plurality heritage (e.g. Proto-Indo-European), which in of other data (Figure 3). the vast majority of cases will present a

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Regions of The Song of Lemminkäinen Genre shift: epic adapts Mythology maintained toward lyric form; fantastic Viena Kainuu North Kar. Border Kar. Savo Aunus Ingria in community ritual life elements reduced/lost

Migrations to Viena: Migrations to Ingria: different regional forms regional forms develop meet and develop into into local Lutheran vs. kin-group traditions Orthodox traditions Genre shift: epic adapts to Sexual adventures of fairytale / adventure story hero condemned in poetic form

Medieval population movements north; assimilation of Sámi (?) Viking Age: population movements inland (?) Merovingian Period: migrations from western coastal areas east to Karelia(?) Emergence of the epic narrative as a stable, coherent textual entity conditions of emergence Kalevala-meter Conceptual models

Poetic lexicon Narrative material Mythic figures: Mythic landscape? Lemminkäinen, Ahti Mythic images

Figure 3. Visual representation of the history of the Kalevala-meter epic poem known as The Song of Lemminkäinen, documented from the southern coasts of the Gulf of Finland (Ingria) to the White Sea (Viena) (see further Frog 2010: 72–102). The diagram illustrates broad regional patterns that can be identified as outcomes of social processes. These include genre-shifts (indicators of changes in valuation and social practices), changing interpretations (indicators of changes in social values), migrations resulting in diverse local forms (indicators of different regional forms prior to migrations; of later historical differentiation of social identities in the singing tradition). Social processes become opaque in earlier periods, but the spread of the song as a text may be connected to migrations and language spread. The date of the song’s emergence is unknown, but dependent on certain conditions already established in the cultural environment (e.g. the poetic meter) and/or which are probable owing to comparative evidence. These principles are by no means new: Latin concealed the second point: rather than an expressions for tools in analysis betray their ‘origin’ of a tradition as a terminus for roots in 19th century philology – which should investigation, the contemporary context of not, however, be confused with employing that ‘origin’ requires consideration – as does 19th century methodologies (cf. Leslie, this that which preceded it – in order for the volume). The Parallax Approach is, in significance of the process of emergence to contrast, built on a usage-based approach to become recognizable (e.g. what is it different folklore with methods employed in historical from). For example, simply dating the linguistics adapted to other elements of commercialization of the internet to the 1980s cultural expression as semiotic phenomena. says nothing of how it revolutionized our Espen Suenson (this volume) emphasizes lives. The identification and correlation of that method is intimately bound to theory. historical continuities and discontinuities, The theory of folklore on which the Parallax both in and across cultural phenomena, Approach is developed leads it to differ from constructs a continuum model that can be many earlier diachronic methodologies in two related to social and historical processes. important respects. First, it is not oriented to Research in the 19th and early 20th century ‘reconstruction’.3 Rather than chasing after not infrequently took an ideal form or ‘original’ forms, this is a framework for interpretation as a point of departure when developing an abstract, descriptive model of a constructing a model of a tradition’s history. tradition and its history providing a frame of Within the Parallax Approach, the reference for discussion. This is accomplished development of a continuum model should through the identification of relevant begin from one extreme with individual indicators of historical change and correlating examples, building progressively to local, these on a long-term continuum. Herein is regional, cultural and cross-cultural 43

comparisons (cf. Lord 1960: 49). This is tradition as these become socially intended to avoid approaching local or conventional. Participants in the tradition may isolated forms according to preconceptions of nevertheless only be aware of contemporary a tradition as a whole. The opposite end of the conventions – conventions which they help to continuum should be situated at an extreme construct and maintain – with no concept of against which continuity and change can be historical variation (cf. Gills 1996). considered. In principle, this should begin Traditions function at the level of small- with whatever can be abstracted concerning a group communities and networks of those linguistic-cultural heritage, however general communities in interaction. Every tradition is (and which may emerge through a wide maintained through social practices and has parallax of cross-cultural comparisons).4 functions in a community (e.g. magical, ritual, Individual examples and localized forms must socializing, entertainment). Success in those be kept in dialogue with both other local functions does not demand the reconciliation forms and the continuities and contrasts with of concepts, beliefs, world-models, etc., earlier eras. The continuum model develops across traditions or even across different though increasing numbers of indicators of narratives within a single genre. Once relative depths. Before introducing the established, participants in a community more method further, it is necessary to turn first to frequently accept these without awareness of aspects of theory and methodology, which incongruity or contradiction. The precise significantly shape how information is processes are dependent on the structures and produced with the method. conventions of the social practices. Within a community, a tradition is socially A Usage-Based Approach to Variation negotiated as an intersubjective referent. This All traditions and other semiotic phenomena is particularly apparent in the identity of a only have reality at the subjective level of the narrative as ‘myth’ or ‘epic’ because this individual and the emerging intersubjective identity is a social construction with functions spaces of small-group communities.5 Within related to group identities, and which is that frame, tradition functions as an “enabling culturally bound to social, semiotic and referent” (Foley 1995: 213). In other words, ideological models.6 Myth and epic present each individual handles and manipulates a foundational modeling systems for a socially tradition on the basis of a personal, subjective negotiated frame of reference in a particular knowledge and understanding with group or society. The social and semiotic expectations concerning the knowledge and centrality of these traditions allows them a understandings of others. Others interpret longue durée comparable to language and expression on the basis of what they language ideologies. This does not mean that subjectively know and understand with variation is absent. The ability for tradition to expectations about the speaker or performer. function as a referent is dependent on its This negotiation of subjective understandings recognisability. Recognisability places is described as ‘intersubjective’. Subjective constraints on variation as a social process. In and intersubjective understandings develop other words, an individual may challenge and through exposure to and participation in exceed the limits of recognisability, but that cultural practices across a full spectrum of does not mean that the particular use will be cultural activity – from epic poetry and successfully recognized, affect social proverbs to parody and contesting discourse. conventions, or even be socially approved (cf. The subjective reality of a tradition is Dégh 1995: 147–148). therefore always bounded by both the space Variation also does not occur ‘just and time that describe the limits of an anywhere’ in a poem or story. Semantic, individual’s experience on the one hand, and structural and functional cores of the tradition by the negotiation of that understanding are generally very stable in historical through social processes on the other. This transmission. Variation occurs in semantically provides an essential model for both slow and and structurally ‘light’ tissue between these rapid changes in the cultural activity of a (see e.g. Siikala 1990: 80–86).7 The

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expansion or contraction of a narrative with of several in an episode (each being subsidiary adventures, episodes and comprised of its own system of elements). descriptions is not necessarily significant to The episode may, in its turn, be one of several those cores in a synchronic context (cf. in a narrative, and the narrative one of several Honko 1998). This type of variation may have in a cycle. Variation tends to be at the level of no direct impact on the intersubjective compositional units ordered within this referent of the tradition, although collectively, hierarchy, and resists ‘jumping’ between units social trends in this variation shape at the next higher level. In other words, it conventions of acceptable and unacceptable remains at the level of episodes in a narrative, variation more generally. Individual scenes in an episode, etc., but motifs will not awareness of incongruities may also result in normally ‘jump’ between scenes, and scenes variation in core elements (e.g. reconciliation, will not move freely from one episode to synthesis, parodic inversion). This can result another unless two or more are synthesized in the assertion of innovative adaptations or into a single structural unit (cf. Figure 4). revisions of a tradition. Nevertheless, the The system of compositional elements majority of innovations never become socially within a structural unit may be reorganized, established – although they may have more collapsed, expanded or synthesized with subtle impacts in a community (e.g. on ranges another, but variation appears generally of acceptable variation). constrained by the structural hierarchy. At Structure interfaces with practicalities of each level, the system of essential material in recognisability and conventions maintained each structural unit tends, in historical through social negotiation. In historical processes, either to remain intact (even in processes of variation, certain broad patterns radical adaptations) or to break down (and be related to structure in mythological narrative omitted as a structural unit). In other words, traditions are observable, which are important the process of social negotiation inclines each for consideration when comparing material. (significant) unit to extremes of stability or First, the compositional elements of a mythic collapse rather than fluid flexibility in the narrative emerge as an indexically bound middle of the spectrum of variation (cf. system. More particularly it is a system with Osborne, this volume).8 This appears to result subsystems of elements / compositional units because an individual unit is semantically within a structural hierarchy. For example, a and/or pragmatically significant – i.e. it scene may be made up of mythic figures, signifies something – and its constituent images, motifs, etc. (all referred to here elements function as its signifiers (even at the generally as ‘elements’) and these form a level of scenes brought together to signify an system in a set of relationships. One level episode, or episodes to signify a narrative). down in the hierarchy, individual images and Thus variation tends to occur in the practical narrative motifs of a scene may be constituted realization (or reinterpretation) of the of their own, tight subsystem of particular semantic and/or pragmatic significance of one elements; one level up, the scene can be one unit through its signifiers at one level lower in

narrative

episode episode

scene scene scene scene scene

figure image motif figure image motif figure image motif figure image motif figure image motif ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││ ││

Figure 4. Illustration of a hierarchy of compositional units in mythological narratives. ‘│’ represents a structural boundary between units within a higher unit of the hierarchy; ‘║’ represents a threshold at the next higher level of the hierarchy. At each level of the hierarchy, variation tends to occur in the configuration of compositional units one level below (separated by ‘│’), while ‘║’ presents a threshold across which variation will not normally occur.

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the hierarchy, like that of an episode through variation (i.e. variation and adaptation are less its scenes (cf. Tarkka 2012). likely to be socially contested because the According to this model, comparisons will material is less mythically vital and/or less normally be at the level of structural units and familiar in the community). At the same time, their constituents. Because narratives are the tradition often retains recognisability as sequenced according to some logic of culturally weighted material, providing it with relations between ‘events’, pragmatics of great semiotic and rhetorical potential as a those relations place constraints on variation social resource. In mythological material, in organization (e.g. a journey follows the socially established variation (and variation in hero’s departure and precedes his arrival, general) appears to have a direct relation to whereas the order of obstacles on his journey the degree to which social functions maintain may easily vary if there is no causal connections to the ritual life of the community progression from one to the next). Socially and/or some level of belief traditions. established revision of such structural prag- The structural interrelations of genres or matics should not be dismissed as ‘random’: it traditions can be approached through the is normally an indicator of reinterpretation, biological metaphor of a ‘tradition ecology’ revaluation or change in function. When (see e.g. Honko 1981b; 1985; Hafstein 2001), crossing between cultures, the system(s) of according to which changes within one elements making up a narrative may be tradition impact others on the model of an ‘translated’ according to equivalent cultural ecosystem. Any ‘new’ tradition is always figures (e.g. ‘thunder-god’) or motifs (e.g. situated in an established semiotic system, ‘magical confrontation’). However, the index- cultural environment and arenas of discourse ical system of core elements and essential (complete with ideologies and a full ‘ecology’ structural pragmatics are normally recog- of traditions). It will be received in those nizably maintained (cf. Frog 2010; 2011a). frames, which may include identification in Acceptance through social negotiation discourse with a ‘foreign’ group identity (cf. requires that innovations must resonate Frog 2012a; 2012b). This is particularly appropriately with the interests, concerns and significant for myths and belief legends, ideologies of other individuals in the because these interface with semiotic and community who are also willing to socially conceptual modeling systems. Where those represent or adapt the new form (see modeling systems do not align, that interface Converse 1964). Radical changes and will not succeed in the new cultural redefinitions to socially central figures, environment (whether among or across images, narratives, etc., are not likely to be linguistic-cultural groups). Myth and epic, for accepted and become established without example, do not as a rule retain their status resistance. Where these become socially and quality as ‘myth’ or ‘epic’ when entering established, they can be considered relevant a new cultural environment unless a) the new indicators of the social processes that cultural environment shares a sufficient produced them. In mythological traditions, common framework of ideology (e.g. historical variation in core elements is Orthodox Christian cultures); or b) the normally connected to a) the emergence or myth(s) and/or epic(s) are adapted in assertion of a new function, interpretation or conjunction with changes in an ideology significance that becomes socially established and/or understandings of social identity (e.g. and advances to a dominant form; or b) the conversion to Christianity). This is precisely loss of social relevance or dislocation from because of their social and semiotic centrality traditional functions. These processes are – their socially negotiated interface with frequently responses to contacts across group identities and culturally bound social, communities or cultures that introduce new semiotic and ideological models. traditions, models for cultural practices and/or Adaptation into a new system is a social ideologies. As a tradition becomes divested of process of finding value and relevance in that particular significance and functions, it context. Similarly, myth and epic must either becomes increasingly opened to flexible adapt or be displaced from their status in the

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wake of radical historical changes in magical charm) could belay this process, but conceptions of group identity and ideologies. the historical maintenance of these traditions These conceptions and ideologies are and figures was always connected to broader themselves normally conjoined with, and systems of the cultural activity of mythology propagated through, a new essential modeling both within and across communities. If a system of myth and epic with associated tradition is not propagated beyond a single cultural practices and ritual specialists. community, it will not maintain significance Talented performers not infrequently assert through long-term socio-historical processes. their identities, authority and ideologies through variation (cf. Tarkka 2005: 179–182). Identifying Elements for Comparison Specialization also offers these individuals a When employing the Parallax Approach, richer perspective, increasing the likelihood elements drawn on for comparison should be that they will perceive relationships between identified with consideration for their number traditions, attempt to reconcile incongruities and the relationships between them. Any such or bring vernacular traditions into accord with comparison requires: a changed, predominating (e.g. Christian)  Producing a contextualized survey of worldview (cf. Converse 1964: 214–219). sources, in order to assess reliability Sources and informants that are qualitatively  Assessing the probability that examples the ‘best’ may thus not accurately reflect represent conventional forms social conventions (cf. Frog 2010: 225–229;  Constructing abstracted models of features, Bradley, this volume). At the same time, elements and their relationships, structures, specialization in a performance tradition etc., that can be reasonably considered and/or as a ritual specialist provides these conventional in a region or culture individuals with a particularly authoritative As Jill Bradley (this volume) has emphasized ‘voice’ in the process of social negotiation, and discussed, the first step in approaching a with the possibility to influence social particular tradition or other cultural convention (cf. Siikala 1978: 13). Radical phenomenon is to attempt what I have changes in a traditional mythology frequently elsewhere described as a “mostly-exhaustive” appear directly connected to an institution of survey of evidence and examples (Frog ritual specialist as a conduit of authority for 2011a: 81). From this survey, a descriptive the tradition, rather like pillars in the process model of the tradition and its conventional of social negotiation.9 reflexes or redactions is abstracted, rather like A primary factor in the persistence of the description of a tale-type (cf. Uther 2004; North Finnic mythology was the continuity of af Klintberg 2010). Constructing an abstract the associated institution of ritual specialist, description of a tradition is a methodological and the participation of the mythology in a tool to provide a point of reference for complex of ideology and cultural practices discussion and analysis. The description will (see further Frog 2012b). A narrative or naturally minimize variation and will not mythic figure does not persist in isolation. necessarily reflect all forms of the tradition. They are always characterized by contexts, This simultaneously minimizes the risk of applications, interpretations – and they are selectively handling examples while always integrated and reintegrated into highlighting the requirement to consider systems of traditions. For example, in North variation within a regional or cultural Finnic kalevalaic mythology, myths circulated tradition before making comparisons across as Kalevala-meter poems – textual entities – them. and they disappeared where kalevalaic poetry This sort of survey and working model also was no longer used (cf. Figure 3). Individual reveals whether elements or episodes under poems did not survive independently: comparison are unusual or exceptional within multiple narratives circulated together and in one tradition, or are only found in sources of a relation to one another or they all dropped out certain type. Assessing conventional forms of circulation. Context-specific functions (like should be at the intersection of qualitative and providing a narrative introduction to a

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quantitative data. Patterns in the distribution also a minimal element. It is not a narrative, of variation should be considered first, but rather an abstract conceptual schema (see beginning with individual examples Frog 2011b: 12–13). As such, it may provide contextualized as much as possible, and a narrative core for specific myths (cf. building up to regional and cultural patterns Steinsland 1991) or a more abstract model for (cf. Lord 1960: 49). A single example is not understanding natural processes, potentially necessarily conventional or even local, and actualized through ritual practice (cf. Haavio the more limited the examples, the less can be 1959: 84–86, 101–102; Salo 2006: 36–44). said about a local or cultural tradition (cf. Taken separately, these elements are so Frog 2011a: 84, 87). Unique adaptations or minimal that their individual continuities only reinterpretations are to be expected (cf. e.g. offer varying degrees of probability. Loorits 1932: 63–64; Frog 2010: 200–201). However, correspondences in elements are The descriptive model is not intended to cumulative: the more there are, the less likely account for these. It should instead provide a that an overall parallel is wholly accidental. point of reference in approaching and Diverse parallel elements under consideration discussing them (see further Bradley, this become complementary, such as multiple volume). identity-markers of the dominant sky-god. The elements and their variation should be Complementarity becomes increasingly contextualized in terms of how they are used compelling when the phenomena compared within the broader tradition. The more widely share a larger, denser number of elements. It and flexibly an element is employed, the seems self-evident that two versions of the greater the probability that its appearance is a same proverb, riddle, poem or narrative are result of variation or innovation rather than related precisely because the cumulative reflecting historical persistence. Elements correspondences at the levels of textual and/or may also vary according to semantic or extra-textual entities cannot be reasonably pragmatic equivalence within a broad attributed to accident or coincidence. category (e.g. ‘monster’, ‘desired object’; cf. It is essential to contrast comparisons with cross-cultural adaptation above; cf. also potential alternative explanations. Compar- Nordvig, this volume). As a rule, the more isons inevitably emerge as sets of minimal a semiotic element, the less likely it probabilities rather that one unequivocally is to exhibit variation. The more limited or ‘true’ and several ‘false’ explanations, but exclusive its uses, the more likely that these these probabilities become mutually reflect a historical continuity, and that this reinforcing or contrastive. The accumulation continuity will be historically related to of comparisons produces patterns of corresponding uses in other cultures with a likelihood against which individual cases may history of contact. For example, the epithet accord, increasing the probability of ‘father’ is a minimal element that exhibited participation in that pattern, or contrast, long-term continuities as an identity-marker decreasing a case’s probability of being an characterizing the dominant sky-god (rather inconsistent and isolated exception. The than all gods) in Indo-European cultures, likelihood of a relation also increases when which broad comparative evidence suggests parallel traditions occur in geographical goes back to Proto-Indo-European *Dyéus groupings, as is the case of several traditions [‘Sky’] (West 2007: 170–171). This identity- in the Circum-Baltic region (cf. Vaitkevičienė marker and its long-term continuities are not & Vaitkevičius 2011). Such patterns across random: they simultaneously reflected and traditions are a relevant indicator of cross- affirmed an Indo-European ideology of cultural exchange that simultaneously provide patriarchal authority (Anthony 2007: 328). It a pattern and context in which particular cases also interfaced with the hieros gamos, the can be considered. As in historical linguistics, mythic marriage/sexual union of the sky-god it is not necessary to demonstrate every and the earth-goddess, as a complementary example: each example may remain an identity-marker (West 2007: 181–183; cf. individual probability while the pattern Eliade 1958: 51–52). The hieros gamos is emerges clearly (cf. Frog 2011d); a

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correlation of systems of elements and have historically proven problematic. Caution material may be demonstrable although it is required not to exaggerate the concreteness may be impossible to resolve precisely which of parallels or working models. The scope of of those elements belonged to the system material to which comparison is relevant already in earlier period (Frog 2011c: 32). should always be clarified (N.B. – the scope One noteworthy potential relevant may not be consistent across all traditions indicator of historical continuities within such compared; cf. Frog 2010). a complementary system is when the context- specific use of an element is inconsistent with Distribution and Variation its function, significance or conventions of When a tradition is established and its use in other contexts. For example, attributing semiotic environment changes, the particular thunder to another figure than to the tradition may accordingly lose functions, conventional thunder-god may be a relevant relevance, and/or change in significance, indicator of changes in the roles and especially when this is associated with significance of mythic figures (Frog 2011c: changing ideologies (cf. Osborne, this 31; 2012a). Another potential relevant volume). This is particularly apparent indicator of historical continuities is when regarding myth and epic, owing to their social parallels among the systems of elements and semiotic centrality. Such changes under comparison extend to complex (e.g. destabilize this centrality, requiring them: pragmatic) relationships between them rather  to change in order to maintain social than simply co-occurrence. For example, the functions as ‘myth’ or ‘epic’ role of an image (e.g. instigating action) and  to be maintained purely in established relationships between mythic figures (e.g. secondary functions or referential uses (e.g. adversaries) may interface with functions in secular entertainment, charms, sayings) an episode, although the specific features are  to find new functions (e.g. folktale, legend) culture-dependent (cf. Frog 2010: 122–126);  to drop out of circulation, allowing their images and relationships between figures may constitutive images, mythic figures and otherwise be complemented by etymologies, episodes to potentially be adapted to new although functions are radically different (cf. contexts as compelling social resources (e.g. Dronke 1969; also Leslie, this volume). The in other narrative genres) structural pragmatics of a narrative may be Cross-community contact within a cultural particularly significant, as in the case of the area appears to have a significant role in how aetiology of thunder found in the Circum- traditions develop and adapt to changing Baltic myth of the Theft of the Thunder- cultural circumstances (cf. Frog & Stepanova Instrument (ATU 1148b), where a different 2011). The development may be radical and conception of thunder in the narrative requires potentially aggressive, such as the assertion of changes in the narrative plot’s structure (Frog Odin as a dominant sky-god over (Proto- 2011a: 85, 91–92; cf. Figures 6–7 below). Germanic) *Tīwaz, and as father of the There is no strict mathematical equation by thunder-god Thor in a hieros gamos myth. It which probabilities can be assessed – data is may also be a less aggressive revaluation or interpreted in relation to quality, context and reinterpretation of a narrative in light of quantity. The nature of parallels being changing social values ( Frog 2010: 84, 88; addressed must also be distinguished – cf. Figure 3, above). adapting it to new whether a whole narrative (e.g. ATU 1148b), technologies (Frog 2011c: 32), changing narrative episode (cf. Frog 2010: 94–98), conceptual models (Frog 2011a: 85), or abstract conceptual schema (e.g. hieros contexts of performance (cf. Siikala 2002a). gamos), or a more atomic narrative motif or In other words, strategies for adapting the image providing a narrative core (cf. Frog tradition as a valuable social resource in 2011c: 31–32). In research, both changing cultural circumstances may distinguishing the scope of comparison (‘part’ themselves be spread. This process gives rise versus ‘whole’) and the transposition of to regional and, more broadly, cultural forms interpretations across examples or cultures

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or general cultural patterns in a tradition (Frog relevant indicator of an earlier diversification 2011a: 92–93; cf. ‘genre shifts’ in Figure 3). of functions and possibly a long history. As In cases where a tradition has a potentially mentioned above, where a tradition has less very long history in a broad linguistic-cultural cultural activity, social constraints on area, the forms of that tradition may variation weaken, and the internalized nevertheless be fairly uniform owing to an understandings of individuals may be less internal spread of a dominant form, while developed, lacking in broad social support. varying considerably from the corresponding An isogloss of a tradition with a long history traditions in adjacent cultures (cf. Frog 2011a: tends to exhibit greater variation at its 82; 2011c: 34–35). Diversity across peripheries. Extensive comparative surveys conservatively established regional or cultural are lacking, but it can be hypothesized that forms of a tradition is therefore frequently a more recently and rapidly spreading traditions relevant indicator of longer histories of may be more diffuse at the peripheries of an internal local development. A rapid spread of isogloss, but will not necessarily exhibit more a tradition is dependent on meeting social significant variation in relation to the overall functions, needs and/or interests across tradition at the peripheries of that isogloss. multiple and diverse communities. Although traditions need not necessarily hold the same Parallax as Intersection function or relevance in the new environment Comparisons can be made and assessed once (cf. Frog 2010: 356–357) and some form of the surveys and contextualization of evidence ‘translation’ into the new semiotic system is is completed. Where similarities appear inevitable (Lotman 1990; cf. Frog 2012b), it attributable to the outcome of diachronic is improbable that a tradition would both social processes, a parallax of probable spread rapidly and change significantly on intersection is hypothesized for the potential entering each new cultural environment.10 historical intersection of each (major) relevant Within such considerations, evidence of indicator of change. This comparative tool the cultural activity of a tradition must be should (ideally) be applied on localized taken into account (e.g. was it popular or materials generating models of local largely forgotten) and also its multi- traditions, then localized models should be functionality. Diversification of functions is a compared to assess parallax intersections, and consequence of broad and vital cultural so forth. Perspectives on the relative ‘depth’ activity. As usage narrows across a large area, increase progressively on a continuum model the functions that are maintained may not be as it advances to cross-cultural comparison consistent, thus significant variation in and continuities or contrasts with earlier eras function by region and culture is a potential of linguistic-cultural heritage. The initial

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3

C = Tradition = Human Being AS

Ur-form

Figure 5. Stick diagram comparison. A stemma model diagram can provide a valuable tool for visualizing contexts and relationships between materials under comparison, much as a stick figure can be used to indicate a hand, foot or eye in relation to other parts of a human being. It nevertheless remains an interpretation, and a minimal outline which may also be misrepresentative.

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║–––––––––––––––––––––– Connected to belief traditions ––––––––––––––––––––––║ Secular singing traditions Latvian(?) Faroese Lithuanian Local Norwegian Danish Sámi B: Finno-Karelian Estonain legend? fairytale Seto Reduced to motif Swedish Sámi A

Scandinavian ballads Icelandic rímur

Germanic B: Germanic A Þrymskviða (ca. 1250)

Greek Probable connecttions to belief traditions (ca. 500) with outcomes of continuity although specific associations cannot be determined

ATU 1148b: The Theft of the Thunder-Instrument

Figure 6. Potential (and in some respects misrepresentative) stemma model of the Circum-Baltic myth, ATU 1148b (the Theft of the Thunder-Instrument) that could emerge as a working tool during analysis (see Frog 2011a for survey of materials). The connection of ATU 1148b to belief traditions over an extended cross-cultural isogloss presents a high probability of long-term continuities with belief traditions. The stemma model has major disadvantages of discounting ongoing cross-community and cross-cultural contacts as a historical process and also of simplifying and concretizing typological similarities (potentially resulting from such contacts) into a hierarchy of historical relations in a period only approachable at a high level of abstraction and probability. stages of this process may be diagramed cross-cultural interactions, beginning with according to a classic ‘stemma’ model as a typological groupings may result in confusing working tool. Although such a tool can a continuum of typological similarities with a provide a point of departure for developing a historical progression of developments dynamic continuum model, it may accompanying geographic spread (as was misleadingly oversimplify the representation common in uses of the Historical-Geographic of the tradition, as illustrated in Figure 5. Method, on which see Krohn 1926). This can In most cases, the ‘deeper’ the model is be contrasted with the more dynamic and projected into history, a) the higher the degree fluid representation in Figure 7. As of abstraction in the model owing to realities Christopher Abram stresses: of variation, and b) the more that model Many critical approaches to myth have been becomes exclusively concerned with formal founded on the premise that myth is elements because meanings, uses and fundamentally stable, and its meanings interpretations can vary considerably over universal and eternal. (Abram 2011: 48.) longer periods of time. Variation is cumulative as a historical process: the Interpretations change faster than motifs, and ‘deeper’ these models penetrate into the past, in spite of aspirations to (re)construct the more they shift from portraying ‘facts’ to mythologies as coherent and absolute systems: probabilities. This problematizes stemma modelling, which inevitably resolve Mythic images, concepts and motifs derived probabilities into specific relations. This does from different epochs constitute loosely not necessarily compromise findings of structured networks open to constant continuities, but it leads to thinking of those reinterpretation. (Siikala 2002b: 29.) continuities in terms of a ‘map’, such as that A complex and coherent narrative in a recent in Figure 6. Without an apparatus for ethnocultural substratum may only be historical processes of cross-community or 51

Latvian(?) Faroese Local Sámi B: Lithuanian Norwegian Danish Finno-Karelian Estonain Reduced to motif legend? fairytale Seto Swedish Sámi A

Scandinavian ballads Expanse of Finnic Icelandic rímur language area Cross-cultural Germanic B: interaction Germanic A Þrymskviða (ca. 1250)

Komi: fairytales Circum-Baltic isogloss Secularization

Greek (ca. 500 A.D.)

Probable broad, cross-cultural isogloss

ATU 1148b: The Theft of the Thunder-Instrument Origins uncertain: appears independent of either Finno-Ugric / Uralic or Indo-European linguistic-cultural heritages Figure 7. Abstract and fluid visual representation ATU 1148b evidence situated in relation to historical processes and cultural contact. In contrast to the stemma model, this visualization minimizes variation at the level of local and cultural forms of the tradition and highlights the role of cultural interactions. approachable in terms of episodes in an tradition are frequently associated with earlier era or in some of the cultures in a changes in valuation, ideology or social broader comparison: the longer it has been in practices. Relevant indicators of changes use, the less likely it will be found as dependent on earlier developments may essentially the same ‘complete’ narrative (cf. provide key points of reference in developing Figure 6–7). Continuities in both specific a relative chronology, even if the scope may elements and their relationships are often in some cases be very broad. Nevertheless, a connected with centrality, the range of continuum model accounting for distribution cultural activity and functions in the tradition. and variation does not necessarily resolve The more long-term the perspective, the more whether that relative chronology should be abstractly these must be approached and the correlated with a time-line of five generations, more ambiguous the relationships between five centuries, or five thousand years unless it elements under consideration (cf. Frog 2011c; can be a) correlated with external points of 2012a).11 Broad, rich data sets may offer reference (e.g. medieval sources; remarkably complex pictures as in Figures 6– archaeological evidence; cross-cultural 7, but observations may be largely limited to parallels likely to reflect contact in an earlier formal elements, conceptual models, and historical period), or b) situated in a broader groupings of these forming associative systemic model. systems, with little or no insight into earlier As in etymological studies, wider meanings, functions and interpretations. This distribution is generally characteristic of a method does not reconstruct historical social longer history while highly localized or semiotic realities, and very often the eras of variations often appear more recent. Unlike transition between developments may remain etymological studies and most earlier studies completely ambiguous. on the history of traditions, the continuum The developing model should consider the model should always extend beyond the scope distribution, variation, evidence of of the phenomenon – i.e. consideration must contemporary cultural activity, and centrality not only be given to its beginning and/or in use (see Frog 2011a). Relevant indicators ending, but also to what preceded it, that mark processes of development in a informing the environs of its emergence, and

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what followed it, informing the environs A related problem is that changes and where it was no longer significant, relevant or revaluations can be transferred through cross- otherwise sustainable (cf. Figures 3 and 7). community contact. As noted above, cross- This may provide essential relevant indicators community contact may communicate of change that offer insight into historical alternative strategies for using an established processes crucial to understanding the specific tradition, and it may also communicate tradition and culture. material that supplements such a tradition ‘Archaisms’ may, of course, be (e.g. a new, image, scene, episode, use). The encountered in isolated or scattered evidence. presence or absence of a tradition is thus not Potential examples must be contextualized identical to the presence or absence of one of and correlated both with contexts of use as its features or elements. This emphasizes the well as broader patterns that characterize the importance of distinguishing the first region and traditions found there. Particular introduction/emergence of a tradition from the attention should be given to the social and emergence of variations and variant forms (cf. contextual functions of the proposed archaic Frog 2011a: 82–83; 2012b). element and what that tells us about it. Investigating the history of a tradition Without external points of reference, an exclusively on the basis of synchronic data example from a single localized area does not found across more or less coherent extended justify an element’s identification as ‘archaic’. networks of communities is problematic Evidence from two isolated areas, if a because traditions do not develop within relationship is probable, suggests a historical small-group communities in isolation, but relationship, but this demands a correlation of rather through networks of small-group specific features. Although the premise communities in interaction, allowing nothing comes from nothing is generally valid innovations and new exemplars to spread for cultural expression, parallel developments through those networks. Without external remain possible: if both examples are found points of reference, working models will have within a common cultural tradition, it is a primary value of approaching synchronic possible that the same essential conditions led variation and understanding the functioning of contemporary discourse to similar ‘solutions’ the tradition as a social resource in synchronic in corresponding semiotic environments (cf. practices. The produced model then provides Uspenskij, this volume). Isolated parallels in a frame for approaching specific variation in historically remote cultural areas or across the corpus and the local meaning-potential of different cultures with a history of contact the tradition for its users while interfaces with may be more compelling with fewer points of earlier social processes remain more correspondence because the interaction of ambiguous (cf. Figure 3). Models of this sort essential conditions with the semiotic may also be correlated along with those of environment is less likely to produce the same other traditions, advancing to broader phenomenon accidentally (cf. Stepanova systemic continuum models for long-term 2011). Nevertheless, without additional perspectives. relevant indicators or historical isolation of the two traditions, it may not be possible to Toward a Systemic Continuum Model distinguish whether these have continuity In linguistics, relationships between items and extending as ‘deep’ as the emergence of the aspects of different languages are normally tradition or whether the particular assessed in terms of formal features (e.g. element/episode emerged later. Especially phonetic sequence), semantics (i.e. what the problematic is distinguishing relevant elements mean or how they are used) and indicators of the historical period or probabilities of historical contacts or circumstances of a tradition’s/element’s relationships between the languages emergence from the period and circumstances concerned. These linguistic elements are through which it spread across communities normally at the level of a morphemic signifier and perhaps across multicultural areas. embedded within an extensive signification system. In other words, the formal features of

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an element constitute a single, definable unit, a cautious (and conditional) handling of these and those features will only change when resources for the development of a narrow there are broader changes in the overall systemic model can provide a relevant frame system. Consequently, any assessment of a for approaching a particular tradition. As in lexical item is always framed in the context of historical linguistics, the development of a the language as a system from which its systemic continuum model is not the task of historical development can be construed. This any one researcher: studies in the present will is possible precisely because of the extensive contribute to the development of these investigation of how signifiers develop extended models in the future rather than historically within the system of the particular concluding them now. language. There is a direct, linear historical Ideally, examples should be contextualized continuity between, for example, every Indo- in relation to, for example, local and regional European language and the so-called Proto- developments reflecting changes in broad Indo-European language from which these subject domains (e.g. Christian figures derive. Historical linguistics has developed generally appearing where vernacular gods continuum models outlining the relative were common) and their valuation (e.g. moral chronologies of the developmental processes criticism of sexual themes), genres (e.g. epic of the different Indo-European languages. On treated as folktale), or a specific narrative analogy, the Parallax Approach postulates (e.g. truncated, expanded or reinterpreted). A that a systemic model of the continuum of systemic model should begin with a historical developments within a culture’s comprehensive survey of a specific subject, semiotic system (including its traditions) figure, motif, narrative, genre, subject domain presents a framework for approaching the or mode of expression. Consideration should probability of historical continuities and be given to social contexts and functions with changes in individual elements. In other the identification of patterns of conventions words, the continuum models for different and variation. The development of continuum traditions and semiotic phenomena (including models within a culture can then be the lexicon) can be correlated within a culture complemented through the correlation and as a strategy for developing systemic models comparison of multiple long-term continuum for the development of that culture’s semiotic models for adjacent cultures. These can offer system. perspectives on historical processes, as well Synchronic systemic models outlining a as possible insights where evidence might ‘tradition ecology’ are a relatively recent otherwise be lacking (cf. Uspenskij, this development (cf. Kamppinen 1989: 37–46). volume), while cultural contacts may offer These models remain abstract frames of crucial insights in the correlation of relative reference rather than coherent and exhaustive chronologies (cf. Figure 2), as has been the descriptions, but they retain relevance for case in historical linguistics. understanding diachronic processes in traditions (cf. Honko 1981a; 1981b; 1985). Ethnocultural Substrata and the Continuum Systemic models describing a continuum of Model historical developments are not available for The development of a systemic modeling most traditions. Those that are available tend system requires lateral indexing across the to be scattered and disconnected from one continuum models developed for individual another, or they are based on problematic traditions in a cultural milieu. A valuable tool premises. Today, contextualizing a particular for this is Lauri Harvilahti’s (2003: 90–115) study and its relevant indicators in relation to ethnocultural substrate or ethnocultural other traditions and data will normally require substratum. Harvilahti proposed this term to turning to these earlier research surveys and describe the broad synchronic system of studies executed within methodologies that fundamental elements (language, poetics, are incompatible with modern standards or images, motifs, figures, narratives, etc.) that priorities (cf. Goeres, Fisher, this volume). are constitutive of cultural competence. This This is a practical reality. Nevertheless, even model can be profitably applied when

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Recent substrata

Christianity Pre-conversion traditions

Earlier distinguishable substratum in prehistory

Earliest ‘branch’ of culture (primarily linguistic data)

Earliest identifiable linguistic-cultural inheritance

Figure 8. Simple visual representation of ethnocultural substrata (dark horizontal bands) as lateral indices across multiple continuum models (vertical stemma diagrams). Each ethnocultural substratum emerges around a ‘core’ of relevant indicators of change differentiating it from earlier and later periods while the transition between substrata remains largely undefined. ‘Deeper’ strata become increasingly broad and generalized because variation leads to increased abstraction along individual continuum models and the quantity of material relevant for indexing becomes increasingly limited. The decrease of identifiable material in earlier substrata does not reflect fewer traditions, but rather a much smaller percentage of the tradition ecology that can be discerned – normally the most socially and semiotically central. Comparative evidence may present certain otherwise unattested traditions in earlier substrata that were not maintained (e.g. no reflex of *Dyéus in Germanic). approaching the fundamentals of the semiotic model is generated by identifying a ‘core’ environments of earlier cultural eras (see Frog element that appears to be a key relevant 2011c). Two advantages of this model are a) indicator of historical change (Frog 2011c: periods or historical ‘layers’ along a 24–25, 32–34), such as the identification of chronology are not isolated from one another, Odin as the dominant sky-god rather than an but rather each stratum is implicitly a inherited reflex of Proto-Indo-European synthesis of the preceding stratum into a *Dyéus [‘Sky’] (cf. West 2007: 168). This is ‘present’ cultural environment, producing correlated with relevant indicators that appear historical continuities; and b) all continuities directly associated with that change. The have currency and relevance within that substratum model extends laterally. This can ‘present’ as elements in the context of a begin with probable structurally dependent broader cultural and semiotic system that changes that become correlated cores for shapes their significance and meaning- further indexing (e.g. the identification of potential. Thor as a son of Odin redefines Thor), while This tool cross-indexes relevant indicators additional changes may be semantically of historical change in individual traditions. In implicit (e.g. changes in ritual practices). (See other words, it presents a cross-section of Frog 2011c: 25–30.) Relevant indicators can correlated continuum models, making a step also be indexed from social and historical toward a systemic model of the continuum of processes, archaeological evidence, and so historical developments within a culture’s forth (cf. Frog 2012b). A substratum model semiotic system (see Figure 8). A substratum thus constructs a systemic contextualizing

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model for approaching diachronic processes minimal findings may have great potential for generally, minimizing variation to highlight development as they are correlated with changes between periods. others, and as increasing numbers of relevant The substratum model outlines essential indicators become identified and correlated features of these potential ‘packages’ of according to ethnocultural substrata. developments. Taken together, the correlation The implementation of this method is not of potential relevant indicators increases their without challenges. Striving for extended individual probabilities of continuity as parts corpora and their cultural, historical and of a complex process. Furthermore, it also semiotic contextualization for analysis is provides a contextualizing frame that can labor-intensive. In addition, data does not increase the probability that correspondences select and interpret itself, and this is where in minimal elements (e.g. mythic figure or research findings are most susceptible to role + narrative motif) reflect meaningful corruption owing to the biases and relationships or otherwise make them appear presumptions of a researcher (cf. Suenson, arbitrary in relation to broader social this volume). The general observations and processes (Frog 2011c: 30–32). As a discussion on variation above are intended to modeling tool, an ethnocultural substratum is provide basic points of reference when concerned with situating changes that approaching comparative material. These provided the essential conditions for the later should not be misinterpreted as inviolable evidence rather than concretely dating all ‘laws’ but rather common patterns that developments to that period (see further Frog provide a point of departure for investigation 2011c: 28, 32). Although individual examples and for consideiring how traditions function may be argued and debated, the pattern that and vary within particular cultural and emerges is not dependent on any individual historical environments. case and provides a context for discussion. In the broader history of scholarship, this is also a precarious stage for false tracks and Challenges and Possibilities misinterpretations because reliable continuum The Parallax Approach returns to questions of models and ethnocultural substratum models diachronic tradition research with updated are generally unavailable, while dynamic theoretical models of tradition and new tools systemic modeling remains only a future goal. and strategies for investigation. The focus of Identifying relevant indicators is particularly research methods, paradigms and significant at this stage – which does not methodologies in the latter 20th century on the require their resolution through interpretation: individual and on social functions of folklore their relevance may only become evident are here turned to social processes, through the correlation of continuum models complementing both synchronic and developed in other studies and in other diachronic research traditions. The Parallax disciplines in the future. Although why and Approach develops hypothetical abstract how are generally the most interesting working models of relative chronologies for questions addressed in analyses, approaching the history of traditions and interpretations evolve as quickly in research specific case evidence. These necessarily traditions as they do in oral cultures. The most advance to probabilities, and there may prominent and enduring works in scholarship frequently be vast ambiguous gaps in a are therefore those that provide the most continuum model (cf. Figure 3). These comprehensive and detailed representation directions of research are only now reopening and overview of primary materials as a and a relative chronology may remain as basic resource (cf. Goeres, this volume), and the as situating a tradition’s origin between a Parallax Approach presents a new frame in terminus ante quem of two attested forms which such resources have multidisciplinary becoming different, and a terminus post quem relevance. of ‘the introduction of iron’ (cf. Figure 2) or Methodologically, the Parallax Approach ‘Proto-Indo-European’ (cf. Figure 7). is oriented to guard against biases and Nevertheless, even such broad or seemingly ‘leading the data’. Extended

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contextualization, testing hypotheses against 3. On tendencies of ‘Old Philology’ and their interfaces alternative explanations, and the correlation of with current methodologies, see the discussions in Leslie, Fisher, and also Goeres, this volume. individual continuum models into more 4. Continuities from such a remote era are exceptional dynamic modeling systems all provide and often unnecessary to consider. This may safeguards, as does advocating ‘top-down’ nevertheless initially provide a relevant and modeling – beginning form individual interesting frame for discontinuity and change. (See examples and local variation for localized e.g. Frog 2012a; 2012b). 5. The following is a model of tradition according to modeling, and advancing to regional and the theory of the Activating Power of Expression cultural traditions (rather than taking an ideal presented in Frog 2010. For a usage-based approach model of the tradition as the point of to language, see Tomasello 2003. departure). Together, these reduce risks of 6. Myth here describes a quality of content rather than selective or decontextualized use of a formal genre, although in some cultures mythological narratives may be conventionally exceptional examples, isolating hypothesis- rendered according to a specialized generic form. specific data sets, or constructing a continuum On the semiotics of myth, see e.g. Cassirer 1925; model in isolation resulting in contrasts with Barthes 1970; Lotman & Uspenskii 1976; on its others and with emerging models of social centrality, see further e.g. Eliade 1968 ethnocultural substrata. Particularly where [1963]: esp. 18–20; Doty 2000. Epic here describes a formally qualified narrative genre (which in some data is limited or observations are pursued cultures may be used to render mythological into more remote ethnocultural substrata, narratives as well as heroic and/or historical misinterpretations are a hazard. This hazard is material). The genre of epic is centrally decreased when, rather than being based characterized by its social and semiotic functions to solely on a closed data set, an interpretation is which specific formal features are culturally dependent. A semiotic approach to traditional epic correlated with other continuum models and as genre is outlined in Frog 2011e; see further also broader patterns of evidence within a culture. Honko 1998: 20–29; Doty 2000; Foley 2004; The Parallax Approach is oriented to guard Martin 2005. against biases, yet responsibility inevitably 7. This is particularly apparent in oral poetic traditions: falls to the researcher (cf. Peterson-Lewis, this see e.g. Gil’ferding 1894: 24; Lord 1960. 8. Variation as a social process is not identical to volume). Nevertheless, even here there is the variation at the level of individuals, and scattered, safeguard that the Parallax Approach is isolated examples of a tradition may easily leave an oriented to cooperation and social negotiation exaggerated impression of social processes of as a historical process, and that process of variation precisely because they tend to be negotiation will work to sort the wheat from decontextualized from local and regional social conventions. the chaff. The over-arching goal of the 9. See further Frog 2010: 137, 232; 2011c: 32–34; on Parallax Approach is the gradual development ‘conduits’ of transmission of traditions, see von of broad, multidisciplinary systemic models Sydow 1948: 12; Dégh & Vázsonyi 1975. for approaching the evolution of traditions 10. This is improbable because each successive and semiotic systems in particular cultures adaptation would be based on the preceding model. A succession of significant changes would imply and cultural areas. Studies in the present will the tradition was not immediately suitable to the be contributions to that future. new cultural environment, and therefore its rapid spread would not be connected with a common Acknowledgements: I am particularly indebted to the meaningfulness or value across the succession of initiative and rigor of Emily Lyle in her role as cultures, or be connected with meeting common respondent to this paper in the virtual workshop. I social functions, needs and/or interests across would also like to thank Joonas Ahola for his multiple and diverse communities (e.g. in relation comments and suggestions while preparing this paper to social or ideological changes, such as new for publication. models of aristocratic society, conversion to Christianity, industrialization, or to new Notes technologies, such as iron-working, television, the 1. For a discussion of ‘textual entity’ and ‘extra-textual internet). On the contrary, it would imply that the entity’ as analytical terms, see Frog 2011b. succession was accidental: each transformation 2. Cf. John Miles Foley’s (2002: 199) maxim that would ‘just happen’ to produce something “Oral Poetry works like language, only more so” interesting and compelling to the next group that within an “overall expressive ecology”. would see it as worth transforming again into something new, and so forth. Although this is

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hypothetically possible, evidence does not support Instrument (ATU 1148b)”. In Vaitkevičienė & this sort of rapid as a common cross-cultural Vaitkevičius 2011: 78–98. phenomenon. Frog. 2011b. “Distinguishing Continuities: Textual 11. Thus models of mythologies in the Proto-Indo- Entities, Extra-Textual Entities and Conceptual European or Proto-Uralic linguistic-cultural eras Schemas”. RMN Newsletter 2: 7–15. tend to be so highly abstract: they will identify Frog. 2011c. “Ethnocultural Substratum: Its Potential names, figures, rudimentary features of world- as a Tool for Lateral Approaches to Tradition models, but only highly abstract motifs, conceptual History”. RMN Newsletter 3: 23–37. schemas and relationships rather than fully Frog. 2011d. “Snorri Sturluson qua Fulcrum: developed ‘narratives’ (see e.g. Napolskikh 1989; Perspectives on the Cultural Activity of Myth, Watkins 1995). Mythological Poetry and Narrative in Medieval Iceland”. Mirator 12: 1–29. Works Cited Frog. 2011e. “Traditional Epic as Genre: Definition as Abram, Christopher. 2011. Myths of the Pagan North: a Foundation for Comparative Research”. RMN The Gods of the Norsemen. London: Continuum. Newsletter 3: 47–48. Barthes, Roland 1970. Mythologies. Points 10. Paris: Frog. 2012a (in press). “Confluence, Continuity and Seuil. Change in the Evolution of Myth: Cultural Activity Cassirer, Ernst. 1925. Sprache und Mythos: Ein and the Finno-Karelian Sampo-Cycle”. In Mythic Beitrag zum Problem der Götternamen. Studien der Discourses: Studies in Uralic Oral Tradition. Ed. Bibliothek Warburg 6. Leipzig: Teubner. Frog, Anna-Leena Siikala & Eila Stepanova. Studia Converse, Philip. 1964. “The Nature of Belief Systems Fennica Folkloristica 20. Helsinki: Finnish in Mass Publics”. In Ideology and Discontent. Ed. Literature Society. D. Apter. London: Free Press. Pp. 206–261. Frog. 2012b (in press). “Shamans, Christians, and Dégh, Linda. 1995. Narratives in Society: A Things in Between: From Finnic–Germanic Performer-Centered Study of Narration. FF Contacts to the Conversion of Karelia”. In Communications 255. Helsinki: Suomalainen Conversions: Looking for Ideological Change in Tiedeakatemia. the Early Middle Ages. Ed. Rudolf Simek & Leszek Dégh, Linda, & Andrew Vázsonyi. 1975. “The Słupecki. Wien: Fassbaender. Hypothesis of Multi-Conduit Transmission in Frog & Eila Stepanova. 2011. “Alliteration in Folklore”. In Folklore: Performance and (Balto-)Finnic Languages”. In Alliteration and Communication. Ed. Dan Ben Amos & Kenneth Culture. Ed. Jonathan Roper. Houndmills: Palgrave Goldstein. Approaches to Semiotics 40. The Hague: MacMillan. Pp. 195–218. Mouton. Pp. 207–254. Gil’ferding, A.F. 1894. Онежския былины, Doty, William G. 2000. Mythography: The Study of записанныя Александром Федоровичем Myths and Rituals. 2nd edn. Tuscaloosa: University Гильфердингом летом 1871 года.1. Санкт- of Alabama Press. Петербург. Dronke, Ursula 1969. “Beowulf and Ragnarök”. Saga- Gills, John R. 1996. A World of Their Own Making: Book 17: 302–325. Myth, Ritual, and the Quest for Family Values. Drout, Michael D. 2011. “Variation within Limits: An Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Evolutionary Approach to the Structure and Haavio, Martti. 1959. Karjalan jumalat. Dynamics of the Multiform”. Oral Tradition 26(2): Uskontotieteellinen tutkimus. Porvoo: Werner 447–474. Söderström. Eliade, Mircea. 1958. Patterns in Comparative Hafstein, V. 2001. “Biological Metaphors in Folklore Religion. New York: Sheed & Ward. Theory: An Essay in the History of Ideas”. Arv 57: Eliade, Mircea. 1968 [1963]. Myth and Reality. New 7–32. York: Harper & Row. Harvilahti, Lauri. 2003. The Holy Mountain: Studies on Foley, John Miles. 1995. The Singer of Tales in Upper Altay Oral Poetry. FF Communications 282. Performance. Bloomington: Indiana University Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Press. Honko, Lauri. 1981a. “Four Forms of Adaptation of Foley, John Miles. 2002. How to Read an Oral Poem. Tradition”. In Adaptation, Change, and Decline in Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Oral Literature. Ed. Lauri Honko & V. Voigt. Foley, John Miles. 2004. “Epic as Genre”. In The Studia Fennica 26. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed. Robert Louis Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. 19–33. Fowler. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Honko, Lauri. 1981b. “Traditionsekologi – En Pp. 171–187. Introduktion”. In Tradition och Miljö: Ett Frog. 2010. Baldr and Lemminkäinen: Approaching kulturekologiskt Perspektiv. Ed. Lauri Honko & the Evolution of Mythological Narrative through Orvar Löfgren. NIF Publications 11. Lund: Liber the Activating Power of Expression. UCL Eprints. Läromedel. Pp. 9–63. Available at: http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/19428/. Honko, Lauri. 1985. “Rethinking Tradition Ecology”. London: University College London. Temenos 21: 55–82. Frog. 2011a. “Circum-Baltic Mythology? – The Honko, Lauri. 2000. “Thick Corpus and Organic Strange Case of the Theft of the Thunder- Variation: An Introduction”. In Thick Corpus,

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Organic Variation and Textuality in Oral Tradition. Siikala, Anna-Leena. 2002a. “The Singer Ideal and the Ed. Lauri Honko. Studia Fennica Folkloristica 7. Enrichment of Poetic Culture”. In Honko 2002: 26– Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Pp. 3–28. 43. Kamppinen, Matti. Cognitive Systems and Cultural Siikala, Anna-Leena. 2002b. “What Myths Tell about Models of Illness. FF Communications 244. Past Finno-Ugric Modes of Thinking”. In Myths Helsinki; Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1989. and Mentality: Studies in Folklore and Popular af Klintberg, Bengt. 2010. The Types of the Swedish Thought. Ed. A.-L. Siikala. Studia Fennica Folk Legend. FF Communications 300. Helsinki: Folkloristica 8. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Society. Pp. 15–32. Krohn, Kaarle. 1926. Die folkloristische Steinsland, Gro. 1991. Det hellige bryllup og norrøn Arbeitsmethode. Oslo: Aschehoug. kongeideologi: En analyse av hierogami-myten i Loorits, Oskar. 1932. Das Märchen vom gestohlenen Skírnismál, Ynglingatal, Háleygjatal og Donner-instrument bei den Esten. Tartu: Gelehrte Hyndluljóð. Oslo: Solum. estnische Gesellschaft. Stepanova, Eila. 2011. “Reflections of Belief Systems Lotman, Iu.M., & B.A. Uspenskii 1976. “Myth – Name in Karelian and Lithuanian Laments: Shared – Culture”. In Semiotics and Structuralism: Systems of Traditional Referentiality?”. In Readings from the Soviet Union. Ed. Henryk Baran. Vaitkevičienė & Vaitkevičius 2011: 128–143. White Planes: International Arts and Sciences von Sydow, C.W. 1948. Selected Papers on Folklore. Press. Pp. 3–32. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger. Lord, Albert Bates. 1960. The Singer of Tales. Tarkka, Lotte. 2005. Rajarahvaan Laulu: Tutkimus Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Vuokkiniemen Kalevalamittaisesta Runokulttuurista Martin, Richard P. 2005. “Epic as Genre”. In A 1821–1921. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Companion to Ancient Epic. Ed. John Miles Foley. Seura. Oxford: Blackwell. Pp. 9-19. Tarkka, Lotte. 2012 (in press). “The Sampo: Myth and Napolskikh, Vladimir. 1989. “The Diving-Bird Myth in Vernacular Imagination”. In Mythic Discourses: Northern Eurasia”. In Uralic Mythology and Studies in Uralic Oral Tradition. Ed. Frog, Anna- Folklore. Ed. M. Hoppál & Juha Pentikäinen. Leena Siikala & Eila Stepanova. Studia Fennica Ethnologica Uralica 1. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Folkloristica 20. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Society. Rubin, David C. Memory in Oral Traditions: The Tomasello, Michael. 2003. Constructing a Language: Cognitive Psychology of Epic, Ballads, and A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Counting-Out Rhymes. Oxford: Oxford University Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Press, 1995. Uther, Hans-Jörg. 2004. The Types of International Salo, Unto. 2006. Ukko: The God of Thunder of the Folktales I–III. FF Communications 284–286. Ancient Finns and His Indo-European Family. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Washington DC: Institute for the Study of Man. Vaitkevičienė, D., & V. Vaitkevičius (eds.). 2011. Siikala, Anna-Leena. 1978. The Rite Technique of the Archaeology, Religion and Folklore in the Baltic Siberian Shaman. FF Communication 220. Sea Region. Archaeologia Baltica 15. Klaipėda: Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Klaipėda University Press. Siikala, Anna-Leena. 1990. Interpreting Oral Watkins, Calvert 1995. How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects Narrative. FF Communications 245. Helsinki: of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford: Oxford Academia Scientiarum Fennica. University Press. West, M. L. 2007. Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

The Ghost of Methodologies Past: Untangling Methods, Methodologies, and Methodologists in Black Studies Sonja Peterson-Lewis, Temple University

Three years ago, a former student approached complained to faculty, to other students, and me on campus to say that he wanted to on the course evaluation form that I had apologize for how he had behaved in an “taught Eurocentric research methods” – Introduction to Research Methods course he instrument construction, experimental design, had taken with me more than ten years before. interviewing – “instead of [the] Afrocentric Not recalling any particularly egregious methods” he had expected. When I asked him behavior on his part, I asked what he had to tell me some of the methods he had done. He said that throughout the term, he had expected me to teach, he said he did not asked “obnoxious questions” and that he had know, but that outside the class, he had so

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frequently heard the term ‘African-centered they can tame social research methods to method’ that he presumed there were research make them work in constructive service to methods specifically for the study of persons their communities. Other students ponder of African descent and that I was concealing whether their use of traditional research them. By now, the student had had exposure methods in studying community issues will to research presentations on a wide range of conflict with their work being perceived as topics through his work and professional culturally ‘centered’, and/or will perhaps associations; he had also heard recent students result in others labeling them or their work distinguishing between method and ‘Eurocentric’. methodology in the way that I had begun to The frequency with which I have make explicit on the syllabus for the course.1 encountered the above concerns suggests a He said he now realized that he had been need to confront and defuse the usually false confused by the use of the term ‘method’ for assumptions that often underlie students’ what was really methodology. skepticism about or resistance to mastering As my former student spoke, I vaguely traditional methods of social research. Given recalled that he had indeed asked many that confusion between methods and questions in each session; however, after methodology is one source of many students’ years of teaching a course that many students resistance to studying methods, one purpose say is challenging, I perceived extreme of this article is to distinguish between questioning as the norm in Introduction to research methods and research methodology. Research Methods. Therefore, his confession I also discuss why the purpose of one’s was not truly surprising, and was not nearly as research should be the major factor troubling as what he said next; his determining the research methods one uses presumption about the existence of and why researchers therefore need to master ‘Eurocentric research methods’ and multiple methods, and why I believe applied ‘Afrocentric research methods’ had led him to social research is strongest when driven by bypass opportunities for in-depth study of forces other than the researchers’ personal social research methods and statistics – grasp of or interest in the research problem. decisions he now regretted. Following Bailey (1987), I contend that In more than twenty years teaching research methods are the techniques, steps or Introduction to Research Methods (henceforth processes that researchers employ in Research Methods) in Black Studies2 and gathering information/data for answering their meeting students from various disciplines and research question. Experiments, interviews, universities, I find that most students say they surveys, questionnaires, document/content came to Black Studies because they perceived analysis and observation are the basic social the area to be more receptive to their interests research methods; one can also combine in and commitments to learning about, certain basic methods to create other methods researching, and being actively involved in such as those used in historiography and issues affecting quality-of-life in Black ethnography. One’s research methodology communities and other communities of color. consists of the underlying network of Although conducting social research will be philosophies, beliefs and values – the critical to their achieving their missions, many worldviews – that shape and inform how the harbor my former students’ perspective on, or researcher conceptualizes the problem and other suspicions about, research methods. how and with whom he/she implements the Students coming from a variety of disciplines method. Although there is evidence that a often report: a) lack of exposure to social number of area studies do not make the science studies that address Black community method–methodology distinction clear, I concerns in ways they perceive as situate my method–methodology clarification constructive, and b) overexposure to studies in the context of Black Studies, where that address Blacks in pathological or deviant Afrocentricity – a popular methodology that contexts. These experiences leave some emerged to challenge long-standing culturally students, understandably, questioning whether biased paradigms – has also blurred the

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distinction between method and methodology areas that were aimed at establishing by use of the term ‘Afrocentric method’. intellectual and/or physical hierarchies based After a brief discussion of the emergence on race and/or gender. These measurement- of area studies and how they rightly focused researchers almost invariably problematized social research in traditional declared persons of indigenous African academic disciplines, I discuss my descent and women inferior or deviant in observations on: a) how the context in which some way. students report first learning of social research In the classic text Even the Rat was White, often negatively affects their perceptions of Robert V. Guthrie (1976) argues that as the the ethics of research methods, and b) how social sciences made their bids to be accepted exposure to erroneous interchange of the as ‘true’ sciences, research based on terms ‘method’ and ‘methodology’ leads assumptions about racial hierarchies – and some students to distrust and discount more specifically, presumptions about the traditional research methods. I end with a inferiority of Blacks – shaped these discussion of what practitioners of culturally disciplines and their theories in both subtle centered paradigms such as Afrocentricity can and overt ways. At the more subtle level, do to promote students’ mastery of a full slate Charles Darwin’s 1859 publication of Origin of research skills that maximize their of Species (Darwin 1996) influenced the rise professional potential and community of ‘survival of the fittest’ social theories that contributions. considered only those factors internal to the individual in explaining individual differences The Emergence of Area Studies in social achievement. At a more overt level, In the United States, part of the legacy of the Francis Galton’s eugenics doctrine, which Civil Rights Movement of the late 1950s– contended that genes explained most of the 1960s and the Women’s Liberation variation in individuals’ worldly Movement of the 1970s is the emergence of achievements, led to practices ranging from academic departments devoted to the study of the development of ‘intelligence’ tests for use groups previously excluded from or in determining which individuals would have marginalized in both the curricular content access to certain educational opportunities to and research initiatives of traditional the state-sponsored sterilization of persons academic disciplines. Area studies such as deemed ‘unfit’ to procreate.3 Black Studies, Chicano Studies, Women’s Gould’s (1981) and Guthrie’s (1976) Studies, Asian Studies, and Gay/Lesbian/ presentation of the conjoined histories of Transgendered Studies are all examples of racial hierarchies and social science research disciplines focused on historically excluded or supports Jürgen Habermas’s (1972) underrepresented groups – groups that have, contention that ‘knowledge’ tends to reflect within the last four decades, come out of the and protect the interests of those who produce academic closets and staked claims in it. Given this perspective, the scholars who institutions of higher education. developed the first programs in race, ethnic, Although academic programs devoted to gender and sexuality studies in the US faced a studies of race, ethnicity, gender and sexuality daunting paradox. On one hand, in every often differ significantly in their agendas and social science discipline, the majority of the philosophies, the groups at the center of these research regarded as valid academic areas share histories of exclusion, exploitative knowledge had been designed by a inclusion, and in some cases, overt abuse by predominately privileged white male traditional research agendas and their population that was supported by and thus resulting theories/models. Stephen Jay largely supportive of a social order that Gould’s The Mismeasure of Man (1981) and presumed Blacks and women inferior. At the The Flamingo’s Smile (1987) provide detailed same time, the same social research accounts and critiques of research in techniques that had produced these claims of craniometry, craniology, phrenology, Black and female inferiority had also a) intelligence testing, eugenics and many other shaped the content of the texts that students in

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racial, ethnic and gender studies programs of the Negro Intellectual (Cruse 1967), were expected to consume, and b) comprised contributors to Joyce A. Ladner’s text directly a major part of the skills set that many or indirectly labeled their disciplines racially programs expected area studies students to “colonized” because of the limited nature of master. Given this paradox, it is not surprising the questions researchers explored and the that the scholars who shaped the early biased theories they produced about Blacks, curricula in race and gender studies took as race, and racial differences. In explaining the their first missions the scathing deconstructive emergence of Black sociology as a field of critique of traditional research agendas, their study, editor Ladner wrote: paradigms, and the theories, models, and It [Black sociology] evolved for two policies that evolved from them, and secondly reasons: (1) as a reaction to, and revolt the creation and promotion of new paradigms against, the biases of ‘mainstream’ aimed at challenging, replacing, or at least not bourgeois, liberal sociology; and (2) as a confirming the belief system of the old order. positive step toward setting forth basic Thomas Kuhn (1962), in his now-classic definitions, concepts, and theory building text, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, that utilize the experiences and histories of proposed that scathing critiques of existing African Americans (Ladner 1973: xix–xx). paradigms are to be expected: In calling for the development of a “Black Confronted with anomaly or with crisis, social science”, Ronald W. Walters scientists take a different attitude toward contended: existing paradigms, and the nature of their there are questions inherent in the black research changes accordingly. The experience [that] have been approached proliferation of competing articulations, the incorrectly by the utilization of both the willingness to try anything, the expression of ideology and the methodology of white explicit discontent the recourse to social science. (Walters 1973: 206.) philosophy and to debate over fundamentals – all these are symptoms of a transition from Walters argued that practitioners of Black normal to extraordinary research. It is upon social science would have to develop “an their existence more than upon that of offensive strategy” in all stages of the revolutions that the notion of normal science research process in order to stave off the depends. (Kuhn 1962: 90, my emphasis.) longstanding domination “white social Given that area studies evolved due to science” has held over social research. discontent with the status quo, examples of Similarly, Nathan Hare – the chair of the first Kuhn’s “expression of explicit discontent” U.S.-based Black Studies program established abound in publications in Women’s Studies, in 1967 at San Francisco State College – Chicano Studies, and studies devoted to wrote: lesbian, gay, transgendered and bisexual 4 The Black scholar must develop new and studies. appropriate norms and values, new institutional structures, and in order to be Methods, Methodology, and Black Studies effective in this regard, he must also develop Nowhere has the discontent with traditional and be guided by a new ideology. Out of this social science research been more evident new ideology will evolve new methodology than among scholars concerned with the study – though in some regards it will subsume and wellbeing of persons of African descent. and overlap existing norms of scholarly This discontent was laid bare in The Death of endeavor. (Hare 1973: 197.)

White Sociology (Ladner 1973), an edited The authors contributing to The Death of collection of chapters in which prominent and White Sociology described an academia in rising social scientists deconstructed which paradigms, theories, and models often prevailing research paradigms and theory in overtly hostile to Black interests dominated their disciplines. Echoing many of the themes assigned texts – influencing not only students, raised in earlier works such The Miseducation but also ultimately worldwide policies and of the Negro (Woodson 1933) and The Crisis practices toward Blacks. Clearly, this state of 62

affairs represented a paradigmatic crisis. Over positions. Eventually, I asked those who many decades, this same crisis had given rise agreed to explain their claim. As they spoke, I to ideologies such as Negritude, Pan learned that most students usually heard the Africanism, and Black Nationalism – each experimental method mentioned in the aimed at the kind of “decolonization” that context of atrocities – the Nazi ‘experiments’ Blauner & Wellman (1973) say is necessary during the Jewish Holocaust and eugenics- for social scientists who want their research to based experiments that resulted in the be trusted by and be of constructive use to sterilization of Blacks and others in the south. communities of color. Some knew about the controversial ‘Violence Paradigmatic crises affect not only Initiative’, a proposal by a National Institute academic professionals but also affect social of Mental Health (NIMH) official to science students. Depending upon the nature experiment with using biochemical injections of the social research that they have as a means of preventing violence among encountered prior to entering Research inner-city/Black males (see Breggin 1995; Methods, a considerable percentage of Cohen, n.d.). However, the study about which students enter with skepticism about the all my students had heard was the Tuskegee validity of race-related social research. In the Syphilis Experiment. In this study, which ran next sections, I discuss how, in my from 1932 to 1974, medical personnel in observation, two dynamics – context of Tuskegee Alabama, under the guise of exposure to social research and exposure to treatment, gave placebos – useless pills – to entangled use of the terms ‘method’ and nearly 300 syphilis-infected and non-infected ‘methodology’ – often account for students’ African American men in order to study the skepticism. effects of untreated syphilis on the human body. Even after the discovery of penicillin as The Context of Exposure to Social Research an effective treatment for syphilis, the and Perceived Ethics and Utility of Social medical research team withheld treatment Research Methods from the men. Many of the men succumbed to One semester in the 1990s, as I launched the the crippling ravages of syphilis; many also experimental methods module in Introduction unknowingly transmitted the disease to to Research Methods, a student questioned spouses/sex partners and to children born of my decision to teach experimental design, those relationships. contending that, among other things, the As egregious as the facts of the Tuskegee method had been used to exploit African Syphilis Experiment are, many students people. A discussion of this contention ensued ‘recalled’ the facts as being even worse in that among students, with some agreeing, some they erroneously thought that the Tuskegee disagreeing, and others vacillating between researchers had injected the participants with Table 1: Summative Responses of Introduction to Research Methods Students (N=40) to the assignment, “Briefly describe the Tuskegee syphilis experiment.”

Summative correct response Summative Summative ambiguous Summative “Don’t “Injection Theory” response know/Not sure” response response

Medical researchers withheld Doctors injected African In order to study the I’m not sure of the medical treatment from American men with effects of untreated details, but the African American men who syphilis so they could syphilis, doctors study had negative had syphilis so that study the effects of the recruited African effects on Blacks. researchers could study the disease on the human American men and did effects of the untreated body. not give them disease on the human body. medication.

n=8; 20% n=20; 50% n=8; 20% n=4; 10%

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syphilis. Several years after this class the Tuskegee Syphilis experiment or similar discussion, I began launching the studies. experimental research module by giving the The fact that egregious programs such as following assignment: “Briefly summarize the Tuskegee, that the eugenics-linked Tuskegee syphilis experiment.” Table 1 sterilization of African Americans and the shows the summative responses of forty poor in the South, and that numerous Nazi students in 2008. atrocities were conducted under the label Although 50% of these students of the ‘experiment’ leads some novice research 2008 course falsely ‘recalled’ that the students to believe that there is something researchers in the Tuskegee syphilis inherently sinister or rogue about the experiment injected Black men with syphilis, experimental method. In my observation, this the percentage of students holding that belief belief leads some to distrust the method, the has been as high as 75% in some classes. In data it produces, and even the statistical the minimum twelve times that I have given procedures used in analyzing the data. the assignment, the percentage of students Beyond the Tuskegee study, the second most endorsing the ‘Injection Theory’ has never familiar study to students entering Research been lower than 50%. On one hand, this high Methods is the statistics-based Moynihan rate of endorsement of the ‘Injection Theory’ Report (Moynihan 1965) in which, largely suggests that many students forgot or never due to family structural dynamics and learned the actual details of the Tuskegee poverty, Senator Daniel Moynihan referred to syphilis study. However, at a more important Black American families as ensnared by “a level, the fact that at least half the students tangle of pathology”. The distrust of statistics erroneously ‘recall’ that the medical tends to be most intense among those students researchers injected the men with syphilis who have learned that the same data suggests that half of the students do not Moynihan used to draw his “tangle of perceive the medical/research profession to be pathology” conclusions about Black families above committing this kind of egregious act – is the same data that Robert B. Hill (1972) at least toward African Americans. used to draw his conclusions that Black A search of recent social science databases families tend to show five persistent and will reveal numerous examples of critical strengths. constructive social research with persons of It is especially difficult to dispel students’ African descent as subjects. However, in a misperceptions that there are inherently rogue classic example of the primacy effect, the fact methods or analytic processes when the that many persons were first introduced to critiques they repeatedly hear against social research through discussion of unethical or racially biased studies are exploitative studies has created in many wrongly couched in terms of these studies’ individuals attitudes ranging from skepticism methods rather than their methodologies. This to profound distrust of medical researchers difficulty intensifies when students have also and perhaps of other types of researchers as heard the term ‘method’ used to describe well. Phillip J. Bowman (1991), Norma L. philosophical orientations. Such is the case Roberson (1994), V.L. Shavers, C.F. Lynch & with some novice researchers’ understandings L.F. Burmeister (2002), Susan E. Mason of the Afrocentricity framework, which, as it (2005), and Peter Edmund Millet (2010) are developed its tenets, adopted several among numerous researchers who report low descriptive labels – among them, ‘method’. rates of voluntary participation among Although now usually referred to as a African Americans in clinical trials for new worldview or paradigm, a search of current medicines or medical procedures. These social science databases shows that authors researchers concur that distrust for medical across a number of fields refer to their work researchers is a major reason for these low as using ‘the Afrocentric method’. The next participation rates, and that a major factor section briefly explains the concept of prompting that distrust is having learned of Afrocentricity and explains how, in my observation, definitional aspects of the term

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have blurred understandings of the difference not only to embrace the perspective, but also between method and methodology. led them to feel free to add their own ideas to it through interpolation – reading between the “The Proliferation of Competing lines – and/or extrapolation – reading beyond Articulations, the Expression of Explicit the lines. A search of popular and academic Discontent”: The Emergence of databases will reveal that individuals across a Afrocentricity variety of endeavors incorporate the concept In the 1970s, a number of Black Studies of Afrocentricity into their work. Academics programs attained departmental status; during from a number of disciplines (sociology, the 1980s and 1990s, some expanded to literature, psychology, education, and social include graduate studies. In many cases, these work) have employed Afrocentric concepts or status shifts led to debates at various levels what they call ‘the Afrocentric method’ in about the curricular content, role, and function examining a variety of research issues. These that these programs would have in academia issues include human services (e.g. Schiele and the intellectual orientation the programs 1996; Stewart 2004; Borum 2007; Valandra would take. The concept of Afrocentricity 2007); health care (e.g. Prather et al. 2006), emerged during this time span. Afrocentricity: criminal justice (e.g. Hatcher 2010) and A Theory of Social Change (Asante 1980) was curriculum development (e.g. Gill 1991; the first major elaboration, followed by The Grant 2008). As examples from the lay arena, Afrocentric Idea (Asante 1987). Describing writers interested in social etiquette and rites Afrocentricity as the study of: of passage programs (e.g. Coles 1999; Bank, Hogue & Liddle 1996) also mention the ideas, concepts, events, personalities, and political and economic processes from the Afrocentric framework. standpoint of black people as the subjects Researchers in the social and life sciences rather than objects of research. (Asante usually use the term ‘method’ to refer to the 2009.) procedures or steps one takes to collect data, and the term ‘methodology’ to refer to a Molefi Kete Asante contended that philosophical framework. The appearance of Afrocentricity emerged to offer “a frame of the term ‘the Afrocentric method’ therefore reference wherein phenomena are viewed created misunderstandings, especially among from the perspective of the African person” novice researchers. The term ‘Afrocentric (Asante 1991), instead of from the position of method’, although used in earlier Europeans. publications, becomes especially explicit in To many academics and laypersons the chapter “Afrocentricity and the Quest for laboring under systems that seemed incapable Methods” (see Conyers 1997), in which of conceptualizing persons of African descent Asante asserts the following: from any perspective other than the deviant or pathological, the Afrocentric frame of The Afrocentrist seeks to uncover and use reference represented a standpoint overhaul. codes, paradigms, symbols, motifs, myths The perspective challenged the notion that and circles of discussion that reinforce the European norms or standards of fit were centrality of African ideals and values as a valid frame of reference for acquiring and appropriate to apply to all people and examining data. Such a method [emphasis processes and declared that African processes mine] appears to go beyond Western history and traditions should be the standard and in order to revalorize the African place in comparative norm for issues involving the interpretation of Africans, continental persons of African descent. By extending to and diaspora. (Asante 1997: 72.) African people the consent to perceive African traditions and culture – and by Defining Africalogy as “the Afrocentric study extension, themselves – in a constructive of phenomena”, Asante offers critique of light, Afrocentricity held for many people a various social research and analytic processes. For example, of ethnomethodology, he says: populist, ‘people’s paradigm’ appeal. That appeal led some lay and professional persons

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The Afrocentric method shares some of the prediction-oriented studies is relevant here as perception of the so called well. ‘ethnomethodology’ [....] But the principal problem with ethnomethodology is its Our task is not like that of the Western Eurocentric bias. [....] ‘Ethno’ is derived social scientist who seeks to predict human from ‘ethnic’ which is derived from behavior in order to advance more direct Medieval English ‘ethnic’ and the Late Latin control over nature, but rather to explain ‘ethica,’ which means ‘heathen.’ Since human nature as it manifests in the African Eurocentric writers did not initially include arena. (Asante 1997: 89.)

white people in their conceptualization, one Few would rise to endorse or defend the war- can only speculate that ethnomethodology mongering experimental method as described like ethnomusicology, was meant to study above – certainly not in contrast to the those who were not European. (Asante 1997: 88.) allegedly kinder, gentler, more humanistic descriptive methods that are argued as more The ethno-heathen association manifested acceptable for African-centered researchers. itself when a student enrolled in Ethnographic Queeneth Mkabela, in advocating use of the Methods balked at using the term Afrocentric paradigm in research with ‘ethnography’ for the interviews, indigenous African populations, endorses this observations, and document analysis required view with her claim that, “to make research in the class; he said he was concerned about culturally meaningful, the qualitative non- 5 the etymology of ‘ethnography’. We material aspect of research is emphasized” resolved that he could call his project by any (Mkabela 2005: 185). name of his choosing as long as he properly There are at least three problems with carried out the procedures. indiscriminately promoting certain methods With regard to experimental methods, while summarily dismissing or precluding Asante writes: others. First, not all methods can accomplish

The nomothetic model of experimental all research purposes. Some methods are laboratory research, which insists that superior to other methods for addressing variable control and manipulation are able to certain types of questions. For example, assist in universal laws, is highly descriptive studies are poor at addressing the questionable. (Asante 1997: 87.) ‘what if’ questions that experiments address

He argues that descriptive research, in well and are also often inadequate for contrast to experimental research, aims to answering the ‘why’ questions that surveys create a more humanistic and peaceful and interviews address well. As Espen existence: Suenson (this volume) argues, the main reason we conduct scientific research is to In some senses this [the aim of descriptive persuade. Thus, the strength of any persuasive research] is counter to the experimental argument we can construct depends upon framework that is based on the logic of war whether the data we have collected is and the market; it [the experimental method] appropriate and adequate for supporting the is essentially an imperialistic model. What is argument we wish to make. For this reason, I the need for the universal idea, the control and manipulation of variables, the predictive believe that one’s research question should ability of researchers? Based on the war always determine one’s research method. games model, the Eurocentric social Method-bound researchers – those who know scientist went to the boards to be able to or use only one research method – will be predict human behavior under adverse highly limited in the types of questions they circumstances. [....] The Afrocentric method can answer and thus will be restricted in the must have a different goal; it must find its type of problems they can solve. Given that a reason to be in the humanizing mission. method can be no more reliable than the skills (Asante 1997: 87.) of the researcher using the method, all Given that experiments often aim to predict methods are prone to biases. In fact, future behavior, Asante’s comment on descriptive methods may be the most bias-

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prone of all methods because the validity of The hypothetical-statistical model found in descriptive data depends entirely upon a) how modern Eurocentric methods is perceptive the researcher is in selecting an interventionist in the research project appropriate methodology by which to because it focuses the researchers’ biases on conceptualize the problem, and b) his/her both inquiry and analysis. The Afrocentric method suggests cultural and social level of skill in capturing micro and macro immersion as opposed to ‘scientific details relevant to the problem. A descriptive distance’ as the best approach to understand observer who harbors strong biases for or African phenomena. (Asante 1997: 88.) against his or her subjects will probably submit a final report that lacks validity. Although setting a priori hypotheses may A third problem with indiscriminately indeed lead some researchers to overlook non- promoting the use of some methods over hypothesized relationships or even feel others is that one risks short-sightedly pressured to confirm their hypotheses by any indicting the method for the sins of the means necessary, these faults are in the methodologist. Specifically, the fact that some methodologists; they are not inherent in researchers may have used a method for one hypotheses testing. Furthermore, these faults purpose – for example, warmongering – does can apply to any type of data – including, and not bind other researchers to that purpose, and perhaps especially, the descriptive, where does not prohibit other researchers from using reliability of the data is completely dependent that same method for the opposite purpose – upon the will, skill, and ideological for example, the promotion of peace. orientation of the person(s) collecting and Promoting peace is exactly the purpose of reporting it. experimental studies in which researchers Taken together, Asante’s foregoing bring together conflicting groups to work on critique of research methods appears to hold cooperative tasks; their purpose is to several methods responsible for the sins of the determine whether intergroup friendships methodologists who used them. In my fomented at Time 1 will prevent or at least observation, this type of indictment increases lower intergroup conflict and violence at novice researchers’ ambivalence about Time 2. Ifat Moaz’s (2000) study with learning methods, for they fear that certain Palestinian and Jewish Israeli youths is but methods will render their work culturally null one example of numerous ongoing or even dangerous. Understanding the experiment-based studies aimed at promoting distinction between methods and peace among rival groups. E.L. Paluck’s methodology should allow novice researchers (2009) experiment examined whether to accept that it is one’s methodology, not exposing Rwandan Hutus and Tutsis to one’s method, that gives one’s work its positive media images of each other lowered cultural orientation and utility. As an example conflict between the two groups. Similarly, of how methodology influences research, promoting healing and preventing future consider that two researchers interested in the violence is the aim of a Rwandan-focused same issue – say, the high school dropout rate experiment by E. Staub, L.A. Pearlman, A. among adolescent males – may study the Gubin & A. Hagengimana (2005). The latter issue using the same method, for example, the three studies and dozens like them are survey method, and yet may approach the experiments that have humanizing missions; issue from different methodologies. Perhaps they have none of the distance and sterility one researcher conceptualizes dropouts as often attributed to the experimental method individuals who have failed society and the because distance and sterility are by-products other conceptualizes dropouts as individuals of methodology, not method. whom society has failed. These two studies, The type of data one collects determines although both using the survey method, will whether one will have to use qualitative or likely have few, if any, survey items in statistical/quantitative analytic techniques, or common because they differ in overarching both, to analyze one’s data. With regard to and underlying assumptions – methodology. statistics, Asante writes: Along these lines, J. Harris & W.D.

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McCollough (1973) argue that the same data These kinds of misunderstandings suggest set that led to Moynihan’s (1965) conclusions that part of the challenge for Afrocentricity that many Black American families were and other emergent critical methodologies is dysfunctional also led to Hill’s (1972) to develop ways of criticizing problematic declaration that Black families showed traditional methodologies without unfairly admirable strengths. The difference in the smearing the research methods and without outcome/conclusions of the two studies was indicting or tossing out the empirical checks due to the researchers’ use of different and balances that improve the reliability, analytic methodologies – that is, different validity, applicability, and utility of social ideological frameworks that informed what research. questions they asked of the data set. The first class in which I detailed the The Role of Culturally Centered Paradigms method–methodology distinction came to the in the Emancipation of Social Research apt conclusion that Afrocentricity was not a Whether any new paradigm can fulfill Kuhn’s research method but a methodology – a (1962: 90) mammoth task of signaling the philosophy seeking to influence how “transition from normal to extraordinary individuals select, conceptualize, and analyze research” depends upon many variables. information. Nevertheless, a search of Those engaged in the business of creating databases will reveal that researchers from a new paradigms that challenge and/or unseat wide range of disciplines addressing a wide long-seated paradigms must determine the range of topics have not made this method- proper proportion of energies to devote to a) methodology distinction, or have not made it discrediting the old order, and b) building a clearly. Thus, researchers in criminal justice, credible and creditable new order. Applicable education, literature, psychology, social work, here is Hare’s cautionary note that the new sociology and many more fields refer to their ideology for Black social sciences will in work as using ‘the Afrocentric method’. This some ways “overlap existing norms of misuse leads some novice researchers to scholarly endeavor” (Hare 1973: 197). Hare is assume that employing standard methods of telling us that if any new methodology is to social research will put them at odds with the reach its full potential, then those shaping it best interests of their communities or will must duly determine which existing/ prevent others from perceiving their work as traditional norms to dismiss, and which to ‘Afrocentric’. Other novice researchers, keep. perhaps feeling intimidated by the rule- Terry Kershaw (1996) proposes that intensive nature of some methods, choose to Afrocentric research be guided by several interpret ‘Afrocentric method’ as meaning assumptions, the first of which can be highly that one is allowed a laissez-faire/carte useful in helping Afrocentrists maximize their blanche approach in which one can present probability of generating research that will be one’s personal perspective as social research. useful to their target communities. The Such was the case with a novice researcher Kershaw model’s first guiding assumption is who wanted to write about the effects of a that the issues affecting African people are certain genre of music lyrics on youths’ worthy of intellectual pursuit. In my attitudes. When asked to describe the study’s observation and experience, adhering to this participants and the interview items, the assumption demands that researchers a) have would-be researcher claimed not to need to a valid and viable plan for identifying worthy develop instruments or conduct interviews research issues/problems and b) have the with youths – that the “Afrocentric method empirical skills necessary to examine those allows researchers to draw conclusions based issues with the most appropriate methods – on personal perspective.” The frequency with the methods that will maximize researchers’ which I have heard this type of probability of being able to offer solutions misunderstanding of research processes and resolutions that are worthy of a reveals one of the dangers of interchangeably community’s acceptance. using the term method for methodology.

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In my observation, when laypersons they generated their own community-related generate research questions about issues that research questions rarely exceeded descriptive affect their lives, the questions they generate statistics and correlations. tend to be more conceptually complex and nuanced than those that academic researchers Good Method / Bad Method – especially novice researchers – generate on Simply stated, there are no ‘good’ or ‘bad’ their own. Community-generated research methods of research; there are only methods issues therefore tend to demand a larger skill that are appropriate or inappropriate for the set than the set required of researchers who research issue under investigation. generate their research issues on their own. Unfortunately, this same allowance does not For example, my 2005 Research Methods hold for methodologies or methodologists; students, in order to identify their senior they can indeed be good and bad. Unlike research topics, interviewed local residents to methods, methodologists are laden with the ask what they perceived to be the most gift and the baggage of history, values, intent, pressing issues facing their communities. As and purpose. These factors influence the it turned out, the topics that community paradigm(s) that researchers choose to use residents advised us to study were similar to and the paradigms they create. Rather than the topics that previous research groups had holding methods responsible for the selected on their own – for example, the researchers who select them, we must hold quality of public education, effects of family researchers responsible for the methods they structure on functioning, causes and effects of select. Therefore, disciplines that aim to crime, consequences of police misconduct, produce effective and persuasive researchers media affecting children, and so on. However, must encourage them to master a wide range because the residents were living the of research skills. In that way, when they face experiences they wanted us to study, their any important social problem, the students statements of problems, causes and effects will have at their command a host of were more nuanced and faceted than my appropriate methods from which to choose students’ self-generated statements. those that best fit the problem. Even if a In order to explore properly the nuances of researcher does not plan to use particular the problems as the residents presented them, methods in constructing his or her own work, my students would have needed to have he or she will likely have occasion to assess command of the full slate of methods all the or deconstruct research constructed with those way from ethnography – that is, in-depth methods. Thus, it is best to learn and practice interviewing, long term observing, and more methods, not fewer. analysis of cultural documents – to Individuals who are resistant to studying experimentation, with a heavy reliance upon empirical research methods and/or survey/questionnaire construction, histori- quantitative methods often use the feminist ography, and content analysis. Statistically, Audre Lorde’s (1984) statement that “the the students would have needed skills ranging master’s tools will never dismantle the from the purely descriptive – as one might use master’s house” to suggest that empirical to study residents’ concerns about the how methods are “the master’s tools” and are thus neighborhood appearance affects social to be avoided. I contend that empirical – behavior – to fairly sophisticated inferential evidence-based – methods belong to no statistics. For example, they would need particular culture or class. Further, the most multiple regression and possibly path analysis effective way to deconstruct anything – to answer residents’ questions about how whether that thing is an object or an argument companies’ patterns of hiring, salary setting, – is to understand first how it was promotion and layoff are related to constructed; it is, for example, usually demographic variables such as race, education ineffective to try to tear down or deconstruct a level, seniority and the distance and means by statistically constructed argument with which workers travel to work. In contrast, the qualitative tools and vice versa. Moreover, analytic skills students tended to need when even if one tears down the old argument/old

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order, the new argument/new order built to believer in, worshipper of, the gods of savage replace the old must be skillfully constructed tribes; or to adherent of any religion other than Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, in order to neither repeat old-order faults nor Mohammedianism; irreligious person, generate new faults and fault lines of its own. infidel”(Little & Ives 1958: 609). The same source All disciplines seeking longevity and lists the first meaning of “ethno” as connected with, legitimacy should encourage a broad slate of characteristic of, a race. The second meaning is research skills in practitioners so that they given as heathen, gentile, contrasted with a will have at their command both the Christian or Jewish” (Little & Ives 1958: 436). construction and deconstruction tools most Works Cited appropriate for tackling the problem at hand. Asante, M.K. 1980. Afrocentricity: The Theory of Those who are building the new order must Social Change. Buffalo: Amulefi Publishing use construction tools – methods, Company. methodologies, and analytic techniques – that Asante, M.K. 1987. The Afrocentric Idea. Philadelphia: are clear, valid and defensible to others who Temple University Press Asante, M.K. 1991. “The Afrocentric Idea in understand empirical research. If they fail to Education”. Journal of Negro Education 60(2): use clear, valid construction methods in 170–180. building the new order, no one will have to Asante, M.K. 2009. Afrocentricity. Available at: deconstruct or tear down the new order; it will http://www.asante.net.articles/1/afrocentricity/. simply fall down on its own. Banks, R., A. Hogue, T. Timberlake & H. Liddle. 1996. “An Afrocentric Approach to Group Social Skills Training with Inner City African American Notes Adolescents”. Journal of Negro Education 65(4): 1. When a student whom I had invited to work with me 414–423. on a study in the 1990s wanted my assurance that I Bailey, K.D. 1987. Methods of Social Research. New could show, “if the need arose,” that the York: The Free Press. experimental method evolved in Ancient Egypt, I Blauner, R., & D. Wellman. 1973. “Toward the realized the need to address students’ Decolonization of Social Research”. In The Death misunderstandings about the difference between of White Sociology. Ed. J. Ladner. New York: method and methodology. I therefore added to my Random House. Pp. 310–330. syllabus a detailed explanation of the differences, Borum, V. 2007. “Why We Can’t Wait! – An and some examples to illustrate those differences. Afrocentric Approach in Working with African 2. In this document, I use the term ‘Black Studies’ as a American Families”. Journal of Human Behavior in generic term for programs or department with the Social Environment 15(2–3): 117–135. curricula devoted to the academic study of persons Bowman, P.J. 1991. “Race, Class, and Ethics in of African descent and issues related to persons of Research: Belmont Principles to Functional African descent. Relevance”. In Black Psychology. 3rd edn. 3. When writing, this article (January 2012), media are Berkeley: Cobb & Henry. Pp. 747–766. reporting that North Carolina lawmakers are Breggin, P.R. 1995. “Campaign Against Racist Federal debating compensation for victims of eugenics- Programs by the Center for the Study of Psychiatry based sterilizations that the state carried out from and Psychology”. Journal of African American Men 1929–1974 – a period that preceded the Tuskegee 1(3): 3–22. Syphilis experiment by three years and exceeded it Cohen, M. (n.d.). “Beware the Violence Initiative by two years. A detailed report by The Winston- Project: Coming Soon to an Inner City Near You”. Salem Journal and Journalnow.com is available at Available at: http://extra.shadowpress.org/sin001/ http://againsttheirwill.journalnow.com. violen.htm. 4. In Women’s Studies, see e.g. Harding 1987; Collins Coles, H. 1999. How to Be: A Guide to Contemporary 1990; Fonow & Cook 1992; Wing 2003; Harding & Living for African Americans. New York: Fireside Norberg 2005; in Chicano Studies, see e.g. Pizarro Press. 1998 & Soldatenko 2009; in Transgender Studies, Collins, P.H. 1990. Black Feminist Thought: see e.g. Meezan & Martin 2003. Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of 5. If one follows the etymological process to its logical Empowerment. New York: Routledge Press. end and searches the etymology of ‘heathen’, one Conyers, J.L., Jr. (ed.). 1997. Africana Studies: A finds the following in the international edition of Disciplinary Quest for Both Theory and Method. the Little & Ives Complete and Unabridged Jefferson: McFarland & Company. Webster’s Dictionary and Home Reference Library: Cruse, H. 1967. The Crisis of the Negro Intellectual: A “In the Old Testament, (in pl., translating Heb. Historical Analysis of the Failure of Black goyyim) applied to all nations and races other than Leadership. New York: William Morrow & Co. the Jews, thus those who worship other gods than Darwin, C. 1996 [1859]. The Origin of Species. the God of Israel; 2a. At present – chiefly applied to Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Fonow, M.M., & J.A. Cook (eds.). 1991. Beyond Millet, P.E. 2010. “Beyond Tuskegee: Why African Methodology: Feminist Scholarship as Lived Americans Do Not Participate in Research”. In: Research. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Handbook of African American Health. Ed. R.L. Gill, W. 1991. “Jewish Day Schools and Afrocentric Hampton. New York: Guilford Press. Pp. 51–79. Programs as Models of Educating African Mkabela, Q. 2005. “Using the Afrocentric Method in American Youth”. Journal of Negro Education Researching Indigenous African Culture”. The 60(4): 566–580. Qualitative Report 10(1): 178–189. Available at: Gould, S.J. 1987. The Flamingo’s Smile: Reflections on www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR10-1/mkabela.pdf. Natural History. New York: W.W. Norton & Moaz, I. 2000. “An Experiment in Peace: Company. Reconciliation-Aimed Workshops of Jewish-Israeli Gould, S.J. 1981. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: and Palestinian Youths”. Journal of Peace W.W. Norton & Company. Research 37(6): 721–736. Grant, C.A., 2008. “An Essay on Searching for Moynihan, D.P. 1965. The Negro Family: The Case for Curriculum and Pedagogy for African American National Action. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Students: Highlighted Remarks Regarding the Role Government Printing Office. of Gender”. American Behavioral Scientist 51(7): Paluck, E.L. 2009. “Reducing Intergroup Conflict and 885–906. Prejudice Using the Media: A Field Experiment in Guthrie, R.V. 1976. Even the Rat Was White. New Rwanda”. Journal of Personality and Social York: Harper & Row. Psychology 96(3): 574–587. Habermas, J. 1972. Knowledge and Human Interests. Pizarro, M. 1998. ““Chicana/o Power!”: Epistemology Cambridge: Polity Press. and Methodology for Social Justice and Hare, N. 1973. “The Challenge of a Black Scholar”. In Empowerment in Chicana/o Communities”. The Death of White Sociology. Ed. J. Ladner. New International Journal of Qualitative Studies in York: Random House. Pp. 67–78. Education 11: 57–80. Harris, J., & W.D. McCollough (1973). “Quantitative Prather, C., T. Fuller, W. King, M. Brown, M. Methods and Black Community Studies”. In The Moering, S. Little & K. Phillips. 2006. “Diffusing Death of White Sociology. Ed. J. Ladner. New an HIV Prevention Intervention for African York: Random House. Pp. 331–343. American Women: Integrating Afrocentric Harding, S. 1987. “Is There a Feminist Method?”. In Components into the SISTA Diffusion Strategy”. Feminism and Methodology. Ed. in S. Harding. AIDS Education and Prevention Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Pp. 1–14. 18(Suppl.A)[Special Issue]: 149–160. Harding, S., & K. Norberg (eds.). 2005. “New Feminist Roberson, N.L. 1994. “Clinical Trial Participation: Approaches to Social Science Methodologies: An Viewpoints from Racial/Ethnic Groups”. Cancer Introduction”. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture 74(9 Suppl.): 2687–2691. and Society 30(4): 2009–2015. Schiele, J.H. 1996. “Afrocentricity: An Emerging Hatcher, S.M. 2010. “Recognizing Perspectives on Paradigm in Social Work Practice”. Social Work Community Reentry from Offenders with Mental 41: 284–294. Illness: Using the Afrocentric Framework an Shavers, V.L., C.F. Lynch & L.F. Burmeister. 2002. Concept Mapping with Adult Detainees”. Journal “Racial Differences in Factors that Influence the of Offender Rehabilitation 49(8): 536–550. Willingness to Participate in Medical Research”. Hill, R.B. 1972. The Strengths of Black Families. New Annals of Epidemiology 12(4): 248–256. York: Emerson Hall. Soldatenko, M. 2009. Chicano Studies: The Genesis of Kershaw, T. 1996. “The Emerging Paradigm in Black a Discipline. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Studies”. Western Journal of Black Studies 13(1): Staub, E., L.A. Pearlman, A. Gubin & A. 45–51. Hagengimana. 2005. “Healing, Reconciliation, Kuhn, T.S. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Forgiving, and the Prevention of Violence after Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Genocide or Mass Killing: An Intervention and Its Ladner, J. (ed.). 1973. The Death of White Sociology. Experimental Evaluation in Rwanda”. Journal of New York: Random House. Social and Clinical Psychology 24(3): 297–334. Lorde, A. 1984. “The Master’s Tools Will Never Stewart, P.E. 2004. “Afrocentric Approaches to Dismantle the Master’s House”. In Sister Outsider: Working with African American Families”. The Essays and Speeches. Trumansburg, NY: Crossing Journal of Contemporary Social Services 85(2): Press. 221–228. Mason, S.E. 2005. “Offering African Americans Valandra, A. 2007. “Reclaiming Their Lives and Opportunities to Participate in Clinical Trials Breaking Free: An Afrocentric Approach to Research: How Social Workers Can Help”. Health Recovery from Prostitution”. Journal of Women and Social Work 30(4): 296–304. and Social Work 22(2): 195–208. Meezan, W., & J.I. Martin (eds.). 2003. Research Walters, R. 1973. “Toward a Definition of Black Social Methods with Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Science”. The Death of White Sociology. Ed. J. Transgender Populations. Binghamton: Harington Ladner. New York: Random House. Pp. 190–212. Park Press. Wing, A.K. 2003. Critical Race Feminism: A Reader. 2nd edn. New York: New York University Press.

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Part II: Constructing Data

Constructing Data: An Introduction

The second section of this collection brings methodology employed constructs the culture together four investigations of methodological or tradition of its object through the very issues connected to collecting and classifying process of collection (Schrire, this volume). material for research in the humanities, and to Deepening understandings of these processes the engagement of existing resources of data is not only significant for current fieldwork or that have been collected and classified by the archival resources produced in the wake others. In research, method always has an of Romanticism, but also may by analogy object to which it is applied. This is variously offer insight into selective processes and the raw materials/experience which becomes data deployment of cultural capital in earlier eras, in analysis, or it is applied to a selected data resulting, for example, in the medieval set. In either case, data is always constructed compendium of poetic quotations in Snorri through research within a methodological Sturluson’s Edda (cf. Wanner 2008). arena. The identification, selection or A significant difference between historical production of material for the object of investigations through archival materials and research is fundamental to any scientific present-day ethnographic research is the investigation and methodological concerns in possibility of producing new data (cf. this area are of general relevance. Forms of Suenson, this volume). Whereas the former data differ, but all data is inevitably separated faces challenges of limited corpora, the latter from one context and situated in another. The must produce data commensurate with the identification of data is inescapably a research questions or goals. One strategy for selective process of identifying that which is producing such data is a mixed method considered relevant from that which is not (cf. approach, triangulating multiple methods in Lotman 1990: 219). This selective process is tandem (cf. Uspenskij, this volume). In complemented by qualitative valuation of “Qualitative Research and the Study of individual materials and the determination of Language Use and Attitudes”, Francisco the volume of material sufficient or necessary Martínez Ibarra (Towson University) opens for a particular study. the section with a discussion of methods Methodology valuates or determines the employed in complementary combination, methods used in this process, and its adapting ethnographic strategies for modelling system provides a lens through sociolinguistic study. Complementary which potential data is perceived. Certain methods both reinforce one another and types of information become ‘significant’ multiply the dimensionality of perspectives while others are marginalized or remain revealed by the material in qualitative invisible, unobserved because “from the point research. For example, questionnaires alone of view of the modelling system, [they] are may produce narrow or one-sided data not bearers of meaning, [and] as it were do (Schrire, this volume), and even open- not exist” (Lotman 1990: 58). To identify is question responses may require developing simultaneously to interpret, categorize and multifaceted data through follow-up ascribe a definition (Lakoff 1986). The interviews in order to construct a fuller collection of folklore or ethnographic data contextual frame (cf. Latvala & Laurén, this thus produces information that can be equated volume). In this case, foundations for the with knowledge of its object. Even large, contextualizing frame are in terms of collectively produced archives are not neutral ‘profiling a community’. Qualitative research representations of cultures and traditions. The has played an increasing role in fields ranging

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from ethnography to archaeology. Across all archival sources regarding, for example, the of these fields, many of the most fundamental processes underlying differences in two issues related to qualitatively based study interviews during the 19th century (cf. Frog remain the same. Martínez Ibarra highlights 2010: 67), or regarding the processes behind the potential of complementarity and the the potentially protracted development of potential of adapting methods across complex medieval texts (Heimir Pálsson disciplines (cf. Lazo-Flores, this volume) to 2010). overcome challenges posed by qualitative Processes of accumulating information, data. whether through modern fieldwork, archival In ethnographic research, a research research, or the mysterious strategies of project can easily emerge as a unique entirety medieval authors, is only one side of through realities of data collection in constructing data. The other side is the investigations best described in terms of communication of this information through experience. Even the best modern representation. The data constructed through technologies cannot encapsulate such data fieldwork or extracted from archival corpora completely (cf. Fine 1984). The role of the and artefacts may be a pale reflection of social researcher inevitably impacts interactive realities. Communicating such data inevitably situations. Although there is no ethnography requires selection, interpretation, synthesis without editing in data presentation, cutting and translation into a new type of sections out of time and pasting them into a representation. All representation is both coherent presentation, this is a process that selective and accomplished through the lens can only follow on the researcher’s role in the of methodology (cf. Gardela, this volume). interactive production of information itself. This process may take many forms, from One of the most subtle and easily overlooked ethnographic and analytical description – aspects of such data production is time, and often with a few examples or samples the processes that take place between translated into the language of a publication encounters. Informants have frequently (cf. Osborne, this volume) – to text-oriented remembered more in a second interview collections of ‘representative examples’ or a concerning traditions that they no longer documentary film that condenses a cultural actively use, or concerning the events and phenomenon into a one or two hour activities of their youth. Such engagements presentation. The very selection of material is impact informants, inciting reflection. They a process of editing for an audience, involving stimulate memory as well as awareness and often subtle and complex choices that sensitivity to the topic or theme. frequently stand silently behind the product. In “Dialogic Methodology and the Even the most critical representation produces Dialogic Space Created after an Interview”, a new (i.e. ideal) version of its object, in Venla Sykäri (University of Helsinki) which ambiguities are foregrounded in complements the discussion of the synchronic discussion, marginalized to footnotes, or employment of multiple methods with a remain ‘invisible’ along with other details. discussion of how to capitalize on these This leads to the normally overlooked reality diachronic processes and what they may offer that resources of primary materials used in a researcher. This contribution offers valuable most research have been constructed and perspectives on the processes behind the conditioned by one or more methodologies construction of data, and on the significance that are not necessarily compatible with those of methods employed in protracted interaction of the particular investigation. with informants. The insights offered by In “Editing Skaldic Verse and the Problem Sykäri’s discussion are not only relevant for of Prosimetra”, Erin Michelle Goeres (Oxford organizing new fieldwork and constructing University) turns precisely to these issues of contexts for understanding data produced constructing data resources through the through research. They are also relevant for editorial presentation of material. This fluent the contextualization of data that is already article connects the decisions and available, for posing new questions to consequences of editorial practice to the

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power relations between editor and reader, study of an American television newsroom. In considering the consequences of the all cases, these processes organize and construction of data for the reception of the classify information, reconstituting certain tradition and the understandings and features while marginalizing others. The valuations that follow from it (cf. Peterson- breadth and magnitude of corpora enabled by Lewis, this volume). Goeres concentrates on technologies today should not distract from the editing of medieval poetry, which the fact that their use is conditioned by the provides a vital example of the significance of methodologies with which they are wielded. methodological arenas to editorial practice, In “Ethnographic Questionnaires: After and the consequences of changing Method, after Questions”, Dani Schrire methodologies for earlier constructions of (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) carries data. This contribution ties in with discussion to the heart of this matter through retrospective methods, highlighting the the examination of how collection method tension between early text-oriented priorities and its framing methodology constructed with current context-oriented approaches that folklore and folk-life in the 19th and early 20th earlier editorial methods are not equipped to century. This article complements Matínez accommodate. The resulting tension Ibarra’s discussion of mixed methods by continuously leads to new constructions of the highlighting how one-sided questionnaires same data from different perspectives, adding can be in ethnographic research. It information as a process. At the same time, simultaneously anticipates Rebecca M.C. the priority of earlier editions to be Fisher’s opening discussion in the following comprehensive in scope aligns with more section on the role of the researcher’s recent priorities in developing contexts for ideology in posing questions for the analysis (cf. Bradley, this volume). This has construction of data and the broader also allowed early editions to historically construction of culture and heritage. Whereas maintain a central role as compendia and Goeres focuses on the need to scrutinize the essential reference works within a field rather methodologies that have informed editing than leading to their displacement by the new source materials in representation and their but less extensivel editions building on more compatibility with current research standards recent methodologies. However, Goeres and interests, Schrire pushes that scrutiny anticipates that the potentialities of electronic back to the process of documentation itself, resources in the digital turn may result in a and the degree to which methodology has new era of resource production. informed and constructed representation at the The impacts of methodology on shaping level of primary documents of the corpus. As representations of traditions are not limited to Schrire reveals, complicated structures of academic and popular publications. power are intertwined with the production of Methodology shapes processes of collection knowledge through the construction of data. and documentation, and large, collectively Those structures should be considered at the constructed archives play no smaller role in foundation of each new research endeavor. the creation of models of cultures and cultural Together, the papers in Constructing Data practices than editors producing selected reveal the degree to which individual examples. The role of archival collections in researchers level or accentuate differences shaping models of culture is particularly and similarities in materials, both through apparent when considering pre-modern, conscious choices and strategies as well as medieval and still earlier cultural unconsciously within the arena of a dominant environments. It is often overlooked that methodology. They also highlight the degree selection, documentation and organization of to which research and its products are cultural materials in a 10th century Anglo- continuously situated and resituated in the Saxon scriptorium could be characterized by a present. This process is not limited to the past: methodological arena as much as the the history of research effectively documentation of local tales by a 19th century demonstrates that the future will bring new parish priest or a present-day ethnographic approaches, interests and priorities. Current

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constructions of data will be challenged and Frog. 2010. Baldr and Lemminkäinen: Approaching revised in the wake of new dominant the Evolution of Mythological Narrative through the Activating Power of Expression. UCL Eprints. methodologies. Consequently, interpretations London: University College London. and valuations on which present constructions Heimir Pálsson. 2010. “Tertium vero datur: A Study of are based should not be presumed to be the Text of DG 11 4to”. Pre-print manuscript, exhaustive. Current research should attempt available at: http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/ to take into consideration not only its own record.jsf?searchId=1&pid=diva2:322558. Lakoff, George. 1987. Women, Fire, and Dangerous present context and the history of research, Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. but also the future of discourses in which it Chicago: Chicago University Press. engages, and how the data constructed today Lotman, Yuri M. 1990. Universe of the Mind: A will be regarded and valuated tomorrow. Semiotic Theory of Culture. Trans. Ann Shukman. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Wanner, Kevin J. 2008. Snorri Sturluson and the Edda: Works Cited The Conversion of Cultural Capital in Medieval Fine, Elizabeth C. 1984. The Folklore Text: From Scandinavia. Toronto Old Norse and Icelandic Performance to Print. Bloomington: Indiana Studies 4. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. University Press.

Qualitative Research and the Study of Language Use and Attitudes Francisco Martínez Ibarra, Towson University

For the present article, I concentrate my deal with various ways of using language? Or attention on the potential of qualitative even, how do speakers deal with the existence research when employed in the study of of two languages in their community? language use and attitudes. John W. Creswell Linguistic practices may refer to particular (1998) groups the various approaches to lexical choices, manners of pronunciation, qualitative research into five main traditions: grammar or even whole languages. biography, phenomenology, grounded theory, The concept of ethnography seems to be ethnography, and case study. My purpose is to extended when employed in the study of focus on the ethnographic method and draw language and bilingual communities. particular attention to the techniques available Ethnographies provide us with a convenient to study bilingual communities. Among these, instrument in order to: I emphasize three techniques in particular: see how language practices are connected to observation, personal interviews, and written the very real conditions of people’s lives, [... questionnaires. In order to illustrate my and] discover how and why language explanations, some examples are provided matters to people in their own terms [...] it from my ongoing research on the contact allows us to explain why people do and between Spanish and the Valencian variety of think the things they do. (Heller 2008: 250.)2 Catalan –henceforth Valencian – in Elche,1 This is especially significant in the case of the Spain. study of attitudes. As mentioned above,

attitudes can be directed at all levels of The Ethnographic Method language (e.g. lexical choices). But, they can Ethnographic description in sociolinguistic also be directed towards speakers of a given research is aimed at documenting and language, norms of linguistic conduct, the use analyzing “specific aspects of the practices of of languages in specific social domains, or talk as those practices are situated in the towards the promotion of languages, among society in which they occur” (Erickson 1988: other circumstances. It is not surprising that 1081). One of these specific aspects is the consequently institutions frequently choose way that language practices are perceived by one or more languages to be the official members of the community in which they language(s) for governmental purposes, with take place. What are the attitudes towards the intention to strengthen the vitality of a these linguistic practices? How do speakers

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certain language and sometimes ascertain the analysis of societal treatment of language political objectives of a certain group as well. varieties method, and the direct measurement Officializing a language can sometimes be method. The techniques, mainly observation, a direct indication of the social value that the personal interviews, and written language has within society, which can questionnaires, are of high significance when eventually preserve that prestige and creating a community profile of the accelerate standardization. In Paraguay, both community under study. This task, profiling a Spanish and Guarani have been official community, appears to be essential when languages of the country since 1992. studying language, since we cannot attempt to Although Spanish is still the more widely study the relevance of the social side of used language for government and education, language without depicting in detail the social particularly in urban contexts, Guarani’s context in which it exists. vitality is still strong, especially in rural In other words, it is crucial to take into environments, and no decrease in this vitality consideration not only information about the is expected (Gynan 2001). In Spain, under linguistic practices of a certain community, Franco’s dictatorship, regional languages such but also information of a different nature such as Catalan, Basque or Galician, were as the history of the community, its social perceived as something that could potentially stratification, its urban organization, its create division among the Spanish people. In political system, religious practices, and/or the Autonomous Community of Valencia most significant cultural aspects. Creating a (ACV), where Elche is located, both community profile should be one of the first Valencian and Spanish have received official objectives for any study on language use and status since democracy was achieved in Spain attitudes because it provides crucial insights with the intention to strengthen the vitality of on how the language issue is managed by the the minority language, Valencian. members of the community. Below follows a description, as classified by Giles & Ryan The Study of Language Use and Attitudes (1988), of particularly relevant techniques for There are a number of techniques available to the qualitative study of language use and study the vitality of a particular language, attitudes. such as Guarani or Valencian. Traditionally, three main techniques have been employed: Observation observation, personal interviews, and The analysis of societal treatment of language questionnaires. Their selection and varieties helps us understand how people in a implementation depend on the objectives of certain community deal with the existence of the investigation. According to Howard Giles two languages in their community. When I & Ellen B. Ryan (1988), available techniques initially studied language use and attitudes in for the study of language use and attitudes can Elche, I was able to identify some of the most be organized into three methods: analysis of relevant issues to focus on in later phases (i.e. societal treatment of language varieties, direct personal interviews and written measurement with interviews or questionnaires) by simply observing, that is, questionnaires, and indirect assessment with by gathering information without contacting the speaker evaluation paradigm. The any subjects for their opinions, judgments, or matched-guise test seems to be the most reactions. widespread technique employed within the Strategies that are often included within indirect method. The implementation of these this method are: methods and techniques is not exclusive of observational, participant-observation, and one another and research on language use and ethnographic studies; demographic and attitudes often utilizes more than one. census analyses; analyses of government and Given that my interest is aimed at the educational language policies, analyses of qualitative study of language use and attitudes literature, government and business in bilingual communities, in my research I documents, newspapers, and broadcasting frequently employ techniques from both the

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media; and analyses of prescriptive language study the language use and attitudes of books. (Giles & Ryan 1988: 1068.) speakers in Elche, participating subjects

Another topic sometimes examined under the express their views, among other issues, title of societal treatment of language is the regarding their daily use of Valencian and issue of linguistic landscapes, or the analysis Spanish as well as the importance of both of language use in: languages to the identity of Elche. As anticipated above, a great challenge to public road signs, advertising billboards, qualitative research is usually the fact that the street names, place names, commercial shop interviewer is not perceived as a full member signs, and public signs on government of the community and individuals are often buildings. (Landry & Bourhis 1997: 25.) reluctant to participate. In case of personal For example, M. Reh (2004) investigated the interviews, this situation is exacerbated. linguistic landscape in Lira Town, Uganda. Under these circumstances, instead of trying The author was able to identify two principal to compensate for this fact in any way, it is domains of usage. The local language, Lwo, usually best to try to understand what the was primarily used for agricultural purposes consequences of being perceived as an and everyday issues, such as warning notices. outsider are. “We are better off trying to English, however, was employed for understand how people make sense of us and governmental signage, computer services or our activities than trying to pretend that we the health sector. This associates English with can disappear” (Heller 2008: 254). modernity as well as social and economic The expression ‘observer’s paradox’ was progress, while Lwo is associated with daily, coined by William Labov (1972: 209) to refer routine activities (Reh 2004: 39). to the fact that awareness of the presence of Among the primary challenges posed by an observer can influence the production of the method of observation is that the the participants when studying their linguistic researcher ideally needs to spend long periods behavior. How truthful is the information that of time living in the community to be able to we are collecting? How can we know if the identify what issues, if any, are of interest to interviewees are just trying to please the his or her investigations. Furthermore, access researcher? How can we know if the to the diverse sources of information, such as interviewees’ responses are any different from local census records or demographic reports, their ‘actual’ linguistic practices or opinions may be difficult to obtain for the researcher. on certain themes? Might they aim to project Two of the most common difficulties are a) a given image for themselves and their the possible limited availability of written community? records, depending on the degree of A controversial issue regarding the use of modernization of local institutions, and b) the interviews seems to be the issue of how fact that the researcher is often perceived as accurate or truthful the information collected an outsider and s/he might not therefore is. Although one should always aim at receive full cooperation from members of the obtaining the informant’s true responses, the community and local institutions. When the constructed and situated nature of knowledge researcher is a member of the community should be kept in mind. It may be true that under study, the task is obviously facilitated information of a factual nature, such as age, or more easily. sex, exists independently of its expression, that is, separate from any contextual Personal Interviews influence. However, other types of Other techniques for a qualitative study of knowledge, such as language attitudes, are language use and attitudes are provided by the often the result of a process in which the direct measurement method. This method information provided by the interviewees is essentially finds the researcher interviewing characterized and shaped during the interview subjects about how they view certain through the expression of ideas, thoughts, linguistic practices and linguistic issues opinions, and feelings (Codó 2008). within their community. For instance, when I

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The purpose of interviews is to learn about age, sex, parents’ place of origin, and the subjects’ point of view and opinions with neighborhood of residence appeared to be of respect to the specific situation of language significance. When the selection of contact. Hence, interviews are often interviewees was made, these factors were conducted in a flexible, unstructured manner taken into consideration, together with the in order to gain a holistic understanding of the mother tongue of the participants. interviewees’ thoughts and feelings (Pickard 2007: 175). Indirect and open-ended Written Questionnaires questions seem to be the primary strategies, The design and distribution of questionnaires and direct questions are rarely employed. is also a common procedure within the direct There are two ways of conducting this type of measurement method. The technique allows unstructured interviewing: the informal the investigator to reach great numbers of the conversational interview and the general population under study through a low-cost interview guide approach (Patton 1987). The effective strategy. However, the use of selection of one approach or the other questionnaires is arguably not the most depends on the objectives of the investigation. appropriate way of gathering information in For example, when studying the situation of relation to a topic like the study of language language contact between Valencian and use and attitudes in bilingual communities. Spanish in Elche, my objective is normally to Among the greatest limitations we find the elicit information about a specific topic. fact that only literate people can complete Therefore, I frequently choose the general questionnaires independently, and this interview approach and I prepare a list of condition may be extremely problematic for topics to be covered at some point during the those bilingual communities in which formal interviews. The order in which topics are education is not as accessible to particular covered is not of great importance to the sectors of the population. results, as long as all topics are addressed. Despite this limitation, the use of The purpose of using such a guide is questionnaires may not be problematic primarily to ensure that the same basic provided that the design of the questionnaire information is covered during each interview. takes into consideration participants’ needs. A final crucial consideration when For instance, it is sometimes the case that conducting interviews is the selection of bilingual speakers have a good command of interviewees. Following Wolfgang Wölck the majority language (e.g. Spanish) both (1976; 2004) I normally concentrate on orally and in written, but they only have an ‘who’s who’ in the community, rather than on oral command of the minority language (e.g. fulfilling specific quotas. Although some Valencian). In my investigations in Elche, I scholars (e.g. Labov 2001) consider often encounter participants who express randomization essential, when I first studied desire to take the questionnaire in Valencian, the language issue in Elche, my objective but because they are not literate in that could not have been attained by limiting the language, are inclined to request a copy in selection of informants to a proper random Spanish. In order to overcome such a process. A broad range of respondent difficulty, the design of my questionnaire is characteristics were sought so that primarily close-ended/forced-choice questions respondents of every kind and background rather than open-ended, as for instance in could be included in the research. Based on Question A, below. information available about the community, I The use of questions of this type allows was able to select what could be considered to participants in my research to take be typical or to represent ideal elements of the questionnaires in Valencian, since they are population that were also considered adequate just asked a question and then invited to select for the particular purpose of studying the answer, from a scale of responses, that language use and attitudes in Elche. During best describes their position. In the case of the observational phase, common features of Question A above, participants are asked to research on language use and attitudes such as mark the response that best fits their

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In your opinion and from personal experience, how do you consider the presence and use of Valencian in Elche? Very Quite Enough/somehow Little None present At the doctor’s In my Neighborhood Media At work At the mall Cultural Events Local shops

Question A. Sample of the type of questions employed in the questionnaire. My translation in English from the original questionnaire. perceptions about the presence and use of think that by allowing previous interviewees Valencian in Elche. to self-select other people for study, they Another common concern about the use of could artificially skew the final results. questionnaires focuses on the impossibility of However, taking into consideration the clarifying any of the answers after the research objectives, and based on knowledge questionnaire has been completed. Sometimes about the community, it will be the if a question is not understood, the respondent researcher’s ultimate decision whether to may leave it unanswered, provide a random include the potential participants in the study answer, or simply answer inaccurately or not. because s/he did not understand the intent of In addition to networking, some subjects the question (Anastas 1999: 376). This is may be recruited at different public locations another issue directly connected to the design (e.g. parks, bars, local stores) in several areas of the questionnaire (i.e. wording of questions of the community under study. The most and answers, format of the questionnaire, important point for this second strategy is that design of the instructions, etc.). In order to the researcher selects the locations for minimize the possibility that a question is recruitment based on the primary needs and misunderstood and then jeopardizes the objectives of the investigation. For example, reliability of the data collected, it is essential when I first approached the study of language to test the questionnaire in advance during a use and attitudes in Elche, the neighborhood probationary period. Similarly, Zoltan of residence was found to be a significant Dörnyei (2003) explains that questionnaires element in the investigation. Therefore, when should not be longer than four pages and take selecting new questionnaire-takers I made no longer than 20 minutes to complete. This is sure I included in my search every likely to improve the reliability of the neighborhood in the city. In sum, exhaustive questionnaire as well, since participants tend preparation and testing of the questionnaire, to provide random answers if they feel tired as well as profound evaluation of the potential or bored when the questionnaire is taking too participants are essential steps for the design long. of a written questionnaire. Once more, a final consideration is the selection of questionnaire-takers. In order to Conclusion approach potential participants, two major The present article does not intend to be an strategies are often employed. First, subjects exhaustive categorization of the available may be recruited by means of networking.3 possibilities to study language use and Subjects that might have already been attitudes in bilingual communities. Rather, my approached through a first phase of personal intention was to draw attention to the interviews can be asked to contact family potential of adopting a qualitative approach. members, friends, co-workers or other type of For that purpose I focused on the acquaintances, and encourage their potential ethnographic method, commonly used within participation in the study. Some people might other fields and subfields of inquiry such as

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anthropology or folklore studies (see Schrire Works Cited in this volume). From a sociolinguistic Anastas, Jeane W. 1999. Research Design for Social standpoint, I emphasized the application of Work and the Human Services. New York City: Columbia University Press three specific techniques, whose Codó, Eva. 2008. “Interviews and Questionnaires”. In implementation for language-related research Research Methods in Bilingualism and is not exclusive from one another: Multilingualism. Ed. Li Wei & Melissa G. Moyer. observation, personal interviews, and written Malden, MA: Blackwell. Pp. 158–176. questionnaires. When employed together in Creswell, John W. 1998. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions. my investigations on the contact between Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Spanish and Valencian in Elche, these Dörnyei, Zoltan. 2003. Questionnaires in Second techniques have proven to be highly Language Research: Construction, Administration compatible, strengthening the reliability of and Processing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. my data as well as my analysis and final Erickson, Frederick. 1988. “Ethnographic Description”. In Sociolinguistics: An International results. There are advantages and challenges Handbook. Ed. Ulrich Ammon. Berlin, New York: concerning the implementation of these de Gruyter. Pp. 1197–1212. techniques in linguistic research, as explained Giles, Howard, & Ellen B. Ryan. 1988. “The earlier in this paper, but if we are willing to Measurement of Language Attitudes”. In learn from other disciplines, there are Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook. Ed. U. Ammon. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter. Pp. potentially more benefits than limitations. 1068–1080. Qualitative research in the study of language Gynan, Shaw N. 2001. “Language Planning and Policy use and attitudes illustrates the possibilities of in Paraguay”. Current Issues in Language Planning interdisciplinary work and may improve our 2: 53–118. understanding of the dynamics that govern Heller, Monica. 2008. “Doing Ethnography”. The Blackwell Guide to Research Methods in bilingual communities. Bilingualism and Multilingualism. Ed. Li Wei & Melissa G. Moyer. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Pp. Acknowledgement: I would like to thank Robyn Busch 249–262. for her comments and suggestions while preparing this Labov, William. 2001. Principles of Linguistic paper for publication. Change: Social Factors. Oxford: Blackwell Landry, Rodriguez, & Richard Bourhis. 1997. Notes “Linguistic Landscape and Ethnolinguistic Vitality: 1. Elche is a multilingual community in which two An Empirical Study”. Journal of Language and languages are used regularly: Spanish and the Psychology 16: 23–49. western variety of Catalan (Valencian). The Patton, Michael Quinn. 1987. How to Use Qualitative selection of Elche was made primarily because of Methods in Evaluation. London: Sage. its location in the southern region of the Pickard, Alison Jane. 2007. Research Methods in Autonomous Community of Valencia, Spain, as Information. London: Face Publishing. well as because of the historical and socio-political Reh, M. 2004. “Multilingual Writing: A Reader- implications of the linguistic contact in the region. Oriented Typology – with Examples from Lira 2. See also Latvala & Laurén (this volume) regarding Municipality (Uganda)”. International Journal of the analysis of written narratives and how people the Sociology of Language 170: 1–41. ‘write from below’ about their ideas in their own Wölck, Wolfgang. 1976. “Community Profiles: An words. Alternative Approach to Linguistic Informant 3. Following Goodman (1961), some authors refer to Selection”. Linguistics 177: 43–57. this process as the ‘snowball technique’. Wölck, Wolfgang. 2004. “Sampling and Interviewing: Community Profiles Revisited”. Plurilingua 28: 167–172.

Dialogic Methodology and the Dialogic Space Created after an Interview Venla Sykäri, University of Helsinki

Carrying out thematic interviews is one of the conceptualized on the basis of hermeneutic central methods of producing data in epistemology today. Within cultural studies, qualitative research and ethnographic this generally means the moderate fieldwork. Because ethnographic methods are Gadamerian hermeneutics.1 To define the intersubjective, they are normally methodological relation between hermeneutic 80

epistemology and the methods based on methodology in interview-based folkloristic human interchange and a process-like, studies are as yet scarce. dialectical knowledge production, the concept In my own ethnographic fieldwork, which of dialogic methodology has been applied. I carried out on a living oral poetry tradition Hermeneutic epistemology and dialogic in Crete during 1997–2010, conversational methodology point to the intersubjective and methods spanning from thematic interviews to relative nature of research methods and the casual conversation became central. These data produced, and so to the opposite of the conversations were both challenged and positivistic idea of ‘objective’ research and enabled by the cultural difference between the data; an idea that a non-subjective researcher researcher and those researched. Due to my will be able to gather facts and knowledge lack of cultural knowledge and competence in that are lying about somewhere, ready to be the local ways of communication, I came to picked up. The emergence of performance- realize what a crucial role the time between centered studies in folklore studies and the interactions played in developing a mutual linguistic anthropology in the 1970s and understanding on the subject(s) of 1980s focused on verbal traditions as conversation. I also realized that the first communication rather than as texts. Along interview-like meeting was often very with the new focus, problems such as the different from those that followed – I contextualization of data and the researcher’s experienced that for most informants, the first power over data were also discussed (e.g. meeting was pointedly a performative Briggs 1988; Herzfeld 1985; for an overview, situation and often highly narrative. Most of see Briggs & Bauman 1990). In the 1980s and my informants were not familiar with the beginning of the 1990s, anthropological interview situations, nor was their normal way debates addressed sharply the quality of of communication a series of logical ethnographic interaction and the following de- questions and answers. In my experience in and recontextualizations of the data produced Crete, the dialogic space being created after (e.g. Crapanzano 1992; Herzfeld 1987; see the first organized meeting, and the possibility Vasenkari 1996). Anthropologists found to return to the concerns that started taking especially problematic the representation of form during it, was particularly significant. ethnographic field encounters as ‘texts’ in a However, I also recognize the same final written study. During this narrativity in my earlier research interviews anthropological crisis, or the crisis of with Finnish women who are peers (see representation, what was suggested instead below). In this paper, my intention is to was the metaphor of ‘dialogue’ (Marcus & introduce these two concerns: the narrativity Fischer 1986). At the end of the 1990s, the of the first interview meeting and the dialogic sharpest confrontations were over, and spaces between the interactions, and to adequate but relevant reflections on one’s discuss their significance to dialogic own position in the field, as well as an methodology. introduction to methods of fieldwork and analysis on which the conclusions are based, Dialogic Methodology have become an integral part of an As mentioned above, in their discussion on ethnographers’ research. The advantages and the crisis of representation in 1986, George restrictions of qualitative, ethnographic Marcus & Michael M.J. Fischer (1986: 68) research have become accepted (Alver 1996). introduced the metaphor of dialogue to “refer Besides the importance of issues related to to the practical efforts to present multiple interviewing for contemporary social voices within a text, and to encourage reading sciences, its intersubjectivity and dialogicality from diverse perspectives.” Already at that have been discussed in Finland in life-history time, the metaphor was used to refer to related folkloristic studies (e.g. Aro 1996; different phenomena, and neither the Ukkonen 2000). Explicit discussions on how anthropologists writing on the different researchers have applied dialogic aspects of dialogue or dialogicality in the 1980s and the 1990s nor any recent

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contributor has given a clear-cut definition of researcher’s understanding can the two dialogic methodology. Most writers, however, conceptual worlds – those of the conceptualize the notions of ‘dialogue’ and informant(s) and of the researcher – merge. ‘dialogic’ on the basis of hermeneutic Although the research is thus a process in epistemology, and dialogic methodology can the researcher’s head, the result is not “about the researcher” (Briggs 1988), nor does it be seen to govern the application of these “answer the researcher’s personal wishes, hermeneutic principles at all levels of the preferences or pre-understanding” (Mikkola research process – in the informant-researcher 2009: 51). Scientific research is about the interaction, in the interpretation of the data, as object; the process is directed towards well as in the representation of the written understanding that object. 2 study. Dialogic methodology therefore does  The informants are also recognized as not refer only to the informant–researcher historical, cultural, social and personal interaction in the field, but guides all the subjects. Although the impulse for principles and methods with which the interaction is generated by the researcher, researcher works for producing, analyzing and who also has power over the overall process representing data. and its outcome, informants have, and rely The Gadamerian hermeneutics, and on, their own pre-understanding, motives, evaluation and ways of speaking. The correspondingly the principles of dialogic informants’ speech is also inherently methodology, can also be applied to the dialogic, reflecting the community’s speech research of texts: the dialogue is created and that of their close social circle (Bakhtin between the researcher and existing textual 1981; see Tapaninen 1996). data, and between that data and its co-textual  The data is produced in the interaction and contextual realm. In fact, a success of between the researcher and the informant(s), recent Finnish folklore research is indeed the as well as in relation to contextualizing creation of dialogic methods for working with factors. The production and interpretation of archive materials.3 In these contexts, the the data go hand in hand. researcher engages in dialectical exchange (or  The overall research process is a multi- ‘conversation’, another metaphor commonly voiced hermeneutic circle, and the used; e.g. Tarkka 2005; Ruusuvuori et al. researcher’s endeavor to understand means the production of ever new dialogues, both 2010) with materials that have already been for increasing the diversity of perspectives produced. This is done by holistic immersion and for reconstructing understandable and by contextualizing the data within, for wholes. The researcher enters in dialogues example, its historical, social, tradition- and with old and new informants, with the genre-dependent contexts. The process by research data that has already been which the texts were created, as well as its produced, as well as with the scientific multi-voiced character, is studied. Although world and all relevant material available to there is no face to face contact, by posing help to contextualize the object. alternative questions to the data, the  The multi-voiced quality, containing the hermeneutic process allows for an researcher’s voice, is presented in the understanding how the texts speak, and written study, which reflects an overall particularly, to which questions they answer research process. With the written study, the researcher then engages in dialogue with the (for a detailed discussion on Gadamerian reader. hermeneutics and on applying it to archive materials, see Mikkola 2009: 45–61). On Interviews and Dialogic Spaces My own understanding of the principles of In long-term ethnographic research, data is dialogic methodology in fieldwork-based normally produced through continuous or research is the following: repeated contacts and conversations with  The researcher is recognized as an active informants. On these occasions, we are, subject in the research. The researcher’s pre- indeed, “creating the source through understanding, relationship to the study, as folkloristic fieldwork”, as Bente Gullveig well as role(s) are important tools for Alver formulated it in the title of her book producing data. Only through the 82

(1996). On the other hand, interviews that our informants may have never addressed the take place only once between the researcher theme in discussion – either because the and the individual informant, are also widely theme is simply not normally discussed, or conducted for several purposes. In my own because it is a self-evident part of one’s own fieldwork, both methods were employed. everyday life or of the community’s life. But Repeated conversations with a small number how are we to know that the dialogic of people became the central tool for potentiality of the method (in this case understanding the processes of oral-poetic predominantly interviewing) is exhausted, or composition as well as the personal, perhaps at least given adequate consideration communicative uses of the tradition. With in order to rely on it and present further these people, the conversations spanned from justified data? planned sessions for discussing the broad To take an example near to our common theme of the poetic tradition, to short, detailed experience, let me refer to an incident that inquiries concerning a particular matter that I occurred two years ago during my friend’s had encountered. They also extended to fieldwork. As a doctoral student at the casual conversation on a wide range of topics. University of Helsinki in the department of The image of variation in the tradition and the Agricultural studies, Taina Laaksoharju local and personal forms of performance, carries out research into children’s however, became understandable only by relationship with nature.4 In her fieldwork drawing on a larger body of material. This during the summers of 2008–2010, she data, concerning individuals’ own experiences observed groups of primary school aged and their perceptions of the local cultural past children in a summer gardening camp. She and present, was created either through pre- combined observation, participative arranged interviews during field trips to other observation and interviews with various other areas, or by picking up the theme with passing methods, like drawing tasks at the beginning acquaintances in short exchanges. Because the of and after the camp period. For two availability of written information about this months, the children attended the camp daily still living tradition was very limited, even a from Monday to Friday, seeding, planting, lot of the ‘facts’ concerning, for example, the weeding and watering the vegetable garden conventions of musical performance could before finally harvesting the crop. In 2009, only be constructed by memorized and towards the end of the camp’s period, she also narrated oral history. arranged interviews with some of the In intercultural research, it might be self- children’s parents. One of the reasons for this evident that to form a dialogue with the was to inquire whether anything had changed interviewee, repeated interaction is needed. in the child’s behavior in the home Even if we share the same language and environment. During an interview, one culture, the conceptual world behind the mother affirmed that she could not detect any question and the answer – the person making changes. After their conversation, the question and the one answering – might Laaksoharju had given her e-mail address to be very different. Alver (1996) takes the this mother, in the event that the mother might example of a doctor interviewing a patient on have something to add later. After a week, she the latter’s experiences: in addition to the received an e-mail. Overwhelmed by her terms used, the doctor’s conceptual world discovery, the mother now declared that, in regarding the very state of sickness might fact, the child’s behavior had indeed changed differ considerably from that of the patient. considerably, especially when it came to food We normally take up a qualitative, and eating. The mother explained that her ethnographic form of study because we wish young daughter had now begun, for example, to inquire on a theme, or to relate a to eat a much wider range of vegetables and phenomenon to its specific context, which is to avoid food waste. Since this change had not visible or accessible to us by other means. taken place gradually, she had not realized it In research, we need to create those dialogues until the conversation led her to focus on the that do not already exist. This also means that matter – later, after the conversation.

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Although dialogic negotiation during an Sometimes the first formulation of a interview may already create a shared research idea is insignificant in the larger understanding of many issues, the time is thematic context of the life of the one(s) often too short to adjust one’s focus towards researched. I was able to experience this all the themes introduced. Like in the during the interviews which formed my first example referred to above, I often realized in ethnographic study at the University of my fieldwork that the first conversation Helsinki in 1995, at an early stage of my served as an impulse for both parties to think studies in folklore. I interviewed eight Finnish more deeply on the subject(s) presented. women who were or had been married to a Therefore, the interchange nearly always Greek man, or who had had a longer became more distinctly hermeneutic and relationship with one. The interviews were dialogic after the first interview – if I was able concerned with the learning of local cultural to continue and the informant was sufficiently conventions and norms while living in interested. Some of the reasons for this Greece. My idea was that the central movement are simultaneously related to why folkloristic theme of these interviews would it may not be easy to continue the be to discover the family members who taught conversation if there is no natural reason to my interviewees these cultural conventions return to the matter. When Laaksoharju and I and norms, and in what kind of interaction discussed the above cited event, she regarded this took place. This might have worked herself extremely lucky that the mother had better had I done the interviews in Greece and returned to the discussion later, on her own with women who were in the process of initiative. experiencing the first stages of their In most cases, the two parties engaged in acculturation. However, for the women who an interview situation are completely foreign had already (or at least for the moment) to one another regarding the specific enquiry, returned to Finland, the relationship itself or only remotely share in a common frame of presented a major question – whether reference. Besides their evident differences in intercultural or not – as well as the opinions, attitudes and knowledge between availability or lack of social support and two parties, the interview is a special kind of occupational possibilities which concretely performance situation. Negotiations over what affected these women’s belonging to the new kind of communicative rules are applied to social and cultural contexts. After responding the interaction are tightly followed throughout briefly to my initial questions of how, for the event, and demand their share of the example, they learned to behave in church or available energy. The interviewer enters the to spend Easter, all my interviewees ventured situation with pre-formulated ideas, questions much deeper into the social realm of their and hypotheses, which motivate the occasion. acculturation process. These conversations The interviewer will not be able to grasp pushed me to continue my own research many of the references made by the dialogue with the theory of acculturation. In interviewee due to a lack of the appropriate that case, I never returned to my interviewees, context within which to situate them. She may although the beginning of a major study also erroneously conceptualize a piece of concentrating on the acculturation narratives information on the basis of her previous ideas. clearly emerged when I analyzed these I have elsewhere outlined a concrete example conversations. (I worked on the interviews in from my own fieldwork (Sykäri 2011: 46, Crete at the same time that I discovered the 115–116). This lack of context is generarally Cretan poetry tradition and took the path of quite obscure and difficult to point out; it is acculturation myself.) I learned, however, the difficult to know what one does not know constitutive lesson that, when approaching (and for this reason, however cautious one them for the first time, my interlocutors may might be, each study is liable to contain bind the issues that I introduced to their inadequately or erroneously contextualized experiences and lives in a very different way information). than I had anticipated, and that only after their

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contributions in our initial interactions could I successful casual performance situations, in form the actual research questions. which a person had improvised poetry, were Even when the researcher has much more performed to me particularly during the first experience, the interviewee is rarely used to interaction. These short narratives highlighted talking within an interview frame let alone the excellence in extemporization which was addressing the specific theme. An interview, – otherwise not often focused on in even an open-ended, conversational thematic conversations when people talked about their interview – is therefore an event particularly individual relationships to performance and thick with both performative and interpretive composition. I could, however, experience in aspirations. The first meeting is, however, other collective situations that these stories of also very different from any of those that may past performances presented a typical local follow; it is a type of performance closely form of narration and performance (and I related to one’s expectations, presuppositions have therefore analyzed them as performances and ideas of what the other may ask and wish rather than, for example, reports; see Sykäri to hear. In the example of the conversation 2011: 146–149). Had I met only once with between Laaksoharju and a mother she each informant, I could nevertheless have interviewed, the interview was situated in the developed mistaken ideas about the context of the summer camp, where the recurrence of these (and other) narratives: in mother had also been present. Therefore, the communication, they were clearly plentiful mother had simply not considered that their when meeting new people or in discussions discussion would be related to her daughter’s among groups where not all participants behavior at home. Owing to the impact of the belonged to common close circles. The interview, she later realized the impact of the narrative mode is, among other things, a good summer camp experience on her daughter’s aid in uncertain and unfamiliar situations such behavior at home, but at the time of the as during an interview with a stranger; it helps interview this connection remained remote. to fill the communication with a familiar repertoire and to prevent the situation from The Narrativity of the First Meeting becoming too intimate and embarrassing. In the first interaction, the narrative form of The ‘problem’ with the extended narrative presentation can be very strongly present. In mode is not the narratives that it produces but fieldwork, I have come to see narrativity the fact that this mode represents a much as it is described by Jerome Bruner ‘completed’ reality which may be hard to (1990): narrativity is a very basic human way break in order to change the focus to of thinking, understanding and presenting something else. Narratives are interpretations things in logical, causal relations, that is, with chiefly born when the series of things occur in a beginning and an end. This means that most a deviating or unexpected manner. They people will try to relate complete stories to an represent those moments that are particularly ethnographer (or to anyone they sit down and memorable to the interviewee, and may talk with for the first time). They will try to overshadow other issues that may have been relate them in the way they have understood more relevant to the individual’s everyday and organized the series of things in their life. The researcher might indeed wish to minds, or in the way they have narrated the focus on the informant’s less consciously stories before, or as the stories have taken memorized comments and descriptions about shape in the collective memory of the social his or her everyday life. As the therapeutic group to which they belong. These narratives uses of narratives (reconstructing one’s life are valuable for understanding through an alternative narrative) suggest, communication and for understanding the however complete, true and reliable many remarkable moments that have affected the personal narratives may seem to be, they are person’s life. For folklorists, these are often always individual and cultural interpretations, the very target of the research. They can also and often only one way or a partial way to complement an analysis of meaning. In my conceptualize what they describe (see Mattila work in Crete, for instance, narratives of 2001). For several research purposes, further

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discussion can usefully shed more light on the situation. I tried to explain to her that, as I formation of these interpretations. In my was a stranger, I could not catch the meaning fieldwork, I always tried to see my informants fully without knowing the chain of references several times so that I could enjoy the first carried by the poem. Further, as a researcher narrative meeting in its own right and who would possibly use these words to combine it with more relaxed and reflexive explain the tradition to other strangers, I conversations in later encounters. would have to recognize the authorship of a Nevertheless, another problem that I poem when this was known, although for the experienced with regard to the underlined local people in the traditional context this was narrative and performative nature of the first not relevant. After some time, she started interview was that this can make it difficult to adding short references to a poem’s origin to continue the interaction if there are no self- her recitations (e.g. ‘this is mine’; ‘this is one evident reasons to have a subsequent meeting. I heard’; ‘I heard it as a child’). She realized In my perception, the most common reason that it was important to me, and that she could for this is that the interviewee feels that take this into consideration without affecting he/she has made the best effort to tell her own speech style. everything, the whole story, and will be disappointed to infer that it was not enough. Conclusions This is perhaps an unconscious interpretation In this paper, I have argued that, mentally, the of the interviewer’s proposal to see each other first interaction in an interview situation is again, but is nevertheless a clear indication keenly anchored to narrative conceptual- that the interviewee is seeking closure. Long izations as well as to expectations and interviews focusing on life-history may also anticipations concerning the nature and grow very confidential and can touch the meaning of the event. If the social and personal sphere of life in ways of sharing cultural background is very similar for both his/her experience that the interviewee is not interlocutors, and if both are familiar with familiar with. Many people like to talk and long dialogues as a mode of interaction, even the experience that someone is listening so the first interview can become truly dialogic. intensively easily makes one overcome My experience is, however, that in most cases conventional boundaries of cautiousness. As the first interaction will only begin to draw easily as it is created, this rapidly-acquired these two parties together to create a dialogue. confidence may cause regret or at least In particular, it is during the time after the reluctance to return to the interaction. When first interview that the most crucial dialogic the interlocutor agrees to meet again and movement takes place: the immediate return to a topic, many such unconscious and performative needs, the emotional stress of unspoken emotions will be overcome, which talking to a stranger and the pursuit of means that there must be at least some confirming, appropriate, communicational personal interest in the theme and some rules for the interaction become more settled; empathy towards the interviewer. Agreement the understanding of the theme(s) on which to for a continuation also means reaching focus become more clear and mutually towards the creation of a dialogic space, and shared; and there will be more curiosity and the interaction is very different after making willingness on the part of the interviewee to this engagement. venture towards the specific ideas introduced One concrete example of this comes to by the other. In the continuation, the dialogic mind: One elderly woman, who composed spaces between the conversations continue to poems herself and while talking often used work fruitfully for the dialogue: the these and other poems she had heard, first information has time to find its right found my questions of whether a poem was connotations and context, and those details her own composition or heard from someone and ideas that do not immediately find their else (and if heard, when and where) extremely natural context, will pop up and alert one to irrelevant, even disturbing – her focus on the take up the matter in the next situation. I find performance of a poem was to reflect the that repeated conversations with the same

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individuals are a particularly quick way to Briggs, Charles L. 1986. Learning How to Ask: A proceed in a dialogically oriented study. Sociolinguistic Appraisal of the Role of the Interview in Social Science Research. Cambridge: Research arrangements often limit the Cambridge University Press. possibilities for continuing dialogues for very Briggs, Charles L. 1988. Competence in Performance: long, but most research projects do not The Creativity of Tradition in Mexicano Verbal Art. actually need this: repeated discussions Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. effectively show when a theme is adequately Bruner, Jerome. 1990. Acts of Meaning. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. handled. The results can then be used in Crapanzano, Vincent. 1992. Hermes’ Dilemma and further interviews as a point of departure (or Hamlet’s Desire: On the Epistemology of as bases for a questionnaire, rather than Interpretation. Cambridge: Harvard University starting with a questionnaire and doing Press. interviews at the end). For any interview- Gadamer, Hans-Georg. 2004 [1975]. Truth and Method. 2nd rev. edn. London: Continuum. based study, even a short revisiting of the Herzfeld, Michael. 1985. “Interpretation from Within: dialogic space that is created following the Metatext for a Cretan Quarrel”. In The Text and Its first contact with an interviewee makes a Margins: Post-Structuralist Approaches to great step towards taking heed of the Twentieth-Century Greek Literature. Ed. Margaret potentiality of human interaction. Alexiou & Vassilis Lambropoulos. New York: Pella Publishing Company. Herzfeld, Michael. 1987. Anthropology through the Acknowledgements: My warmest thanks are due to Looking-Glass: Critical Ethnography in the Karina Lukin whose comprehensive and supportive Margins of Modern Europe. Cambridge: peer-review helped me to work further on several Cambridge University Press. thoughts I tried to express in the first draft. I am also Laaksoharju, Taina, & Erja Rappe. 2010. “Children’s grateful to Pauliina Latvala and Frog for being able to Relationship to Plants among Primary School participate in this issue, as well as for their insightful Children in Finland: Comparisons by Location and comments. Although within this paper, I could not yet Gender”. HortTechnology 20(4): 689–695. consider or properly elaborate on all the ideas brought Laaksoharju, Taina, & Erja Rappe. 2012a (in press). forth, an important dialogue has been opened. “Garden Affordances for Social Learning, Play, and for Building Nature–Child Relationship”. In Urban Notes Forestry & Urban Greening. 1. Gadamer 2004 [1975]; see Vasenkari 1996; Laaksoharju, Taina, & Erja Rappe. 2012b Vasenkari & Pekkala 2000; Mikkola 2009: 45–61; (forthcoming). “Connecting with the Natural see also Suenson, this volume. Environment: The Process of Becoming an Insider 2. For detailed discussion, see Vasenkari 1996. in a Garden Camp Context”. The Journal of 3. With regard to archived Kalevala-meter poetry, see Environmental Education. Tarkka 2005; 2012; also Timonen 2000; 2004; on Marcus, George E., & Michael M.J. Fischer. 1986. other ethnographically collected data, see Mikkola Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An 2009; on writing collection materials, see Latvala & Experimental Moment in the Human Sciences. Laurén, this volume. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 4. For an article regarding Taina Laaksoharju’s Mattila, Antti. 2001. “Seeing Things in a New Light”: master’s thesis, see: Laaksoharju & Rappe 2010; Reframing in Therapeutic Conversation. for her ongoing doctoral research, see: Laaksoharju Rehabilitation Foundation Research Reports & Rappe 2012a; 2012b. 67/2001. University of Helsinki E-Thesis: http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/laa/kliin/vk/mattil Works Cited a/. Helsinki: University of Helsinki. Alver, Bente Gullveig. 1996. Creating the Source Mikkola, Kati. 2009: Tulevaisuutta vastaan: through Folkloristic Fieldwork. Helsinki: Uutuuksien vastustus, kansantiedon keruu ja Academia Scientiarum Fennica. kansakunnan rakentaminen. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Aro, Laura. 1996. Minä kylässä: Identiteettikertomus Kirjallisuuden Seura. haastattelututkimuksen folklorena. Helsinki: Ruusuvuori, Johanna, Pirjo Nikander & Matti Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Hyvärinen. 2010. “Haastattelun analyysin vaiheet”. Bakhtin, M.M. 1981. The Dialogic Imagination: Four In Haastattelun analyysi. Ed. Johanna Ruusuvuori, Essays by M.M. Bakhtin. Ed. Michael Holquist. Pirjo Nikander & Matti Hyvärinen. Tampere: Austin: University of Texas Press. Vastapaino. Bauman, Richard, & Charles L. Briggs. 1990. “Poetics Sykäri, Venla. 2011. Words as Events: Cretan and Performance as Critical Perspectives on Mantinádes in Performance and Composition. Language and Social Life”. Annual Review of Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Anthropology 19: 59–88. Tapaninen, Anna-Maria. 1996. Kansan kodit ja kaupungin kadut: Etnografinen tutkimus

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eteläitalialaisesta kaupungista. Helsinki: Suomen Ukkonen, Taina 2000. Menneisyyden tulkinta Antropologinen Seura. kertomalla: Muistelupuhe oman historian ja Tarkka, Lotte. 2005. Rajarahvaan laulu: Tutkimus kokemuskerronnan tuottamisprosessina. Helsinki: Vuokkiniemen kalevalamittaisesta runokulttuurista Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. 1981–1921. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Vasenkari, Maria. 1996. “Mitä se sanoo? Mistä se Seura. kertoo? – Dialoginen näkökulma kenttätutkimus- Tarkka, Lotte. 2012 (forthcoming). Songs of the Border aineiston tuottamiseen”. In Etiäinen 3: People: Genre, Intertextuality and Tradition in Uskontotiede – Folkloristiikka: Kirjoituksia Kalevala-Meter Poetry. FF Communications. opinnäytteistä. Ed. Tuija Hovi & Lotte Tarkka. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Turku: Turun yliopisto. Pp. 84–109. Timonen, Senni. 2000. “Thick Corpus and a Singer’s Vasenkari, Maria, & Armi Pekkala. 2000. “Dialogic Poetics”. In Thick Corpus, Organic Variation and Methodology”. In Thick Corpus, Organic Variation Textuality in Oral Tradition. Ed. Lauri Honko. and Textuality in Oral Tradition. Ed. Lauri Honko Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Pp. 627–659. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Pp. 243–254. Timonen, Senni. 2004. Minä, tila, tunne: Näkökulmia kalevalamittaiseen kansanlyriikkaan. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.

Editing Skaldic Verse and the Problem of Prosimetra Erin Michelle Goeres, University of Oxford

“What wonderful comfort you offer,” The relationship between skaldic verse and Boethius exclaims to Lady Philosophy, “with its prose context is, however, more complex both your arguments and your poetry” (Slavitt than that found in The Consolation of 2008: 59). Read and translated widely Philosophy, particularly in the case of verse throughout the medieval period, Boethius’ likely composed during the Viking Age. Consolation of Philosophy combines prose Viking-Age poetry is usually defined as that disputation with lyric versifying. Poetry in dating from the late 9th to the middle of the this text functions to summarize, advance, or 11th centuries, while the prose narratives in nuance arguments made in the prose, or which it is found generally date from the 12th sometimes just to give a moment of mental to the 14th centuries. They can be written in respite to the protagonist during a long manuscripts that are younger still. Although process of intricate exposition. In the Western skaldic stanzas are most often quoted singly tradition, the mixing of prose and verse in a in the sagas, woven together by blocks of single text may be traced back to classical prose, it is thought that many such stanzas roots, although the form is also found in the once belonged to long sequences of verse literature of such diverse places as Polynesia, which were then broken up and re-used by the Africa, India, and North America (Harris & later saga authors to create these prosimetric Reichl 1997). The sagas of medieval texts (Whaley 2005: 488–489). Although no Scandinavia, although composed over half a modern editor of the sagas would excise a millennium later and a world away from skaldic verse from the prose narrative in Boethius’ Ostrogothic prison cell, exemplify which it is now found, editors of skaldic verse the prosimetric style made so famous by his have frequently removed stanzas from their work, interspersing long sections of prose saga contexts in an attempt to reconstruct the narrative with the complex and riddling form long, poetic sequences that may reflect more of poetry known as skaldic verse. Variously truly their Viking-Age provenance. Skaldic included as direct quotations of characters in verse from the early medieval period thus the sagas, as authenticating footnotes to the poses a series of methodological problems to events related,1 or simply to add a all who encounter it: should skaldic stanzas be complimentary voice to that of the prose divorced from the prose context in which they author, skaldic stanzas are woven into the have been preserved? How important is the very fabric of these prosimetric texts in a later prose context to the history and polyphonic mixing of voices and genres.2 interpretation of Viking-Age verse? This article will consider the ways in which editors 88

of skaldic verse have answered such questions En hvernug sem þat hefir verit, þá kom Óláfr and how their editorial decisions affect the konungr Tryggvason aldri síðan til ríkis í presentation of the prosimetric form to their Noregi. (Snorri Sturluson 1941–1951 I: 367–368.) readers. It will argue that, in contrast to early editors of the skaldic corpus, scholars have And it straightaway became the talk of many more recently moved away from projects that men that King Óláfr must have cast aside his excise skaldic stanzas from the prose context, chain-mail coat underwater and swum under and that such editorial choices have been the longships, and after that he swam to the reflected in literary interpretations of the Wendish sailing ships and [Queen] Ástríðr’s prosimetric saga. Finally, it will discuss the men had carried him to land. And there are use of electronic editing in the 21st century to many tales made by certain men about the journeys of King Óláfr, and about this suggest ways in which computer technology Hallfreðr says: may be harnessed more effectively to reflect the complex prosimetric provenance of the I don’t know whether I should praise the skaldic corpus. It will argue throughout that hunger-blunter of battle-gulls of the gleaming shields of the beast of Heiti the process of editing medieval texts is an 3 inherently political one, one in which the [i.e., ‘warrior’ ], dead or still living. All men say both things to me as truth. The power of the editor to mould the reader’s king is wounded either way. It is difficult interpretive experience is often exercised to get intelligence about him. silently but with irrefutable authority. The history of skaldic editing provides not only an But however that may be, after that King illumination of how this power dynamic has Óláfr Tryggvason never came again to the kingdom of Norway. changed over time, but also clues as to how it may be further deconstructed in future editing The stanza on its own is a masterful example projects. of the skaldic form, composed in the intricate dróttkvætt metre so popular during the Viking The Death of Óláfr Tryggvason: A Case- Age. The drótt was the body of elite warriors Study in the Use of Prosimetrum who formed the king’s bodyguard, and the A useful illustration of the tension between use of this metre associated with the formal, prose and verse may be found in the courtly context emphasizes the political following example, taken from Heimskringla, importance of the situation described in this Snorri Sturluson’s 13th-century chronicle of extract. Consisting of two discrete half- the kings of Norway. This excerpt describes stanzas or helmingar, the skaldic stanza is the final moments of King Óláfr syntactically convoluted with a word order Tryggvason’s last battle, which took place in that defies instant comprehension. End-rhyme the year 1000. is rarely used; instead, the poet jumbles his

Ok var þegar rœða margra manna, at Óláfr words to conform to a complex pattern of konungr myndi steypt hafa af sér brynjunni í stress, alliteration, and internal rhyme (Gade kafi ok kafat út undan langskipunum, lagzk 1995: 1–28). In this stanza, an unusual seven- síðan til Vinðasnekkjunar ok hefði menn part, mythological kenning refers to the king Ástríðar flutt hann til lands. Ok eru þar and shows the skaldic habit of poetic margar frásagnir um ferðir Óláfs konungs circumlocution at its most impressive.3 The gǫrvar síðan af sumum mǫnnum, en á þessa verse is thus a highly patterned package of leið segir Hallfrøðr: language that breaks into the relatively

Veitkat hitt, hvárt Heita straightforward syntax of the surrounding hungrdeyfi skalk leyfa prose. It is not necessary to read this stanza dynsæðinga dauðan within the context of the prose saga to dýrbliks eða þó kvikvan, appreciate the complexity and artistry of its alls sannliga segja, poetic form. sárr mun gramr at hvǫru, Identified by Snorri as part of an erfidrápa hætt es til hans at frétta, [‘funeral poem’] composed shortly after the hvárt tveggja mér seggir. king’s death, the stanza cited here is thought 89

to be only one of a long sequence in which demonstrates, the study of saga manuscripts the king’s final battle is described and his loss has enjoyed something of a renaissance in the is mourned. In the context of this poetic last decade, but literary scholars have by and sequence, the above verse is a powerful large continued to access the skaldic corpus emotional cry on the part of the poet, who has through editions published at the beginning of lost the close friend and mentor warmly the 20th century. The editor of such a work is praised in the stanzas that precede it (see an often invisible, but nevertheless powerful Finnur Jónsson 1912–1915 BI: 150–157). The presence in the literary scholar’s reading surrounding prose breaks up an almost elegiac experience. In particular, the way in which an contrast of past and present constructed in the editor presents the relationship between a extended sequence, interrupting the poet’s skaldic stanza and its prosimetric provenance lament with the voices of his compatriots. In will inevitably affect the scholar’s the prose saga, the close relationship between interpretation of that relationship, as well as king and poet is obscured by the voices of his or her interpretation of the skaldic text others and, arguably, the emotional resonance itself. While Leslie discusses how many of the stanza significantly reduced. Without scholars have been keen to embrace the the prose context, however, we would not be opportunities offered by electronic editing able to guess the name of the poet, of the programmes, modern skaldic studies continue king, or indeed the context of the poet’s to be heavily influenced by the work of the anguish.4 Conversely, without the stanza, the Icelandic scholar Finnur Jónsson, whose prose narrative would be more linear, less edition of nearly all skaldic verse from the 9th dialogic. It would lack the polyphonic to the 14th centuries, Den norsk-islandske complexity this stanza adds. We would have skjaldedigtning (1912–1915), has until very only the narrator’s assertion that many tales recently remained the authoritative text for the were told about King Óláfr’s flight. Citing the corpus of skaldic verse.5 Along with a revised stanza in this way, Snorri provides an edition by E. A. Kock (1946–1949), Finnur’s ‘authenticating’ footnote to his narrative not work has in many ways laid the foundation of only because the skald offers a corroborating 20th-century skaldic studies and his remains a voice from the time of the battle, but because powerful guiding voice in the way most the stanza itself stands as an example of one scholars access the skaldic corpus. of the many tales told about the king’s Comprising four volumes in total, two demise. The skaldic stanza thus leads a volumes of Skjaldedigtning offer a diplomatic double life. At times, it is the remnant of a edition of the corpus along with some Viking-Age panegyric, a fragmentary shadow manuscript variants, while the two volumes of its former self. Although incomplete, it most commonly used in modern scholarship evokes the grandeur of the public eulogy and provide normalized versions of each stanza stands as a witness to the long, formal poem accompanied by a prose word order (for that was once, at least ostensibly, declaimed stanzas in the more complex metres) and a by a highly skilled poet in honour of his king. loose Danish translation. Finnur’s response to It is also, however, one of many threads the methodological questions posed above is woven into the tapestry of a saga. Verse clear. Stanzas are presented entirely free from provides a vital moment of dialogue, their prose contexts, arranged instead narration, or authentication without which the according to author in a roughly saga would be far poorer, the Technicolour of chronological format and in long sequences of Oz changed to the black and white of Kansas. reconstructed poems. The prose context, it is Should prose or verse therefore be the focus implied, is superfluous. It is important only of investigation into such a text? insofar as it records contextual information about the poet, subject matter, and date of the Skaldic Editing in the 20th and 21st Centuries stanzas cited. Editors of skaldic verse have attempted to Finnur’s edition, paired with his provide some answers to this question. As impressively vast lexicographic apparatus, is Helen F. Leslie’s article in this volume amply emblematic of the text-centred approach to

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Old Norse scholarship that dominated the 19th literary scholars such as Bjarni Einarsson and early 20th centuries. Lee M. Hollander’s (1961; 1974) soon demonstrated the Bibliography of Skaldic Studies (1958: 27–55) importance of investigating the relationship records the wealth of scholarly material dating between prose and verse in the sagas, while from this time and is witness to the fierce Bjarne Fidjestøl (1982; see also 1997) arguments waged over the exact meaning of interrogated many editorial decisions made by obscure kennings, the proper use of strictly Finnur, particularly in his reconstruction of codified skaldic metres, and the corruptions the longer poems. Three English-language suffered by many skaldic stanzas through editions from this period demonstrate a their incorporation into the later prose sagas. marked departure from Finnur’s early work: In such studies, skaldic stanzas are presented Lee M. Hollander’s The Skalds (1945), as linguistic puzzles to be solved rather than Gabriel Turville-Petre’s Scaldic Poetry artistic creations to be read. As Preben (1976), and Roberta Frank’s Old Norse Court Meulengracht Sørensen notes: Poetry (1978) all suggest different ways in which the skaldic corpus might be presented the skaldic stanzas have as a rule been treated as texts within the text, and the to the reader, stemming directly from the relationship between the individual stanza editor-translators’ unique reactions to the and the prose narrative has been ascribed puzzle of the prosimetric text. Witnessing a significance only when it could tell us wider critical shift away from textual and something about the saga author’s working linguistic reconstruction, these editions methods and the origin of the saga. instead invite their readers to focus on the (Meulengracht Sørensen 2001: 172–173.) artistic qualities of the verse, and on their

In the corpus edited so ambitiously by Finnur, wider literary contexts. Such editions have the prosimetric provenance of the stanzas is profound implications for the ways in which subsumed. The helpful editor offers his their readers experience the stanzas in the reader the skaldic sequence in all its former, context of the prosimetric sagas. Viking-Age glory, free from the shackles of All three works are, to a greater or lesser the saga in which it was preserved. Although extent, textbooks designed to function as Finnur’s edition is unquestionably a work of introductions to the corpus. If Finnur and great scholarship, the presentation of the Kock’s work was symptomatic of the birth of skaldic corpus in this way implicitly negates a new discipline in which the corpus was yet the importance of the prose context and to be defined and decoded, these scholars presents the reader with the texts of aimed to situate skaldic verse within the wider reconstructed poems for which there exist no field of literary studies. Each volume offers a medieval manuscript witnesses. detailed introduction to the metre, rhythm, The mid-20th century saw a flurry of and poetic diction of skaldic works, focussing publications of both editions and translations not on a comprehensive presentation of of skaldic verse that gradually began to invite complete poems (although some are still a more nuanced understanding of the given), or indeed of the entire corpus, but prosimetric form. The first volume of the now upon individual stanzas and their place within standard Íslenzk fornrit series of Icelandic the wider literary context. A consideration of sagas was published in Reykjavík in 1933. the prosimetric nature of the source material The volumes contain excellent editions of the naturally forms a part of this project. For verse contained within each saga text, Hollander, the mythological background of although Meulengracht Sørensen (2001: 173) the stanzas is crucial: he offers summaries of notes that even modern editors of the series many of the myths related in Snorri still insist on treating the prose and poetry Sturluson’s compendium called Edda (Snorra Edda hereafter), noting: separately. Many more publications in the field of skaldic verse followed in Finnur’s in order to appreciate the narrative- footsteps in their presentation of the skaldic descriptive stanzas following, it is well to corpus as a series of long, reconstructed have in mind the myths and legends, as poetic sequences.6 However, the work of familiar to the North in olden times as were, 91

say, the Biblical stories to the Middle Ages. Despite their contrasting approaches, both (Hollander 1945: 27.) Hollander and Turville-Petre follow Finnur in

At times he gives a close translation of the grouping the stanzas under the name of the prose text of Snorra Edda before citing the skald said to have composed them. Roberta poetry it introduces. For verses found within Frank, on the other hand, departs dramatically the Íslendingasögur [‘sagas of Icelanders’] from this emphasis on the author by ordering and the konungasögur [‘sagas of kings’], the verses according to subject matter which, she notes: Hollander mimics the prosimetric construction of the sagas themselves by involves some overlapping of categories, but summarizing the narratives that weave the avoids the greater distortion of ordering stanzas together, forcing the reader to locate verses chronologically, or pretending that the stanzas within a prosimetric text. we have a secure basis on which to attribute Hollander’s work, although not an edition of dates and authors to most of them” (Frank 1978: 10). the verses, reflects most closely the structure of the prosimetric sagas in which he finds his Frank observes that reconstructions of the material. The reader is thus invited to type found in Finnur’s work are “fragile consider each stanza as part of a prosimetric things” (Frank 1978: 10). However, far from text and to use the information given in the locating each stanza within the prosimetric prose to help them understand the verse. context as does Hollander, she emphasizes Hollander presents prose and verse as part of even more strongly than Turville-Petre the an inextricable whole, and his reader is fragmentary nature of the skaldic corpus and invited to do likewise. the isolation of each stanza from the next. In contrast to Hollander, Turville-Petre’s Although she provides a summary of the focus is clearly upon the many poetic devices prose context for each verse cited, she argues: found within the skaldic corpus; he even refuses to provide the reader with a prose each skaldic strophe, brief and intense, portrays a character acting in a single word order so as not to obscure the rhythm, situation in a single significant moment, rhyme, alliteration, and syntax of each verse. without reference to its position in a The citation of long, poetic sequences is rare sequence of incidents. [....] Since the in his book. Turville-Petre eschews the individual stanza is treated as a self- structure of the reconstructed sequence, so sufficient aesthetic entity by medieval saga favoured by Finnur and Kock, and invites his author, rhetorician, and chronicler alike, I reader instead to focus on the minutiae of the feel free to follow their example. (Frank poetic moment, one stanza at a time. It is 1978: 10.) striking, however, that the poetic moment in For Frank, this consideration of medieval saga Turville-Petre’s work frequently comprises authors’ re-use of skaldic verse leads her to both a stanza and a prose summary of the view each stanza as a discrete utterance, circumstances in which that stanza is recited divorced not only from its prose context but in the saga. This is particularly true in the from its poetic fellows as well. Frank’s view case of such Íslendingasögur heroes such as of the skaldic stanza and its relationship to the Egill Skalla-Grímsson, Kormákr prose saga is thus diametrically opposed to Ögmundarson and Gísli Súrsson, characters that of Hollander and Turville-Petre, but whose recitation of verse forms a fundamental deviates also from that of Finnur and Kock. part of the prose narrative. Their verses Emphasizing the use and re-use of the stanzas summarize, satirize, or challenge events that by authors of the prose sagas, she rejects the are described in the prose, and by presenting suggestion that one ‘true’ or ‘original’ context their stanzas as part of the narrative for any given stanza is possible – or even progression of the saga, Turville-Petre invites desirable – to discover. In this way, Frank his reader to consider the function of skaldic reinvigorates a far older tradition than that verse in the overall trajectory of the th 7 found in Finnur’s Skjaldedigtning. In the 13 prosimetric work. century, Snorri Sturluson wove skaldic

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stanzas into the prose text of the volume, and the reader is consequently Skáldskaparmál section of his poetic treatise invited to evaluate critically the choices made Edda, the earliest extant textbook on skaldic by both the modern editor and by the verse (see Faulkes 1998). Frank’s volume, compiler of the medieval saga. like Snorri’s, pieces together stanzas by theme It is unsurprising, therefore, that recent rather than by author, date, or source. The scholarship has sought increasingly to prosimetric text in her work is not confined to investigate the literary effect of the the medieval saga; it forms the structure of prosimetric saga as a whole, rather than that her own, 20th-century reading of the verses. of the reconstructed poetic sequence. Prose Celebrating the ever-changing nature of the and verse are no longer mined only for skaldic corpus, her deployment of the skaldic information about their separate origins. stanzas within a prosimetric framework Heather O’Donoghue (2005), for example, continues the journey of the skaldic corpus in argues that when a verse is cited by a saga prosimetric texts both medieval and modern. author, its pre-saga history is effectively The reader is invited not only to consider the erased and its genesis attributed to the relationship between the verses and the prose character who speaks it. Leaping over the that frames them, but also to interrogate the fraught question of prosimetric origins, she changing use of the prosimetric form and the investigates the effects this inclusion of function of skaldic verse within that form. poetry within a prose narrative has on the The last two decades of the 20th century fictionality and artistry of the text. Torfi H. saw a return to editions promoting the long Tulinius (2001), on the other hand, floats the poetic sequence as found in Finnur’s term “skaldic prose”, suggesting that the Skjaldedigtning and, in the first decade of the complexity of skaldic discourse may have 21st century, an ambitious new re-editing influenced the aesthetics of the saga authors’ project of the entire skaldic corpus was narratives. Carl Phelpstead (2007) uses undertaken following the same approach. Bahktinian theories of hybridity and However, a new editorial mode of self- dialogism to explore the multiplicity of voices interrogation has accompanied this return to that makes the saga a form of “novelistic” poetic reconstructive surgery. As Roberta discourse. Such studies, innovative literary Frank wrote in her retrospective of skaldic readings rather than editions or translations, studies in 1985: demonstrate the fruitfulness of considering verse and prose as an aesthetic whole. Skaldicists today are relatively sceptical about their chances of getting anything right; Prosimetrum becomes not a problem to be along with the rest of the 20th century, we solved through the compartmentalization of have discovered human ignorance. (Frank its constituents, but an invitingly complex 1985: 157–158.) genre in which the mixing of different forms is key to our understanding of the unique Recent editions of skaldic poetry, such as the craftsmanship of medieval Scandinavian nine-volume, collaborative series, Skaldic authors. It is time now to create an edition of Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages the corpus that reflects fully this critical trend. (Clunies Ross et al. 2007–forthcoming) rarely deviate from the reconstructive model Skaldic Editing in the Future enshrined by Finnur Jónsson a century ago. Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle However, the rationale for following such an Ages is the most comprehensive edition to approach is regularly discussed and even 8 appear since those of Finnur and Kock. It is critiqued by those who practice it. now poised to replace them as the main Reconstruction is now seen as part of the primary text used by literary scholars. Perhaps necessary decision-making process surprisingly for an edition published in the undertaken by an editor, not the default mode age of e-texts and wikis, the edition continues of presentation. Significantly, a discussion of to promote the use of a ‘best text’ of each this decision-making process now forms an stanza, with significant manuscript variants important part of the introduction to each such relegated to the notes that follow. However,

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such a large, collaborative project takes time foundation on which to build a fully digitized to bring to realization, and the project was corpus of skaldic verse in which manuscript conceived before the wide-spread prevalence variants, differences in syntax, lexis, and of such electronic tools. We must now orthography, as well as the diverse prose consider how this impressive feat of contexts in which the same stanza may be scholarship may be enhanced by the found, are fully explicated and accessible. technological resources that have become Such a website could include links not only to available since its inception. Russell Poole’s manuscript images, but also to the complete 1993 article on the editing of Egill Skalla- prose texts, perhaps in partnership with the Grímsson’s Hǫfuðlausn provides a helpful publishers of the Íslenzk fornrit series. They model in this respect. In a volume discussing could also provide hyperlinks to dictionaries, The Politics of Editing Medieval Texts, Poole corpora, and textual apparatuses. A fully provides two parallel editions of Egill’s poem, digitized, fully searchable edition of the Old as well as citations from the prose contexts in Norse poetic corpus – such an inclusive and which it is now found. In so doing, he posits ambitious project would no doubt see little the idea of a “flexibly fixed text – a text reason in preserving the overly artificial where most passages are to be memorized distinctions between ‘eddic’ and ‘skaldic’ verbatim but a few are open to variation” forms (see Frank 1985: 159–160) – would be (Poole 1993: 96). The oral provenance of the ideal environment in which to explore the Viking-Age skaldic verse may, he suggests, possibilities of the flexibly-fixed text in the account for the variation we now find in widest possible sense. It would allow the user different manuscript redactions of skaldic to choose not only whether to read a verse poetry. The idea of a single ‘best text’ is within the context of some or all of the prose suspect because skaldic verse is a form in frameworks surrounding it, but also which which variation and mutability is inherent. manuscript variants to incorporate, and how Each rendition of the poem depends upon the many parallel texts to read side-by-side. It performance context and thus, one might would not preclude, however, the option of extrapolate, such variability will also affect its sorting stanzas in a number of different ways later incorporation into the written text of a according either to the prosimetric saga(s) in prosimetric saga. The idea of a “flexibly which they were found, or to date, subject, fixed” skaldic verse challenges the notion that poet, or manuscript, as the user requires. A there is a single true or original version of any normalized ‘best text’ is undoubtedly useful given skaldic stanza. In so doing, it for most literary readings and, should the fundamentally problematizes the best text reader wish to consult it, a fully digitized approach followed in Skjaldedigtning, Skaldic edition of the corpus would ideally be able to Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, and provide this. As Emily Osborne argues indeed almost every other print edition of the elsewhere in this volume, skaldic discourse is skaldic corpus. complex and often ambiguous. Editions This article does not seek to deny the which seek to reduce kennings to referents, scholarship or usefulness of print editions of poetic syntax to prose word order, and skaldic verse, but to suggest ways in which prosimetric polyphony to verse monologue do future editions might better take account of not do justice to this complexity, nor do they the complexity of the texts they invite us to empower readers to investigate it fully. read. Print editions are necessarily What would be the implications of such an constrained by considerations of cost and size, edition for the power dynamic between editor but these problems are alleviated by digital and reader? It should be noted that Poole’s production. It is striking that the collaborative article, cited above, is included in a volume approach of the new Skaldic Project has been on the politics of editing medieval texts; he facilitated by a website through which the notes that the variability of skaldic texts may editors have been able to share material and to well demand “a politically very different consult manuscript images and transcriptions. model” to that which assumes the skald’s Such a website would provide the ideal complete authority over the listening or

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reading audience, and the fixed nature of the efforts that have recently given us such a text he or she performs. Indeed, he notes: comprehensive new edition of the skaldic corpus should serve as a model of how to include some admixture of inherent variability in our model of poetic productive such exchanges of scholarship can composition, performance, reception, and be. Collaboration such as that which transmission, as I have been doing, is to produced Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian detract a little from the skald’s sovereign Middle Ages need not end with the production individualism in order to direct attention to of a new authoritative edition, however. the status of skaldic discourse as a social Collaboration should continue with each new practice. (Poole 1993: 105.) reader who is able to access a digitized, ever-

Just as a power dynamic exists between the malleable corpus, and to use it in their skald and his or her audience, so too does an investigation of different manuscript variants, unequal relationship exist between editor and contexts, and readings. To offer an edition reader, as noted above. Indeed, the authority that deconstructs the fixed text and offers the of the editor is nowhere more evident than in reader choice over the nature of the stanzas the presentation of a best text and in the she or he can easily access will inevitably reconstruction of long poetic sequences in the challenge the time-honoured relationship case of skaldic verse. It is a move that tells the between editor and reader. Such a challenge reader what even the sagas cannot confirm, to editorial authority is not, however, a what Viking-Age skaldic poetry ‘truly’ challenge to the scholarship such editions are looked like. A resource such as that suggested built upon: meticulous and learned above, however, would remove such power scholarship is even more necessary in the from the editor. In so doing, it would place pursuit of such an edition, which would the burden of the methodological questions challenge readers and editors alike to grapple posed at the beginning of this paper squarely with the incredible ambiguity and complexity on the shoulders of the reader. Each reader of the skaldic corpus. Such an edition would would be free to choose whether to read the be an even greater achievement than those yet skaldic corpus as a series of reconstructed accomplished, and an exciting new step in the sequences or as part of the prosimetric sagas. evolving methodology of skaldic studies. That is, the reader would be able to adopt the methodology most conducive to her or his Notes 1. The terms “authenticating” and “situational” are particular research interests and to tailor the used by Diana Whaley (1993) to describe the edited corpus accordingly. Why has this different ways in which skaldic stanzas function approach not yet been attempted? Matthew within the prose sagas. A similar division is also Driscoll has recently asked a similar question made by Bjarni Einarsson (1974). and he suggests: 2. Carl Phelpstead’s use of Bakhtinian theories of dialogism and polyphony in the konungasögur the failure of the electronic edition ever [‘sagas of kings’] (2007) will be discussed below. really to take off is due to a large extent, I 3. The phrase hungrdeyfir dynsæðinga dýrbliks Heita have come to believe, to the inability of [‘the hunger-blunter of battle-gulls of the gleaming textual scholars to see, and embrace, the real shields of the beast of Heiti’] is an unusually potential of digital media, as doing so would complex construction even for skaldic verse. The hungrdeyfir [‘hunger-blunter’] refers to the warrior inevitably involve relinquishing the more- who, by killing his opponents, feeds the dynsæðingr or-less total control textual scholars have [‘battle-gull’], a reference to the scavenger-birds wanted to maintain over the way in which who would circle a battle hoping to feed on carrion. ‘their’ texts are presented. (Driscoll 2010: In this stanza, the warrior is King Óláfr as he fights 104.) at sea: Heiti is the name of a sea king and the dýr [‘beast’] of Heiti is thus a ship. Blik is a word that Now, more than ever before, scholars describes the gleaming of metal, probably referring acknowledge and even celebrate the complex, to the shields that would have been attached to the polyphonic nature of the prosimetric saga and king’s ship as he rowed to the battle. of the skaldic verse which forms so integral a 4. It is true that even in the context of relatively well- attested events such as those recounted here, the part of it. The large-scale, collaborative attribution can never be conclusively proven.

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However, the majority of modern scholars tend to Selected Papers. Ed. Odd Einar Haugen & Else agree that attributions in the so-called ‘historical Mundal. Trans. Peter Foote. Odense: Odense sagas’, such as that cited here, are more likely to be University Press. Pp. 255–276. accurate than those preserved in other saga genres Finnur Jónsson. 1894–1902. Den oldnorske og (Foote 1984: 74; Jesch 1992: 160). oldislandske litteraturs historie. 3 vols. 5. Finnur’s companion text, Den oldnorske og Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad. oldislandske litteraturs historie (1894–1902) and Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1912–1915. Den norsk-islandske his revised edition of Sveinbjörn Egilsson’s 1860 skjaldedigtning I–II. Copenhagen: Gyldendal. Lexicon Poeticum (1913–1916) further consolidate Foote, Peter. 1984. “Things in Early Norse Verse”. In his interpretation and presentation of the corpus. Festskrift til Ludvig Holm-Olsen p hans 70- rsdag 6. For example, Jón Helgason’s Skjaldevers (1961) den 9. juni 1984. Ed. Bjarne Fidjestøl. Øvre Ervik: offered a short anthology of skaldic poems while Alvheim & Eide. Pp. 74–83. Mario Gabrieli’s La poesia scaldica norrena (1962) Frank, Roberta. 1978. Old Norse Court Poetry: The gave Italian translations for a similar selection of Dróttkvætt Stanza. Islandica 42. Ithaca: Cornell sequences. University Press. 7. This foregrounding of the verse with its surrounding Frank, Roberta. 1985. “Skaldic Poetry”. In Old Norse- prose seems curiously to anticipate Joseph Harris’ Icelandic Literature: A Critical Guide. Ed. Carol J. suggestion that the eddic poems may have been Clover & John Lindow. Islandica 45. Ithaca: “internally prosimetrical” at the oral stage, and that Cornell University Press. Pp. 158–196. a written culture was not a necessary prerequisite Gabrieli, Mario (ed.). 1962. La poesia scaldica for prosimetric structure to arise (Harris 1997: 133). norrena: Introduzione e testi. Rome: Edizioni 8. In Viking Poems on War and Peace (1991), for dell’Ateneo. example, Russell Poole offered the reconstruction Gade, Kari Ellen. 1995. The Structure of Old Norse of a number of fragmentary skaldic texts whilst Dróttkvætt Poetry. Islandica 49. Ithaca: Cornell discussing the lack of contemporary evidence that University Press. makes such a process inevitably problematic; both Harris, Joseph. 1997. “The Prosimetrum of Icelandic Richard North in his edition of The Haustlǫng of Saga and Some Relatives”. In Harris & Reichl Þjóðólfr of Hvinir (1997) and Diana Whaley in her 1997: 131–163. edition and study of The Poetry of Arnórr Harris, Joseph & Karl Reichl (eds.). 1997. jarlaskáld (1998) devote substantial portions of Prosimetrum: Crosscultural Perspectives on their introductions to a discussion of the sources of Narrative in Prose and Verse. Cambridge: D.S. the poems and the processes of reconstruction Brewer. followed. The editors of Skaldic Poetry of the Hollander, Lee M. (trans.). 1945. The Skalds: A Scandinavian Middle Ages have published Selection of Their Poems, with Introduction and extensive records of the editorial decisions on the Notes. Princeton: Princeton University Press. companion Skaldic Project website: Hollander, Lee M. 1958. A Bibliography of Skaldic http://skaldic.arts.usyd.edu.au. Studies. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard. Jesch, Judith. 1992. “Skaldic Verse and Viking Works Cited Semantics”. In Viking Revaluations: Society Bjarni Einarsson. 1961. Skáldasögur: Um uppruna og Centenary Symposium 14–15 May 1992. Ed. A. eðli ástaskáldsagnanna fornu. Reykjavik: Faulkes & R. Perkins. London: Viking Society for Bókaútgáfa Menningarsjóðs. Northern Research. Pp. 160–171. Bjarni Einarsson. 1974. “On the Role of Verse in Saga- Jón Helgason (ed.). 1961. Skjaldevers. Nordisk filologi Literature”. Medieval Scandinavia 7: 118–125. 12. Copenhagen: Einar Munksgaard. Clunies Ross, Margaret, et al. (eds.). 2007– Kock, Ernst Albin (ed.). 1946–1949. Den norsk- forthcoming. Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian isländska skaldediktningen. 2 vols. Lund: C. W. K. Middle Ages. 9 vols. Turnhout: Brepols. Gleerup. Driscoll, Matthew. 2010. “The Words on the Page: Meulengracht Sørensen, Preben. 2001. “The Thoughts on Philology, Old and New”. In Creating Prosimetrum Form I: Verses as the Voice of the the Medieval Saga: Versions, Variability, and Past”. In Skaldsagas: Text, Vocation, and Desire in Editorial Interpretations of Old Norse Saga the Icelandic Sagas of Poets. Ed. Russell Poole. Literature. Ed. Judy Quinn & Emily Lethbridge. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag. Pp. 85–102. germanischen Altertumskunde 27. Berlin: W. de Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 1998. Edda: Skáldskalarmál. Gruyter. Pp. 172–190. By Snorri Sturluson. London: Viking Society for North, Richard (ed.). 1997. The Haustlo ng of ð lfr Northern Research. of Hvinir. Enfield Lock: Hisarlik Press. Fidjestøl, Bjarne. 1982. Det norrøne fyrstediktet. O’Donoghue, Heather. 2005. Skaldic Verse and the Universitetet i Bergen, Nordisk institutts skriftserie Poetics of Saga Narrative. Oxford: Oxford 11. Øvre Ervik: Alvheim & Eide. University Press. Fidjestøl, Bjarne. 1997. “Skaldic Stanzas in Saga- Phelpstead, Carl. 2007. Holy Vikings: Saints’ Lives in Prose: Observations on the Relationship between the Old Icelandic Kings’ Sagas. Medieval and Prose and Verse in Snorri’s Heimskringla”. In Renaissance Texts and Studies 340. Tempe, AZ:

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Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Tulinius, Torfi H. 2001. “The Prosimetrum Form II: Studies. Verses as Basis for Saga Composition and Poole, Russell. 1991. Viking Poems of War and Peace: Interpretation”. In Skaldsagas: Text, Vocation, and A Study in Skaldic Narrative. Toronto: University Desire in the Icelandic Sagas of Poets. Ed. Russell of Toronto Press. Poole. Ergänzungsbände zum Reallexikon der Poole, Russell. 1993. “Variants and Variability in the germanischen Altertumskunde 27. Berlin: W. de Text of Egill's Hǫfuðlausn”. In The Politics of Gruyter. Pp. 191–217. Editing Medieval Texts: Papers Given at the Turville-Petre, Gabriel (ed.). 1976. Scaldic Poetry. Twenty-Seventh Annual Conference on Editorial Oxford: Clarendon Press. Problems, University of Toronto, 1–2 November Whaley, Diana. 1993. “Skalds and Situational Verses 1991. Ed. Roberta Frank. New York: AMS Press. in Heimskringla”. In Snorri Sturluson: Kolloquium Pp. 65–105. anläßlich der 750 Wiederkehr seines Todestages. Slavitt, David R. (trans.). 2008. Boethius: The Ed. Alois Wolf. ScriptOralia 51. Tübingen: Gunter Consolation of Philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Narr. Pp. 245–266. Harvard University Press. Whaley, Diana (ed.). 1998. The Poetry of Arnórr Snorri Sturluson. 1941–1951. Heimskringla. Ed. Bjarni jarlaskáld: An Edition and Study. Westfield Aðalbjarnarson. 3 vols. slenzk fornrit 26–28. Publications in Medieval Studies 8. Turnhout: Reykjavik: Hið íslenzka fornritafélag. Brepols. Sveinbjörn Egilsson & Finnur Jónsson (ed.) 1913– Whaley, Diana. 2005. “Skaldic Poetry”. In Old Norse- 1916. Lexicon Poeticum antiquae linguae Icelandic Literature and Culture. Ed. Rory septentrionalis – Ordbog over det norsk-islandske McTurk. Oxford: Blackwell. Pp. 479–502. skjaldesprog. Copenhagen: S.L. Møllers.

Ethnographic Questionnaires: After Method, after Questions Dani Schrire, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

In the history of folklore studies, ethnographic subjectivity to informants and researchers questionnaires played a major role even alike. before the concept of ‘folklore’ was coined. If we adopt the differentiation between Dan Ben Amos (1989) mentions the methodologies and methods offered by Sonja questionnaire of Gustavus Adolphus of Peterson-Lewis in the present volume, then it Sweden from 1630, which can be seen as a can be claimed that as a method, prefiguration of later questionnaires. Some questionnaires highlight the methodologies of begin the history of folkloristic questionnaires researchers. Despite the abundance of in 1807 with the questionnaire of Jacques- question-marks that adorn such Antoine Dalaure, a French scholar in the questionnaires, many of their biases can easily Académie Celtique who, according to Harry be exposed. Since the shortcomings of Senn (1981), inspired Jacob Grimm’s own ethnographic questionnaires in folklore work. Nevertheless, sooner or later studies can easily be revealed, they offer an questionnaires became an essential excellent point of departure for anyone component of the study of folklore in many interested in folklore methods in general. countries and contexts – e.g. in the 19th Evidently such questionnaires prescribe the century work of Willhelm Mannhardt across knowledge they seek to document; they are Europe (see: Dundes 1999: 15–19), in the clearly not lenses or procedures that help us to mid-19th century Russian Empire (Knight get to know the lore of the folk ‘out there’. 1998), in the Atlas of German folklore In what follows, I will refer briefly to (Schmoll 2009), in the work of the Irish various questionnaires that were used in the Folklore Commission (Briody 2007), and so study of Jewish folklore, demonstrating the on.1 Although questionnaires were in use for way such questionnaires constructed different much of the 20th century, the growth of self- ‘lores’ and different ‘folks’. I will then point reflection in ethnographic disciplines in to some problems that arise from general has resulted in their replacement by questionnaires by examining a single ethnographic methods, which allow greater historical controversy about one of them. I

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finally consider broader questions concerning “South-Slavs”, Krauss called on his readers to the nature of folkloristic methods. contribute further examples of secret From a material perspective there is no languages. Indeed, many readers responded single definition of what a questionnaire is (or with answers that were published periodically a survey as it is also known); they have in the journal volumes. By publishing a appeared in journals asking readers to tell of number of examples sent by different scholars specific traditions and customs they know from various geographical contexts together, about, typically according to specific themes; Krauss de-emphasized the specificity of each alternatively, questionnaires were distributed case. In this context, when Benjamin to specific people; in other cases they were Bonyhady from Budapest mentioned a secret used in specific institutions, guiding scholars language that had been in use sixty years who ventured to remote places, facilitating previously in the Talmud Tora (religious- their inquiries into the peculiar customs and Jewish primary school) of his hometown, traditions that they encountered there. Despite Bonyhád (published in Am Urquell 2 [1892]: their name, many questionnaires are not made 23), folklore of Jews appeared alongside the up of questions, but rather they offer a certain folklore of many other groups. This served taxonomy that organizes the collection of Krauss’ agenda of denying Jewish folklore (or data. for that matter any other regional or national While Jewish folklore per se was folklore) a place as a separate subject-matter institutionalized by Max Grunwald, who in that should or could be studied individually. 1896 sent an ethnographic questionnaire to a The first questionnaire in the history of number of Jewish newspapers, it is Jewish folklore should be examined with the worthwhile to begin with the work of backdrop of Krauss’ many specific Umfragen. Friedrich S. Krauss, whose work has been Jewish folklore was constructed for the first discussed by several scholars (Burt 1990; time in a questionnaire-form by Rabbi Dr. Daxelmüller 1994; Warneken 2001). Krauss Max Grunwald, who established Das Comité was one of the key folklorists in the German- Henry-Jones Loge für jüdische Volkskunde in speaking sphere. His folkloristic project was Hamburg. Grunwald’s questionnaire manifested in the journals he edited in the (Fragebogen) was the first step in the 1890s in Vienna – Am Urquell (or: Der establishment of a scholarly enterprise Urquell). Although Krauss grew up in a devoted to Jewish folklore.2 In the Jewish family (in Požega, today in Croatia), introduction to this questionnaire, modernity his folkloristic enterprise was based on was viewed by him as a threat to the universalistic ideals; that is, Krauss was not individuality of folklore (Volkstum). interested in harnessing folklore to Jewish (or Grunwald’s call to collect objects and to other) national projects. Instead, Krauss answer questions was presented as an attempt published many articles he received from to salvage Jewish folklore by collecting data. various parts of Europe and beyond, which he His questionnaire did not include any presented in a comparative manner. Among questions. Instead, Grunwald sketched a map them, numerous articles refereed to certain of the newly formed field by introducing genres of folklore documented among Jews categories that Jewish folklore collectors (e.g. proverbs of Jews from Galizia). Krauss’ should work with as they collected and sent ‘global folklore’ was especially well material back to the folkloristic ‘headquarters’ established in his comparative questionnaires in Hamburg. His primary categorization (Umfrage). Since these were not included: ‘onomastics and dialect’, comprehensive in any way, they directed his ‘literature’, ‘belief and legend’, ‘tradition and readers to restricted cultural domains. Thus, custom’, ‘augury, magic and folk-medicine’, the first published survey related to “secret ‘house-building and folk-costume’; each of languages” (Geheime Sprachweisen). After these categories was divided into detailed explaining the use of such languages and sub-categories, e.g. the category of ‘literature’ noting that he himself had already collected a included children rhymes, songs connected number of examples from Germans and with the annual cycle, wedding-songs, tales,

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anecdotes, riddles, epigrams, epigraphs on publication (in volumes titled Reshumot). houses, and so on. Much of the material sent Here again the actual publication was hardly to Grunwald appeared in the first issues of the connected to raw material sent to the editors Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für jüdische according to the questionnaire. The main Volkskunde, which Grunwald edited almost reason for that was the extremely selective without interruption until 1929. When his agenda of the Hebrew editors, who could not newly formed society for Jewish folklore was follow their own program for documenting better established and his network of scholars Jewish folk-life in all its manifestations. The stabilized, his editorial orientation changed: Hebrew revivalist choice meant that raw instead of relying on ‘raw’ material that was material in vernacular Jewish languages such sent by people who reacted to his as Yiddish or Ladino had to be filtered and questionnaire (in a similar fashion to Krauss’ translated (typically into extremely poetic work, with the small and important difference Hebrew) to meet their over-arching political that all such data was marked as Jewish), purpose. This stands in sharp contrast to the Grunwald collected complete articles from most important questionnaire of the inter-war experts in the various sub-fields that he period, the one formulated by the Yiddish defined in his original questionnaire. Institute of Science (YIVO, founded in The differences between Grunwald’s Vilnius in 1925), which, as in the case of the engagement with Jewish identity and those of questionnaires by Grunwald, the Swiss Krauss’s universalistic enterprise are Folklore Society and the Hebraists, was also manifested in the different ways in which they concerned with genres. This questionnaire used questionnaires: while Grunwald addressed collectors across what I.N. addressed Jews by constructing a Gottesman called (2003) “the Yiddish comprehensive questionnaire that could guide Nation”. YIVO’s folkloristic work them in their first steps in the world of constructed a folkloristic depository that was folklore, Krauss addressed folklore- based on data sent by enthusiastic collectors enthusiasts everywhere, guiding them to new whose main knowledge of what folklore issues and themes that cut-across diverse might be was based on the questionnaire people from different regions. itself. YIVO’s ideology emphasized the Other folkloristic questionnaires that vitality of the Yiddish vernacular and so the engaged with Jewish folklore were soon collection of every piece of data fulfilled their established in other places. Many followed goals. For them, the questionnaire was Grunwald in their emphasis of scientific particularly fruitful, as Zamlers [‘collectors’] categorization, although they offered different all around the Yiddish speaking world could criteria and emphases. The closest to send in folkloristic material that was then Grunwald’s taxonomy was the questionnaire stored in YIVO’s archives in Vilnius until the of the Jewish section of the Swiss Folklore Nazi occupation of the city. (Parts of these Society from 1917 (see Guggenheim- archives were later transferred to New York.) Grünberg 1964). One can meticulously point to the different Much more influential than the Swiss categories established by Grunwald, the Swiss folklorists was the group of leading Zionists initiative, the Hebraists of Odessa and the and Hebrew revivalists that were active in Yiddishists of YIVO. Clearly, ideological Odessa (Russia) – Alter Druyanow, Haim differences concerning Jewish modernity are Nahman Bialik and Yehushua Hanna reflected in such categorizations. Despite such Ravnitski. They set forth a folkloristic agenda important differences, it is important to note of their own. Although different in content, that they all shared the logic of following their questionnaire of 1914 was formulated in scientific categories. a similar way to that of Grunwald’s in its In contrast to such folkloristic efforts, the emphasis on genres and its lack of question- most extraordinary questionnaire to be marks.3 As in Grunwald’s case (in the first conceived in the context of Jewish folklore volumes of the Mitteilungen) the Hebrew was undoubtedly Sh. Ansky’s “Jewish questionnaire was a chain in the process of Ethnographic Program” which was the focus

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of a recently published book-length study  The Yiddishists of YIVO in Vilnius (Deutsch 2011). The “Program” was  Ansky’s expedition comprised of a whole volume that related to We may think of these questionnaires as a the Jewish life-cycle – from birth-rites to folkloristic method that ran out of scientific death-rites. It included 2,087 questions that prestige, yet what do we mean when we were written by the members of the consider them a method? Is it a kind of ethnographic expedition that Ansky led to the method that enables us to arrive at a certain Jewish towns of Podolya and Vohlinya in the truth that is out there? If it is so, should we Pale of Settlement of the Russian Empire expect to find a ‘good’ method and a ‘bad’ between 1912 and 1914.4 It was eventually one? At least this is what we typically imply compiled by Ansky and the well-known when we relate to methods – the former Russian anthropologist, Lev Shternberg, with would arrive at better ‘results’ than the latter. the intention of distributing it throughout the In other words, a good folkloristic survey Pale. Many of the questions were formulated would help us in representing the folklore we as ‘yes’/‘no’ questions or referred to very are after. However, despite the brevity of my specific phenomena, which did not leave presentation of some examples of much room for imagination: e.g. “Is there a questionnaires in the area of Jewish folklore, belief that eating ‘nut-twins’ leads to the birth evidently it is very hard to relate to them as of twins?”; “What is said when a child methods in such a manner. Following John yawns?”. Indeed as Nathaniel Deutsch notes, Law’s radical critique of methods in social the Program “is one of the most detailed and science (and in science in general) it is clear revealing portraits of Jewish personhood in that the “in-thereness” of folkloristic Eastern Europe that we possess from the early procedure is connected to the “out-thereness” twentieth century” (Deutsch 2011: 72). With of Jewish folklore (Law 2004). It seems quite the outbreak of the war, it was never obvious that the type of Jewish folklore distributed and its questions remained documented by Grunwald or Ansky did not unanswered, yet since its compilation precede their own activities. We may consider paralleled the expedition, many of the some questions as biased or criticize the questions guided its work, and the outcomes shortcomings of each of the taxonomies, but of the expedition cannot be separated from the this direction hardly advances our long process of its composition. understanding of method. I would like to It is important to note that whereas the argue that once we examine such taxonomy of the previous questionnaires questionnaires in relation to the material echoed different views of the science of procedure that involves them, it becomes folklore by relating to genres or types of clear that they shape what they document. We folklore, Ansky’s questions prima faci can follow Ansky’s expedition to ‘the field’ followed the logic of Jewish life per se; his as they visited small towns in the fringe of the categorization did not necessitate much Russian Empire, asking some informants folkloristic knowledge, but rather an intimate about nuts and twins, writing the answers in a knowledge of Jewish life. Notably, Ansky’s notebook and finally returning to Petersburg questions related to customs by mixing genres claiming to have found ‘Jewish folklore’. We to the point that scientific categories and can be sure that this specific Jewish folklore genres were blurred. that Ansky ‘found’ was to a great extent also Before we go any further, it may be fruitful made by his own questions, just as much as to pause and reflect on the aforementioned the folklore ‘discovered’ by Grunwald or by questionnaires. So far, I have referred briefly the YIVO folklorists was a product of their to six different questionnaires: respective questionnaires and the material  Krauss procedures that were connected to them.  Grunwald and the Hamburg Society Indeed, according to Law:  The Jewish section of the SGV The argument is no longer that methods  The Hebrew revivalists of Odessa discover and depict realities. Instead, it is

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that they participate in the enactment of Polívka.6 It was this reputation of Heller’s those realities. It is also that method is not that may explain why he was approached by just a more or less complicated set of the Palestine Historical and Ethnographical procedures or rules, but rather a bundled Society (PHES), who asked him to contribute hinterland. This stretches through skills, an article on the study of Jewish folklore. His instruments and statements (in-here programmatic essay, “The Duties of Jewish enactments of previous methods) through the out-there realities so described, into a Folklore and Ethnography in General and in ramifying and indefinite set of relations, the Holy Land Specifically” was published in places and assumptions that disappear from this society’s journal in Hebrew in 1930. In it, view. (Law 2004: 45, original emphasis.) Heller tried to transfer folkloristic methods from Europe to Palestine, translating It is important to note that this argument territorial notions that were common in concerning method that I follow, which in Europe, making them available to folklorists itself is based on numerous works and in Palestine. The article consisted of a insights drawn from scholars in Science and comprehensive questionnaire which was Technology Studies (STS), does not deny a 5 explicitly based on a draft of a questionnaire sense of reality. That is, I am not trying to that was composed as part of the Atlas der claim that Jewish folklore is made up in the deutschen Volkskunde (provided to Heller by minds of a Grunwald or an Ansky. Rather, my his friend Bolte). Thus, some of the detailed argument is that their questionnaires take part questions in Heller’s questionnaire related to in the realities they describe. A folkloristic the house’s furniture, jewelry, clothes, crafts method, as it is understood here, is bundled and so forth, topics that at the time did not with different realities, which one typically take a central place in the study of Jewish (and wrongly, I think) views separately – the folklore. Indeed, this questionnaire was not lore of the folk(lorists) and the lore of the seen favourably by some folklorists: Shlomo (Jewish) folk: Shapira, a folklorist in these circles, wrote the Method always works not simply by Society a letter in which he criticized Heller’s detecting but also by amplifying a reality. work: “the classification of the author is not The absent hinterlands of the real are re- suitable for a Jewish questionnaire as our crafted – and then they are there, patterned folk’s creativity is spiritual and not material”.7 and patterning, resonating for the next Instead, Shapira suggested using Ansky’s enactment of the real. (Law 2004: 116, questionnaire, adapting it with the aid of the original emphasis.) YIVO questionnaire and the one Grunwald Such a claim can be better understood by had composed many years before. Evidently, examining one last questionnaire from the Shapira was particularly influenced by history of Jewish folklore. In this case, Ansky’s work, which shared the same view of controversies concerning the realities that the spiritual essence of the Jewish folk.8 questionnaires partake in are clearly visible. This specific controversy on what one Bernhard Heller was an important typically considers a folkloristic method is folklorist active in Europe in the 1920s– important for our present discussion because 1930s. As a student in the rabbinical seminary it makes the connection between in-there of Budapest (adjunct to the university), he realities and out-there realities manifest: what was a scholar of Jewish Studies and Oriental was Shapira criticizing? Was Heller to blame Studies (notably, he studied under one of the for not using a method correctly? most important Orientalists of his day, Ignaz Alternatively, was Shapira to blame for Goldziher). His folkloristic passion, which misunderstanding the role of the ethnographic was related to his teachers’ influence, is questionnaire? Was it a controversy on the manifested in his participation in one of the nature of Jewish folklore? I think one can better known works of comparative safely claim that Heller and Shapira referred folkloristics, the Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- to very different ‘realities’. The source of the und Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm, which controversy in this case was not was edited by Johannes Bolte and Jiří methodological (in the way one typically

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understands method – that is, as a way to folkloristic practices, we should (also) bring us to a certain truth). Heller simply did investigate what we do and how we do it in not view the Jewish folk in the same way relation to Euro-American metaphysics. What Shapira did. For Heller, the type of furniture kind of metaphysical assumptions do we have one used in day-to-day life was part of Jewish when we think of folkloristic methods? folk-culture; his questionnaire helped him Again, I am not referring here to ‘biases’ construct the reality he was interested in. (national, racial, gender or others) that With his questionnaire, Heller attempted to ‘distort’ our quest for reality, but rather I make some realities present, but at the same would like to scrutinize reality itself: what do time, as Shapira was quick to grasp, Heller we mean when we think of ‘reality’? More enacted absent realities – notably his modestly, what do we mean when we think of emphasis on furniture – and provincialized folklore as a reality? What happens after we spiritual realities that, for Shapira, were ‘clean’ our ‘folkloristic machine’ and get rid crucial in a discussion of Jewish folklore. As of all such distortions; let us say, after we find many scholars who focused on the history of the ‘best methods’ to help us in our our field show there are various meta- representations of folklore, then what? Are narratives that underlie the way our subject- we committed to a sense of a folkloric matter has been constructed: devolutionary or singularity? If we think the answer to such a evolutionary assumptions (Dundes 1969; question is positive, then indeed sound Wilson 1976), a commitment to notions of folkloristic methods are our cure and perhaps authenticity (Bendix 1997) and the preference we should devote much time and space to of certain voices over others (Bauman & methodological debates. However, I have Briggs 2003). All of these discussions (metaphysical) doubts concerning the belief demonstrate the commitment of folklore that folklore marks a certain (singular) real scholarship to a metaphysical model of phenomenon ‘out there’. If – as I tried to singularity: in the present case, the idea that show – what we do as folklorists ‘interferes’ there is one true version of a Jewish folk and with the realities we describe in our accounts, that ‘Jewish folklore’ marks a single reality, then I don’t see any reason to assume that an idea that must have been assumed by reality is singular. A similar approach was Heller and Shapira. Importantly, the recently offered by Charles Briggs (2012), controversy we are confronted with here does who emphasizes multiple ‘communicable’ not concern with the way to arrive at this models and cartographies that claim to chart singular reality. By relating to the multiple cultural forms of production, circulation, and realities that Heller and Shapira sought after, I reception. I tried to examine ethnographic do not want to suggest that their realities are questionnaires, a format which used to be set apart like two islands that do not share considered as a reasonable folkloristic their respective relative worlds. This is a point method, because they can help us reflect on that is emphasized by Law: this point. I still believe questionnaires can help us in the construction of certain realities, If we attend to practice we tend to discover multiplicity […] We discover multiplicity, though I have doubts if such realities are but not pluralism. […] It does not imply that desired, but in that sense they are not that reality is fragmented. Instead it implies that different from any other ‘novel’ folkloristic the different realities overlap and interfere method. My purpose here was not to with one another. (Law 2004: 61.) deconstruct them as a reasonable method in folklore studies, but rather to discuss them As Law shows, the insistence on singularity is because they reflect the kind of metaphysical taken for granted in Euro-American baggage we carry when we think of metaphysics. Since I live in Jerusalem, I ‘folkloristic method’ more broadly. John would question such a stable geographical Law’s work on method can help us in our marking, but with this reservation in mind, we discussions on what we do and can offer a should think of metaphysical assumptions certain perspective on what we should do. when we discuss methods. When it comes to Law referred to “ontological politics”; instead

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of method he suggested what he called the kind of reality Latour believes in (Latour 1999). “method-assemblage” – “the continuing This was also discussed in his later work (Latour 2005). process of crafting and enacting necessary 6. For more about Heller as a folklorist, see Hasan- boundaries between presence, manifest Rokem (2011). absence and Otherness” (Law 2004: 144). 7. Undated letter: The Israeli Historical Society Folklore may help us in crafting worlds we Archives, IHS/40a. would like to share with others, but at the 8. See Ansky’s text on “Jewish Ethnopoetics” which appeared in English with notes and remarks by Bar same time, as chapters in the history of our Itzhak: (Bar-Itzhak 2010). discipline show, it may make our world unbearable. Thus, when it comes to our Works Cited choice of folkloristic methods, to our choice Bar-Itzhak, H. 2010. Pioneers of Jewish Ethnography of what we should do and how, we must be and Folkloristics in Eastern Europe. Trans. L. aware that our choices are between different Schramm. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC. realities. Bauman, R., & C.L. Briggs. 2003. Voices of Modernity: Language Ideologies and the Politics of Inequality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Acknowledgements: I would like to thank Regina Press. Bendix, Galit Hasan-Rokem and Amos Noy, who Ben-Amos, D. 1989. “Foreword”. In Nordic Folklore: offered many fruitful suggestions when I discussed Recent Studies. R. Kvideland & H.K. Sehmsdorf. some ideas for this paper with them. In addition, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Pp. vii–x. important comments were offered to me by the editors Bendix, R. 1997. In Search of Authenticity: The and reviewers of this publication. Formation of Folklore Studies. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Notes Briggs, C. 2012. “What We Should Have Learned from 1. A detailed survey of folklore questionnaires was Américo Paredes: The Politics of Communicability offered by Fein Reishtein (1968), who considered and the Making of Folkloristics”. Journal of them a “fieldwork technique”. American Folklore 125: 91–110. 2. Grunwald’s scholarly oeuvre was discussed Briody, M. 2007. The Irish Folklore Commission especially in some of the works of Christopher 1935–1970: History, Ideology, Methodology. Daxelmüller (see Daxelmüller 2010 and works Studia Fennica Folkloristica 17. Helsinki: Finnish there cited), as well as by other authors Literature Society. (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1989; Schatz 2004; Daxelmüller, C. 2010. “Hamburg, Wien Jerusalem: Staudinger 2010). Max Grunwald und die Entwicklung der jüdische 3. Even closer to Grunwald’s questionnaire was the one Volkskunde zur Kulturwissenschaft 1898 bis produced by the Jewish folklore section of the 1938”. Österreichische Zeitschrift für Volkskunde Swiss folklore society. This section’s activity was 113: 375–393. only briefly discussed (Guggenheim-Grünberg Deutsch, N. 2011. The Jewish Dark Continent: Life 1964). and Death in the Russian Pale of Settlement. 4. Ansky’s expedition, which included a painter, a Cambridge: Harvard University Press. musical recorder, and a photographer, was launched Dundes, A. 1969. “The Devolutionary Premise in in 1912–1913. Ansky himself began as a Folklore Theory”. Journal of the Folklore Institute ‘Narodnik’ and was an active member of the 6(1): 5–19. Socialist-Revolutionary Party in Russia. His work Dundes, A. 1999. International Folkloristics: Classic has been discussed by a number of scholars Contributions by the Founders of Folklore. (Roskies 1992; Safran & Zipperstein 2006; Spinner Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. 2010) and his biography was recently published by Fein Reishtein, E. 1968. “Bibliography on Safran (2010). As Noy has already noted (1982), Questionnaires as a Folklife Fieldwork Technique”. the ethnographic questionnaire was composed by Keystone Folklore Quarterly 13: 45–69, 121–166, Leo Sternberg, one of the fathers of Russian 219–232. anthropology. Ansky’s questionnaire appeared Gottesman, I.N. 2003. Defining the Yiddish Nation: recently in translation with annotations alongside a The Jewish Folklorists of Poland. Detroit: Wayne detailed account of the context of its composition State University Press. (Deutsch 2011). Guggenheim-Grünberg, F. 1964. “Eduard Hoffman- 5. This is a claim that is sometimes leveled at STS Krayer und die jüdische Volkskunde”. scholars as it is described by Bruno Latour, perhaps Schweizerisches Archiv für Volkskunde 60: 133– the major spokesperson of Actor-Network-Theory 140. (together with John Law and Michel Callon). In Haraway, D.J. 1988. “Situated Knowledges: The fact, Latour was approached by a friend who asked Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of him if he believed in reality, which Latour Partial Perspective”. Feminist Studies 14(3): 575– answered in a whole book that provides answers to 599.

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Hasan-Rokem, G. 2011. “Ancient Jewish Folk Safran, G. 2010. Wandering Soul: The Dybbuk’s Literature: The Legends of the Jews and Creator, S. An-Sky. Cambridge: Harvard University Comparative Folklore Studies at the Beginning of Press. the Twentieth Century”. Jewish Studies 70: 57–75. Safran, G., & S.J. Zipperstein. (eds.). 2006. The Worlds Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, B. 1989. “Problems in the Early of S. An-sky: A Russian Jewish Intellectual at the History of Jewish Folkloristics”. In Proceedings of Turn of the Century. Stanford: Stanford University the Tenth World Congress of Jewish Studies. Press. Jerusalem. Pp. 21–32. Schatz, C. 2004. “‘Angewandte Volkskunde’: Die Knight, N. 1998. “Science, Empire and Nationality: “Gesellschaft für jüdische Volkskunde” in Ethnography in the Russian Geographical Society, Hamburg”. Vokus: Volkskundlich- 1845–1855”. In Imperial Russia: New Histories for Kulturwissenschaftliche Schriften 14(1–2): 121– the Empire. Ed. J. Burbank & D.L. Ransel. 134. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Schmoll, F. 2009. Die Vermessung der Kultur: Der Latour, B. 1999. Pandora’s Hope: Essays on the “Atlas der deutschen Volkskunde” und die deutsche Reality of Science Studies. Cambridge: Harvard Forschungsgemeinschaft 1928–1980. Stuttgart: University Press. Steiner. Latour, B. 2005. Reassembling the Social: An Senn, H. 1981. “Folklore Beginnings in France, the Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford: Académie Celtique: 1804–1813”. Journal of the Oxford University Press. Folklore Institute 18(1): 23–33. Law, J. 2004. After Method: Mess in Social Science Spinner, S. 2010. “Salvaging Lives, Saving Culture: Research. London: Routledge. An-sky’s Literary Ethnography in the First World Noy, D. 1982. “The Place of Sh. Ansky in Jewish War”. Österreichische Zeitschrift für Volkskunde Folkloristics”. Jerusalem Studies in Jewish Folklore 113: 543–567. 2: 94–107. Staudinger, B. 2010. “Der Kategorisierende Blick der Roskies, D. 1992. “S. Ansky and the Paradigm of ‘Jüdischen Volkskunde’: Die Volskundliche Return”. In The Uses of Tradition: Jewish Wissenschaft und das ‘Jüdische’”. Österreichische Continuity in the Modern Era. Ed. J. Wertheimer. Zeitschrift für Volkskunde 113: 525–541. New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of Wilson, W.A. 1976. “The Evolutionary Premise in America. Pp. 243–260. Folklore Theory and the ‘Finnish Method’”. Western Folklore 35(4): 241–249.

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Part III: Culturally Sensitive Reading

Culturally Sensitive Reading: An Introduction

The third section of this collection turns from marginalized) perspectives with concentrated the construction of data to context-oriented and multifaceted approaches to diverse data approaches to that data. Developing culturally (see also Harris 1979). sensitive approaches and examining the A central factor in developing culturally relationship between ‘text’ or cultural sensitive readings is the contextualization of expression and its context of use has only data in analysis. Contexts are not uniform or really found currency since the 1960s and singular. Frequently, multiple and intersecting 1970s. Paradigm shifts of that era resounded contexts of a particular case or phenomenon across disciplines in the humanities and the must be considered (Lazo-Flores, Sykäri, this social sciences. As was addressed in volume). This may require developing each Constructing Data, this process context across a diversity of data, or each with problematized resources produced by earlier a different scope (Frog, this volume). research precisely because attention shifted to Although this presents challenges in the developing knowledge that had been choice and coordination of methods, the ‘invisible’ to research of the preceding era. successful coordination of methods becomes This process simultaneously generated whole mutually reinforcing, and complementarity new fields, such as area studies surrounding perspectives augment this process by subjects and groups that had been silenced producing additional information, generating and unacknowledged in the hegemony of a more comprehensive and dynamic earlier discourse. The revolution of dominant understanding of the phenomenon as a whole. methodologies was not without challenges In “The Anglo-Saxon Charms: Texts in and crises in engaging these unknowns, Context”, Rebecca M.C. Fisher (University of especially where fields intersected with Sheffield) opens these challenges through a politically charged issues in modern societies dynamic study and methodological approach (cf. Peterson-Lewis, this volume). A thematic oriented precisely to assess numerous core of these challenges was the problem of intersecting contexts and the interpretations to disentangling perspectives of the hegemony which these give rise. She engages with the of discourse and its construction of the objects theme of retrospective methods by of research for what can be described as problematizing early treatments of a medieval ‘culturally sensitive’ approaches. The corpus, building on Dani Schrire’s discussion production of new terms such as etic and emic of researchers’ ideology-bound construction (Pike 1954) for distinguishing the (etic) of traditions and ethnic culture through the externally imposed terminologies, typologies construction of data. Whereas Erin Michelle and definitions of those academic discourses Goeres focuses on the problems of from the (emic) terminologies, typologies and decontextualizing medieval poetry from definitions of the living social environments narrative contexts, Fisher addresses the being investigated and described is problem of decontextualizing these texts from symptomatic – as is their rapidly spread manuscript contexts. She reveals the across disciplines (e.g. Dundes 1962; see significance of metadata embedded in the further Headland et al. 1990). The five papers context of medieval compilation reflecting in this section build on Jill Bradley’s medieval editorial practice. She then discussion of developing contextualized examines how this context interrelates and approaches in Methods in Practice. They overlaps with traditional content at focus precisely on methods and challenges of intersections of genre, verbal expression, developing emic (and potentially traditional images and figures, as well as

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potential indicators of performative practice subtleties of variation within those contextual (cf. Leslie, this volume). Just as Martínez frames. Latvala & Laurén highlight the Ibarra showed the benefits of complementary consideration that must be given to social and methods in constructing data, Fisher historical circumstances in approaching demonstrates the value of analyzing multiple, archived materials and offer perspectives on overlapping and diverse contexts to develop and approaches to the subtleties within such interpretations as the plurality of perspectives data relevant to a wide range of research are brought in relation to one another. interests. The production of medieval texts is As highlighted by Bradley, sensitive connected to processes and strategies for reading is by no means limited to textual or ‘remembering’ and for communicating verbal culture, where corresponding methods memory. Memory is a vital area for a wide are applied in the analysis of visual and range of research in the humanities, from material culture. Strategies employed in close living oral history and architecture to archives reading easily cross between disciplines, and of extinct oral poetry and archaeological also extend beyond the scope of the evidence (see further Radstone 2000). humanities. Although much sensitive reading Tradition, by definition, constructs is engaged in developing an interpretation of (sometimes imagined) continuity with the past the research object, in “Design Poiesis: An and/or across different groups through the Inquiry on Outcomes in the Use of Method reproduction and repetition of cultural and Methodology”, Thelma Lazo-Flores (Ball practices. However, only in the past few State University) discusses corresponding decades has its relationship to ‘memory’ itself strategies for the development of a become subject to investigation. contextually appropriate and relevant product. In “The Sensitive Interpretation of Lazo-Flores reveals design to be a mode of Emotions: Methodological Perspectives on communication, semiotically producing Studying Meanings in Written Life-Historical messages and engaging metaphors. She Narratives”, Pauliina Latvala (University of considers production-oriented strategies of Helsinki) & Kirsi Laurén (University of mixed method application and how they have Eastern Finland) turn from medieval been related to the science of the constructed manuscripts to modern written archival texts environment. This discussion reopens the (cf. Schrire, this volume). They apply theme of relationships between method, sensitive reading to these artefacts of theory and practice, looking at their remembering, analyzing text-objects that can connections to creative, critical, and be described as representations of memory. consequential thinking. Lazo-Flores offers a The authors participate in the affective turn, useful discussion of the relationships and the shift in critical theory to considerations of interfaces of methods across diverse affect (see e.g. Ticineto Clough & Halley disciplines (cf. Martínez Ibarra, this volume) 2007). Emotions attached to the past – from the perspective of a rapidly evolving whether in terms of time, place, or both in discipline. This contribution offers valuable combination – can be more important for perspectives from a field in which the individuals and groups than a past event itself. outcome of an application of method is a This connection between remembering and product that might be an object of research in emotions is a neglected area, which requires another time and place. This counterpoint to the development of new methods relevant for Bradley’s discussion of ‘reading’ visual and appropriate to investigating the culture advances a sensitive reading for the phenomenon in different types of corpora. production of environments engaging social Approaches to affect intersect with many and cultural conceptions of space (cf. strategies of sensitive reading for approaching Nordvig, this volume). Her succinct the role and significance of rhetoric in presentation of this discipline’s relationship to expression, but concentrate on notions of the others raises important questions and opens individual in a cultural context and penetrate a great possibilities for how methods and silent textual surface to give close attention to methodological perspectives from the field of

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design can be drawn on for insights in other environments can be reciprocally informative. fields and arenas of application. The type of insights available is, of course, Realities of social practices are often conditioned by the data, and the perspectives method-based realizations in specific cultural offered by Leslie’s contribution on the and historical circumstances. Retrospective development of oral–written interfaces as a methods are oriented toward accessing those historical process are complementary to those practices and historical backgrounds of Latvala & Laurén, where the differing type underlying them on the basis of evidence of and distributions of data sets allow different their outcomes. Changes in methodology and insights. Data in such an investigation may paradigm shifted emphasis away from the also prove too thin for a straightforward ‘reconstruction’ of ‘original forms’ or analysis, requiring alternative strategies. ‘original texts’. In line with other context- Interfaces of oral and written cultures took oriented concerns and interest in variation, place as a historical process in similar ways individual realizations were highlighted, and with similar consequences in a number of whether in the context-specific retelling of an cultures in the Middle Ages. Consequently, oral folktale or a context-specific recopying of typological comparison holds potential as one a medieval popular story. Culturally sensitive such alternative method for approaching these approaches to these patterns of variation and interfaces. their significance thereby became a vital area In “Ferocious Beast (óarga dýr) between of discussion, and sometimes of debate. North and East”, Fjodor Uspenskij (Institute In “Younger Icelandic Manuscripts and of Slavic Studies, Russian Academy of Old Norse Studies”, Helen F. Leslie Science Moscow, and Higher School of (University of Bergen) returns from Economics) turns from manuscript production in methodological practice to transmission and whole texts to idiomatic approaching historical practices of method phrasing in the lexicon and the transition from through their products. She offers an oral to written culture. He employs a form of introduction to aspects of philological sensitive reading in examining typologically methods and the methodology of New similar lexicalized formulas in two languages. Philology. Leslie opens manuscript He combines methods for approaching the transmission as social practice in the changing historical background of a lexicalized formula contexts of historical social realities (cf. within each language with complementary Fisher, this volume). When approaching typological comparisons across languages manuscript exemplars that were subject to where data for each is historically limited. transcription, transformation and adaptation, The formulas present another example of she focuses on different retrospective methods potentially controversial cultural knowledge and retrospective interpretive goals (cf. Frog, within the transition to Christianity (cf. this volume). Leslie considers different social Osborne, this volume), where evidence of and historical contexts of text production and earlier belief traditions could become reproduction, and their various intersections suspended (cf. Frog, this volume). Like with oral and literary culture. She connects Bradley, Uspenskij emphasizes the close her discussion to the topic of mythology, examination of individual cases in an illustrating the problematics of approaching exhaustive data set of examples. He shows these text-artefacts for insights into periods how commensurate typological materials predating their production and transmission from different cultures can prove mutually that gave rise to the written texts as works. informative, potentially provide reciprocal She highlights the degree to which the interest insight into both traditions, as well as into and value in individual text-exemplars is more general historical processes in dependent on methodology and the questions developments from oral to written cultures. posed (cf. Suenson, this volume). Within the discussions of Culturally Interfaces of oral and literary culture are a Sensitive Reading, the anthropocentric nature vital topic of discussion in both modern and of cultural phenomena comes to the fore. historical contexts. and these different cultural Knowledge, understandings, the semiotics of

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expression and practicalities of physical Insider/Outsider Debate. Frontiers of Anthropology environments are all revealed to be subject to 7. Newbury Park: Sage. Harris, Marvin. 1979. Cultural Materialism: The continuous social negotiation. Cultural, Struggle for a Science of Culture. New York: textual and visual representations are Random House. repeatedly reconstructed in relation to Lakomäki, Sami, Pauliina Latvala & Kirsi Laurén. contexts in which they are re-realized. 2011. “Menetelmien jäljillä”. In Tekstien rajoilla: Perhaps more significantly, their Monitieteisiä näkökulmia kirjoitettuihin aineistoihin. Ed. Sami Lakomäki, Pauliina Latvala anthropocentric nature implicitly binds them & Kirsi Laurén. Helsinki: Suomalaisen to culture. These discussions illuminate Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp.7–30. problems addressed in Constructing Data by Lotman, Yuri M. 1990. Universe of the Mind: A revealing that cultural sensitivity cannot be Semiotic Theory of Culture. Trans. Ann Shukman. neglected in modern research: it has become Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Pike, Kenneth L. 1954. Language in Relation to a essential to current methodologies. Simply Unified Theory of the Structure of Human put, all manifestations of cultural expression Behaviour. Glendale: Summer Institute of require culturally sensitive reading. Linguistics. Radstone, Susannah (ed.). 2000. Memory and Works Cited Methodology. Oxford, New York: Berg Dundes, Alan. 1962. “From Etic to Emic Units in the International. Structural Study of Folktales”. Journal of American Siikala, Anna-Leena. 1990. Interpreting Oral Folklore 75: 95–105. Narrative. FF Communications 245. Helsinki: Headland, Thomas N., Kenneth L. Pike & Marvin Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. Harris (eds.). 1990. Emics and Etics: The Ticineto Clough, Patricia, & Jean Halley (eds.). 2007. The Affective Turn: Theorizing the Social. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.

The Anglo-Saxon Charms: Texts in Context Rebecca M.C. Fisher, University of Sheffield

An Anglo-Saxon charm is a written text with difficult to bridge, and has been tackled using a performative element, ranging in length several different approaches, which in from four or five lines to over a hundred lines themselves have developed over time as long. The majority of Anglo-Saxon charms scholarly ideologies have changed. It is are intended to remedy medical ailments, but impossible to discuss the wealth of several exist for other purposes (such as scholarship on the Anglo-Saxon charms here, solving the theft of livestock). Most of the therefore only a selection of works extant charms are recorded in large representative of the major seismic shifts in collections of medical texts (such as the the discipline are surveyed below as an Lacnunga and Bald’s Leechbook), but a overview. I will demonstrate a context-based substantial number (around 45 texts) are approach at work, contrasting it with the recorded in manuscripts that also contain interpretations presented by two of the best religious, legal or miscellaneous material. The examples of the earliest editions of charms to corpus of Anglo-Saxon charms is diverse, highlight the advantages of this methodology. including texts in Latin and the vernacular The charms to be discussed appear in London, that mix verse with prose and make use of a British Library, Royal 2.a.xx, also known as wide range of modes of performance, ‘The Royal Prayerbook’ (s.ix1). including acts of speaking, singing and writing. The diversity of these texts presents a Review of Scholarship challenge to the modern reader, who is The earliest editions of the charms, which separated from these texts by a gulf of a collected, translated and commented on thousand years and vast changes in social, charms from a number of manuscripts, cultural and religious structures. This gap focused on the categorisation of the charms. between the charms and the modern reader is Two of the best examples of this period in

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charm studies are Felix Grendon’s “The categorisations that are removed from – and Anglo-Saxon Charms” (1909) and Godfrid in most cases directly contravene – the Storms’ Anglo-Saxon Magic (1948). Both evidence present in the charms’ manuscripts. editors attempted to classify the charms This search for Anglo-Saxon pagans, led according to their degree of Christianisation, by a scholarly ideology which was centred on focusing on identifying Christian material in the need to discover the origins of charms, the charms in order that the ‘original’, ‘pagan’ persisted well into the 20th century (e.g. charms could be revealed. Grendon and Rosenberg 1966; Weston 1995). All of these Storms were both operating in a scholarly works share the same central characteristic: milieu that was predicated on the basis that it they interpret the charms based on their was possible to reconstruct a lost ‘original’ content, within a scholarly ideology text from extant texts, and that those predicated on value judgements not located in ‘original’ texts represent true, pure pagan Anglo-Saxon culture. That is, their discussion beliefs.1 This approach is problematic because of the charms focuses on the imagery and it relies on the association of several formal processes contained within the charms, properties with ‘pagan’ culture, which are supported by external evidence from other contrasted with the more ‘Christian’ cultures and traditions. For example, in his characteristics of Latin and prose. Vernacular article “The Meaning of Æcerbot” (1966), meter and language are seen as indicators of Bruce Rosenberg demonstrated how the pagan material, whereas Latin and prose are Anglo-Saxon field remedy charm shared read as indicative of Christianisation. While it similarities with texts from ancient cultures is true that many Anglo-Saxon religious texts across the world. However, the Anglo-Saxon are written in Latin, it is also true that legal user of the Æcerbot would not have had texts (such as charters) are often written in access to, for example, Egyptian and Roman Latin, and texts which relate Christian cultural traditions, so any comparisons do not narratives can be recorded in vernacular prose tell us anything about the Anglo-Saxon (such as those poems in the Exeter Book). witness of the charm. Taken collectively, Thus, Grendon and Storms’ binary opposition these examples of content-based scholarship of ‘pagan’ and ‘Christian’ is problematic provide invaluable commentary on the ways because it is grounded in their own academic in which the charms operate and how they environment, which means that they are might have come into being. However, in categorising the charms in terms of standards more recent years a second group of not consistent with Anglo-Saxon values. As is scholarship has emerged. This new movement discussed by Erin Michelle Goeres elsewhere represents a shift away from content-based in this collection, editions frequently excise discussion to a focus on context, seeking to texts from their original contexts: Grendon situate readings of the charms in evidence and Storms are no different. By removing the present in the charms’ manuscripts and in charms from their manuscripts and other Anglo-Saxon texts. This alternative considering them as isolated artefacts, theoretical standpoint stands on the shoulders Grendon and Storms obscure the information of Grendon and Storms’ seminal editions of that allows the modern reader to decode how the charms, relying on them for transcriptions the charms might have been used and and translations in many cases, but allows the performed, and what their significance to the interpretation to be generated from the text Anglo-Saxon reader might have been. In without interference from the values of the order to reconstruct this information, the scholar. editors attempt to categorise the charms in For example, in the article “The Æcerbot terms of criteria that are disconnected from Charm and its Christian User” (1977), any relevant Anglo-Saxon evidence. By Thomas D. Hill moved away from discussing measuring the charms against standards that the charm in terms of its roots in times are not consistent with Anglo-Saxon cultural, previous to Anglo-Saxon England, and social or religious values, Grendon and instead focused on how the charm fits into the Storms generate misleading terminology and religious and social conditions present at the

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time of the charm’s use and recording. Hill that it is not only the manuscripts which thus accorded equal significance to the provide context for charm-usage, but also the ‘Christian’ and ‘pagan’ parts of the charm, wider social and cultural context of charms.3 moving away from regarding this charm as an These context-based approaches, therefore, example of a Christianised pagan text.2 Hill advance on the works of Grendon and Storms interpreted the use of the liturgy in the charm by beginning with a consideration of a as symptomatic of a society in flux, and charm’s content and then expanding their valuable evidence of the social and cultural discussion by relating this evidence to the changes happening at the time of the charm’s texts surrounding the charm. use and recording. The key difference The charms, therefore, are texts that come between Hill and previous scholars is that the with baggage: they are integrated into their charms are allowed to speak for themselves, manuscripts, connected to the surrounding telling a story about their own significance to texts by similar themes, imagery or modes of Anglo-Saxon charmers rather than simply performance. The information that is encoded standing as a bridge between the scholar and a in the texts surrounding the charms is the key lost ‘original’, ‘pagan’ text. Another critical to unlocking the meaning, reception and difference is the awareness of the role modes of performance of the charms; for terminology plays in interpreting the charms. example, if a charm is provided without any While Grendon and Storms make use of terms guidance concerning whether the charm is to such as ‘spell’, ‘sorcerer’ and ‘magic’, in be spoken, sung or chanted, one may turn to accordance with their association of the the surrounding texts in the manuscript for charms with non-Christian, pagan culture, assistance. A charm that is recorded alongside more recent scholars avoid these charged hymns or psalms, for example, might be more terms in preference for a more neutral likely to be sung or chanted than one recorded approach. For instance, more modern scholars among laws and charters. Performance is not tend to use ‘practitioner’ or ‘performer’ rather the only aspect of the charms that is than ‘sorcerer’ or ‘magician’. illuminated by reference to the charms’ This movement away from a focus on context: connections between the charms and paganism to a more neutral approach comes other texts can reveal the function of the hand-in-hand with an upsurge in the charms and the significance of the truncated popularity of referring to the context of and often obscure narratives which form the charms as well as their content. By exploring body of so many Anglo-Saxon charms. The what context can reveal about the content of a ideal approach to the charms, therefore, takes charm, scholars such as Stephanie Hollis account of the metadata encoded in (1997) have been able to uncover information surrounding texts, and is based on reading the about the performance of charms. For charms within their context. This allows the example, Hollis’ discussion of a theft charm modern reader, insofar as is possible, to relates the content of the charms to the other reconstruct the Anglo-Saxon experience of texts in its manuscript, using this textual the charms. However, the easiest way for a relationship to deduce who might have used modern reader to access the texts is via an the charm. Hollis was thus able to uncover edition; the seminal editions of the charms – information about the relationships between and the only recent large-scale studies of the the clergy and laity encoded in the manuscript charms – are Grendon and Storms’works. context of the charm which was invisible to scholars focusing exclusively on the content The Examples under Discussion of the charm and the distinction of Christian The charms in London, British Library, Royal from pagan material. Karen L. Jolly (1996) 2.a.xx, or ‘The Royal Prayerbook’ (s.ix1) are similarly spent the first four chapters of her not accompanied by titles or many book Popular Religion in Anglo-Saxon instructions, and so it is difficult to be certain England exploring the context of elf-charms, of their function or modes of performance; the elf-charms themselves being the topic of this is further confused by the fact that these the fifth and final chapter. Jolly demonstrates charms orbit around a tantalisingly obscure

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Figure 1. Charms 1 and 2, Royal 2.a.xx (© British Library Board; reproduced with permission of London, British Library). apocryphal narrative. Charms 1–4 appear in texts. (The use of ‘+’ as a sign in the text the main body of the manuscript, whereas transcriptions will be addressed below.) Charm 5 is recorded in a 12th-century hand on a flyleaf appended to the end of the Charm 1 (Royal 2.A.xx, f. 16b) manuscript, along with several other charms Rivos cruoris torridi. contacta vestis obstruit recorded at the same time. Transcriptions and fletu riganti supplicis arent fluenta translations of the original text are here sanguinis. per illorum quae siccata dominica accompanied by manuscript images, which labante coniuro sta. Per dominum nostrum. show the spacing and presentation of the

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Figure2. Charm 3, Royal 2.a.xx (© British Library Board; reproduced with permission of London, British Library). By the touch of his garment he impeded flumen pallidum parens flumen rubrum streams of hot blood. By the flowing tears of acriter de corpore exiens restringe tria the suppliant the flood of blood will dry up. flumina flumen crurorem restringentem Through that which was dried up by the nervos limentem cicatricis concuspiente work of the Lord, I order you, stop. Through tumores fugante. Per dominum nostrum our Lord. Iesum Christum.

Let [it] turn back from her between the Charm 2 (Royal 2.A.xx, f. 16b) movement of the ocean, movements of the Ociani inter ea motus sidera motus vertat. stars. Restrain three rivers, a dry river restrige trea flumina flumen aridum vervens [burning], a pale river appearing, a red river

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Figure 3. Charms 3 and 4, Royal 2.a.xx (© British Library Board; reproduced with permission of London, British Library). flowing bitterly from the body. Restrain sanguinis. per illorum venas cui siccato three rivers, a river of blood, desirous of dominico lavante coniuro sta. staunching sinews and pathways of scars, Per dominum nostrum Iesum Christum curing the swelling. Through our Lord Jesus filium tuum qui tecum vivit et regnat in Christ.5 unitate Spiritus sancti, per omnia saecula saeculorum. Charm 3 (Royal 2.A.xx, f. 49–50) By the touch of his garment he impeded + Rivos cruoris torridi contacta vestis streams of hot blood. By the flowing tears of obstruit fletu rigantis supplices arent fluenta the suppliant the flood of blood will dry up.

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Through those veins which were dried up by +in nomine filii resta sanguis.+ in nomine the work of the Lord, I order you, stop. spiritus sancti fugiat omnis dolor 7 effusio a Through our Lord Jesus Christ your son who famulo (-la) dei. N. Amen +In nomine sancte lives and reigns with you in unity with the trinitatis, patris noster. Hoc dic novies. Holy Spirit, for all time. In the beginning was the Word, and the

Word was with God, and the word was God. Charm 4 (Royal 2.a.xx, f. 50) It was in the beginning with God. All things Per dominum nostrum Iesum Christum came to be through him, and without him filium tuum qui tecum vivit et regnat deus in nothing came to be. ‘Gracious God, be kind unitate spiritus sancti per omnia sæcula to me, a sinner, your servant, N’ and do not sæculorum. +IN nomine sanctae trinitatis let a drop of blood fall from the great wound atque omnium sanctorum ad sanguinem of the body. Thus if it pleases the holy Son restringen dum scribis hoc COMAPTA of God and his mother Mary, in the name of OCOΓMA CTYΓONTOEMA EKYTOΠ the Father, stop blood. In the name of the +Beronice. Libera me de sanguinibus deus Son, rest blood. In the name of the Holy deus salutis mei. CACINCACO Spirit flee all pains and outpouring from the YCAPTETE Per dominum Iesum Christum. servant of God N. Amen. In the name of the Christe adiuva + Christe adiuva + Christe Holy Trinity, Pater Noster. Say this nine adiuva + Rivos cruoris torridi contacta times. vestis obstruit fletu rigante supplicis arent fluente sanguinis. Beronice. Libera me de Perspectives from a Content-Based sanguinibus deus deus salutis meae AMICO Approach CAPDINOPOΦIΦIPON IΔPACACIMO. An initial reading of the content of the charms fodens magnifice contextu fundavit alone does reveal some information about the tumulum usugma. domne adiuva. function of the texts. All of the charms Through our Lord Jesus Christ your son who revolve around bleeding, which is explicitly lives and reigns in unity with God the Holy expressed in Charms 4 and 5. Charm 4 asks Spirit for ever and ever + In the name of the God to libera me de sanguinibus [‘free me Holy Trinity and all the saints to stop blood from bloods’], and Charm 5 declares cessa write this: [Greek] ‘Stop the blood from the sanguis [‘stop, blood‘]. Charms 1 and 3, place’. + Veronica. Free me from bloods, O however, imply their function as cures for God, God of my salvation. [ Corrupt Greek bleeding through the repetition of a single phrase telling disease to ‘go away’.] narrative, which also appears in Charm 4: Through the Lord Jesus Christ. Christ help me + Christ help me + Christ help me + + Rivos cruoris torridi contacta vestis obstruit By the touch of his garment he impeded fletu rigantis supplices arent fluenta streams of hot blood. By the flowing tears of sanguinis. per illorum venas cui siccato the suppliant the flood of blood will dry up. dominico. Veronica. Deliver me from blood, O God, thou God of my salvation. [Greek] ‘Having By the touch of his garment he impeded reaped, I established a lofty-roofed streams of hot blood. By the flowing tears of the suppliant the flood of blood will dry up. monument’. [Latin translation of Greek, fodens magnifice contextu fundavit tumulum This narrative tells the story of an unnamed usugma.] Lord, help me. petitioner of indeterminate gender who is healed of bleeding by appealing to an Charm 5 (Royal, 2.A.xx, f. 52) unnamed man, and touching the unnamed In principio erat verum. et verbum erat apud man’s clothing. However, without additional deum et deus erat verbum. Hoc erat in context, several aspects of the narrative principio apud[…]. Omnia per ipsum facta remain unclear: the gender and identity of the sunt et sine ipso factum est nichil. Deus ‘suppliant’ whose bleeding is stopped is not propitius esto mihi peccatori (-trici) famulo clear, and the identity of the man who brings (-la) tuo (-e) N. 7 de eius plaga (t corpore) about the cure is not immediately apparent. amplius gutta sanguinis non exeat. Sic What we can deduce, however, is that the placeat filio dei sancte que eius gentrici charms containing this narrative are probably MARIE. in nomine + patris cessa sanguis. 114

Seven sleepers charm 1: de omnis malo (against all evils)

Seven sleepers charm 2: fac domire (against sleeplessness)

Charm invoking St Blasus: against sore throats1

Blood-charm 5 Charm invoking St Cassius:

Sanctus Cassius minutam habuit (against smallpox)

Figure 4. Charm 5, Royal 2.a.xx (© British Library Board; reproduced with permission of London, British Library). intended to function as cure for bleeding: they are not obvious: we do not know which refer to ‘streams of hot blood’ and a ‘flood of ocean, stars or rivers are mentioned. On the blood’ which are ‘impeded’ and ‘dry up’. other hand, especially when read alongside Charm 2 takes a slightly different tack, using the other four charms, we could assume that not the rivos-narrative but a narrative about the ‘river of blood’ represents bleeding; the ocean, the stars and three rivers (see perhaps the ocean, moon and stars are also above). Again, the referents of the narrative being invoked in order to emphasise the lack

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or disruption of natural rhythms being paths, roads, and mountains, and Job the experienced by the patient. The feminine rivers, and bring you bound to judgment. ablative object ea provides a link between a The Jews hanged Christ. To them came a flowing liquid and natural rhythms. Bleeding great punishment. They did to him the worst and natural rhythms in a female patient imply of deeds. They paid severely for that; they hid it to their own great harm, because they that the problem is connected to menstrual could not hide it. flow, suggesting that the charm is intended to help remedy disruptions to normal menstrual By telling the story of the finding of the flow.6 By relating a narrative which either Cross, the performer hopes that his or her explicitly refers to the stopping of blood or goods will similarly be found and returned; by obliquely invokes the regularity of natural relating the story of the Crucifixion and the physical rhythms and flowing liquids, the subsequent punishment of the Jews performer hopes that their own situation will (according to Anglo-Saxon theology), the reflect that of the narratives. This use of performer hopes that the thief will be narratives – more commonly known as subjected to both divine and worldly sympathetic narratives – to change the punishment. Thus, we can suppose from their situation of the patient is common across the similar content that the blood charms were corpus of Anglo-Saxon charms. Take, for predicated on the same understanding that example, this theft charm (Storms 1948: 204– saying prescribed words could change reality. 206), which relates the loss and finding of the Alongside an understanding of how the True Cross (known to the Anglo-Saxon charms worked, we can also infer how they audience through legend of St Helen, told in might have been performed. The theft charm the poem Elene) and the story of the above contains specific performance Crucifixion (placed in italic font) so that instructions, such as ‘sing over his fetters or stolen goods might be returned and the thief over his bridle’, ‘sing over the footprints’ and punished: ‘light three candles and drip onto the footprints the wax thrice’. The blood charms, Gyf feoh sy undernumen gif hit sy hors sing however, do not make their performance on his feotere oððe on his bridels. Gyf hit sy oðer feoh sing on þæt hof rec 7 ontend ðreo context quite so clear. Charms 1, 3 and 4 candela 7 dryp on þæt hof rec wex ðriwa. contain direct speech in the form of Nemæg hit ðe man na for helan. Gyf hit sy instructions to the blood: ‘I order you stop’. inorf sing on feower healfa ðæs huses 7 æne Charm 5 similarly requires the performer to on middan: address the blood: ‘stop, blood’. Charm 4 Crux Christi reducat; crux Christi per also contains direct speech in the form of an furtum periit inventa est. abraham tibi appeal to God: ‘Free me from bloods, O God, semitas, vias, montes concludat, job et God of my salvation [...] Deliver me from flumina, ad judicii ligatum per ducat · blood, O God, God of my salvation’. This Iudeas Christi crist ahhengon; þæt ‏him com prevalence of direct speech could suggest that to wite swa strangum; gedydon heom dæda the charms are to be spoken aloud. Charm 4 ða wyrstan; hy þæt drofe for guldon; hælon hit him to hearme miclum, ond heo hit na for requires the performer to ‘write this: stop the helanne mihton. blood from the place’, which also suggests that these texts had a performative element. If livestock is stolen. If it is a horse, sing That Charm 4 requires the creation of a over his fetters or over his bridle. If it is physical object directly mirrors the apotropaic other livestock, sing over the footprints and techniques used in the letter of Christ to light three candles and drip onto the footprints the wax thrice. No-one will be Agbar featured earlier in the manuscript; able to hide it. If it is household property, indeed, in order to see more clearly how the sing then on the four sides of the house and charms were to be performed, one must turn once in the middle: to their relationship to the other charms in the May the cross of Christ bring it back. The manuscript. cross of Christ was lost through a thief and This is the sum of all the information that was found. May Abraham close to you the can be gleaned through a content-based

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approach. Interestingly, Grendon does not “glosses, titles, notes and scribbles” (Ker mention these charms at all: the most likely 1957: 317). Gneuss (2001: 79) gives us more explanation for this is that as the texts are in specific details, summarised thus: Latin and do not contain any overtly ‘pagan’  Gospel extracts (Latin) material, he has discounted them from his  The Pater Noster and the Creed (Latin with survey of Anglo-Saxon ‘spells’. Storms Old English [OE] gloss) (1948: 293–294), on the other hand, does  The apocryphal letter of Christ to Agbar include the charms, but refrains from any (Latin) lengthy commentary. He comments only on  Three canticles (Latin with OE gloss) the “magical notions” associated with the  Two charms (Latin) word ‘stop’, and compares the charm to a  Prayers (Latin) Dutch charm of an unspecified date.  A litany (Latin) Unhelpfully, this only tells us that similar  Two creeds (Latin) blood charms have existed in other times and  A note on moonrise (OE) places; it does not deepen our understanding  An exorcism (Latin) of how the Anglo-Saxon witnesses in hand  Two hymns (Latin) operate. If we turn to a context-based  Additions and glosses in OE (s.xi, s.x med) approach, however, it is possible to reveal It is difficult, on first glance, to perceive any information about the operation of the charm thematic links between the items in this and how it might have been performed. I will eclectic collection of texts. The large number begin with a survey of the content of the of prayers and devotional readings (such as blood-charms’ manuscript and how they the Gospels) recorded in this manuscript relate to the charms; I will then discuss how suggest that the compiler’s primary focus was the 10th-century additions to the manuscript, on personal devotion. However, it is possible the 12th-century flyleaf and the appearance of to be more specific about the precise nature of the charms on the page affect our a large swathe of the texts in this collection interpretations of the function and which centre on the theme of spiritual and performance of the charms. physical health and healing. By attempting to

perceive the organising principles the The Content of London, British Library compiler followed when creating this Royal 2.a.xx manuscript, it is possible to situate each London, British Library Royal 2.a.xx, individual text within this larger thematic otherwise known as The Royal Prayerbook, is structure, and in doing so, to reveal more a collection of prayers, hymns and Gospel about each text’s purpose and function. readings which has been dated to somewhere Charms have been traditionally interpreted between the second quarter of the 8th century as texts for healing physical ailments by and the first quarter of the 9th century (Gneuss invoking supernatural forces (Storms 1948: 2001: 79). It forms part of a closely related 5–6), but Royal provides a context which group of manuscripts known as the ‘Tiberius suggests that Charms 1–5 should, instead, be group’, which consists of Royal 2.a.xx, read as texts integrated into a programme of Harley 7653 (a fragamentary prayerbook, personal devotion and spiritual and physical sometimes known as the Harleian protection from harm. In Religion and Prayerbook), Harley 2965 (The Book of Literature in Western England 600–800 Nunnaminster) and Cambridge University (1990), Patrick Sims-Williams gives an Library Ll.1.10 (The Book of Cerne). interesting account of the contents of Royal Although each of these manuscripts share which allows us to situate the charms in the striking similarities in content, Royal is the context of a manuscript focused on physical only one to contain, in addition to the shared and spiritual healing (Sims-Williams 1990: material, an apocryphal letter from Christ to 273–327). To paraphrase Sims-Williams’ Agbar, a hymn by Sedulius and a fascinating description of the contents, it is possible to 12th-century flyleaf.7 The contents of this identify six clear sections in Royal: manuscript are varied, described by N. Ker as

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1. Texts which emphasise Christ and the saints’ Agbar, which, as Christopher Cain (2009: power to heal 170, 176) asserts, acted as a prophylactic  Gospel lections amulet throughout the Middle Ages. The  Comfortable words letter protects the holder from spiritual and  Miracles physical harm (Cain 2009: 177); particularly  Powers pertinent are the lines which echo the 2. The healing power of physical objects comfortable words in the first section and  Letter from Christ to Agbar once again bring together spiritual wholeness 3. Songs in praise of God with physical health:  Magnificat, Benedictus and Benedicte 4: Charms ‘… as it is written, whoever believes in me  Charm 1 and 2 will be saved…. Whether in hail or thunder, ––––––––a break in the manuscript –––––––––– you will not be injured, and you will be free  Oratio sancti Hygbaldi abbatis from all dangers…’ (Cain 2009: 177.)

–––texts that do not engage the theme of healing––– The third section, an oratio, reinforces the 5. Charms theme of healing, and seems to have been  Charms 3 and 4 6. Hymn relating healing miracles adapted from rites for the visitation of the sick  Carmen Sedulii (Sims-Williams 1990: 296). It consists of the 7. Flyleaf Magnificat, Benedictus and Benedicte, and  Charm 5 (along with two Seven might seem jarring in the lack of specific Sleepers charms for sleeplessness/fever, mention of health and healing. The last text, a charm for sore throats and a charm however, seems to be included on the grounds against pox) of its relationship to the first five chapters of the Vulgate Daniel, in which the Song of the The first section begins with Gospel lections Three Children is related: three young men which consist of the beginning and ending of (Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego, also the first three Gospels, as well as the called Ananias, Azarias and Misael) are cast beginning of John. The function of these into a furnace by Nebuchadnezzar and sing a excerpts seems to have been to stand for the song praising God, resulting in their survival whole of each Gospel, and in doing so, to of the fire. This song – also known as the channel the apotropaic or healing Canticum trium puerorum – was excerpted characteristics associated with the Gospels into one text, now more commonly referred to (Sims-Williams 1990: 292). In Anglo-Saxon as the Benedicte, and, as in the Anglo-Saxon England, this function was particularly period, is used in the liturgy of Easter services associated with the opening of John; this and in the saying of psalms (Farrell 1972: 5– excerpt bookends the whole manuscript, 6). The Canticum is also related to the Old appearing not only in the first section of the English Daniel, recorded in the Exeter Book manuscript, but also in Charm 5 on the 12th- (Exeter Cathedral Library, MS 3501), in century flyleaf (In principio erat verum [‘In which the song is rephrased and reordered, the beginning was the Word’], and so forth). but retains the sense of the Canticum as it The first section of the manuscript continues appears in the Vulgate. The relationship with the ‘comfortable words’, which promise between the Canticum or Benedicte and ‘salvation to all believers’; narratives of healing is reinforced by the appearance of part Jesus’ healing miracles; and texts which of the Latin text (placed in italic font) in an describe the powers (particularly to heal) Anglo-Saxon charm against elf shot (Storms given to the saints by Christ (Sims-Williams 1948: 248–249): 1990: 290–291). This entire first section is suffused with the belief that faith can heal, Gif hors ofscoten sie, nim þonne þæt seax þe and that Jesus and the saints will effect the þæt hæfte sie fealo hryþeres horn and sien healing of the spiritual and physical ailments III ærene næglas on. Writ þonne þam hors of the faithful. on þam heafde foran Cristes mæl þæt hit The second section takes up the theme of blede: writ þonee on þam hricge Cristes mæl protection from harm: a letter from Christ to and leoþa gehwilcum þe þu ætfeolan mæge.

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Nim þonne þæt winestre eare, þurhsting fletu rigantis supplices swigende. Þis þu scealt don: genim ane arent fluenta sanguinis. girde, sleah on þæt bæc þonne biþ þæt hors By the touch of his garment he impeded hæl. And awrit on þæs seaxes horne þas streams of hot blood. By the flowing tears of word: Benedicte omnia opera domini the suppliant the flood of blood will dry up. dominum. Sy þæt ylfa þe him sie, þis him mæg to bote This verse8 tells the story of an unnamed

If a horse is elf-shot, take that knife of which woman healed by Christ of an issue of blood the handle is made from the fallow horn of which is found in both Biblical and an ox, and let there be three brass nails on it. apocryphal accounts. When the tale is Then inscribe a cross on the forehead of the recounted in the Gospels, Matthew, Mark and horse, so that blood flows from it, then Luke do not provide the name of the woman, inscribe a cross on the back of the horse and but they do clarify her gender, a fact which is on all limbs into which you can prick. Then missing from the R-verse in the hymn and the take the left ear and pierce it in silence. This charms: you shall do: take a rod, beat the horse on the back – then it is cured. And write these Just then a woman who had been subject to words on the horn of the knife: blessed be bleeding for twelve years came up behind all the works of the Lord. Whatever elf has him and touched the edge of his cloak. She taken possession of it, this will cure him. said to herself, ‘If I only touch his cloak, I will be healed.’ Jesus turned and saw her. This is followed by the first of the charms, ‘Take heart, daughter,’ he said, ‘your faith Charm 1 and 2, after which follows a break in has healed you.’ And the woman was healed the collection – a leaf is missing – and the from that moment. (Matthew 9:20–22.)9 next text (Oratio sancti Hygbaldi abbatis) begins on a new quire (Sims-Williams 1990: Matthew’s account of this healing is one of 299). According to Sims-Williams, the theme the ones chosen to be included in the Gospel of healing does not recur until the next two lections at the beginning of the manuscript, charms (3 and 4) on folio 49, the final entry in which again reinforces the relationship the manuscript (an abecedarian hymn known between Royal as a whole, the Carmen as Carmen Sedulii de natale domini nostri Sedulii, the charms and the miraculous lesu Christi) and the charms on the flyleaf. healing of this woman. The name of the Clearly, the theme of health and healing is woman, however, is not provided; for this we the reason why the charms were included in must turn to apocryphal accounts of the this eclectic collection; but there are more healing. The Acta Pilati reveals that the name specific ways to connect the charms to their of the woman is Beronice, Bernice or textual neighbours. The strongest link Veronica (Sims-Williams 1990: 299). The between the charms and the other texts in earliest association of Veronica with bleeding Royal ties together Charms 1–4 and the is in The Gospel of Nicodemus, which can be Carmen Sedulii, confirming the purpose of found in both Latin and Old English (Scheidwieiler 1973: 511): the charms and explaining why someone might have added yet another blood charm on And a woman called Bernice crying out the flyleaf two hundred years after the from a distance said: ‘I had an issue of blood manuscript was first compiled. The Carmen and I touched the hem of his garment, and Sedulii tells the story of Jesus’ life, with each the issue of blood, which had lasted twelve years, ceased. four-line stanza beginning with a letter of the alphabet. Beginning with A and running all This woman, Beronice/Veronica, plays a the way through to Z, the hymn relates the range of roles in Biblical and apocryphal miracles of Christ. The miracle appearing in tradition: an unnamed suppliant, a saint, a the R-verse is also found in Charms 1, 3 and patron of serious wounds and bleeding, who 4: first appears as, according to Mary Swan

Rivos cruoris torridi (2002: 23):

contacta vestis obstruit

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a princess called Berenice who receives the linguistic features in the manuscript and image of Christ, and gradually Berenice marginal ownership inscriptions reinforce the [also becomes known as Veronica and] gets feminine context. Brown notes that the identified with the woman in the gospels miracles quoted in the first part of Royal who is cured of bleeding by Christ after she involve ministrations to women (Peter’s touches the hem of his garment. mother-in-law, Jairus’ daughter and Swan also comments on Veronica being the Veronica), and the litany has a similarly woman who wipes Jesus’ face on his way to feminine focus. The gender of the the Crucifixion (2002: 24). Apocryphal compiler/user/owner cannot be definitively accounts also tell us that Beronice/Veronica decided, but the argument that the charms healed the Emperor Tiberius. As both the could be read as a cure for menorrhagia are healed and a healer, Veronica is a perfect fit persuasive: Charm 2 invokes the regularity of for the interests of the compiler of Royal, natural rhythms, while Charm 4, as the most whose choices of texts demonstrate his/her comprehensive witness, explicitly invokes interest in physical and spiritual healing. Veronica as an intercessor for a person Charms 1–3 do not provide a name for the suffering from bleeding from the topos. What suppliant in the narrative, but Charm 4 makes is definitely clear from the appearance of the relationship between the rivos-narrative Beronice/Veronica is that she situates the and Veronica explicit in the expressions charms in the context of Royal’s function as a ‘write this: [Greek] ‘Stop the blood from the manuscript of personal devotion. Veronica is place’. + Veronica’’ and and ‘By the touch of told by Christ, ‘daughter, your faith has his garment he impeded streams of hot blood. healed you’; like Veronica, perhaps the By the flowing tears of the suppliant the flood compiler/user/owner of Royal also hoped that of blood will dry up. Veronica.’ belief, faith and devotion would bring about She is invoked directly after the R-verse, his/her physical and spiritual wholeness. The which helps to confirm the connection surrounding texts, therefore, can illuminate between the suppliant and Veronica, but she the function of the charms and their is also mentioned after the Greek phrase significance within the collection. which asks for blood ‘from the place’ to be stopped. As Sims-Williams (1990: 299) notes, The 10th-Century Additions to Royal topos was a sexual euphemism in Greek Sims-Williams does not consider the medical texts, which might suggest that additions, which I would suggest serve to Charm 4 – if not 1–3 as well – are intended to confirm Royal’s status as a book of healing remedy excessive menstrual bleeding. Sims- even two centuries after its original Williams uses the mention of compilation. Charms 1 and 2 have perhaps the Beronice/Veronica as a basis for extrapolating most interesting relationship with their outwards to the use and ownership of the surrounding texts, in that they are also manuscript as a whole. He suggests that the accompanied by additions to the text. The compiler of Royal might have copied texts additions can be seen in Figure 1, with from an exemplar which had a female owner, translations provided below: which might indicate that the compiler/user/owner of Royal was also Prayer: Maiestatem tuam female: Maiestatem tuam, Domine, suppliciter the prominence of charms to ease bleeding exoramus: ut, sicut Ecclesiae tuae beatus that refer to Christ’s healing of Beronice (the Andreas Apostolus exstitit praedicator et woman afflicted by the flux of blood) rector, ita apud te sit pro nobis perpetuus suggests that some of its material was drawn intercessor. Per… from a compilation made for female use. We humbly entreat Thy majesty, O Lord: (Sims-Williams 1990: 282.) that as the blessed Apostle Andrew was once Michelle P. Brown (2001: 56–57) has a teacher and ruler of Thy Church: so he supported this reading, suggesting that several may be a constant advocate for us before Thee. Through... 120

Prayer: Domine Ihesu [...] heht his lichoman hales brucan: ‘Ne scealt ðu in henðum a leng Domine Ihesu Christe adoro te in cruce searohæbbendra sar þrowian.’ ascendentem deprecor ut ipsa crux liberet Aras þa mægene rof, sægde meotude þanc, me de angelo percuciente. Domine Ihesu hal of hæfte heardra wita. Christe adoro te in cruce vulneratum Næs him gewemmed wlite, ne wloh of deprecor te ut ipsa vulnera remedium sint hrægle anime mee. Domine Ihesu Christe adoro te lungre alysed, ne loc of heafde, in sepulchro positum deprecor te ut mors tua ne ban gebrocen, ne blodig wund sit michi vita. lice gelenge, ne laðes dæl, Lord Jesus Christ, I adore you ascending the þurh dolgslege dreore bestemed, Cross: I entreat you that the cross will ac wæs eft swa ær þurh þa æðelan miht liberate me from the striking angel. Lord lof lædende ond on his lice trum. Jesus Christ, I adore you wounded on the (Andreas 1466b–1477.)

Cross: I entreat you that that wound will be [God] bade him enjoy his body in the remedy for my soul. Lord Jesus Christ, I soundness: ‘Thou shalt by no means suffer adore you laid in the tomb: I entreat you that pain any longer amid the slights of foemen’, your death will be my life. Then the brave man in might rose up, healed These additions, dated to the 10th century from grievous torments, gave thanks to God (Gneuss 2001: 79), fit neatly into the thematic from his prison; his fairness was undefiled, context of Royal as both invoke stories of neither was the fringe rent violently from his robe, nor a lock from his head, nor a bone miraculous healing. The first addition to the broken, nor a bloody wound of hurtful kind, folio on which Charms 1 and 2 are recorded nor a part of his body wet with gore from a invokes St Andrew, who, in apocryphal blow; but again as erstwhile by the glorious histories was involved in many miraculous power he was offering praise and was sound healings. For example, Gregory of Tours tells in his body. (Gordon 1957: 206.) us that oil that flows from Andrew’s tomb is used to heal the sick, and relics from his tomb The first addition, therefore, is closely linked protect a man from fire. In Gregory’s account, with the central theme of Royal: the health Andrew is described explicitly as a doctor: and healing of the soul and body and the role of faith in this process. Unlike the first How long, most beloved [brothers], will you addition, the second addition does not invoke tire yourselves with pointless effort by St Andrew explicitly, but is related to the requesting medicine from men, when there liturgy used for the veneration of Andrew. is here a celestial doctor who has often The addition consists of part of Andrew’s healed the diseases of ill people, not by address to the Cross before his crucifixion. administering [medicinal] herbs but by the application of his own power?’ ‘And who,’ This prayer is used in the antiphons forming they asked, ‘is this doctor?’ The bishop part of the service performed on Andrew’s replied, ‘He is Andrew, an apostle of feast day (Walsh 1981: 104), and also appears Christ.10 in the Regularis Concordia as part of the service of the Veneration of the Cross to be In this way, St Andrew is linked with the performed on Good Friday (Conner 2008: concept not only of the medical healing of 45). In the addition, the performer asks for physical ailments, but also with the healing of intercession from Christ for eternal salvation the body and soul through the power of and relief from a wounded soul – just as the Christ. This concept links directly to the first appeals to Andrew – and invokes Christ’s message of the rivos/Veronica-narrative in miraculous rescue from corporeal death. Both Charm 1: ‘take faith, daughter; your faith has of these additions, therefore, were added by a healed you’. The Anglo-Saxon reader of scribe who understood the function of Royal Royal might also have been familiar with the as a book which allows the performer to figure of St Andrew as represented in the Old appeal for the health of their body and their English poem Andreas, in which Andrew is soul: again, the reader is struck by how himself healed by Christ: Christ’s comforting words to Veronica

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connect all of these text into one coherent example, the Cassius-type charm appears in collection: ‘take heart, daughter; your faith two other Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, London, has healed you’. British Library, Cotton Caligula A.xv, f. 125 (Cockayne 1863: 295) and London, British The 12th-Century Flyleaf Library, Harley 585, f. 191v (Storms 1948: Although the flyleaf was added as much as 315–316), thus indicating that it was enjoying four hundred years after the original popularity. Furthermore, the Cassius-type compilation of the manuscript, and up to two charm in Caligula A.xv also appears hundred years after the addition of the alongside a witness of the Blasus-type charm marginal texts, a clear link between the on f. 125v, though the Blasus-charm is in a flyleaf, additions and main text can be different form to that in Royal (Cockayne perceived. This is entirely elided by Storms, 1863: 295). The Blasus and Cassius charms, who does not make it clear that the in therefore, were circulating together from the principio-type charm (referred to here as 10th century (as evidenced in Harley 585) Charm 5) in fact has a completely different through the 11th century (in Caligula A.xv) to manuscript context to the other blood charms the 12th-century witnesses in Royal. That the with which he collects it. The image in Royal scribe is aware of this could suggest Figure 4 (above) shows how the flyleaf texts that s/he has an interest in charming, and has should be separated, and indicates the been drawn to Royal because s/he is aware of function of each text. At first glance, this its status as a book of healing. appears to be a fairly motley collection of A similar relationship is also shared by the charms: a general prophylactic against harm seven sleepers charm and Charm 5, both of along with charms against sleeplessness, sore which appear in London, British Library throats, bleeding and small pox. However, all Cotton Vitellius C.iii on f. 83v. This these charms are intended to remedy physical manuscript is dated to the middle of the first ailments, and as such they reflect closely an half of the 11th century and is an exclusively aspect of the focus of Royal. Furthermore, all medical manuscript, containing. for example, the flyleaf texts invoke a Biblical or the Old English translations of the Herbarium apocryphal figure to act as intercessor: the of Apuleius and the Medicina de seven sleepers, St Blasus, the Trinity and St Quadrupedibus. Vitellius C.iii demonstrates Cassius all echo the role played by Veronica that these charms were known from 1025 (the in the blood charms, and reinforce the earliest date for Vitellius) until the end of the message of the first part of the manuscript 12th century (the date of the hand on f. 52r of (that Jesus imbued the saints with the power Royal). The rather different contents of Royal to heal). Furthermore, just as Veronica is a and Vitellius could show that the flyleaf natural choice for the blood charms – having, scribe is someone who has an interest in both in some of her incarnations, been healed of spiritual and physical healing, and is drawing bleeding herself – the seven sleepers, Blasus these interests together by recording charms and Cassius are also logical figures to choose. known from more physical healing contexts – The sleepers are sleeping, and are therefore such as Harley 585 and Vitellius C.iii – in a ideal for a sympathetic narrative in a manuscript more concerned with the health of sleeplessness charm; Blasus healed a boy of a the soul. sore throat, and Cassius was known as a healer of those with smallpox (see Hopkins The Appearance of the Texts on the Page 2002: 100–102). All of this suggests that the and the Performance of the Charms flyleaf scribe understood the context provided Sims-Williams (1990: 299) suggests that the by Royal, and added texts that would be sign ‘+’, where it appears in the charms, consistent with the contents. Even more indicates that the sign of the Cross should be interesting is the fact that the charms on the made. Storms does not make mention of this, flyleaf appear to have shared pre-existing perhaps because the explicitly Christian relationships, suggesting that the flyleaf nature of such an action would contradict his scribe was copying texts in active use. For representation of charms as magical; however,

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it is certainly the case that the appearance of process of a scab forming after a wound: that the charms on the page is crucial to our is, the phrase could be read as ‘having cut, a understanding of the charms. The act of self- scab forms’. This could be describing the signing is well attested in Anglo-Saxon process desired by performance of the charm. England by sources both recommending the Other aspects of the charms that seem to practice and showing it in action (see Jolly prompt the appearance of the Cross are: 2005: 218; Johnson 2006: 83; McEntire 2002: 1. The rivos-narrative: see Figure 3 above, in 95–96): the Cross as a weapon in the battle which the decorated R in Charm 4 is against sickness, physically enacted through preceded by an upright cross symbol. The self-signing, can be seen in hagiographic and story of the healing of the bleeding other religious sources and is an extra tool at woman/Veronica is so central to the the disposal of the Anglo-Saxon Christian charms that it makes sense that the scribe concerned with bodily and spiritual healing. It would have marked out each instance as a would be an ideal method for the scribe of significant phrase. Royal to ensure the efficacy of the charms, 2. Criste adiuva: see Figure 6 below, in which which are intended to secure both physical the sequence “Christe adiuva + Christe and spiritual healing. The symbol of the Cross adiuva + Christe adiuva +”, is accomapnied by an upright cross on the far in Royal appears to indicate that the reader left. This symbol is clearly given should self-sign, the performance of which in prominence as it is taller than letters in the itself would boost the efficacy of the words text. Much like the rivos-narrative, this being spoken. Let us look more closely at phrase is central to the charms: it allows examples of this in action in the charms. the performer to appeal to Christ for direct Throughout Charm 4, the sign of the Cross intervention. The importance of the phrase, appears above the Greek words as seen in therefore, could be the reason it is Figure 5: accompanied by the Cross, but the mention of Christ could equally have prompted the need to self-sign.11 3. The name Beronice: see Figure 4 above, with a cross symbol preceding the name on

Figure 5. Enlarged image from Figure 3 above, the left. Much like the rivos-narrative, the presenting a notation of the cross above each word. mentions of Veronica are central to the charms. Furthermore, perhaps the charmer This example is representative of what wishes to mark out her holiness by self- happens to each Greek word in the text, on signing, or is boosting the efficacy of every occasion. As the image shows, there are invoking her story. some faint markings above each of the Greek 4. The phrase in nomine: see Figure 3 above, phrases which resemble a cross with an in which a cross symbol precedes the extended right arm, or a long cross turned on ornamental ‘in’ on the left. The In Nomine to its side. There are several reasons why the phrase seems to have retained its scribe might have taken this decision. First of importance – and the requirement of being all, the non-vernacular or Latin language accompanied by a Cross – in the later charms recorded on the flyleaf. See Figure might have prompted the scribe to mark these 4 above, in which the cross symbol appears phrases out as significant through the use of a above the ‘o’ of nomine in Charm 5. visual symbol. Secondly, perhaps these phrases were highlighted because of their centrality to the charm’s efficacy. The first

Greek phrase (part of which is shown in the image above) translates as ‘stop the blood Figure 6. Enlarged image from Figure 4 above, showing a section from the sequence “Christe adiuva from the place’, a phrase which sums up the + Christe adiuva + Christe adiuva +”. purpose of the whole charm. The second Greek phrase translates as ‘having reaped, I Thus, the desire to self-sign and/or to use the established a lofty-roofed monument’. It is Cross as a marker of significance and a possible that the second phrase relates to the symbol of protection suffuses both the main-

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text and flyleaf blood charms. This could Notes indicate a further link between the main scribe 1. Here, I would like to direct the reader to Helen F. and the flyleaf scribe, both of whom regard Leslie’s paper “Younger Icelandic Manuscripts and Old Norse Studies” (this volume) in which the the Cross-symbol as necessary to the blood techniques and problems inherent in material charms. As might be expected, however, philology are discussed. Charm 2 – which is the most mysterious of 2. Exemplified by Storms, who says of Æcerbot that the charms – is not accompanied by the same “although Christian influences [...] have penetrated Cross-symbols as the other charms. Instead, it everywhere, the old heathen practices and units have kept their ground and remain recognisable is accompanied with a faint looped Cross (or throughout” (Storms 1948: 178). chi-ro: see Figure 1 above, next to the words 3. See also Karen L. Jolly (2005), in which she parens and exiens). Without examining the considers the impact of conversion, popular appearance of the charms on the page, the Christianity, medicine, liturgy and folklore on the reader is left ignorant of the potential interpretation of the elf-charms. 4. See Til-Perez et al. 2001: 267–269. performance context of the charms: without 5. The Latin is problematic; many thanks to Frog for recognizing that the sign of the Cross is his assistance here. woven throughout each of these texts, the 6. Again, thanks to Frog for his assistance with the reader will miss out on a key piece of interpretation of this text. evidence. Storms (1948: 292–293) does not 7. See Gneuss 2001: 29, 76, 78 and 79 for a summary of the contents of Cerne, Nunnaminster, Harleian represent each of these crosses, and so the and Royal respectively. reader accessing the charm through his 8. Found in the Carmen Sedulii; see Sedulius [n.d.]. edition does not have all the evidence needed 9. Cf. the version in Mark 5:32–34: “A large crowd to interpret the charms fully. followed and pressed around him. And a woman was there who had been subject to bleeding for twelve years. She had suffered a great deal under Conclusions the care of many doctors and had spent all she had, In this article, I have demonstrated the yet instead of getting better she grew worse. When development in approaches to charms over she heard about Jesus, she came up behind him in the last hundred years. Traditionally, charms the crowd and touched his cloak, because she have been regarded as relics of a pagan past thought, ‘If I just touch his clothes, I will be healed.’ Immediately her bleeding stopped and she that have been diluted by Christian redactors felt in her body that she was freed from her who were uncomfortable with their pagan suffering. At once Jesus realized that power had content. This interpretation is a direct gone out from him. He turned around in the crowd consequence of excising the charms from and asked, ‘Who touched my clothes?’ ‘You see the their manuscript context. On the contrary, people crowding against you,’ his disciples answered, ‘and yet you can ask, “Who touched more recent approaches have shown that me?”’ But Jesus kept looking around to see who when charms are read in their manuscript had done it. Then the woman, knowing what had context, it is made clear that the charms were happened to her, came and fell at his feet and, integrated into the religious and daily life of trembling with fear, told him the whole truth. He their users, sitting quite happily alongside said to her, ‘Daughter, your faith has healed you. Go in peace and be freed from your suffering.’ Cf. prayers, laws and herbal recipes. This case also the version in Luke 8:42–48: “As Jesus was on study of the blood-charms in Royal his way, the crowds almost crushed him. And a demonstrates not only that the charms were woman was there who had been subject to bleeding woven into the themes of the main text of the for twelve years, but no one could heal her. She manuscript, but that they also shared came up behind him and touched the edge of his cloak, and immediately her bleeding stopped. ‘Who thematic, formal and functional similarities touched me?’ Jesus asked. When they all denied it, with later additions to the manuscript. The Peter said, ‘Master, the people are crowding and close relationships between Royal, the charms pressing against you.’ But Jesus said, ‘Someone and the additions revealed by a context-based touched me; I know that power has gone out from study show that the charms were integrated me.’ Then the woman, seeing that she could not go into the programme of personal devotion and unnoticed, came trembling and fell at his feet. In th th the presence of all the people, she told why she had physical healing used by not only the 8 -/9 - touched him and how she had been instantly healed. century compiler, but at least two later users Then he said to her, ‘Daughter, your faith has as well. healed you. Go in peace.’”

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10. See van Dam 2004: 26–30. Beginning life as part Grendon, Felix. 1909. “The Anglo-Saxon Charms”. of the apocryphal tradition, the Actae Andreae was Journal of American Folklore 22: 105–214. first recorded in the fourth century by Eusebius, and Hill, Thomas. 1977. “The Æcerbot Charm and its was condemned as non-canonical by various Christian User”. Anglo-Saxon England 6: 213–223. Church figures. However, despite this attitude Hollis, Stephanie. 1997. “Old English ‘Cattle-Theft towards the apocrypha, Ælfric himself refers to the Charms’: Manuscript Contexts and Social Uses”. passions of apocryphal apostles. These apocryphal Anglia 115: 139–164 figures appear in orthodox liturgical texts (such as Johnson, D.F. 2006. “The Crux Usualis as Apotropaic calendars: Andrew’s feast day, according to Bede, Weapon in Anglo-Saxon England”. In The Place of is November 30th) and would be relatively familiar the Cross in Anglo-Saxon England. Ed. C.E. in Anglo-Saxon England. See Walsh 1981: 97–122 Karkov, S. Larratt Keefer & K.L. Jolly. for a discussion of the sources and use in liturgy of Woodbridge: Boydell Press. Pp. 80–95. the Andrew legend: see also DeGregorio 2003, Jolly, Karen. 1996. Popular Religion in Late Saxon 449–464. England: Elf Charms in Context. Chapel Hill: 11. Counter to these arguments, however, is the fact University of North Carolina Press. that the Cross appears twice in the Christe adiuva Jolly, Karen. 2005. “Cross-Referencing Anglo-Saxon unit to separate the first and second repetition, and Liturgy and Remedies: The Sign of the Cross as the second from the third: that is, the Cross does not Ritual Protection”. The Liturgy of the Late Anglo- appear once for every mention of Christ, as one Saxon Church. Ed. H. Gittos. London: Boydell might expect. It could be the case, therefore, that Press. Pp. 213–243. we are simply seeing a way of separating out these Hopkins, Donald R. 2002. The Greatest Killer. repetitive phrases, to avoid any confusion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Ker, N. 1957. Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Works Cited Anglo-Saxon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Andreas. Text quoted from Labyrinth Library. McEntire, S. 2002. “The Devotional Context of the Available at: http://www8.georgetown.edu/ Cross Before A.D. 1000”. In Old English departments/medieval/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/a2. Literature: Critical Essays. Ed. R.M. Liuzza. Yale, 1.html. Accessed 2.4.2012. London: Yale University Press, New Haven Brown, Michelle P. 2001. “Female Book Ownership London. Pp. 392–403. and Production in Anglo-Saxon England: The Olsan, Lea. 1992. “Latin Charms of Medieval England: Evidence of the Ninth-Century Prayerbooks”. Lexis Verbal Healing in a Christian Oral Tradition”. Oral and Texts in Early English: Studies Presented to Tradition 7: 116–142. Jane Roberts. Ed. C. J. Kay & L. M. Sylvester. Olsan, Lea. 1999. “The Inscription of Charms in Amsterdam, Atlanta, Georgia: Rodopi. Pp. 45–63. Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts”. Oral Tradition 14: Cain, Christopher. 2009. “Sacred Words, Anglo-Saxon 401–419. Piety, and the Origins of the Epistola salvatoris in Payne, Joseph. 1904. English Medicine in the Anglo- London, British Library, Royal 2.a.xx”. Journal of Saxon Times. Oxford: Clarendon Press. English and German Philology 108: 168–189. Remley, Paul G. 2002. “Daniel, the Three Youths Carnahan, Timothy R., Academy for Ancient Texts. Fragment and the Transmission of Old English Available at: http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/ Verse”. Anglo-Saxon England 31: 81–140. latinlibrary/sedulius.solis.html. Accessed 4.2.2009. Rosenberg, Bruce. 1966. “The Meaning of Æcerbot”. Cockayne, Oswald. 1863. Leechdoms, Wortcunning, The Journal of American Folklore 79: 428–436. and Starcraft of Early England. 3 vols. London: Scheidweiler, Felix. 1973. “The Work and Sufferings Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green. of Jesus: The Gospel of Nicodemus, Acts of Pilate Conner, Patrick W. 2008. “The Ruthwell Monument and Christ’s Descent into Hell”. In New Testament Runic Poem in a Tenth-Century Context”. The Apocrypha I: Gospels and Related Writings. Ed. Review of English Studies 59: 25–51. Wilhelm Schneemelcher. London: SCM Press. DeGregorio, Scott. 2003. “Þegenlic or flæsclic: The Sedulius, Cælius. [n.d.] A Solis Ortus Cardine. In Old English Prose Legends of Saint Andrew”. Academy for Ancient Texts. Ed. Timothy R. Journal of English and German Philology 102: Carnahan. Available at: http://www.ancienttexts.org 449–464. /library/latinlibrary/sedulius.solis.html. Accessed Farrell, R.T. 1972. “Some Remarks on the Exeter 4.2.2009. Book Azarias”. Medium Ævum 41: 1–8. Sims-Williams, P. 1990. “Prayer and Magic”. In Gnuess, Helmut. 2001. 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Middle English Texts. Ed. E. Treharne. Essays and Walsh, Marie M. 1981. “St. Andrew in Anglo-Saxon Studies 55. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer. 19–41. England: The Evolution of an Apocryphal Hero”. Til-Perez, Guillem, Manuel Tomas-Barberan & Carlos Annuale Mediaevale 20: 97–122. Magri-Ruiz. 2001. “Saint Blaise, Patron Saint of Weston, L. M. C. 1995 “Women’s Medicine, Women’s Otorhinolaryngology”. Journal of Laryngology and Magic: The Old English Metrical Childbirth Otology 115: 267–269. Charms”. Modern Philology 92: 279–293. van Dam, Raymond. Trans. 2004: Gregory of Tours: Glory of the Martyrs. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.

The Sensitive Interpretation of Emotions: Methodological Perspectives on Studying Meanings in Written Life-Historical Narratives Pauliina Latvala, University of Helsinki, and Kirsi Laurén, University of Eastern Finland

The Folklore Archives at the Finnish in analyzing the written narratives vary Literature Society have, for many decades, depending greatly on the aims of research, on organized national collection projects that aim the vantages of different disciplines, and on at archiving oral history in a written form: the character of the texts under discussion personal experiences, collective memory and (Lakomäki et al. 2011). As Finnish interpretations of the past and ‘writing from sociologist Pertti Alasuutari puts it: below’.1 These collection projects exploit If you study structures of meaning, the way people’s expressive writing capabilities on a in which people conceive and classify voluntary basis. This means that ordinary things, the material has to consist of text people are asked to write about a certain where they speak about things in their own theme and tell their experiences in their own words, not of questionnaires where they words. Usually the calls for entries are have to answer predefined questions by published in newspapers and distributed choosing predetermined alternatives. among the Folklore Archives’ network of (Alasuutari 1995: 42.) 2 regular respondents. These thematic writing In the writing collection projects of the collections are usually targeted at the general Finnish Literature Society, only questions are public. As a result, the archive has brought posed, not predetermined alternatives. together written data that includes life- Typically, the questions are formulated for historical narratives and biographies as well example as following: What is everyday life as opinions, memories, experiences and views 3 like at borderlands? Write about your own on numerous different themes. (See also experiences (“Everyday life at Borders” Peltonen & Salmi-Niklander 2007: 5–6). collection, 2010);5 or How were political Writing collections have been considered themes discussed in the family? (“Politics and extremely rich and interesting among Power Games” collection, 2006–2007).6 numerous researchers from different fields, Writing enables the expression of thoughts including the authors of the present article. and interpretations stemming from personal Although the data lacks a face-to-face experiences and the surrounding environment. dimension, the texts are provided with People write about various events but also background information about the authors and about emotions connected to various events. the researcher may, if he/she desires, contact Although experiences and emotions are the respondents and conduct additional 4 personal, different people may experience the interviews. same general pattern (Strauss & Quinn 1997: The methodology for the study of writing 122; Laurén 2006; Latvala 2006). There are collection materials has not been developed as some themes that come up in different thoroughly as the methodology, for collection projects even though they were not interviews, especially in oral history research specifically highlighted. In Finland, the (on fieldwork and dialogic methodology see reinterpretation of experiences from the 1918 also Sykäri, this volume). The methods used Finnish Civil War and the Second World War 126

(WWII), especially from the perspectives of 2006b: 230). The concept of “reflective women and children, has been popular among contextualisation” (Liljeström 2004) refers to the archive’s respondents. the overlapping contexts between personal This article concentrates on some experiences and official history. Historian methodological challenges concerning the Jorma Kalela (2012: 69) notes that popular detailed reading of written individual histories tell us what to remember and how or memoirs sent to the archive. More precisely, what to regard as insignificant. In addition, it presents how emotions connected to war the question of why one should remember or memories can be approached from a textual forget should also be asked, because the surface by applying some strategies familiar narrators take a stand on that as well (Heimo from the method of close reading (on which & Peltonen 2012). It is here that the emotional see Lentricchia & DuBois 2003). A few years expressions come to reflect the meanings of ago, the journal Oral History (2010) the whole process of internalizing in memory. concentrated on emotions in a special issue Older respondents of the writing collections Emotions, opening the paradigm change, the participate in the unofficial historiography by so-called ‘affective turn’, in the humanities writing about their childhood experiences of and social sciences. In that special issue, the the past, which are often rooted in senses: relationship between memory and emotions is they remember what they heard, saw, smelled highlighted by examining non-verbal and and felt. Senses have been regarded as a verbal cues of shame, joy, anger, love and trigger to remembering (Hamilton 2011: 220; pain, as well as ‘emotion talk’ in oral history see also Stanley 1996). As Alistair Thompson interviews. The present article tackles the (2011: 437) has pointed out, individual same process, but in written memoirs. remembering also includes embodied Because wartime narratives typically memory. This paper asks whether the include fearful memories, expressions of fear narratives of fear are considered meaningful (an emotional state that involves intense by the authors and if so, why? Why should negative feelings) and fear’s connotations are fear not be forgotten but retold by writing? demonstrated. Subjectively, fear takes The research material used here has been somewhat different forms; however, it gathered through written collection projects denotes a dread of impending disaster and an and deals with the written experiences of a intense urge to defend oneself. (Öhman 2010: borderland and political culture with a closer 710.) Although we use written war memories look at everyday history.7 Different as an example, the methodological aspects of collections always have titles. The “Politics the sensitive interpretation of emotions are and Power Games” collection project (2006- certainly also accessible for oral interviews. 2007) aimed at gathering memories, These perspectives are useful also for other narratives and experiences of political culture areas of studies, especially studies of oral at the grassroots level.8 Emotions were not history concentrating on trauma/refugee/ mentioned. In spite of that, this collection diaspora narration, but also sensory project proved that politics were seen as a ethnography, women’s history, memory very emotional theme. Why is that? One studies, sociology, ethnology, anthropology answer lies in Finland’s own background, the and even medieval studies. Close reading has political history surrounding the Finnish Civil been developed in critical literary studies, but War (1918), WWII and the rich oral history in recent years folklorists have applied it for tradition concerning these years. In addition, analyzing the life-history texts and memoirs today in a globalised world, our emotions are (in Finland especially Pöysä 2006a; 2011: in fed by the powerful (do-it-yourself) media general see Kain 1998; Mansfield 2008). and image-based politics. Active e-citizens produce new political representations all the Reflective Contextualisation time by reporting actual riots, posting on The elements that are to be presented in a life- YouTube, making funny cartoons etc. (Cf. historical narration depend on the narrator, Stevenson 2003.) In this context, people in narrated theme and the time (see also Pöysä Finland found it important to concentrate on

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particular aspects of the emotional past and of Emotions as a Trigger for Style, Form and present political culture, producing “personal Genre political histories.” Retrospective Typically, the writers and their forms of remembering usually ended by concluding writing do not follow the conventions of with the reasons why politics do or do not scholarly ethnographic writing or interest the respondent. institutionalized literature but rather combine The “Living at Borderlands – Experiences the conventions of biography, life history, of Everyday life at Borders” writing documentary and fiction writing (Laurén collection project (2010), was oriented to 2011: 111). From the folkloristic point of gather material about personal experiences of view, it is crucial to open the text carefully everyday life at Finland’s four national and observe that culturally characteristic borders (Finland shares borders with Russia, forms of narration may be used, or that their Sweden, Norway and Estonia). Several conventions may be intentionally avoided (see themes were mentioned in the invitation to e.g. Bruner 1991; Gullestad 1996: 5–6). In write in order to help people recall their addition, the text may incorporate various memories and to motivate them to folklore or literature genres. The writer may participate.9 Most of the authors are from place, for example, proverbs, historical North Karelia or South Karelia, near the narratives, poems, jokes or even dreams in the Finnish–Russian border. About three-quarters middle of life-history narration in order to of the texts deal with everyday life in the emphasize particular views and feelings (see eastern border region of Finland, and the rest Heimo & Peltonen 2012: 42). For example, of the texts deal with other (southern, western lyric poetry and poems are in themselves a and northern) borders. The themes of the texts natural way to impress emotions (Timonen vary, for example, from wartime memories, 2004: 401). Furthermore, narrators may trading and other contacts with neighbors practice self-censorship when writing about across the borders, to travelling in emotional issues. Strong emotions like fear, neighboring countries. Along with the for example, could be so sensitive that a personal features, historical, political, cultural narrator feels it impossible to express them and social events are reflected in many ways explicitly. This kind of unclassified or mixed in the texts. Emotional expressions, especially style of narration makes these writings the senses of fear, are intertwined with the interesting, yet at the same time, it makes narration of war events. The most radical them challenging material for researchers. changes reflected in most of the texts When the written document is on the happened during WWII, when the eastern researcher’s table, she/he has to disentangle border of Finland changed and thousands of the various types of literally expressed Finnish families had to leave their home emotional experiences that reveal the writers’ districts. The new border was geographically life and people’s sense of the past in order to and politically constructed, but the Finns did develop a reading and analysis. These texts not accept it culturally or individually. (Paasi make it appear that the emotions attached to 1999: 13; Lähteenmäki 2009: 11.) Finns the past (time and place) are more important nursed a grievance because of the lost regions than the past events themselves, and that the and, most of all, because of their fallen feelings actually define what kind of textual relatives and friends. The eastern border was artefact will be produced in terms of its form, close until the 1990s, and interactions style and structure. between ordinary Finns and Russians were Careful and detailed reading is useful in minimal until that time. Now the border is order to understand how writers creatively more open and there is lively interaction take advantage of different genres, utterances across it. and concepts for their own purposes. The method of close reading typically focuses on the four following separate but interrelated levels of reading: linguistic, semantic, structural and cultural. At the linguistic level,

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the reading pays attention to linguistic [...] instead of regarding emotions as elements like vocabulary and grammar, and to primarily individual, inner, and private, we the writer’s individual style. (Mansfield 2009; might begin to think of emotions as also social, outer and public. (Goffrey 1993: 36.) Kain 1998.) This article seeks to develop a combination of these levels by introducing the This makes an interesting combination in emotional level of the texts. In life-history remembering. The construction of both texts, the accurate linguistic level might get individual and public emotions takes place in less attention than the structural, semantic and the memoirs written for an archive. The texts cultural levels. Nevertheless, the linguistic portray the relationship between authors and level does reveal many important features, the theme as well as the tone the authors take like the use of the first or third person or and the reader-images they have (Charmaz changes in grammatical tense. Intentionally or 2000: 528; Latvala 2004: 161–162; see also unintentionally, the narrators make choices Sheridan 1993). In her study on women’s regarding, for example, genre, voice, use of memoirs collected by the National Board of monologue or dialogue, and intertextuality. Antiquities, ethnologist Pia Olsson (2011: 49) The respondents utilize the semantic notes that the narrators sometimes consider associations of these choices, and various their own experiences common to other other narrative means, in order to make their women as well. In the present research study, experiences and emotions understandable in a this kind of assumption can also be observed: particular time and place, connecting their a certain shared position, such as gender, age lives to cultural frames. (See e.g. Hanks 1989; or other commonality, such as experiences of 1996, Fairclough 2003: 47–49; Squire 2008.) wartime in childhood, is regarded as an Sensitive reading at the emotional level important element for emotional narration. reveals unofficial and individual accounts of The writers may consider personal the past based on emotions as narrative experiences more valuable if they can provide templates of ordinary people (cf. Wertsch not only a personal, but a collective voice for 10 2000; 2002: 93). Life-history texts with an memory organization. emotional tone can reshape our understanding Typically, the authors are capable of of historical and political changes and affirm expressing themselves clearly and historical consciousness, particularly constructing a coherent series of narratives. concerning the experiences of those groups Strong emotions linked to meaningful that have been left out of official history episodes of life during the war are hard or (children, women and other marginalized impossible to forget. Reminiscing and groups). Reaching subjective experiences and narrating about, for example, hopeful, finding the meanings of tacit knowledge in pleasant or frightening things in one’s different kinds of communication may take a personal life can spark off either delightful or researcher to a whole new level of painful emotional memories. Asking about interpreting the culture. Sensitive reading of certain things can be a trigger for emotions narrated emotions connected to past events that have been covered up. (See Kaivola- opens up cultural meanings more thoroughly Bregenhøj 2003: 336–340.) In addition, than concentrating only on interpreting remembering can activate emotional narration events. in participants, without even asking them, as As was mentioned above, thematic writing in the above introduced collections. Memories collections usually contain dozens or and narratives dealing with the violence, hundreds of texts. These texts are best poverty and injustice in times of war, as well understood as culturally framed, as in everyday life on the Finnish–Russian contextualised discourse, where the personal border, may function as a platform for emotions concerning the past (in this case political discussion. The fate of a grandfather, especially wartime) are expressed as a part of husband or neighbor as a lost soldier, a continuing negotiation of meanings (cf. political prisoner or as an executed rebel George M. Goffrey 1993: 36–37). According cannot be forgotten. This kind of negative to Goffrey: political heritage (cf. Meskell 2002) can be 129

reversed, instead forming a controlled may depict that they feel – or have felt – fear positive heritage by not forgetting the difficult regarding the border. The unknown Russian past but by taking possession of it. Emotions (or earlier Soviet Union) side of the border make those memories meaningful by arouses suspicions. For the Finns, the explaining why history happened as it did, Russians have been neighbors for centuries; and how it affected subsequent generations. they had been friends, and during the wars, Many narrators remember that their parents’ they were forced to become enemies. The hatred for the elite encouraged them to attend beginning of WWII changed everything, to political life and to try to make a including the relationship to the border. difference. Concerning her frightening wartime The Finnish Civil War (1918) and the memories from when she was a teenager (13 Second World War (1939–1945) are still years old) in North-Eastern Finland, one 86 essential and emotional historical and political year old woman writes: themes in Finnish oral history, even as carried Vuonna 1939 oli erittäin sekavaa. Kaikki over generations (see Andrews 2007 on suuret maat halusivat yhä suuremmiksi. Oli ‘political narratives’). Oral history does not Stalin, Hitleri, Mussoliini ja monet muut. only reinforce grand narratives of the war, but Saksa valloitti Puolan muutamassa päivässä. it also buttresses counter-narratives Baltian maat joutuivat tulilinjaan. Me (Bamberg & Andrews 2004), reflecting pelättiin ja vapistiin Neuvostoliiton interpretations from alternative to unilateral, naapureina. Kesällä isä osti radion. Siitä male-centered history writing (see also Näre kuunneltiin uutiset, aamu- ja iltahartaus. & Kirves 2008). In memoirs, women act as Pelko-levottomuus jatkui. (From the active, fearless heroines during the war, in the “Everyday life at Borders” collection, SKS, traditional positions of male protagonists. The KRA Rajaseudun elämää, 2010, our emphasis.) value of the individual’s standpoint has broadened the social process of history- It was very confusing during the year 1939. making and assured that public, often- Every big country wanted to become even idealized discourse on war will be challenged bigger. There were Stalin, Hitler, Mussolini (Latvala 2005; see also Kalela 2012: 67). and many others. Germany took over Poland History-telling situates at the collective and in a few days. The Baltic countries were put on the firing line. We were afraid and personal levels, from which the history trembled as a neighbor of the Soviet Union. becomes closer (see Portelli 1997: 24–31). That summer, father bought a radio. The news, morning devotions and evening Interpreting Memories of Past Events and prayers were listened to on the radio. Fear Emotions and restlessness was ongoing. The closer the themes are to an author, the more emotional narratives will usually By telling that it was confusing during the become as they incorporate various shades of year 1939, the author locates the past events meaning. By studying personal emotional (the beginning of war) and time through her expressions it is possible to reveal deep and emotions. In this text, the author implies that sometimes-veiled information about culturally the people (“we”) living near the Soviet shared knowledge and its meanings. In life- Union shared the sense of fear. She uses history texts, cultural elements may come out passive forms – there were; countries were; after a long period of time as people reminisce were listening; was ongoing – when about their lives from childhood to the present describing the fearful atmosphere on the day. By writing about hidden opinions and threshold of the war. Thus, the author deep emotions that are otherwise not suitable emphasizes that she was not the only one who to express, the writers make themselves and was afraid but that the feeling was shared. In their perceptions visible (Myerhoff 1995: her narration, she combines the global 231). political situation with the individual When reminiscing about everyday life at everyday life of her family at the border. the Finnish-Russian border today, narrators Radio was an important vehicle to get

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information about the outside world, and in enemy are emotions that come up from many addition, to have religious consolation. stories of the aged narrators. A sense of fear is Everybody felt fear and restlessness, but clearly expressed in most of the stories but hearing the latest news on the radio prepared sometimes it is expressed indirectly, or even them for the worst. In those days, radio was hidden. Sensitive and detailed reading helps not common in every household, and things to perceive delicate expressions, as can be connected to the time when the radio was seen in the following example, in which one bought are remembered well. The new radio of the respondents, a 79-year-old woman, and moments of listening to it together with writes about her wartime memories and the family members remains long in the memory period after the war. Her story stresses happy on a physiological basis. Thus, the senses are events in her life near the eastern border and remembered and articulated as memory the periods of her life when she was an (Hamilton 2011: 221–222). evacuee in Sweden and Denmark. She did not After WWII and during the era of the Iron mention the sense of fear during or after the Curtain, Russians and their way of life war. However, there is a sudden, short became unfamiliar to Finns; old neighbors utterance that exposed the sense of fear that and enemies became almost complete obviously affected her life for a long time: strangers to each other. The border was For me, the most unforgettable thing about closed, dividing two nation-states and two the events of the world was the death of cultures. By telling about everyday life on the Stalin in 1953. I felt surprisingly relieved!11 eastern border of Finland, Finnish narrators simultaneously unburden their thoughts about Although the war was over and life near the Russians. By a sensitive reading of the Finnish-Russian border was peaceful, people expressions of emotions in border narratives, retained fears and suspicions about Russia it is possible to observe the culturally shared and its leaders. and sometimes contested meanings Finns In contemporary Finnish society, the have given to the war, and to the eastern eastern border does not evoke fearful feelings border and to Russians as well. among younger generations as much – yet this In the border narratives, WWII and its demographic was not well represented in the consequences for life in the border region are collection because younger people did not a sensitive topic – especially for those respond to the call. Russia has opened. People narrators who experienced the wartime from both sides of the Finnish–Russian border themselves. War memories can include events now travel across it and meet each other; they that involve traumatic experiences. By go shopping, do business, and so on. recalling and narrating sensitive topics and However, the border still exists and is strictly emotions, narrators simultaneously give guarded, and politically, culturally and meanings to their experiences. (See Hydén socially, the eastern border is still the most 2008.) The writers of the border texts are controversial of the Finnish national borders. generally older and some of them can still The border narratives also include themes remember their life in lost home areas in where emotional expressions are frequently Karelia. Even though the narrators were small mentioned although they are not concerned children or had not yet been born during the with wartime. The geographic location next to wars, they can remember their parents, Russia is commonly connected to narration. relatives and other peoples’ stories concerning Finland has often been placed as mentally that period. Furthermore, many younger distant from Russia, although the writers have relatives who were born and geographical proximity is a fact. Russophobia lived in lost areas. Consequently, among these has been maintained near the border in people, the border theme of the writing particular. The fear of Russia has roots going collection summoned up many emotional back centuries into history (see for example memories. Strong emotions and stories heard Karemaa 1998; Vilkuna 2005; Lähteenmäki were carried from one generation to the next. 2009, Raittila 2011), and this has been Senses of fear and the threat of the Soviet retained in oral communication by telling

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stories, proverbs and singing songs in the 20th to analyze, they are valuable for researchers in and 21st centuries, especially in the context of the field of cultural studies. individual families. The life-history experiences of leaving a homestead in Karelia Summary or Petsamo as a consequence of the loss of This article focused on the subjective these regions in WWII reinforced these bitter dimension of the past: the expressions of emotions. Of course, for many Finns, the personal experiences and multidimensional ideological connection to communism in the emotions expressed in written narratives. past has also provoked a positive attachment Scholars may have various features and and admiration towards the eastern neighbor. themes in mind while examining similar types The children noticed this too by a visual of partially life-historical and so-called sense, by seeing a meaning of a political ‘archived oral history’ texts. In spite of this, symbol, the red flag: there is a need for developing shared methodological perspectives and analytical Punainen lippu pelotti ja hämmensi minua, lasta. En voinut ymmärtää vieraan valtion tools in order to examine these individual and ihailua, jossa kaikki olisivat onnellisia ja emotional texts. Concentrating on the tyytyväisiä. Eikö oikeuden ja emotional level of the texts and reading them tasavertaisuuden puolesta voi marssia sensitively helps us to observe the continuum yhteisen siniristilipun alla? (“Politics and of historical meaning making, and to Power Games” collection, SKS, KRA, POL, understand the relationship between 2006–2007, our emphasis) individual experience and history. We hope to

The red flag scared and confused me as a provide new points of view for the child. I could not understand how people interdisciplinary discussion on cross- admired the foreign state, where everyone is generational narration on wartime experiences said to be happy and pleased. In order to and for the debate on the role of emotions in gain justice and equality – couldn’t we just oral history interviews and other kind of march under the united blue cross flag? memory texts.

In this example, the respondent conveys her In different cultures, people talk about thoughts and the visual environment, political emotions in different ways and, in addition, symbols as seen when a child, but it must be give various interpretations to their emotions. observed that there is another voice as well. How negative or positive emotions are Remembering predicates her past expressed is connected to the moral and interpretation: at the moment of writing, the behavioral orders of the community. (Siikala “foreign state” refers to Russia, and “happy 1998: 165.) However, recognizing emotions is and pleased people” to the idea of rarely an exclusive goal. After perceiving communism. In the very next sentence, asking them, a researcher must read the text carefully for unity under the Finnish flag challenges the in order to extricate the multi-layered, essential ideology of communism. Can contextualized meanings and reasons behind emotions be understood best both as these expressions. The war memories individual and personal on the one hand and illustrate narrators’ use of emotional as collective and cultural on the other, against expressions in various ways when reminiscing a historical context, as a part of inter- about fear connected to the past and how they subjective power process? (See Harding 2010: interpret the past in today’s perspective. 33–35.) When studying experiences and Through the careful and sensitive reading of emotions in texts – or in oral interview – we the texts, it is possible to examine the have to understand the unique perspective of affective turn and reveal the individual as well the life-historical (and autobiographical) self: as social and cultural meanings that people even if people experience an event together, give to different things and occasions. they may remember and respond to that event The politics connected to questions of differently (Fivush 2001: 35; Bela 2007: 25– wartime and borders are highly emotional 27). Even though emotions are far from easy themes in Finland, owing partly to Finland’s political history. Even today, younger

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generations are interested in the past, 6. SKS, KRA, Politiikkaa ja valtapeliä, 2006–2007. especially in the fates of their grandfathers 7. In recent years, the authors of the present article have done research on the following writing and grandmothers or other relatives during the collections: “The Great Narrative of the Family”, 1918 Civil War and WWII. There is a 1997 (Latvala; organized by the Folklore Archive collective need to understand why we, as a of the Finnish Literature Society with Finland 80 nation or at least as some part of it, have Years Committee, the Finnish Local Heritage inherited a particular negative heritage and Federation and the Kalevala-Women’s Association; “Mire Story”, 1998 (Laurén; organized by the strong emotions like guilt, shame, fear and Finnish Peatland Society and the Union for Rural hate. These mental processes can be seen in Education and Culture); “I Found Myself from the the different oral history collections that we Forest” (Laurén; organized by Metsäkustannus have been examining (“The Great Narrative Ltd); “Politics and Power Games”, 2006–2007 of the Family”, “Politics and Power Games”, (Latvala; organized by the Folklore Archive of the Finnish Literature Society with the Union for Rural “Living at Borderlands”). In addition, the Culture and Education Finland 90 Years, the emotional narratives are crucial in those Coalition of Finnish Women's Associations, the collections that reveal the Finns’ thoughts Women's Working Group for Rural Development, about their eastern neighbors, the Russians. the Finnish Social Science Data Archive), “Living The writing collections and research projects at Borderlands”, 2010 (Laurén; organized by the Finnish Literature Society and the Academy of mentioned above are part of the Finnish Finland project Writing Cultures and Traditions at archived oral history research tradition, which Borders, http://www.uef.fi/wctb). has become popular during the last 20 years. 8. In the “Politics and Power Games” collection This research tradition focuses on not only the campaign (2006–2007), Finns were able to write past but also on present and future meanings freely on the following themes: and hopes as well. (Pöysä & Timonen 2004:  Politics in the family and home region  Possibilities for social or political action during 242.) It has been the task of this article to different period offer a closer look into a relationship between  Voting and candidates personal experiences, emotions and meanings  Gender and power of history-narration that has its continuum in  Youth and politics the present-day environment, both the mental  Political parties, power and challenges to and physical. politics  Politics, regionalism and civil society Each theme had several questions, but the writers Acknowledgements: Pauliina Latvala would like to were free to leave out any questions. The 203 thank the Finnish Cultural Foundation (2011), respondents (128 women, 75 men) sent a total of Kordelin Foundation (2008–2009), KONE Foundation 2,333 pages to the archive. The youngest narrator (2006–2007) and Finnish Literature Society (2006 was born in 1986, the oldest in 1914, but the partly/co-operation with the Folklore Archive during most commonly the respondent was born in the the “Politics and Power Games” collection pro ect) for 1920s to the 1940s. funding post-doctoral research on political oral 9. In the “Living at Borderlands” collection campaign history. Kirsi Laurén would like to thank the Academy (2010), Finns were able to write freely on the of Finland’s “Writing Cultures and Traditions at following themes: Borders” pro ect.  The way of life and traditions at borders (past and present) Notes  Borderlands in the eyes of children and young 1. ‘Writing from below’ refers to writings by people people who are not professional authors (such as amateur  Dwelling, working, school, going to and authors). studying at borders 2. The Folklore Archive has about 200 voluntary  Fears concerning the national borders respondents living all around Finland.  Local perspectives on wartime 3. See information about collecting folklore on the  Nature in borderlands web-pages of Finnish Literature Society at  Trespassing and crimes at borders http://www.finlit.fi/english/kra/coll_guide.htm.  Importing groceries and goods 4. Somewhat similar collection projects have also been organized outside Finland, for example in Estonia  Language questions at borders (see Jaago 2003), Norway (see Gullestad 1996), The collection was organized in a relatively short and cf. the Mass Observation Project in Britain (see period (1 April to 30 September 2010). Altogether Sheridan et al. 2000). 36 people (22 women and 14 men) participated in 5. SKS, KRA, Rajaseudun elämää, 2010. the collection and sent 261 pages of text. The age of

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Tiina Peil. Approaches to Culture Metodologisia kysymyksiä. Ed. Outi Fingerroos, Theory 1. Tartu: Tartu University Press. Pp. 107– Riina Haanpää, Anne Heimo & Ulla-Maija 119. Peltonen. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Lentricchia, Frank, & Andrew DuBois (eds.). 2003. Seura. Pp. 221–244. Close Reading: The Reader. Durham: Duke Pöysä, Jyrki. 2011. “Lähiluku vaeltavana käsitteenä ja University Press. tieteidenvälisenä metodina”. In Vaeltavat metodit. Liljeström, Marianne. 2004. Useful Selves: Russian Ed. Jyrki Pöysä, Helmi Järviluoma & Sinikka Women’s Autobiographical Texts from the Postwar Vakimo. Kultaneito 8. Joensuu: Suomen Period. Helsinki: Kikimora. Kansantietouden Tutkijain Seura. Pp. 331–360. Lähteenmäki, Maria. 2009. Maailmojen rajalla: Pöysä, Jyrki, & Senni Timonen. 2004. “Kuinka ahkerat Kannaksen rajamaa ja poliittiset murtumat 1911– muurahaiset saivat kasvot? – Henkilökohtaisen 1944. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. tiedon paikka arkiston keruuohjeissa”. 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Mass-Observation as Autobiography”. Journal of Öhman, Arne. 2010. “Fear and Anxiety: Overlaps and the British Sociological Association 27(1): 27–39. Dissocations”. In Handbook of Emotions. Ed. Siikala, Anna-Leena. 1998. “Onko savolaisilla Michael Lewis, Jeannette M. Haviland-Jones & tunteita?”. In Amor, genus & familia: Kirjoituksia Lisa Feldman Barret. New York: Guilford Press. kansanperinteestä. Ed. Jyrki Pöysä & Anna-Leena Pp. 709–729. Siikala Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Olsson, Pia. 2011. Women in Distress: Self- Pp. 165–192. Understanding among 20th Century Finnish Rural Strauss, Claudia, & Naomi Quinn. 1997. A Cognitive Women. European Studies in Culture and Policy 11. Theory of Cultural Meaning. Cambridge: Berlin: LIT. Cambridge University Press. Paasi, Anssi. 1999. “The Political Geography of Stevenson, Nick. 2003. Cultural Citizenship: Boundaries at the End of the Millennium: Cosmopolitan Questions. 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Design Poiesis: An Inquiry on Outcomes in the Use of Method and Methodology Thelma Lazo-Flores, Ball State University

Design ‘poiesis’ transcends its meaning in own, with the scholars’ standpoints design practice and research engagement significantly borrowed from material culture through the process of creative, critical, and studies and the social sciences. consequential thinking. Design is discussed in In a recent examination of the multiple this narrative within the parameters of responses on the relevance of research in concept, context and communication in the American design education (Manfra 2005), practice of interior architecture. In the study the results of which appeared in the popular of the built environment, interior architecture design magazine Metropolis, 65% of college is the intersection of two fields – interior department chairs stated that research is design and architecture. Poiesis, integrated and required in their curriculum. etymologically derived from Ancient Greek, About 81% of designers in the professional conveys “to make or to transform, a process practice claimed that they are regularly of reconciling thought with matter and time, engaged in research. Further, out of the or man with his world” (The Free Dictionary: nineteen research topics in the survey, the s.v. ‘poiesis’). Martin Heidegger also uses the three major interests ranked by both faculty term to articulate the “bringing-forth”, as in and practicing designers were sustainability, the presentation of knowledge. His use of the materials, and design methodologies. The word parallels that of his habitual reference to revelation of design methodology being the the term Dasein or ‘being there’, which third most popular topic in creative research denotes a viewpoint or perspective (Stokes sparked the present inquiry into the subject, 2010: 123). particularly the designers’ interpretation and Design has no single definition that is application of the terminology. This paper parallel to that of literature and the arts, music also intends to increase awareness of the fact and theater, and crafts and manufactured that interior architecture applies strategic products. Design exists significantly research approaches guided by the use of everywhere (Hauffe 1998) and permeates our method and methodology, and has thereby everyday world through food, fashion, evolved into a science of the built habitat, and our new dependency on environment (Poldma 2009: 272). information technology. Indeed, design was in Given this premise, this narrative seeks to a realm of its own in the early 20th century, investigate the creative process within the but can no longer remain isolated in the same design-oriented journey of the identification manner (Heskett 2002; Buchanan 2001; Jones of the problem, the search for inspiration, and 2009: 77; Julier 2005: 72). the exploration of alternatives established by It is believed that applied art emanated a method or methodology. The subsequent from the development of autonomous art articulation of potential outcomes – like a during the industrial revolution of the early tangible design solution – is reflected either in 20th century. The terms ‘design’ and a spatial design or a research paper. The ‘designers’ were widely used only in the objectives of this paper are all interconnected second half of the last century in allusion to by a cluster of questions. First, is design in the “creators of form” (Polster et al. 2004: 6; interior architecture in a realm of its own Clark & Brody 2009: 293). Likewise, design when it involves the three dimensions of scholars also emerged from the discipline of creative, critical, and consequential thinking art history (Hauffe 1998: 7). Design studies processes, and are these processes defined by eventually evolved into a discipline of its certain methods or methodologies? Secondly,

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if design is about making sense of things practice, the complex needs of mankind are through a particular thought process, are the challenged by a plethora of distinct results derived from a specific creative requirements and considerations; these approach or by critical inquiry? Are the present equally diverse nuances that can be outcomes consequentially informed by index addressed with the appropriate use of method criteria, or the use of evidence-based structure or methodology. The questions and issues in and so forth? Thirdly, should the method or this paper were elucidated by an extensive methodology useful in the creative process be review of design literature on the subject. influenced by humanities or social sciences? Research directions and recommendations by What about in critical inquiry or in design educators and practitioners were consequential thought processes? Fourth, compared and contrasted in the process. The which of the two (method or methodology) is analyses and syntheses were undertaken with more widely used in design or directed the adaptation of methodological holism towards the creative process and critical (Bothamley 2002: 343), complemented by the thinking? Which of the two is more results- intention of mapping the facts and structures oriented or process-oriented? Fifth, should of the subject. As such, the discussion has one employ a methodological holism or a been divided into six parts: the realm of methodological individualism in the creative design, dimensions of creative practice and approach? Which is more focused on research engagement, comparison to particularity or generality? Lastly, how humanities and social sciences, design essential is the theory in the method or outcomes from the use of method and methodology as one frames the context of methodology, multiple dichotomies in the inquiry, structures the objectives, gathers the design process, and the functional role of data, and delivers the intended results? The theory. framing of all these questions reflects the As part of an extensive inquiry into the author’s view that there is still more to learn application of method and methodology to about the function of methods and interior architecture, the following attempts to methodologies as employed in the interior illuminate several of the questions posed architecture discipline. It is more than just the earlier. plain intersection of theory and practice or the fusion of concept and context that generates Realm of Design results. Oftentimes, we not only undermine The comprehensive review of the established the significance of design strategies, we also frameworks of design indicates that there are decimate the value of decisions made behind at least two common realms of inquiry (Rowe a particular thought process. Likewise, we 1987: 153). One realm points to interior continue to ignore the complexity of the architecture as an inference of man’s design process that occurs between the interpretative relationship with his spatial creative approach, critical inquiry, and the world. This is validated by the activities and integrity of consequential reasoning. events that occur within man’s given space. Specialized literature like in psychology and Methodology social studies argue for the correlation of Interior architecture is a complex discipline of thoughts, actions and feelings to room the late 20th century that has evolved to configurations, and through the natural resolve various specific needs of humanity in expression of the placement objects and relation to its immediate environment furniture. This is further manifested by the (Heskett 2002; Coles & House 2007), which appropriate selection of materials and the includes the typologies of spaces for living, choice of construction and fabrication working or playing. The discipline as it methods using them. The other realm is the developed over time demands consideration intrinsic interconnection of various elements of many significant facets of the users’ health, within the interior architecture itself. The welfare and safety. As we explore the realm philosophy of interior space has always been of design poiesis in the interior architecture subsumed in the larger spectrum of

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architecture and structural design decodes particular constructed identities or (Abercrombie 1990). Studies assert that the nurtured qualities of an individual or of character of the interior can be construed by collective users. the volume of the enclosed envelope or space, Literature about design has taken the number of fenestrations (as in doors and multifarious shifts and contexts since the windows), and the multiple geometries that 1980s. These are manifested through the legitimize the functional needs and desirable varied and divergent discussions on product wants of the people inhabiting their spaces. In aesthetics and consumerism, on feminist both realms, we focus on “grounding the perspectives and ethical practices, and on the meaning” (Rowe 1987: 154), as we express business of professional services and the sense of place and the sense of being. sustainable initiatives (Whiteley 1993). Such Method and methodology can further manifestations can be illustrated by the elucidate both of these in manifold ways and ambient use of color and light to intensify in more meaningful dimensions. The interior commodity aesthetics and increase of the built environment signifies several consumption patterns; by the transitions of human dimensions that extend to the kitchen design from feminine allusions to organizational, physiological, social, non-gender-specific features; and in the psychological and cultural representations increasing sensitivity in the use of non- (Malnar & Vodvarka 1992). It is essential renewable materials and development of post- that, as we investigate both realms, we consumer materials for product design and identify issues and solutions within a defined furniture. As design transforms its realm to premise of rationality. cope with the major transitions in society and The field of interior architecture is a technology, so the creative, critical, and complex layer of activities with the locus of consequential thinking processes that are serving and satisfying the needs of humanity linked with design problem-solving evolve in (Coles & House 2007: 170). The creation of parallel motion. The inspiration and inhabited spaces needs not only to be significant intentions take shape and direction addressed in terms of pragmatic strategies. from an established method or set of Spatial articulation is related to systems that strategies embodied in a larger methodology. can define individual performance or that can In Lynch’s concept of mapping the establish interdependent units that propose environment, one method defines the ‘paths’ organizational structures (Heskett 2002). We and ‘nodes’ along with other elements known need to be mindful that we are designing and as edges, districts and landmarks. Paths ‘bringing-forth’ an interior environment, not represent channels of movement while the only for the expression of human comfort and nodes connote the areas of intense activity for the attainment of performance (McGowan & Kruse 2004: 25). Contextually, productivity, but also for the sensual a designer needs to sensitively weigh the satisfaction of the spatial experience. As the relationships of elements in space planning design of interior architecture is woven with for the intended users. In contrast, if the space society’s patterns of living, there is a need to is a historic property, the plethora of tasks generate the many facets of utility and connected to historic preservation significance within spaces. There should be methodology will include “identification, an understanding that objects have intended documentation, recordation, designation and messages or communicated metaphors for protection” (McGowan & Kruse 2004: 35). interconnection and interaction; Galen Cranz Both method and methodology are rich in (2000: 23) states that chairs in ancient times theoretical constructs that informs a focused symbolized the relationship of power and strategy to create design solutions, reflect on supremacy between the ruler and the common many design issues, and provide a holistic people. In contemporary times, we purchase reassessment of the interior environment’s furniture to symbolize our hedonist lifestyles raison d’ etre. or otherwise imply our small town- contentment. The choice of furnishings also

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Dimensions of Creative Practice and Research Engagement Within the multiple layers of activity in interior architecture, the strategy of identifying the design problem is crucial. The intentions associated with the problem need to be clear and connected, the thought process and design engagement must be complete and comprehensive, and the adapted procedural approaches should provide relevancy and rationality (Margolin 1995a; Poldma 2009; Papanek 1995; Rowe 1987). The four aspects – users, function, activities and relationships – are at the core of considerations in interior architecture planning. In cultural anthropology, we examine parallel factors known as human societies, language and gestural expressions, social practices, politics of representation and patterns of authority (Kuper & Kuper 1996: 156) in order to distinguish ethnicities, while in the field of cognitive psychology, we investigate similar indicators to determine the rational, behavioral and reflective circumstances that establish multiple conclusions (Ktz 2006: 382). In the creative process, we attempt to make sense of things: while engaging in critical thought, we seek definitive answers to an inquiry on the subject matter. However, readers of Gilles Deleuze’s writings will acknowledge the postulate that “to think is to Figure 1a–b. Some Conceptual Outcomes Using a Method of Imaginative Inquiry (Image credits from create and that other means of creation do not Design Fundamental Cohorts 2010 and 2011, and exist” (Grosz 2001: 56). Distinctions between Studio 2 Cohort of 2008). creative and critical thinking somehow exist and can be explained further in the many The other stages previously stated are defined variants of the design process for the interior by a strategy that establishes a procedural environment. In the linear process of design, approach (Rowe 1987) or a process of which goes through various “stages of engagement (Dohr & Portillo 2011), both inspiration, identification, conceptualization, having a closer connection to the context of exploration and refinement, definition and methodology. In the procedural approach to modeling, communication, production” design thinking, the problem needs to be well- (Aspelund 2010: 1; Box 2007: 82), some defined, specifically clarifying the essence of could simply choose to evolve or conclude goals, as well as the means and directions to within the inspirational stage and consider the pursue the outcomes and solutions. end result as simply one’s imaginative act of Oftentimes, the linear approach in space creation (Aspelund 2010: 18). Clear examples planning indicates a direct approach to size of this occur in flimsily designed spaces that and scale by enhancing volumetric features. show insubstantial connections to the tenets This approach parallels the idea in logistical of utilitarian functionality, but which economics where we treat prevalent nevertheless can be considered a pleasurable constraints with the equation of maximum installation, which lends character to the values at minimal costs (Bothamley 2002: space (see Figure 1). 314). On the other hand, a procedural

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approach follows more technical or sequential oftentimes leads to outcomes that are phases that break down into facts, goals, successful rather than the reverse. needs and other issues. A number of doctrines Interdisciplinarity is deeply encouraged in or theories which are also referred to as design teams, as it creates a diverse range of ‘singular methods’ are linked to the premise expertise that brings in multiple facets of of the procedural approach such as knowledge and interpretations of issues. The associationism, the Wurzburg school of inclusion of diverse disciplines allows the thought, Gestalt psychology, and behaviorism designers and their peers to execute strategies (Rowe 1987: 39–46). In psychology, that support the social, cultural, economic, associationism is a complex mental process or physiological and psychological dimensions connection of ideas, which creates associative of the society under review (Petroski 2006: 9; links resulting in a theoretical speculation. Jones 2010: 160). The design group of the When applied to interior architecture, it Indianapolis International Airport shared that proposes the concept of simple elements the concept of the interior lobby took placed in mechanistic adjacency, such as in inspiration from the lowland settlement the relationship of rooms, as well as the link patterns in the Midwest region, and the of public and private areas. Another method celebratory exchanges of people at the in psychology, behaviorism, is corollary to downtown plaza. Both concepts are drawn the stimulus and response model that provides from the central place theory popularly used prevalent patterns of human behavior in geography. Outcomes from the application (Bothamley 2002: 50). In undertaking design, of the procedural approach and the extent of in addition to information on the activities engagement validate the premise that design required to be performed in the space, practice involves both thinking and doing. In designers also need information on the addressing multiple issues, the foregrounding frequency with which users will occupy the of imperatives are essential in the completion space (Dickinson 2009: 41), to consider the of design tasks. Information on user needs, behavioral patterns in order to predicate the cultural traditions and peculiarities, site and flow or density, and to establish the aspects of climate conditions, and available resources priority or hierarchy. Other concepts include provides analyses and generates good the Wurzburg school of thought, where syntheses in design (Goldschmidt 1983: 8). controlled tasks and purposes give direction The prevalent use of indexical criteria, aims to the thought process, while Gestalt and purposes, information gathering psychology relates to the holistic principles of techniques, and measurement of outcomes in informational organization. In interior the design inquiry share parallel components architecture, the value and realization of with those that belong to conventional design in three dimensions, such as the research inquiry, but the former may be engagement of self, participation in perceived as somehow not yet as firmly teamwork, and the interaction with place, are interconnected. aspired to (Dohr & Portillo 2011: 65). This context of engagement is similar to how an Parallels to Humanities and Social Sciences idea or process takes its course in emanating The methods and methodologies in design from the designer, oftentimes closely have comparable elements to the structure of associated with creative thinking. We can the mixed methods used in the social construe this in the way one makes design sciences. A number of scholars have decisions parallel to the articulation of our established the connection of humanities and innate knowledge, the interchange of ideas as social sciences to design practice and research presented in joint collaborations, and the (Bowers 2008; Buchanan 2001; Roth 1999). collective adaptation of a strategy to Our perceptions of the dialectics of the inside understand a place (Bowers 2008: 42–45; and outside, and the binary oppositions that Walter 1998: 215). The designer’s positive exist in feminine and masculine, diversity and attitude, respect for other people’s opinions, globalization, natural and artificial, and deeper understanding of space and place territoriality and temporality are all evident in

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socio-cultural and historical studies that inspired research or programming documents present us with new meanings to interpret and are covered in typical research discourse process for design. One way to illustrate this outside of the creative discipline. is the development of a method embodied in Programming documents have the “social logic of space” (Hillier & Hanson fundamental components that establish the 1984: 82). The combined framework consists summary and scope of the project: a support of Hillier’s ‘spatial syntax’ for the syntactic analysis data; a business and building interpretation and generation of graphic analysis; accounts of interviews, surveys and descriptions. The syntax consists of cells notes; appendices that may include the study representing nodes of spaces or experiential of precedents and information from clients; events. Such nodes are connected by links to and other relevant research (Poldma 2009; show relations and interpreted with a method Nussbaumer 2009; Dickinson & Marsden called ‘gamma analysis’, developed by 2009: 15). In the course of preparing the Julliene Hanson (Hillier & Hanson 2006: 148; programming document, we identify the 1984: 147–148). This method is used in the needs and requirements of the given client. analysis and planning of spatial units from We match our design intents and solutions small habitats and building genotypes to large with the problems determined in the process commercial spaces as in airports. The concept of methods analysis (Margolin 1995; Poldma was derived from combined evidences used in 2009; Papanek 1995). In this process, the analysis of settlement patterns by designers also advise the client on which anthropologists and the creation of axial maps strategies are cost-effective, energy-efficient, in quantitative geography. The term environmentally friendly, sustainable, and ‘methodological’ is more associated with the sensitive to diversity, technologically philosophical fields known as behaviorism, appropriate, and also which historically and holism, and individualism, among others culturally blend into the fabric of the place, (Bothamley 2002: 342). These three fields are and so forth. significantly evident in design literature of the Oftentimes, an information index (see last three decades (Groat & Wang 2002; Katz Figure 2) is used to review multiple details 2006), particularly the prevalent preference required in a programming document. The for holism as a philosophical stance or the latter is quite exclusive to the practice of inference of being holistic in the search of interior architecture and its allied disciplines social constructs that define a process with of interior design and architecture, and has significant substantiation. Due to the plethora been proven advantageous in identifying of concerns in the design of an interior issues and determining the requirements of architecture, both methodological holism and users prior to the development of design individualism are adapted to deliver a design (McGowan & Kruse 2004: 71). strategy. Methodological individualism is of Data collection in the research and design of essence to the design practice because one interior environments is complex, as we must be aware of the conventional and gather facts and sources relevant to both the peculiar needs of individuals or users of the humanities and social sciences. For example, given space (Turpin 2010: 328). Methods Nussbaumer explains at length the scope of employed in interior architecture planning what we collect prior to design development. include several systems of inquiry: occupancy She enumerates nine of these salient types of evaluation methods; qualitative and information (Nussbaumer 2009: 9–10): quantitative approaches; information  The needs and characteristics of users or gathering and source verification; interviews, clients surveys and observation; and the use of a  The physical, structural contextual needs design programming document (Robinson & informed by building codes Parman 2010; Groat & Wang 2002). All traditional methods except the use of design-

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 Facts and considerations to achieve an ecological equilibrium  Human factors along with identifiable issues in ergonomics and anthropometrics  Socio-economic needs as indicated in budgets and the life-cycle of a place  The required functions and allocation of rooms in the space that denote a marketing value  The determination of furniture, furnishing and equipment that support the functionality of the space typology as expressed in residential vs. commercial, or institutional vs. hospitality  The diversity of users  The historical precedents or stylistic values of the interior environment.

People engaged in design studies and design practice have emulated the illumination and exploratory strengths of the humanities and social sciences to achieve better information gathering techniques and gain deeper understanding of issues (Barnard 2001: 19). Good practices in the human factor of design as embodied in ergonomics and anthropometrics would not have emerged if the social issues of productivity, variances in human scale and body features, and public health policies had not been identified and established. Ergonomics is an applied science which looks into the design and arrangement of interior spaces and furniture for their efficient and safe Figure 2. Information Index Sample (A Studio 4 Exploration by Kayla use, while anthropometrics is the Beebe, September 2009). study of human body measurements (Slotkis 2006: 92–93). Directed by more variances to the actualization of the client’s methods and methodology, another pattern of needs and requirements. This design practice engagement of value is “to designate the also includes a pre-design inspection, design profound realization of the humanity-reality process review, and a post-design evaluation commensuration” (Borgmann 1995: 15; to mark the compelling realities surrounding Squires 2009: 115). A well-designed office the interior environment. We can equate these cubicle engages one to work effectively, activities to the use of a field survey in the efficiently and to take pride in the pleasures of social sciences, where data collected present its aesthetic elements. As one adapts an new issues, reveal key information, and individualist or a holistic methodology, elucidate common patterns and parallel particularities and generalities lead in circumstances which are of value in the study. 142

Design Outcomes from the Use of Method frameworks construe the realms of creative and Methodology thinking and critical inquiry through manifold In the previous discussion, we have formats which are associated with the widely established the functionality of both method known researches in interpretive history, and methodology in the context of adapting qualitative, experimental, correlational, the philosophical stances of holism and simulation, logical argumentation, case study individualism in gathering facts and and multi-method approaches (Groat & Wang strategizing significant design solutions. 2002: vi). The design ideation moves forward Parallel to that inference is that in holism, we with the consideration of given imperatives consider issues in their collective value and such as needs, culture, interior space and that match various considerations made under resources. The analysis of gathered generality; while the individualism information will direct the mission, corresponds to the conditions of particularity. objectives, goals, concept, performance Jennifer Greene (2008: 7) explains that we requirements, projected results and so forth employ multiple methods, which we call (see Figure 3). Mixed methods in design will ‘mixed methods’ in social sciences, in pursuit facilitate the structure of elements and of facts and patterns that convey both information, apply data from the structure into generality and particularity. The pragmatic concepts, and critically reflect on concepts as needs of evaluators and researchers, including we contextualize all stages of the process. All designers, indicate that the information these have an inference in the quality of gathered from the cross-disciplinary stratified objectives and achieved results. The utilization of mixed methods is essential substantial plethora of results comes from an (Tasshakori & Greswll 2008: 3). Valuable essential checklist of considerations as data from public health, sustainability embodied in a design or innovative project policies, behavioral psychology, and brief. Herein, the common components anthropological demography are integrated in integrated are the project overview and healthcare facility design. background; category review, which means a In the context of interior architecture, particular industry served by the interior mixed methodology is more essential than the environment; target users; portfolio profile of singular method since the former allows one the company; objectives and promotional to conduct the research programming and strategies of the business; scope, timeline, design process with the plurality of strategies, budget and operations involved; and available and the relevant results addressed therein. research data (Phillips 2004: 29). The design This viewpoint is validated by two widely- of a residential loft for a select target group used design structures which employ mixed need adequate information on the geo- methods: evidence-based criteria demographics and lifestyle clusters of (Nussbaumer 2009) and the information prospective users to address a wider spectrum index, which was explained above. Evidence- of buyers. based research consists of searching for and locating new evidence and applying this new Multiple Dichotomies in the Design Process information in the design process. All these It is explicit that both the design process and design research constructs or indices provide the investigation and assumptions of various a designer with methods that can generate binaries in form and function or in the various outcomes (Heskett 2002); allow one dichotomies of concept and context rest upon to set the relevant goals, explore various the use of methodology, a cluster of concepts, routes, and involve participants in the process ideas, theories and approaches. The plurality (Hubbard 1996; Harbison 1997); and also of methods that inspire a process allows one measure results (Phillips 2004). Both actually to comprehend and interpret facts, socio- fit into a research-inspired design framework cultural phenomena, and the interdependency (Robinson & Parman 2010). Further, design

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Figure 3. A Design Outcome Using a Methodological Framework (Image credits: Studio 3 Project of M. Dragoo and D. Conway 2010).

144 of parts and components to make sense of the used in interior architecture include Gestalt whole (Bowers 2008: 41). Each exploration of psychology, functionalism, ecosystems visual components is associated with many model, symbolic interaction, change theory, choices – for example, whether interpretations person-environment theory, place identity should be literal or symbolic; whether the (Nussbaumer 2009: 20–34). Design is a object should be geometric or organic, process in which we create and send forms of whether the public space should dominate the communication to a recipient. Commun- private space; or whether visual weight ication is a science, while interior architecture should matter over balance, and so forth. A is an applied science where many dualisms relevant framework of design addresses six co-exist in the planning decisions as shown in aspects of knowledge that present many the Gestalt psychology. We might ask if we dichotomies or binaries that support or define want a unified set of elements as an our decision-making process. From design alternative to the cluster of fragmented parts, conception to construction, we search for or do we connect areas in similarity or information on purpose, people and presence, proximity to form a cohesive whole. The process, project and practice (Phillips 2004: other theories mentioned also clarify interior 115) which presents measurable results and architecture as we explain how functions are perceivable qualities. We translate these expressed or intended to define a social domains in interior architecture with various whole: understand the interdependence of styles and preferences. We demarcate spaces species and spaces; visualize the synthetic to represent needs against wants; create method of conventions and representations in images to mark short or long-term the creative poiesis of planning; prepare for competitive edges; emphasize materials that transitions brought about by economy and support regular or maximum performance technology; achieve ecological equilibrium requirements; and enhance individualistic within the comfort and performance index; attitudes or collective motivations and and reveal the sense of being embodied in the purposes among others. Numerous articles sense of space and place. Theory establishes agree on the context of design embracing the and regulates the messages we intend to issues of sensibility, aesthetics and sensitivity communicate and receive. Designers have (Poldma 2009: 259; Katz 2006; Roth 1999; taken several lenses of interpretation in the Whiteley 1993). The values and results may use of anthropological, ethical, feminist, not significantly vary even if we choose to Marxist, psychoanalytical, and semiotic views apply dominantly one direction of creative (Bowers 2008: 19). Design development also approach, critical inquiry, and consequential employs cutting-edge approaches by adapting thinking process. All methods and the theories of modernism and methodologies must explicitly or implicitly postmodernism, which include semiotics to address the interior environment’s function structuralism, post-structuralism and for the long-term concerns of users; embrace deconstruction, and so forth. ethical modes and initiatives to improve the In essence, a theory resolves multiple well-being of users; and assist them in uncertainties and conflicts within its set of achieving an optimum ecological equilibrium rules, types, systems and orders that (Dilnot 2009: 183; Hubbard 1996: 18). demarcate our tacit and explicit knowledge. Nonetheless, whatever approach is taken, the Moreover, the theory allows one to discern thought process will lead to multiple acts of the particularity and generality of judgments, exploring and experimenting, and discovering the generative and cumulative processes, and and determining wherein the convergent and the commonalities and variances in socio- divergent issues will elucidate each other. cultural concerns and economic patterns (Schon 2009: 110–111). In a typical The Role of Theory methodological construct, a philosophy The application of theories in design projects frames the theory, the theory informs the gives credence to the proposed or arrived at strategy, and the strategy sets the specific solutions. Some common examples of theory techniques or approaches, which by

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consequence makes the theory intimately marketing strategy is essential to driving the attached to the techniques. Theory has an entire process. important niche in the design of interior Design thinking is an inquiry that engages environments. Theory offers the paradigms of one to probe issues and resolve problems orders which can also be adapted and repeated (Poldma 2009: 19), while critical thinking is by others. Theory informs the user of a associated as a reflective thought process that structure for analysis and feedback directs consequential reasoning (Bucsescu & (Nussbaumer 2009: 10; Taylor & Preston Eng 2009: 2). The creative process, on the 2006: 6). The absence of a theoretical lens other hand, is an imaginative act of making, brings a plethora of preferences and an act of inventing from nothing, or the notion prejudices in the design process, and of Edward de Bono’s concept of lateral or oftentimes also illustrates the biases in design metaphoric thinking, which is evidently decisions. Jennifer Bothamley (2002: vii) applied in philosophy, art and literary points that theory in art or in the technical criticism, or linguistics and philology. Design subject like design for instance is already engagement is enriched by the theoretical embodied in the discipline “where the lenses from the humanities and social principles or methods may be distinct from sciences. Methods and methodologies take the practice of it”. inspiration from across disciplines, as shown The body of knowledge that builds into an in the contextual understanding of population understanding of method or methodology can and resources, business concentration and sometimes be discerned by verifying whether ecology for interior planning as illuminated in someone was reading intensely in theory or geography. The concepts of center and just reading widely (Barry 1995: 4). Not all periphery or privacy and public spheres in designers acknowledge the significance of interior spaces are informed by sociology. theory due to the fact that some undergraduate Further, frames of dual economy, exchange, design programs undermine its intellectual hierarchy and social networks as clarified in value for design. Oftentimes, a prevalent anthropology are applied in the appropriation nuance in design discourse surrounding old of spaces. All generate new ways of seeing schools of creative practice leads us to and observing things, of posing new question the relevance of theory to method, directions in challenging given assumptions like provoking the act of designing in relation and preconditions, and of contextualizing to research (Groat & Wang 2002). The unprecedented taxonomies essential in design. multiple understandings of theory over the last century have changed many design Conclusion perspectives (Clark & Brody 2009: 70). It is Within our contemporary practice of interior apparent that a distinct difference between architecture, it is important and imperative for generative research and analytical research design to be both research-inspired and occurs due to the judgment and valuation of practice-based. The design inquiry can take the facts therein. In context, the end-results several pathways, applying multiple structures may present outcomes that manifest the from the social sciences and humanities. The domain of philosophical assumption, inquiry theory in method and methodology will logic, grounded visualization, and socio- remain as an active contemplation within the political commitment (Greene 2008; modes of understanding the relationships of Bucsescu & Eng 2009). All these make facts and principles, sensing phenomena, design thinking a synthetic approach that expanding imagination, or facilitating a unites “parts to the whole and vice versa” design development. The theory presents a (Hubbard 1996: 108). Intentions in design are logical organization of ideas that clarifies the interdependent and function in two directions, facts and observations, and significantly one where ‘parts’ matter more – as we see fit informs and integrates the process towards a for larger interior environments, and the other method or methodology. Methods and from the ‘whole to the parts’, when a methodologies will requisitely provide the systematic approach to design within the

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rigors of process, philosophy and scientific Greene, Jennifer. 2008. “Is Mixed Methods Social frameworks. In summary, design poiesis Inquiry A Distinctive Methodology?”. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 2(1): 7–22. needs both the structure of method and Goldschmidt, Gabriella. 1983. “Doing Design, Making methodology to define new paradigms, Architecture”. Journal of Architectural Education introduce innovations, and carry out creative 37(1): 8–13. and intelligent solutions that befittingly link Groat, Linda, & David Wang. 2002. Architectural humanity with the interior environment. Research Methods. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Grosz, Elizabeth. 2001. Architecture from the Outside: Works Cited Essays on Virtual and Real Space. Massachusettes: Abercrombie, Stanley. 1990. “A Philosophy of Interior Massachusettes Institute of Technology Press. Design”. New York: Harper & Row. Harbison, Robert. 1997. Thirteen Ways: Theoretical nd Aspelund, Karl. 2010. The Design Process. 2 edn. Inverstigations in Architecture. Massachusettes: New York: Fairchild Books. Massachusettes Institute of Technology Press. Barnard, Malcolm. 2001. Approaches to Hauffe, Thomas. 1998. Design: A Concise History. Understanding Visual Culture. New York: London: Laurence King Publishing. Palgrave. Heskett, John. 2002. Design: A Very Short Barry, Peter. 1995. Beginning Theory: An Introduction Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. to Literary and Cultural Theory. Manchester: Hubbard, Bill. 1996. Theory for Practice: Architecture Manchester University Press. in Three Discourses. 1st paperback edition. Borgamann, Albert. 1995. “The Depth of Design”. In Massachusettes: Massachusettes Institute of Discovering Design. Ed. Richard Buchanan & Technology Press. Victor Margolin. Chicago: University of Chicago Hillier, Bill, & Julliene Hanson. 1984. Social Logic of Press. Pp. 13–22. Space. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bothamley, Jennifer. 2002. Dictionary of Theories. Hillier, Bill, & Julliene Hanson. 2006. “Buildings and Canton: Visible Ink Press. Their Genotypes”. In Intimus: The Interior Bowers, John. 2008. Introduction to Two-Dimensional Designer Theory Reader. Ed. Mark Taylor & Design: Understanding Form and Function. New Julenanna. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Jones, Eileen. 2010. “A Case for Interdisciplinary Box, Hal. 2007. Think Like an Architect. Austin: Design”. In The State of the Interior Design University of Texas Press. Profession. Ed. Caren S. Martin & Denise A. Buchanan, Richard. 2001. “Design Research and the Guerin. New York: Fairchild Books. Pp. 159–163. New Learning”. In Design Issues 17(4): 3–23. Jones, John Chris. 2009. “What is Designing”. In Bucsescu, Dan, & Michael Eng. 2009. Looking Beyond Design Studies: A Reader. Ed. Hazel Clark & the Structure: Critical Thinking for Designers and David Brody. New York: Berg Publishers. Pp. 77– Architects. New York: Fairchild Books. 80. Clark, Hazel & David Brody (eds.). 2009. Design Julier, Guy. 2005. Dictionary of Design since 1900. Studies: A Reader. New York: Berg Publishers. London: Thames & Hudson Coles, John, & Naomi House. 2007. The Fundamentals Ktz, Barry. 2006. “Intelligent Design”. Technology and for Interior Architecture. London: AVA Book. Culture 47(2): 381–390. Cranz, Galen. 2000. The Chair: Rethinking Culture, Kuper, Adam, & Jessica Kuper. 1996. The Social Body, and Design. New York: W.W. Norton & Science Encyclopedia. New York: John Wiley & Company. Sons. Dickinson, Joan. 2009. “Research and Programming Malnar, Joy Monice, & Frank Vodvarka (eds.). 1992. Process”. In Informing Design. Ed. Joan Dickinson The Interior Dimension: A Theoretical Approach to & John P. Mardsen. New York: Fairchild Books. Enclosed Space. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. Pp. 27–75. Manfra, L. 2005. “School Survey 2005: Research – Its Dickinson, Joan, & Mardsen, John P. 2009. “What Is Role in North American Education”. The Research and What is Programming: Understanding Metropolis 25(1): 132–136. the Difference?”. In Informing Design. Ed. Joan Margolin, Victor. 1995. “Design History or Design Dickinson & John P. Mardsen. New York: Studies: Subject Matter and Methods”. Design Fairchild Books. Pp. 1–25. Issues 11(1): 4–15. Dilnot, Clive. 2009. “Ethics in Design”. In Design Margolin, Victor. 1995. The Green Imperative: Natural Studies: A Reader. Ed. Hazel Clark & David Brody. Design for the Real World. New York: Thames & New York: Berg Publishers. Pp. 180–190. Hudson. Dohr, Joy, & Margaret Portillo. 2011. Design Thinking McGowan, Maryrose & Kruse, Kelsey (eds.). 2004. for Interiors: Inquiry + Experience + Impact. New Interior Graphic Standards. New Jersey: John Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Wiley & Sons. The Free Dictionary. Available at: Nussbaumer, Linda. L. 2009. Evidence-Based Design http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Poiesis for Interior Designers. New York: Fairchild Books.

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Papanek, Victor. 1995. The Green Imperative: Natural Slotkis, Susan. 2006. Foundations of Interior Design. Design for the Real World. New York: Thames & New York: Fairchild Books. Hudson. Stokes, Philip. 2010. Philosophy: The Great Thinkers. Petroski, Henry. 2006. Success and Failure in Design. London: Arcturus Publishing Limited. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Squires, Susan. 2009. “Discovery Research”. In Design Phillips, Peter L. 2004. Creating the Perfect Design Studies: A Reader. Ed. Hazel Clark & David Brody. Brief. New York: Allworth Press. New York: Berg Publishers. Pp. 115–120. Poldma, Tiiu. 2009. Taking Up Space: Exploring the Tashakkori, Abbas & Creswell, John. 2008. “Editorial: Design Process. New York: Fairchild Books. Mixed Methodology Across Disciplines”. Journal Polster, Bernd, Claudia Neumann, Markus Schuler & of Mixed Methods Research 2(1): 3–6. Frederick Leven. 2004. The A to Z of Modern Taylor, Mark, & Julieanna Preston (eds.). 2006. Design. Cologne: DuMont Literatur & Kunst Intimus: Interior Design Theory Reader. Verlag. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Robinson, Lily B., & Alexandra. T. Parman. 2010. Turpin, John. 2010. “Designing for Diverse Users: A Research-Inspired Design. New York: Fairchild Cultural Imperative”. In The State of the Interior Books. Design Profession. Ed. Caren S. Martin & Denise Roth, Susan. 1999. “The State of Design Research”. A. Guerin. New York: Fairchild Books. Pp. 326– Design Issues 15(2): 18–26. 331. Rowe, Peter. 1987. Design Thinking. Massachusettes: Walter, Eugene. 1998. Placeways: A Theory of the Massachusettes Institute of Technology Press. Human Environment. Chapel Hill: University of Schon, Donald. 2009. “Designing: Rules, Types and North Carolina Press. Worlds”. In Design Studies: A Reader. Ed. Hazel Whiteley, Nigel. 1993. Design for Society. London: Clark & David Brody. New York: Berg Publishers. Reacktion Books. Pp. 110–114.

Younger Icelandic Manuscripts and Old Norse Studies Helen F. Leslie, University of Bergen

This paper considers methodologies of of New and Old Philology when working with working with younger Icelandic manuscripts retrospective methods in order to get as much in retrospective contexts. It begins by out of younger manuscripts/material as outlining reasons younger (a term I use possible. synonymously with ‘late’) manuscripts may Scholars working with retrospective have been rejected as useful sources in the methods in the field of medieval studies must past and why they are gaining greater consider with great care the nature of the acceptance. It moves on to discuss the main transmission and preservation of the late methods associated with philology and sources that they work with, and by extension outlines the methodologies of Traditional and the physical documents that preserve the Material (‘Old’ and ‘New’) Philology. The textual sources (for an example of this done reconstruction of the Prologue of Edda, a 13th well, see Fisher, this volume). There are century Icelandic poetic treatise attributed to several reasons a source can be considered as Snorri Sturluson (Snorra Edda hereafter), is ‘late’, and all reasons are relative. For my then discussed in the light of these purposes, ‘late(r)’ or ‘young(er)’ manuscripts methodologies. The younger manuscript as are those that have a paper rather than vellum record of a reading culture is then briefly support, since vellum was used before the outlined, followed by a consideration of transition to paper in the 16th and 17th compositional resources and diachronic centuries in Iceland. ‘Late’ manuscripts can studies. I close with a discussion of material also be those that date from the post- in the fornaldarsögur [‘sagas of ancient Reformation (and thus post-Medieval) period. times’] (a saga subgenre with roots in oral There may be a significant gap between traditions and but that was written down well vellum and paper manuscripts of a saga due to into the period when other kinds of sagas had issues of durability: paper is much less already been committed to vellum). Using durable than vellum, and the older paper these examples, my discussion demonstrates manuscripts may not survive as well. that we must be open to both methodologies Defining a ‘late text’ is more complex. On the 148

one hand, a ‘late text’ can literally mean a of manuscript material, is more accepting of saga that was composed in the post- the value of younger material than the Old Reformation period, and thus the term ‘late’ Philology. However, when younger material differentiates the saga from those composed is used in a retrospective context, the in medieval times. On the other hand, I use diachronic perspective brought to the table by the term ‘text’ to designate each unique Old Philology is crucial to open up the link recording of a saga, thus every saga is also a between the younger material and its past: the text. Furthermore, because I view each focus on manuscripts and variants must to recording as unique, I have not used a firm some extent be underwritten by traditional distinction between ‘late material’ and ‘late philology (cf. Drout & Kleinman 2010). manuscripts’. Thus, a version of a saga (text) Whilst by using retrospective methods, recorded in a late manuscript is late material information pertinent to Old Norse culture from my perspective, even if it is a version of can be gleaned from younger manuscripts, a very old text (the first recorded version of this ought to be done with the recognition that that saga). I have also considered the post-medieval manuscripts are fascinating and fornaldarsögur as ‘late’ from the perspective valuable objects of study in their own right. of retrospective studies of Old Norse pre- Only through this balancing act of Christian religion, since they purport to record appreciating both the synchronic and beliefs and rituals from pre-Christian belief diachronic aspects of younger manuscripts even though the majority of the sagas are can we gain maximum benefit in including extant in manuscripts dating from the 15th younger manuscripts in the arena of Old century onwards. Despite the fact that some Norse studies as a whole. fornaldarsögur are known to have existed very early,1 there is still a large gap between To Reject or Embrace Younger the writing down of the material and the Manuscripts? actual time period in which the beliefs we Historically, the study of Old Norse shows hope to recover were held. We must rely on two quite different attitudes to the use of oral tradition to transmit these traditions, and younger manuscripts, depending on the they did so probably in fluid configurations, methodological approach taken to the some of which made their way into writing. discipline. Traditionally, many Old Norse These various uses of the term ‘text’ and the philologists have dismissed young relative term ‘late’ can coincide, particularly manuscripts of texts as worthless in favour of when dealing with the fornaldarsögur, which older manuscripts, preferably vellum, for for the most part are late texts in late several reasons. Firstly, this is because manuscripts (see below). As Frog (this younger manuscripts are often deemed to be volume) addresses, this kind of material can unhelpful in the reconstruction of an offer us information about traditions if we ask archetypal text: since younger manuscripts appropriate questions of it. are more likely to be copies, the texts they Those working retrospectively with offer are not of independent value (see younger sources must also be clear about the Haugen 1990: 148–149 and references in that impact of their methodological choices on chapter). The extremely productive Icelandic their research question (for a thorough editor Finnur Jónsson (1886–1888: xxix) discussion, see Peterson-Lewis, this volume). notoriously often did not even bother to In this paper, I demonstrate the value of examine younger manuscripts, as he younger material to a discussion of Old dismissed them out of hand as “uden nogen Norse-Icelandic literature and culture from som helst selvstændig verdi” [‘without any the perspective of manuscript studies. My form of independent value at all’]. Secondly, purpose in doing this is to open a dialogue it has been assumed that later Icelandic texts between the methodologies of Old and New and manuscripts cannot accurately reflect Philology in the context of retrospective earlier oral traditions, and thus are of little or studies that use manuscripts. New Philology, no source value for Old Norse culture or more concerned with the synchronic aspects literature. Thirdly, historians of Old Norse-

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Icelandic literature have likewise dismissed ‘Philology’ is defined in the Oxford English later Icelandic texts, and by implication the Dictionary as “the branch of knowledge that manuscripts that contain them, as products of deals with the historical, linguistic, a decline from the golden age of saga writing interpretative, and critical aspects of that produced the Íslendingasögur [‘sagas of literature” (s.v. ‘philology, n.’). Sonja the Icelanders’] (in the 13th century to the Peterson-Lewis (this volume) has underlined mid-14th century) (Mitchell 1991: 8, 39–49) to the importance of distinguishing ‘methods’ the later fornaldarsögur and lygisögur [‘lying from ‘methodology’: the performance of sagas’] that were popular from the Middle philological analysis uses methods, most Ages well into post-Reformation times in famously the ‘genealogical’ or ‘stemmatic’ Iceland. These types of sagas that are method of determining manuscript family obviously highly fantastic were felt by earlier trees (outlined in, for example, Haugen 1990, generations of scholars to be unoriginal, 2004; Greetham 1994: 323–325); whether one trivial and bad literature (e.g. Stefán attaches ‘Old’ or ‘New’ in front of Philology Einarsson 1957: 169). indicates the methodological stance. Many avenues of research in Old Norse To generalise, philologists working in the studies have, however, clearly demonstrated ‘Old’ or ‘traditional’ methodological tradition the need to take younger manuscripts into may have little time for younger manuscripts consideration, and happily the disdain once and their contents because their concern is to felt for younger (paper) manuscripts and their extract one ‘best’ text from many manuscript contents is changing. One reason for this is versions, preferably one that comes the that the field of ‘New’ or ‘Material’ Philology closest to the ‘original’ of the text as possible. has steadily been growing. This philological To do this, they use the genealogical method methodology encourages a growing developed in earnest in the 1800s in the acceptance of paper manuscripts on the philological circle around Karl Lachmann grounds that each manuscript is valuable in its (1793–1851) (Haugen 2004: 85). The own right as an individual reflection of the principles established during the development milieu, social processes and people of the genealogical method are summarised (commissioners, compilers, scribes and by Odd Einar Haugen (2004: 85–88) thus: readers) that produced it, as well as 1. A sharp divide was made between documenting a version of a text. In addition, ‘recension’ (manuscript analysis) and following the days of Finnur Jónsson’s ‘emendation’ (improvement of the text), mammoth editing projects (see Goeres, this and the act of recension was developed in volume), it has been recognised that paper the direction of a systematic discipline. manuscripts can be of use in editing medieval 2. The transmission of the text was texts, not only for reconstructive purposes but reconstructed in a genealogical model that also because they can contain interesting later led the manuscripts back to a common recensions of texts. Added to this is an ever archetype. growing appreciation of the literary and 3. Clear criteria were developed in order to entertainment qualities of the fornaldarsögur choose between readings on the basis of the archetype. and the Icelandic romance genres (the Icelandic riddarasögur [‘sagas of knights’], The first step of the recension process and the lygisögur), which tend to be younger er å luke ut usjølvstendige handskrifter, dvs. than the more respected Íslendingasögur and dei handskriftene som må reknast som reine konungasögur [‘sagas of kings’] genres and, avskrifter av andre kjende handskrifter og although each saga is usually preserved in a såleis ikkje kan gje nye opplysningar om few earlier vellum manuscripts, most of the arketypen. extant manuscripts are paper. is to weed out manuscripts that are not

independent, that is to say those manuscripts ‘Old’ and ‘New’ Philology that must be reckoned as plain copies of The study of manuscripts and their contents is other known manuscripts and that thus undertaken using philological methods.

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cannot give new information about the methodologies and methods to employ in archetype. (Haugen 2004: 86.) order to answer their research questions (see

It is easy to see how this often entails the Peterson-Lewis, this volume). Indeed, in a rejection of younger manuscripts, because retrospective context, the approaches of Old their texts are more likely to be copies. and New Philology can be complementary if The ‘New’ or ‘Material’ Philology is a one is prepared to negotiate between the two development in philological studies that methodologies. presupposes that each individual manuscript and the texts therein have their own unique Younger Manuscripts and Editing Texts qualities deserving of study. New Philology (Snorra Edda) has aided in reintegrating younger Even if they do not embrace a strictly material manuscripts into the fields of Old Norse philological viewpoint, paper manuscripts literary and manuscript studies.2 Studies of have still been used by those working more in manuscripts that take a New Philological the Old Philological vein for both editing and standpoint are interested in ‘variance’ as reconstructing medieval texts retrospectively. central to medieval texts and that the Old Recent editorial traditions of Snorra Edda can Philological tradition of removing (editing be used as an example to document both of out) this variance by reconstructing a text is to these uses to which younger manuscripts have deny the essence of medieval literature.3 been put. Whilst from a methodological point of view, As is widely known, the four manuscripts of Snorra Edda believed to have independent New Philology’s research priorities certainly 5 place more emphasis on younger manuscripts textual value are manuscripts RTWU, with R than traditional philology, it is not the claim usually serving as the base and ‘best’ text for of New Philology that each manuscript of a editions. RWU are all medieval, vellum texts, text is equally ‘good’ from a text-critical point but T is a paper manuscript believed to be a of view, but rather: copy of a medieval exemplar no longer extant. R and T are most similar, W shows more all manuscripts of a given work are equally differences than T to R, and U is the most interesting (potentially at least), not for different, concise almost to the point of establishing the text, separating ‘good’ nonsense in places (for a full account of the readings from ‘bad’ – which is not what variants between RTWU, see the introduction ‘new’ philology seeks to do – but rather for what they can tell us about the processes of to the standard edition of manuscript T in literary production, dissemination and Eeden 1913). In editions other than those of reception to which they are witnesses. the individual manuscripts, TWU are (Driscoll 2010: 91–92.) typically taken into consideration to provide important corrections and variants for R, Those working with the ‘New’ Philological which is usually selected as the ‘best’ text of methodology are more likely, therefore, to the first part of Snorra Edda known as produce studies or editions of single Gylfaginning. In the recent editorial work by manuscripts or editions of a text that present Anthony Faulkes on Snorra Edda, focus has all the surviving manuscript versions; a mild been on establishing the ‘best’ text for his form of this is presenting in an apparatus the edition. This has been done by choosing R as most ‘important’ variations from many the most reliable manuscript and emending it manuscripts on one text that is presented in with variant readings from TWU in full; at its most extreme, each manuscript Gylfaginning (see Faulkes 1982) or by using version of a text is presented side by side or several younger manuscripts to reconstruct published separately. the first leaf of R (Faulkes 1979a). In terms of It is not impossible to work with both 4 Snorra Edda as a whole, he comments: methodologies; students should be taught about both methodologies and about the range On the whole it seems best to admit that the of methods available, so that they are able to manuscripts preserve various compilations make a fully informed choice about which based on the lost work of Snorri Sturluson,

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each of which has its own interest and value. As concerns the reconstruction of the first (Faulkes 1982: xxxi.) leaf of R (the beginning of Snorra Edda’s

Although the editorial policy is geared Prologue), the post-Reformation manuscripts towards the production of one text of the must be ‘medievalised’ to match the rest of Prologue, Faulkes does acknowledge that the text. With regards to the possibilities of medieval reconstruction, Faulkes comments: each individual manuscripts has its own unique qualities, and this is an important tenet While it is possible to use paper manuscripts of ‘New’ or ‘Material’ Philology, despite the to reconstruct the contents of a lost medieval Prologue text as a whole being presented from text, it is of course not possible to deduce the standpoint of Old Philology. from them the spelling or word-forms of the Parts of the Prologue to Snorra Edda are original. (Faulkes 1979a: 209.) preserved in RTWU. All these, however, have Note the plural “manuscripts” here; Faulkes’s been held defective in some way: the use of stemmatic philology in identifying beginning is missing from RT (a leaf is daughter manuscripts means that by taking missing from R and it seems that the scribe of various parts from different manuscripts to T could not read the beginning of his build a new text of the Prologue, he could exemplar (Faulkes 1979a: 204)). In U, in quite possibly hit upon a reconstructed text keeping with the rest of the Snorra Edda text that never existed. Indeed, in my opinion, it is in this manuscript, the prologue seems to be possible to reconstruct the grammatical much condensed, whereas the version of the features and some spellings of the missing Prologue in W has several interpolations of page of R with more certainty, as I classical and biblical material in a style that is demonstrate below.8 not thought to chime well with the rest of the Faulkes indicates in this direction that he W version. As I have noted, the majority of uses “spellings and forms commonly used editions have a text based on R, and the (though not necessarily those that are most editors have chosen to supplement R with T commonly used) in parts of R that are extant” and material from W, (ignoring the presumed (1979a: 209). This must have necessitated interpolations). editing in a certain amount of retrospective Concerned by the unreliability of this orthography on the part of the editor; I give a reconstructive method, Faulkes attempts to few instances here. There are, for example, reconstruct the first page of R using four multiple examples of the character ‘ð’ paper manuscripts derived from R (or a 6 (pronounced like ‘th’ in English this) in his manuscript close to R), before the first leaf reconstructed text, such as “Almáttigr guð was lost: skapaði himin” (Faulkes 1979a: l. 1, p. 209)

The texts they contain are neither complete [‘Almighty God created heaven’]. This would nor accurate, but with their help it is possible have been odd to find in the paper to make some fairly safe assumptions about manuscripts, since ‘ð’ is rarely found in the text on the missing leaf of R. (Faulkes Icelandic script after 1400 (Stefán Karlsson 1979a: 205.) 2004: 14), and indeed N and U have skapade

Although W and U contain the first part of (Faulkes 1979a: 211). K has sköp (Faulkes Snorra Edda in two versions, the readings in 1979a: 211), in which, as to be expected in a the younger manuscripts are preferable since post-1400 manuscript, the oldest symbols ‘ǫ’ they are derived from R, and for at least the and ‘ø’ have been discarded (Stefán Karlsson first part of the Prologue, the paper 2004: 49). WJ both have skapaði, a form manuscripts move up the ranks of worth to probably retained by copying archaic have independent textual value. T and the four spellings. Such a normalisation programme manuscripts used to reconstruct the prologue must also have deleted the epenthetic ‘u’, which was fully established in Icelandic of R are only held to be of value when they th can provide readings from, supplement or orthography from the mid-15 century (Stefán patch medieval manuscripts.7 Karlsson 2004: 15), for example suðurs < suðrs (Faulkes 1979a: l. 53, p. 210).

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Knowledge of the grammatical, orthographic The number of fornaldarsögur is rivalled and phonological changes the language has by large numbers of lygisögur, romances gone through allows an editor to reconstruct composed and preserved in post-Reformation how words would have looked on the page in paper manuscripts, and Driscoll also points past times. As Faulkes’ reconstruction shows, out: paper manuscripts can thus play a pivotal role saga-production in Iceland seems to have in the world of traditional philology, and been every bit as great in, say, the eighteenth should not be dismissed out of hand. century as it had been in the thirteenth, even if the sagas produced appeal somewhat less The Younger Manuscript as Cultural to twentieth-century taste. (Driscoll 1994b: Artefact 84.) Younger manuscripts are of value not only to (This observation should arrest the view of preserve versions of a text, but also because the demise of saga writing from 1400, since they help build a picture of the dissemination the saga tradition, at least in the case of the and preservation history of such texts. Study saga subgenres of the fornaldarsögur, of younger manuscripts can also provide riddarasögur and lygisögur, clearly remained information of how reading experiences of productive and evenly stable for at least 400 that text have changed with time; individual years after the Íslendingasögur were manuscript versions of a text composed [Driscoll 1994b: 89; 1997b].) In not only constitute a crucial history of the main, these numerous lygisögur have gone reception of that text, but they also can help unedited and untranslated, but an appreciation to inform how we may choose to theorize of their popularity in the late medieval and and historicize it. (Nichols 1997: 12.) early modern period should be reason enough The use of “manuscripts as a magnifying for these sagas and the fornaldarsögur to be glass” (Peters 2006: 206) is a gateway to the worthwhile objects of study to New study of medieval culture on a textual level Philologists, since they have much to tell us with evidence that is tangible and concrete from a synchronic perspective on the cultural (Peters 2006: 205–206). activity of these sagas as reflected through 10 Not only can this approach to philology manuscript copying and circulation. have an impact on our reception of a text, but The copying and transmission process also on the reception of certain genres. The evidenced by each manuscript in the New fornaldarsögur are preserved overwhelmingly Philological tradition can be complemented in paper manuscripts, and the large number of by the diachronic approach of Old Philology. manuscripts indicates they were certainly the Establishing stemmas (manuscript family most popular genre of late medieval and trees) using aspects of the genealogical early-modern Iceland (Driscoll 2003: 257), method and identifying the exemplars or near but the genre is only in recent years gaining exemplars of younger manuscripts and scholarly popularity. Some sagas have been comparing the younger and older text can edited and studied, but many need attention. reveal new insights into the transformation of Matthew J. Driscoll has spearheaded the the text in its new context. Such a comparison campaign to highlight the virtues of New can bring to light not only textual changes but Philology, fornaldarsögur and later Icelandic also changes in how readers engage with the romances such as the riddarasögur and material page, since this is reflected in 11 lygisögur. He estimates there are about 1300 changes of page layout. fornaldarsaga texts in manuscripts (paper and vellum), although the actual number produced Compositional Resources (Oral and Written) would have been much larger, even as much and Younger Manuscripts as between 10,000 and 20,000 (Driscoll Each textual source was compiled by some 1994a: 141–142; 2003: 259).9 There is a lot of kind of guiding hand that shaped material into work still to do. its present state. From a diachronic perspective, we can attempt to identify the

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material each of these ‘shapers’ used. One between traditional, orally-derived literature common approach to retrospective studies is and being a product of a written culture with a to take a linear or chronological view of our strong sense of authorship. Judging by the material and work backwards from the example of Jón Oddsson Hjaltalín (1749– younger sources, seeing how traditions and 1835), whose production of these later themes have developed over time and making romances has been studied by Driscoll deductions about past states of the material on (1994b; 1997a), we can posit that many of the way. In this paper, I have assumed that the these later authors must have been very younger Icelandic manuscripts in question familiar indeed with the medieval Icelandic preserve either versions of medieval texts (for literature (Driscoll 1994b: 89) and example fornaldarsögur) or compositions (for consequently their work was steeped in that example lygisögur) that have an intimate tradition. Their mode of use for this connection with or have developed from traditional material is rather interesting – medieval material. The nature of the compare these two observations: connection between the younger texts with There are a number of places in Jón’s sagas the older, traditional material needs to be where the influence of the older literature is examined as to whether it is oral, written or at such that it is more reasonable to speak of the interface of these modes of transmission. literary borrowings than manifestations of a For the most part, Icelandic authors or scribes living tradition. (Driscoll 1994b: 89.) dealing with traditional, living saga genres It would be a mistake, however, to think of such as the fornaldarsögur and lygisögur can Jón sitting with the open text of Völuspá in be conceived of in terms of Doane’s model of front of him as he wrote. Many of the written reperformance: borrowings have an almost accidental

Whenever scribes who are part of the oral quality about them. (Driscoll 1994b: 94)

traditional culture write or copy traditional Here can be seen the problematic nature of oral works, they do not merely mechanically trying to prise apart literary borrowings and hand them down; they rehear them, ‘mouth’ living tradition in a text born of a fusion of them, ‘reperform’ them in the act of writing in such a way that the text may change but the two. Given Jón’s circumstances of being remain authentic, just a completely oral thoroughly familiar with his country’s literary poet’s text changes from performance to heritage, “literary borrowings” and performance without losing authenticity. “manifestations of a living tradition” cannot (Doane 1991: 80–81.) easily be told apart. An idea, theme or phrase that is ‘borrowed’ in the first place could still The construction of the new but ‘authentic’ be part of a living tradition, although one written text (i.e. the new, changed text is a whose modus operandi is now written rather valid one in its own right) is done by a than oral or orally-derived (which is a mixture of literary borrowings and the scribe criterion that most would associate with being unconsciously steeped in the tradition, ‘tradition’, after all). As for the second and both these mechanisms can happen in quotation about Jón’s working habits with his writing or orally or a combination of the two. sources, the “accidental quality” of the Such influences meld together to form a web author’s use of sources might arise from non- of intertextual relations that cannot easily be written borrowing and living tradition being unpicked. one and the same thing in early modern The lygisögur are of interest for how they Iceland. I cite this example to point out that use older material from the fornaldarsögur we must be careful in making assumptions and from translated riddarasögur from the about how orality, tradition, written continent: in theme and structure the borrowings and younger manuscripts intersect lygisögur fall somewhat in between these when we attempt to establish an analysis genres of vernacular and translated foreign based on a linear or chronological view of literature (Stefán Einarsson 1957: 165–169; material that authors must have been Kalinke 1985; Driscoll 1994b; 1997b). Their intimately familiar with for most of their status is also slightly unclear, appearing 154

lives. Indeed, this need not diminish the value Jens Peter Schjødt (2003; 2009) has helped to of later texts for diachronic studies, and texts bring increasing attention to the pitfalls of the located on the interface between the oral and tendency to accept, for example, the written can be negotiated in different ways. homogenised view of Old Norse pre-Christian This is easier if, methodologically speaking, religion presented by Snorra Edda. Their the research question can accommodate both work demonstrates that Old Norse religion oral and written transmission as perfectly would have been characterised by a lack of valid and ‘authentic’ modes of transmission. homogeneity, and we must be mindful of the As far as method is concerned, careful implications that this ought to have on our comparative studies combined with an understanding of the use of later texts as awareness of the individual contexts of each sources for Old Norse religion. source have proven to be fruitful (see Osborn No scholar would attempt to extract a this volume). unified cosmology from the fornaldarsögur; rather we are limited to locating fragmented Younger Manuscripts and Old Norse insights into earlier traditions of mythology. I Mythology will discuss Þorsteins þáttr bæjarmagns [‘The Scholars of Old Norse mythology frequently Tale of Thorsteinn Mansion-Might’] as a saga draw upon the fornaldarsögur for examples that may indeed still carry reflexes of an older with which to illustrate Old Norse pagan tradition, and Bósa saga [‘The Saga of Bósi’], practice and belief. The written containing the prayer Buslabæn [‘The Prayer fornaldarsögur are at a particularly far of Busla’], will be my example of a saga that remove from the time in which such sagas are sounds tempting but that likely does not set, before the settlement of Iceland. Their provide any genuine link back to Old Norse retrospective use is predicated on the basis mythology. Together, these two examples are that the sagas have many examples of Old illustrative of the problems and possibilities Norse religion that can be extracted for of uses of these materials for insights into comparative purposes, and perhaps on the earlier traditions of mythology. basis that this genre has a particularly strong connection to oral traditions. The sagas depict The Case of Þorsteins þáttr bæjarmagns a mythic-heroic past populated by kings and Þorsteins þáttr bæjarmagns is from the late heroes from the Viking Age and earlier. Many 13th century but uses much older material of these can be connected with historical (Power 1993: 675–676); it is preserved in 54 persons and events, and memories of them manuscripts, many of which are young were maintained for centuries in oral forms manuscripts (see “Þorsteins þáttur before being written down. Retrospective use bæjarmagns: Manuscripts” [2011–2012]). therefore postulates that any relevant pre- Many scholars have analysed Þorsteins þáttr Christian motifs were held vital in the story bæjarmagns (1944) as containing reflexes of worlds as they were transmitted and reshaped Old Norse mythology that seem genuine.12 through successive generations. Rosemary Power (1985: 172) has analysed The use of fornaldarsögur in studies of the story as “a combination of Norse myth history of religion is done despite the fact that with Irish, or at least Celtic, secular tales of a most scholars preface their studies with an visit to a delightful land of the immortals”. acknowledgement of the abundant problems There are two Norse analogues that have been with using this genre as a legitimate source identified as linked with Þorsteins þáttr: the for pre-Christian religion, a problem captured 10th century poem Þórsdrápa in which the by the complaint of Claus Krag (2004: 96) in gods Þórr and Loki visit the giant Geirrøðr his critique of using fornaldarsögur as an (Faulkes 1998: 25–30) and the story of the historical source: “Og prøver vi likevel på det, journey of Þórr to Útgarða-Loki (Faulkes synes alt sammen å bli bare gjettverk” [‘And 1982: 37–45). Both of these are recounted in if we try it anyway, everything seems to Snorra Edda; Þórsdrápa is recorded in the become just guesswork’]. At the same time, section of Edda known as Skáldskaparmal, work by scholars like Stefan Brink (2007) and

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and the journey to Útgarða-Loki in the Whether or not we view the þáttr episode preceding section called Gylfaginning. itself as having independant value depends on Specific events in Þorsteins þáttr are our methodological approach. If we are to paralleled in Þórsdrápa. The most notable is espouse the approach that there is no ‘best’ that a ‘game’ is played. In Þórsdrápa, reading of the material, common to the New Geirrøðr throws a hot spike at Þórr, who Philological approach, we find in the þáttr catches it and kills Geirrøðr when throwing it that two underlying mythological narratives back (Power 1985: 163). In Þorsteins þáttr, sharing a common story pattern have been there is also a throwing game between combined, and thus the þáttr forms a late part Þorsteinn [‘Þórr-Stone’] and Geirrøðr, but this of the complex of stories about the god Þórr. time with a hot seal’s head, and Þorsteinn From an Old Philological approach, it could goes on to kill Geirrøðr with his magic spike be argued that since the two mythological (Power 1985: 163). Power has pointed out in narratives that were transformed to make connection with this episode that nothing Þorsteins þáttr have been identified, it it is religious or occult occurs (1985: 163), but these older examples of the narratives that despite the lack of explicitly mythological should be primary and regarded as more posturing sometimes found in the ‘authentic’. This view has significant negative fornaldarsögur, this is probably because impact on the use of Þorsteins þáttr as a Þorsteinn is presented as a Christian hero of source for Old Norse mythology. Either way, Óláfr Tryggvason, and this seems a clear this example shows some kind of continuity example of an Old Norse mythological story of tradition, although it is probably not pattern being used in or by later sources. possible to discern what is drawn from written In the same scene in Þorsteins þáttr, we or oral sources. find the second point of contact that the tale has with Old Norse mythology: the journey to The Case of Buslabæn Útgarða-Loki told by Snorri in prose as a In Bósa saga, the situation in which we find a myth. Again, Þórr and Loki go out together, possible instance related to Old Norse pre- and end up in Útgarða-Loki’s hall where they Christian magical practices is slightly undergo humiliating trials which they lose; different,14 and I will explore the connection those trials, present in both Gylfaginning and of runes the curse Buslubæn to the Old Norse the þáttr, are a drinking trial and wrestling in verbal charming tradition (cf. Gallo 2004; an otherworld hall (Power 1985: 164). Thorvaldsen 2010) in the light of Old and Power suggests that it is in fact the myth New Philological methodologies. This curse that has been influenced by the saga and not is connected to a string of runes that mimic or the reverse, but this seems unlikely. John employ an old formula in an unconventional McKinnell (1994: 57–86) demonstrates that way, but which have been demonstrated to be Þórr’s visit to Útgarða-Loki is of the same disconnected from the old tradition by story pattern as Þórr’s encounter with Claiborne W. Thompson (1978).15 The runes Geirrøðr. A version of the story of Þórr’s visit appear to be the solution to a riddle posed at to Útgarða-Loki also occurs in Saxo the end of the curse: Grammaticus’s Gesta Danorum from around Komi hér seggir sex, 1200, and Saxo most likely got the story from seg þú mér nofn þeira Icelandic oral tradition (see further Power 13 öll óbundin, 1985: 164–166; McKinnell 1994: 59–85). ek mun þér sýna: This, combined with the early date of getr þú eigi ráðit, Þórsdrápa, suggests that the mythological svá at mér rétt þykki, tale was well-known, and that the þáttr is a þá skulu þik hundar reflex of a common traditional mythological í hel gnaga, narrative in which both Geirrøðr and Útgarða- en sál þín Loki find a place as anatogonists of Þórr, sökkvi í víti r.o.þ.k.m.u iiiiii ssssss tttttt iiiiii llllll which is interesting in itself as a development of the myth.

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Let six men come here Retrospective methods in this case can be (if you ) tell me their names considered to reveal that Buslubæn does not all clearly (or ‘unencrypted?’), reflect Old Norse pre-Christian practices I will reveal to you: regarding the charm as an oral text, but it does if you cannot interpret reveal information about a location and time so that they seem right to me period in which the formula was circulating. than shall dogs gnaw you to death From a methodological perspective, this and your soul comparative strategy comes rather from the sink in torment. angle of Old Philology, since it seeks to Ristill, æstill, þistill, kistill, mistill, vistill. assess the material on a chronological basis. (McKinnell et al. 2004: 139.) At the same time, the example illustrates the importance of considering not only the The runes are an indigenous Old Norse content of the text, here the runic sequence, formula found in other places (collected by but also the nature of the manuscript page Thompson 1978: 51–53; McKinnell et al. itself and what its synchronic context can 2004: 134–140), and the formula seems to reveal. have been intended as a locking formula (for example on a chest or grave) and to ward off Challenges of Late Materials evil (McKinnell et al. 2004: 134). In Bósa That younger manuscripts, fornaldarsögur saga, the runes are integrated into the literary and lygisögur all have much value in context of the curse and riddle and thus are themselves is without doubt. Nevertheless, likely contemporaneous (Thompson 1978: using tales such as the fornaldarsögur to 55). As a comparison of the transliterated provide examples for or sources of Old Norse runes and their rearrangement in the religion (since they are set in pre-Christian translation shows, the runes are bound and Scandinavia) has many potential drawbacks, must be rearranged from the way they are as I have demonstrated above, not least written to form words; such a cryptographic because the records are removed by centuries rearrangement of the runes was normal when from the events they purport to record. this particular charm was written down By the comparison of my discussion of (McKinnell et al. 2004: 134). Buslubæn with the example of Þorsteins Thompson has demonstrated that indeed þáttr, we can also see that the conclusions the curse sequence and its closing riddle-rune drawn about whether the material is valid or section is totally literary, since it depends on not as a source of Old Norse pre-Christian the written runes in order to be able to solve religion depends directly on the questions we the riddle. It thus seems unlikely that the ask of such material (for a discussion of the curse and riddle sequence can be linked relationship between the material available convincingly to (oral) Old Norse magical and the research question, see Suenson, this practices. Busla is supposed to chant the curse volume). My discussion was oriented to show in the saga, but she could not chant the runic that the runic formula in Buslubæn is not a formula in its bound form – the runes need to traditional oral charm, whereas my discussion be rearranged first. As such, the sequence is of Þorsteins þáttr showed that it should be an “optical puzzle” and should be dated to considered valuable as a later narrative around the 14th century, at the same time as expression of a mythic complex involving the first written version of the saga was likely Þórr. As I pointed out in connection with to have been written. (Thompson 1978: 55.) Þorsteins þáttr, it would be possible to This seems to make it a late, parodic version discount its value by saying it is merely a of the charm, the older examples of which combination of two other narratives, and that occur in other, quite different contexts. In they are the valuable elements. Likewise, it addition, its use in the saga as a rounding-off would be possible to reverse my discussion of device in the curse sequence is quite Buslubæn and argue that it is interesting and meaningless and apparently leads the curse valuable as the latest example of a once orally nowhere. circulating runic charm being used in a

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literary and written saga context. In using pose to the material. We must embrace as later material as a source for Old Norse pre- many sources as possible and present each Christian religion, much depends on emphasis source separately (as done in Røthe’s 2010 and methodological approach. book about Old Norse religion in the Although the sagas are indeed replete with fornaldarsögur). Both a New Philological tempting descriptions of pagan rituals and refusal to prioritise readings and the visits from gods, the cosmology they comparative qualities of traditional philology construct is fragmented and dissimilar across must be brought to bear in order to fashion an different sagas and modes of expression (the approach to material from late manuscripts sagas are prosimetric, made up of prose and that is sensitive and appreciative of variations verse: see Goeres, this volume). In addition, (not only textual but also variations in their view of pagan religion should be taken content), and that embraces the diverse in the context of medieval and late-medieval origins and forms of fornaldarsögur texts; the Iceland and the turbulent 13th century that saw writers of the fornaldarsögur were themselves Iceland come under the Norwegian crown: reconstructing a pagan past long gone.

With renewed stability in the fourteenth century, what was left of the aristocracy, as Conclusions well as the descendants of old goðar In this paper, I have framed my discussion of [‘chieftain’] families and new social actors, several retrospective methods pertinent to achieved social position through royal working with younger Iceland manuscripts office. Questioning about the origin of social with the methodologies of New Philology and identity had disappeared and so did the Old Philology. In the first place, I took the family sagas. However, fornaldarsögur reconstruction of the Prologue to Edda as an continued to be written for many centuries example of the reconstructive power of but progressively lost the strong links with younger manuscripts even to projects with an the distant past of the leading families of Old Philological bent, and furthermore Iceland and therefore their sense of identity. demonstrated that aspects of the physical text The world of the fornaldarsögur became a world of pure fiction, not without links with such as orthography and page layout can be the social and cultural realities of their time reconstructed, and not only the text’s context. of writing, but links of a different kind, In the context of younger manuscripts as which need further study to elucidate. (Torfi cultural artefacts, I approached the question of H. Tulinius 2000: 261–262.) blended oral and written compositional resources and concluded that our research In terms of Old Norse religion, the methodology must be cognisant of complex fornaldarsögur represent what was known intertextual webs that will never be fully and available in the period in which they were unravelled while undertaking detailed written down, the 13th century onwards. comparative investigations. In my examples Evidence from different periods is mixed from Þorsteins þáttr and Buslubæn, I applied together and shaped by their contemporary New and Old Philological perspectives to the worldview, in a society that read these sagas material and demonstrated that prioritising solely for the purposes of entertainment. either unfairly sways any conclusions about The methods we can use to deal with texts Old Norse pre-Christian traditions we might such as the fornaldarsögur as sources, for draw, and that a combination of the priorities example, of religious beliefs and practices, of Old and New Philology is a necessary step and of early medieval Icelandic mentality in rectifying this imbalance. before the sagas were committed to writing An understanding of the textual and (see Schjødt 2003) must be born of both New literary historical concerns unique to young and Old Philology if our results are to be manuscripts must, as Nichols says, “inform valid. As I showed with my case studies of how we may choose to theorize and Þorsteins þáttr and Buslubæn above, historicize” them (Nichols 1997: 12), and this prioritising one methodology compromises must in turn influence our starting points for the fairness of the research questions that we the retrospective projects that are based on

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them, for example our choice of corpus/genre 6. These four paper manuscripts are KNThJ. For or methodological standpoint. The two descriptions of them and how they relate to the Prologue (summarised here), see Faulkes 1979a: methodologies of Old and New Philology are 205 and Faulkes 1979b: 43–44, 123–124, 126, 149. relevant to retrospective methods because K is AM 755 4to, written by Ketill Jörundsson they inform the orientation from which the (1603–1670). In it, “the first part of the Prologue, research question in hand will be approached, lacking now in R, has a text similar to that in W, whatever that may be. I have demonstrated but without the interpolations found there” (Faulkes 1979b: 124). N is Nks 1878 b 4to from the 17th here that in order to get as much out of century, and has “abridged and paraphrased younger manuscripts (or younger material) as versions of the Prologue to Snorra Edda” (Faulkes possible, we must acknowledge the qualities 1979b: 126). Th is Thott 1494 4to, which, despite of both methodologies in our approaches. the Prologue being incomplete, inaccurate and condensed with apparently deliberate alterations, Acknowledgements: I would like to thank the reviewers has material from R not otherwise supplied from for this volume for their assistance with the content of TUW and the Prologue “seems to be most closely the paper, in particular Frog, who has been related to that in R” (Faulkes 1979b: 44). J is Sth. Papp. fol. nr. 38 (Prologue 46v–50), from the outstandingly generous with his time and feedback. I th would also like to thank Else Mundal and Haukur second half of the 17 century, “where the text of Þorgeirsson for their additional comments. the prologue is found as part of the Edda compilation attributed to Jón lærði Guðmundsson” (Faulkes 1979a: 205). Notes 7. Occasionally, other Snorra Edda manuscripts are 1. For example, the manuscript Hauksbók, dated by held up as more valuable for other reasons than Stefán Karlsson (1964) to the first decade of the supplementing medieval versions of Snorra Edda. th 14 century, contains versions of Hervarar saga Two examples are Laufás Edda and Melsteð’s and the Þáttr af Ragnarssonum. Such material Edda. Laufás Edda, for example, is an interesting would have circulated orally before this. example of how, in the early 17th century, Magnús 2. For an overview and debate of ‘New’ or ‘Material’ Ólafsson saw it fit to arrange the Snorra Edda “into Philology versus ‘Traditional’ Philology in Old a form more suitable for his contemporaries to be Norse, see Driscoll 2010. Cf. Wolf 1993 for a able to study it than that in which it was found in discussion of New Philology from the perspective the old manuscripts” (Faulkes 1979b: 17), and it of the reader of scholarship produced under this also contains several strophes not found elsewhere. methodological banner. For a good introduction to Another example is Melsteð’s Edda, SÁM 66, Material Philology in general, see Nichols 1997 and which contains eddic poems and other texts as well the references therein. The New Philology, the 1990 as Snorra Edda. It was written between 1765 and volume of the journal Speculum, was entirely 1766 and is of interest not least for its remarkable devoted to various aspects of New Philology. and entertaining colour illustrations of scenes from 3. This is the thrust of one of New Philology’s classic Snorra Edda and portraits of gods. texts, Bernard Cerquiglini’s book Éloge de la 8. Reconstruction can also take place on a basic level variante: Histoire critique de la philologie (1989). of manuscript mise-en-page and support: poetry set This has been published in English translation as In out in short, verse lines in younger manuscripts Praise of the Variant: A Critical History of would have been set out in long, prose style lines in Philology (1999); Menzer’s review (2001) provides medieval Icelandic manuscripts; paper supports a useful summary of his arguments. would have instead been of more robust vellum; 4. Wenzel (1990) does not, for example, seem younger humanistic cursive styles would have convinced that the division between ‘Old’ and rather been medieval, Gothic hands; and one thing ‘New’ Philology exists, rather that it is a question that did not change: abbreviations in Icelandic of what aspect of philology is currently in the paper manuscripts were as widely used as in limelight. This seems to stem from a failure to medieval ones. distinguish between method and methodology, as 9. For comparison, Marianne Kalinke (1985: 320) also do rejections of New Philology that are made on the estimates numbers of texts and manuscripts for the basis that it is exactly what philologists ‘did riddarasögur: “One can justifiably speak about before’. scribal mass production in post-Reformation to 5. R is Gks 2367 4 , Royal Library, Copenhagen, from Iceland: some 190 books and pamphlets, primarily c. 1325. T is MS No. 1374, University Library, religious in character, were published in Iceland Utrecht, written around 1600 but thought to be a during the 17th-century; in the same century that copy of a now lost medieval manuscript. W is AM number is matched, however, merely by the 242 fol., Arnamagnæan Institute, Copenhagen, preserved manuscripts that contain riddarasögur. th from the middle of the 14 century. U is DG 11, The Old-Norse Icelandic romances have been th University Library, Uppsala, from the early 14 transmitted in more than eight hundred century (Faulkes 1982: viii–ix, xxix–xxxiii). manuscripts, an uncommonly large number,

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especially if one considers that not a few codices Reception of Edda and Saga. Ed. Andrew Wawn. contain as many as ten individual sagas; some Enfield Lock: Hisarlik Press. Pp. 83–99. contain even more [....] In all, more than fifteen Driscoll, Matthew James. 1997a. The Unwashed hundred individual texts survive, although Children of Eve: The Production, Dissemination admittedly not a few of these are fragmentary.” and Reception of Popular Literature in Post- 10. I am indebted to Frog for helping me to clarify this Reformation Iceland. Enfield Lock: Hisarlik Press. thought. Driscoll, Matthew James. 1997b. “The Oral, the 11. See Wenzel 1990: 14–15; O’Keeffe 1990; Huisman Written and the In-Between: Textual Instability in 1998; Busby 2002: 127–224 for the ways in which the Post-Reformation Lygisaga”. In Medieval manuscript readers engage with page layout. Insular Literature Between the Oral and the 12. For bibliography, see Power 1985: 174n.22; see Written II: Continuity of Transmission. Ed. also McKinnell 1994: 57–86; Frog 2011a: 89–90. Hildegard L. C. Tristram. ScriptOralia 97. 13. For Snorri’s strategies in engaging with this Tübingen: Narr. Pp. 193–220. material, see Frog 2011b: 18ff. Driscoll, Matthew James. 2003. “Fornaldarsögur 14. Bósa saga is thought to have been composed ca. Norðurlanda: The Stories that Wouldn’t Die”. 1350 and exists in two quite different recensions. Fornaldarsagornas strukur och ideologi: The older recension is found in 15th century vellum Handlingar från ett symposium i Uppsala 31.8–2.9 manuscripts, while the later recension is found in 2001. Ed. Ármann Jakobsson, Annette Lassen & paper manuscripts from the 17th and 18th centuries. Agneta Ney. Nordiska texter och undersökningar The saga has a complicated textual history and was 28. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet. Pp. 257–267. very popular until recent times. (Naumann 1993: Driscoll, Matthew James. 2010. “The Words on the 54.) The runes are found in the earlier recension in Page: Thoughts on Philology, Old and New”. In three vellum manuscripts from the 15th and 16th Creating the Medieval Saga: Versions, Variability centuries (AM 510 4to, 11v; AM 577 4to, 54r; AM and Editorial Interpretations of Old Norse Saga 586 4to, 14v) and one paper manuscript Lbs 423 Literature. Ed. Judy Quinn & Emily Lethbridge. fol., 338v–339r from the 18th century (McKinnell et Viking Collection 18. Odense: University Press of al. 2004: 139; Lbs 243 fol. 2009–2012). Southern Denmark. Pp. 87–104. 15. Cf. Langer 2009, who argues that Buslubæn is Drout, Michael D.C. & Scott Kleinman. 2010. “Doing indeed indicative of continuity with medieval Philology 2: Something ‘Old,’ Something ‘New’: practical magic. Material Philology and the Recovery of the Past”. The Heroic Age 13. Available at: Works Cited http://mun.ca/mst/heroicage/issues/13/pi.php. Brink, Stefan. 2007. “How Uniform Was the Old Norse Accessed 2nd May, 2012. Religion?”. In Learning and Understanding in the Eeden, Willem van. 1913. De Codex Trajectinus van Old Norse World: Essays in Honour of Margaret de Snorra Edda. Lieden: Eduard Ijdo. Clunies Ross. Ed. Judy Quinn, Kate Heslop & Faulkes, Anthony. 1979a. “The Prologue to Snorra Tarrin Wills. Medieval Texts and Cultures of Edda: An Attempt at Reconstruction”. Gripla 3: Northern Europe 18. Turnhout: Brepols. Pp. 105– 204–213. Faulkes, Anthony. 1979b. Two Versions of Snorra 136. th Busby, Keith. 2002. Codex and Context: Reading Old Edda from the 17 Century I: Edda Magnúsar French Verse Narrative in Manuscript. Vol. 1. Ólafssonar (Laufás Edda). Reykjavík: Stofnun Faux Titre: Etudes de langue et literature françaises Árna Magnússonar. publiées 221. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Faulkes, Anthony. 1982. Edda: Prologue and Cerquiglini, Bernard. 1989. Éloge de la variante: Gylfaginning. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Histoire critique de la philology. Des travaux. Finnur Jónsson. 1886–1888. Egils saga Paris: Seuil. Skallagrímssonar tilligemed Egils store kvad. Cerquiglini, Bernard. 1999. In Praise of the Variant: A Samfund til udgivelse af gammel nordisk litteratur Critical History of Philology. Trans. Betsy Wing. 17. Copenhagen: Møller. Parallax. London: John Hopkins University Press. Frog. 2011a. “Circum-Baltic Mythology? – The Doane, A. N. 1991. “Oral Texts, Intertexts, and Strange Case of the Theft of the Thunder- Intratexts: Editing Old English”. In Influence and Instrument (ATU 1148b)”. Archaeologia Baltica Intertextuality in Literary History. Ed. Jay Clayton 15: 78–96. & Eric Rothstein. Madison: University of Frog. 2011b. “Snorri Sturluson qua Fulcrum: Wisconsin Press. Pp. 75–113. Perspectives on the Cultural Activity of Myth, Driscoll, Matthew James. 1994a. “Lost Exemplars”. In Mythological Poetry and Narrative in Medieval Sagnaþing helgað Jónasi Kristjánssyni sjötugum Iceland”. Mirator 12. Available at: www.glossa.fi/mirator/pdf/i-2011/Snorriquafulcrum 10. apríl 1994. Vol. 1. Reykjavík: Hið íslenska th bókmenntafélag. Pp. 137–142. .pdf. Accessed 17 June, 2012. Driscoll, Matthew James. 1994b. “Traditionality and Gallo, Lorenzo Lolli. 2004. “Persistent Motifs of Antiquarianism in the Post-Reformation Lygisaga”. Cursing in Old Norse Literature in Buslubæn”. In Northern Antiquity: The Post-Medieval Linguistica e Filologia 18: 119-146.

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Greetham, D. C. 1994. Textual Scholarship: An O’Keeffe, Katherine O’Brien. 1990. Visible Song: Introduction. Garland Reference Library of the Transitional Literacy in Old English Verse. Humanities 1417. New York: Garland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Haugen, Odd Einar. 1990. “Mål og metodar i The Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd edn., 2006; online tekstkritikken”. In Den filologiske vitenskap. Ed. version 2012. Available at: http://www.oed.com/ Odd Einar Haugen & Einar Thomassen. Oslo: view/Entry/142464. Accessed 2nd May, 2012. Solum forlag. Pp. 128–180. Peters, Ursula. 2006. “From Social History to the Haugen, Odd Einar. 2004. “Tekstkritikk og Poetics of the Visual: Philology of the Middle Ages tekstfilologi”. In Handbok i norrøn filologi. Ed. as Cultural History”. The Journal of English and Odd Einar Haugen. Bergen: Fagbokforlaget. Germanic Philology 105: 185–206. Huisman, Rosemary. 1998. The Written Poem: Power, Rosemary. 1985. “Journeys to the Otherworld Semiotic Conventions from Old to Modern English. in the Icelandic “Fornaldarsögur””. Folklore 96: London: Cassell. 156–175. Kalinke, Marianne. 1985. “Norse Romance Power, Rosemary. 1993. “Þorsteins þáttr bœjarmagns”. (Riddarasögur)”. In Old Norse-Icelandic In Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Literature: A Critical Guide. Ed. Carol J. Clover & Philip Pulsiano et al. Garland Encyclopedias of the John Lindow. Islandica 45. Ithaca: Cornell Middle Ages 1. New York: Garland. Pp. 675–676. University Press. Pp. 316–363. Røthe, Gunnhild. 2010. I Odins tid: Norrøn religion i Krag, Claus. 1994. “Fornaldersagaene – og deres fornaldersagaene. Hafrsfjord: Saga Bok. kildeverdi i et historiografisk perspektiv”. In Schjødt, Jens Peter. 2003. “Myths as Sources for Tormod Torfæus mellom Vinland og “Ringenes Rituals – Theoretical and Practical Implications”. In here”. Ed. Anine Kongshavn. Karmøy: Karmøy Old Norse Myths, Literature and Society. Ed. kommune. Pp. 87–97. Margaret Clunies Ross. Viking Collection 14. Langer, Johnni. 2009. “Galdr e Feitiçaria nas Sagas Odense: University Press of Southern Denmark. Pp. Islandesas: Uma Análise do Poema Buslubæn”. 261–278. Braithair 9: 66–90. Schjødt, Jens Peter. 2009. “Diversity and Its Lbs 423 fol. 2009–2012. Handrit.is. Available at: Consequences for the Study of Old Norse Religion: http://handrit.is/en/manuscript/view/is/Lbs02-0423. What is it we are Trying to Reconstruct?” In Accessed 2nd May 2012. Between Paganism and Christianity in the North. “Þorsteins þáttur bæjarmagns: Manuscripts”. [2011– Ed. Leszek P. Słupecki & Jakub Morwiec. 2012]. Stories for All Time: The Icelandic Rzeszów: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Fornaldarsögur. Available at: http://am-dk.net/ Rzeszowskiego. Pp. 9–22. fasnl/bibl/bibl.php?sid=828. Accessed 2nd May Stefán Einarsson. 1957. A History of Icelandic 2012. Literature. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press. McKinnell, John. 1994. Both One and Many: Essays Stefán Karlsson. 1964. “Aldur Hauksbókar”. on Change and Variety in Late Norse Heathenism. Fróðskaparrit 13: 114-21. Roma: Il Calamo. Stefán Karlsson. 2004. The Icelandic Language. Trans. McKinnell, John, & Rudolf Simek with Klaus Düwel. Rory McTurk. London: The Viking Society. 2004. Runes, Magic and Religion: A Sourcebook. Thompson, Claiborne W. 1978. “The Runes in Bósa Studia Medievalia Septentronalia 10. Fassbaender: Saga ok Herrauðs”. Scandinavian Studies 50: 50– Wien. 56. Menzer, Melinda. 2001. “Review of: Bernard Thorvaldsen, Bernt Øyvind. 2010. “The Poetic Curse Cerquiglini, In Praise of the Variant: A Critical and Its Relatives”. In Along the Oral–Written History of Philology. Bryn Mawr Review of Continuum: Types of Texts, Relations and Their Comparative Literature 2”. http://www.brynmawr Implications. Ed. Slavica Ranković with Leidulf .edu/bmrcl/Spring2001/Cerquiglini.html. Accessed Melve & Else Mundal. Utrecht Studies in Medieval 2nd May 2012. Literacy 20. Turnhout: Brepols. Pp. 253-267. Mitchell, Stephen A. 1991. Heroic Sagas and Ballads. Þorsteins þáttr bæjarmagns. 1944. In Fornaldarsögur Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Norðurlanda. Ed. Guðni Jónsson & Bjarni Naumann, Hans Peter. 1993. “Bósa saga (Herrauðs Vilhjálmsson. Vol. 3.Reykjavík: Bókútgáfan Forni. saga ok Bósa)”. In Medieval Scandinavia: An Pp. 397-417. Encyclopedia. Ed. Philip Pulsiano et al. Garland Torfi H. Tulinius. 2000. “The Matter of the North: Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages 1. Garland Fiction and Uncertain Identities in Thirteenth- Reference Library of the Humanities 934. New Century Iceland”. In Old Icelandic Literature and York: Garland. P. 54. Society. Ed. Margaret Clunies Ross. Cambridge The New Philology. 1990. Speculum 65, special issue. Studies in Medieval Literature 42. Cambridge: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 242–265. Nichols, Stephen G. 1997. “Why Material Philology?” Wenzel, Siegfried. 1990. “Reflections on (New) Zeitschrift für Deutsche Philologie 116: 10–30. Philology”. Speculum 65: 11–18. Wolf, Kirsten. 1993. “Old Norse – New Philology”. Scandinavian Studies 65: 338–348.

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Ferocious Beast (óarga dýr) between North and East Fjodor Uspenskij, Institute of Slavic Studies (Moscow), Russian Academy of Science, and Higher School of Economics

The paper presents a linguistic approach to (†1125). Indeed, this is a rather large obscure collocative adjective–noun biography of the Great Prince written in the expressions (Old Norse óarga dýr and Old first person. The Testament is a unique source Russian ljutyj zver') that appear to have for the description of the everyday life of a become lexicalized as discrete lexical- prince in the 11th century, exhibiting the semantic units in spoken language (which spectrum of tastes for reading and literature of could also be described as formulae) but an educated person of that time. which are only preserved in medieval written It is known that one of the primary texts, where their meaning potential has been entertainments (or perhaps more accurately, adapted to or manipulated within the the duties) of a ruler was hunting. Monomakh emerging register of written language. The relates the difficulties of his life as a method or strategy employed is typological huntsman almost in as much detail as those of cross-linguistic comparison through which his military enterprises. The ancient names of corresponding phenomena in different the animals hunted by the prince, and of those languages can be reciprocally illuminating which hunted him, have always been very and reciprocally reinforcing. This becomes interesting to historians, linguists and even for particularly significant in cases where one or biologists, such as those in the following both corpora are extremely limited. According example: to this method, each lexicalized phrase is а се в Черниговѣ дѣӕлъ ѥсмъ . конь дики contextualized within the relevant written своима рукама свѧзалъ ѥсмь . въ пуша . corpus, as are its constituent components in . и . к . живъ конь . а кромѣ того иже по cases where these exhibit limited use. Patterns ови ѣздѧ ималъ ѥсмъ своима рукама тѣ of use are reviewed, correlating semantic use же кони дикиѣ . тура мѧ . в . метала на with the type of text. Rhetorical strategy in розѣ и с конемъ . ѡлень мѧ ѡдинъ болъ . use or pattern of use is addressed as an а . в . лоси ѡдинъ ногами топталъ . а essential factor when assessing semantic use другъ и рогома болъ . вепрь ми на бедрѣ in different texts (of which avoidance мечь ѿтѧлъ . медвѣдь ми у колѣна expressions related to naming-taboos would подъклада оукусилъ . л тъ и звѣрь be a ritualized form). The correlation of each скочилъ ко мнѣ на бедръ . и конь со мно поверже . и ъ неврежена мѧ example across languages then offers insights събл де. (ПС Л, I (1926 / 1997): 251.) into patterns of use, as well as reinforcing interpretations where evidence in one area or At Chernigov, I even bound wild horses feature under discussion in one language may with my bare hands and captured ten or not be as well attested or evident as in the twenty live horses with the lasso, and on top other. This reveals both cases as typologically of that, while riding along the Rus, I caught these same wild horses barehanded. Two similar developments of special expressions bison tossed me and my horse on their from spoken language being adapted as social horns, a stag once gored me, one elk resources into the emerging register of written stamped upon me, whereas another gored narrative discourse during the medieval me, a boar once tore my sword from my period. All this will be illustrated by a case thigh, on one occasion a bear bit my study of Old Norse óarga dýr and Old kneecap, and on another wild beast (лютыи Russian ljutyj zver'. звѣрь) jumped on my flank and threw my horse with me. But God preserved me The Сollocation ljutyj zver' in the unharmed. (Cross 1930: 308–309.)

‘Testament’ of Vladimir Monomakh Among these animals, one remains In the Old Russian literature, there are few mysterious and has not yet been defined, in texts comparable to the Pouchenie spite of the cooperative efforts of a number [‘Testament’] of Vladimir Monomakh of scholars. The collocation ljutyj zver'

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(лютый зверь [‘fierce, wild beast’]) presents regard, it is significant that óarga dýr often a particular lexical-semantic unit: its meaning occurs in the texts as an element used in a is not merely the sum of meanings of its comparison specifically for descriptions of components. In order to understand why men in battle, these comparisons being Vladimir Monomakh used this very monotypic although they can be found in expression in his description of the hunt in the quite diverse sagas. Such a formulaic Pouchenie, it is necessary, on the one hand, to characterization of a fierce fighter can, for determine its rhetorical function, and, on the example, be taken from: Fóstbræðra saga other hand, to illustrate some linguistic and [‘The Saga of the Foster-Brothers’], a classic cultural parallels. At first sight, the parallels family saga describing a feud in Iceland in the addressed are not directly connected with the 10th century, in which this or that personage is work by Monomakh, but they illustrate how mentioned as fighting against his enemies sem an identical – or at least very similar – it óarga dýr [‘like an intrepid beast’] (Björn formula functions in another literature Þórólfsson 1925: 18, 81); Gyðinga saga [‘The tradition. Saga of the Jews’], an exposition of some I believe that such a parallel can be found parts of the Old Testament, where a on Scandinavian ground in the equally corresponding comparison is made mysterious óarga dýr. (Guðmundur Þorláksson 1881: 36); and Karlamagnúss saga [‘The Saga of Óarga dýr in Written Sources Charlemaigne’] (Unger 1860: 428, 520) and In Old Norse texts, there is a corresponding Tristrams saga ok Ísöndar [‘The Saga of fixed expression óarga dýr, which literally Tristan and Iseuld’] (Brynjulfson 1878: 17, means ‘intrepid, bold, fearless beast’. ch. 11), rather free renderings of the West However, what is the actual meaning of this European compositions, where this well-attested lexical-semantic unit? In the comparison is also present. (For additional translated texts and in texts written under the examples, see Beck 1972: 101; cf. also the influence of the continental literary or data of The Dictionary of Old Norse Prose: encyclopedic tradition, óarga dýr often means s.v. ‘óargadýr’, ‘óargr’.) ‘lion’. For example, Samson kills an ‘intrepid Analyzing the Old Norse sources, it beast’ (óarga dýr) with his own hands,1 and becomes apparent that óarga dýr cannot be Daniel the Prophet is thrown in a ditch full of reduced to a single, real predatory animal wild, fierce beasts (Benediktsson 1944: 39).2 within the corpus of texts as a whole. In addition, óarga dýr may describe some Nevertheless, when individual texts are taken other large predatory animals (such as a separately, this becomes possible, but not panther), which were exotic for the obligatory. Indeed, in some cases, the Scandinavians. A similar conclusion has been predator designated as a ‘wild beast’ can be drawn concerning the meaning of Old identified. However, even in those cases it Russian ljutyj zver' in translated texts and in remains uncertain to what extent this texts written under the influence of foreign identification was intended in the text by the patterns.3 However, would it be realistic to author. Apparently, óarga dýr is not a special think that Monomakh was fighting with a lion construction invented to designate exotic in a Russian forest? animals that do not occur in Scandinavia. This It is significant that both Old Russian and expression is therefore likely to have existed Old Norse texts had their own specific words in the language prior to its use for these exotic for ‘lion’ – lev (левъ) in Old Russian and léo, animals, and probably for some time had, due leo[n] in Old Norse. In both Old Russian and to its broad compositional meaning, been Old Norse, a ‘lion’ was more of a literatary frequently used in the literate tradition to figure than an object of hunting. Both the signify wild, fierce beasts generally as well as expression ljutyj zver' and the expression various predatory animals exotic to the óarga dýr appear to signify the absolute Scandinavians. These considerations offer a personification of fierceness and wildness resolution for the semantics of óarga dýr in within their respective languages. In this the language use of literature, but do not

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resolve the semantics of the earlier uses of the smiðer voro ok sjá yfer fénat sinn ok akra, expression from which these derive. en stundum var hann á tali við menn, þá er ráða hans þurftu. Kunni hann til allz góð ráð The Semantics and Associations of óargr at leggja, því at hann var foruitri. En dag The adjective óargr is the negative form of a huern, er at kuelldi leið, þá gerðiz hann styggr, suá at fáer menn máttu orðum við term that was very significant in the Old hann koma. Var hann kuelldsuæfr. Þat var Norse culture, especially in the language of mál manna, at hann veri mjog hamrammr. law: argr / ragr [‘coward, effeminate, Hann var kallaðr Kuelldúlfr (Finnur Jónsson unmanly’] (Weisweiler 1923: 16–29; 1886–1888: 4, chapter 1). Sørensen 1983: passim). In juridical texts argr/ragr is classified as obscene vocabulary, He made a habit of rising early to supervise the work of his labourers and skilled apparently connected with accusing a man of 4 craftsmen, and to take a look at his cattle being a passive homosexual. Accordingly, and cornfields. From time to time he would the semantics of ó-argr is an antithesis of sit and talk with people who came to ask for argr, ‘un-tamed’ in the sort of sexual his advice, for he was a shrewd man and domination potentially implied in argr, or never at loss for the answer to any problem. ‘that which cannot be made argr’.The model But every day, as it drew towards evening, of the descriptive phrase itself, where the he would grow so ill-tempered that no one adjective component includes a negative could speak to him, and it wasn’t long element, suggests that here we are dealing before he would go to bed. There was talk with a euphemistic designation of some about his being a shape-changer, and people predator associated with naming taboos. This called him Kveld-Ulf [literally ‘Evening Wolf’]. (Hermann Pálsson & Edwards 1976: begs the question: is it possible to reveal the 21.) original, pre-written-language meaning of the euphemistic word combination on the basis of While the name and nickname of the material from the written sources? grandson was understood as a set expression To my mind, it is possible. First of all, it meaning ‘Evening Wolf’, the name and would be useful to reveal what the word nickname of his grandfather, Úlfr óargi, was, óargr means outside of the set expression probably, interpreted as ‘Fearless Wolf’. The óarga dýr, in the texts which are to the least nickname or, better to say, epithet Kvelld- is extent connected with the continental to a great extent conditioned, determined by encyclopedic tradition. In particular, the fact the proper name Úlfr. When brought together, cannot be ignored that the adjective óargr they combine to mean a were-animal – a (úargr), which occurs very rarely and is used werewolf, a person who turns into a wolf in almost exclusively within the set expression the evening. The clear semantic relevance of under consideration, is known as a nickname ‘wolf’ to this family’s identity and its naming as well. practices is complemented by evidence that It is potentially significant that the holder the epithets identifying and distinguishing of the nickname óargi was a man having the different ‘wolves’ within the family were proper name Úlfr [‘Wolf’]. In the family of semantically relevant to the basic name that man, the ‘wolf’-semantics of the proper ‘Wolf’ (i.e. the semantics of the basic name name were not lost. This is clear from the Úlfr [‘Wolf’] acted as a determinant factor on story about his grandson, who had been the epithet). This consequently gives reason to named Úlfr after him. The latter’s proper believe that the epithet óargi is also name and nickname came together to form the determined by the proper name Úlfr, peculiar combination Kvelld-úlfr that is underlining óargi as characterizing the explained in the saga. Egils saga courage or ferocity intrinsic to the wolf. The Skallagrímssonar tells that Kvelldúlfr’s nicknames of the grandfather and the behavior in the evening differed greatly from grandson, therefore, acquire the complete that in the daytime: meanings only in combination with their names. In other words, Úlfr óargi presents a Var þat siðr hans at rísa vpp árdegiss ok sort of set expression in a manner ganga þá um sýslur manna, eða þar er 164

corresponding to óarga dýr, only instead of ‘wolf’ to ‘lion’ was not at all definitive or the word dýr there is the word úlfr. When the final. It is rather significant that, in the written adjective óargi is only encountered in two tradition, the expression óarga dýr had no combinations – Úlfr óargi and óarga dýr – fixed meaning as referring to a particular and combination with úlfr appears restricted predator. The allegory of rapacity and ferocity to the use of úlfr as a personal name, it which linked to the word combination óarga becomes reasonable to hypothesize that óarga dýr, could probably sometimes imply the old dýr was originally a euphemistic designation meaning ‘wolf’ as well. It should be noted for the wolf in particular.5 once more that a word combination of the Further ‘traces’ of the primary, pre-written kind that underwent this complicated language meaning of óarga dýr can be evolution allowed a combination of the more pursued in the written sources. Graphically general and the particular meanings for the and phonetically (but not etymologically) literary text: it could simultaneously be and óargr or úargr is close to the word vargr, one not be the synonym of some particular, of the central cultural-juridical terms of the monosemantic word. Scandinavian Middle Ages. As the adjective óargr (úargr) was regularly used only with Ljutyj zver' in the Light of óargr dýr the word ‘beast’ (dýr), therefore graphically, The euphemistic character of the Russian the combination óarga dýr or úarga dýr expression ljutyj zver' [‘fierce beast’] is not as sometimes simply appeared as varga dýr in evident as that of Old Norse óarga dýr, yet written texts (cf. e.g. it varga dyr in this thesis has been advanced already in a Morkinskinna or hin vaurgu dyr in the number of papers. Here, the typological wording of the A manuscript of Þiðriks saga comparison of this expression with the Old af Bern).6 In the language of law, vargr is ‘an Norse óarga dýr appears to be productive outlaw, social outcast, enemy’, however, in once again: the components of óarga dýr are the non-juridical texts vargr may mean more lexically bound, and the euphemistic ‘wolf’.7 Apparently, the meanings ‘outcast’ character of its structure (containing negation) and ‘wolf’ in Old Norse were not opposed to is by far more obvious. Nevertheless, it is each other and, somehow, were blended. never an easy task to elucidate what this or Óarga dýr and vargr, in spite of the that expression presented beyond the limits of difference in etymology, were extremely close the written language when all of the available for the native speakers. material for the description of the epoch of So, it seems probable that initially the interest is in the form of written texts. At expression óarga dýr was used as an allegoric some point in time, both the Old Norse or euphemistic designation of the wolf. The expression óarga dýr and the Old Russian development of the semantics of óarga dýr expression ljutyj zver' acquired a rather stable may be schematically presented as follows: and adequate ‘functional niche’ in the literary initially this is a descriptive, tabooing language. designation for a certain predatory animal If it is hypothesized that the Old Russian (possibly from the vocabulary of the hunters). ljutyj zver' [‘fierce beast’] developed in close This animal was the locally understood typological correspondence to the Old Norse personification of something fierce and alien. expression, this can be situated in relation to Furthermore, this word collocation was used its fit with the rhetoric and stylistic strategy of to signify a fierce beast of prey. This meaning Vladimir Monomakh in his Testament. In the is observed clearly in the translated and Testament, alongside other techniques, bookish texts where it is used to signify Monomakh frequently engages in plays based various predatory beasts – above all, a lion. on the combination of the abstract and The great semantic potential implicit in particular semantics of terms and cultural this evolution was provided by the concepts. The whole of Monomakh’s text can generalized, descriptive character of the be described as balancing on the cusp of its euphemism óarga dýr. It should be stressed, extreme autobiographical character and however, that the change in meaning from engaging a vast body of literature through

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citation. For example, in the passage zver' as an otherwise unmentioned real animal following the description of hunting ‘traumas’ and concrete adversary of the hunter that has quoted above, he employs the word ‘head’ been designated in this way for rhetorical (голова) with almost punning repetition as it effect. Consequently, the wolf becomes the carries remarkably different loads of meaning most probable referent of the avoidance term in the various cases: as the only culturally significant adversary of the hunter not otherwise mentioned. The use [...] л тъ и звѣрь скочилъ ко мнѣ на бедръ . и конь со мно поверже . и ъ of ljutyj zver' combines a euphemistic неврежена мѧ събл де . и с конѧ много designation of the specific predatory animal (a пада . голову си розби дваждъ . и ру ѣ wolf, as proposed here) and the maximally и нозѣ свои вереди . въ оуности сво и generalized meaning of a fierce beast of prey, вереди не бл да живота своѥго . ни which can be seen as a kind of collective щадѧ головъ сво ӕ. (ПС Л, I (1926 / image of the human’s adversary during the 1997): 251.) hunt. In other words, Monomakh makes a

[...] wild beast (лютыи звѣрь) jumped on play on the polysemantic character of this my flank and threw my horse with me. But construction, both realizing the final concrete God preserved me unharmed. I often fell animal in the list and simultaneously from my horse, fractured my skull (голову) construing that conflict as an ultimate and twice, and in my youth injured my arms and symbolic confrontation between man and legs when I did not take heed for my life or beast. Moreover, the appearance of the spare my head (ни щадѧ головъı своєӕ). construction in the text appears attributable (Cross 1930: 309.) precisely to its polysemantic character. In other words, the Prince liked to juxtapose a This is not the only case of such usage of very concrete word with a corresponding the word combination ljutyj zver' in Old word referring to something very abstract. He Russian sources. It is mentioned in a similar places the expression ljutyj zver' at the end of way in the no less famous Slovo o Polku the passage about the hunt, precisely at the Igoreve [‘The Tale of Igor’s Campaign’]. very end of the list of absolutely real animals: There, the prince Vseslav of Polock: bison, elk, a bear, etc. This list is arguably скочи от ни ъ л тымь звѣремь въ ordered according to the prestige of each плъночи изъ ѣлаграда, обѣсися синѣ animal on the hunt or the threat each poses to мьглѣ, утръже вазни с три кусы, отвори the hunter, in which case the progression врата Новуграду, разшибе славу suggests that the ljutyj zver' is a real animal Ярославу, скочи влъкомь до Немиги... 9 8 and the most prestigeous or threatening. It galloped from them like a wild beast (ljutyj should be pointed out that the wolf is absent zver') at midnight from B lgorod, swathed from this list, although its presence should be himself in a blue mist, rent asunder his expected as a dangerous adversary of the bonds into three parts, opened wide the gates hunter. of Nóvgorod, shattered the Glory of It would be very consistent with Vladimir Yarosláv [the Wise]; galloped like a wolf to Monomakh’s rhetorical strategies in the text the Nemíga... to name the predators that had attacked him in Compare Vladimir Nabokov’s translation: common terms and then to designate the last of these euphemistically. The double Like a fierce beast rhetorical load seems particularly justified he leapt away from them [the troops?], here, at the culmination of the list. Avoidance at midnight, out of Belgorod, terms characterize their objects with an having enveloped himself honorific status. This would be consistent in a blue mist. with the list as an ordered progression and the Then at morn, ultimate status of the final adversary, and he drove in his battle axes, might be described as a rhetorical flourish that opened the gates of Novgorod, makes the list more dramatic. This rhetorical shattered the glory of Yaroslav, frame supports the identification of the ljutyj [and] loped like a wolf / to the Nemiga...10 166

fullréttisorð [gross verbal insults]. A man also has Apparently, in this poetic expression, the the right to kill for these three words’] (Gade 1986: metaphoric and, paradoxically, a very 132). particular meaning are combined. Indeed, it is 5. As for the euphemistic substitution of the wolf in the possible to speak of a trope characterizing word combinations referring to the personal names, it is appropriate to mention an episode from the how fast and secretively prince Vseslav was poetic Edda. As it is known, the Völsungs riding. The example is interesting because originated from the people who, according to the there is every reason to assume that a trope of legend, could turn into wolves. It is interesting that this kind appears under the influence of the the most famous of Völsungs, Sigurðr the Dragon general idea of Vseslav being a werewolf, Slayer, who wanted to avoid the curse of the dying dragon, does not tell his name but informs that he is suffering from lycanthropy, because his a noble beast — Göfukt dýr ek heiti (Neckel 1936: mother gave birth to him through magic: 176). Sigurðr’s answer, in spite of being

ѥгоже роди мт и ѿ въл вованьӕ . мт ри бо deliberately mysterious, apparently was с understandable for the audience well acquainted родивши ѥго . бъ ѥму ӕзвено на главѣ with the hero’s genealogy. The matter is, one of the ѥго . рекоша бо волсви мт ри ѥго . се constant nicknames of Völsungs (referred to the ӕзвено навѧжи на нь . да носить до legend of Sigmundr and Sinfjötli) was Ylfingar, живота своѥго . же носить сеславъ и до ‘Little Wolves’ or ‘descendents of Wolf’, cf.: сего дн е на собѣ . сего ради немлствъ сть Sigmundr konungr ok hans ættmenn héto Völsungar на кровьпролить (ПС Л, I (1926 / 1997): ok Ylfingar (Neckel 1936: 146). Thus, using an 155, sub anno 1044.) allegory, Sigurðr tells that he is of the noble family of beasts; he allegorically underlines his belonging Him his mother bore by enchantment, for to the family of Wolf (Breen 1999: 34–35). There is when his mother bore him, there was a caul no need to remind of the important place of the over his head, and the magicians bade his wolf symbolic in the Niflungs cycle: the ‘wolfish’ mother bind this caul upon him, that he origin of the Niflungs is actualized in the numerous might carry it with him the rest of his life. details of the plot. Vseslav accordingly bears it to this day, and 6. See Finnur Jónsson 1932: 351; Bertelsen 1905– for this reason he is pitiless in bloodshed 1911, 1: 353. Cf. Cleasby & Vigfusson 1874: 658; Beck 1972: 101, 106, 110 footnote 24. (Cross 1930: 228.) 7. Cf. Vargr heitir dýr; þat er rétt at kenna við blóð Therefore the description of Vseslav running eða hræ svá, at kalla verð hans eða drykk; eigi er rétt at kenna svá við fleiri dýr. Vargr heitir ok like a ljutyj zver' cannot be separated from his úlfr… (Finnur Jónsson 1900: 129) [‘It is correct to identity as a ‘wolf’ any more than the epithet peraphrase blood or carrion in terms of the beast óargi can be from Úlfr, as discussed above. which is called vargr, by calling them his meat and drink; it is not correct to express them in terms of Notes other beasts. The vargr is also called wolf’]. 1. med hondum sinum einum banadi eno oarga dyri 8. [1.] bison; [2.] stag; [3.] elk; [4.] boar; [5.] bear; [6.] (Kålund 1908: 50). ljutyj zver'. 2. Cf. Kålund 1908: 52; Wisén 1872: 63; Benediktsson 9. See Jakobson 1966: 145 lines 156–157. 1944: 39. On King David of the Bible killing the 10. See Nabokov 1960. lion (= óarga dýr) see Benediktsson 1944: 31; Zitzelsberger 1988: 64; Cederschiöld 1884: 64. For Works Cited additional examples for óarga dýr = ‘lion’, see ANF = Arkiv för nordisk filologi Beck 1972: 98–101. Beck, H. 1972. “Hit óarga dýr und die mittelalterliche 3. See услаев 1851; Ивакин 1901: 281–282; Tiersignificatio”. In Saga og sprak: Studies in Клейненберг 1969; Сумникова 1986, with Language and Literature. Ed. John M. Weinstock. references; Топоров 1988; Савельева 1995: 189– Austin, Texas. Pp. 97–101. 190, with references; Королев 1998; cf. Benediktsson, J. (ed.). 1944. Veraldar saga. Успенский 2004: 88–105. SUGNL 61. København. 4. Cf.: Þav ero orð þriú, ef sva mioc versna máls endar Bertelsen, H. (ed.). 1905–1911. Þiðriks saga af Bern I– manna. er scog Gang varða avll. Ef maðr kallar II. SUGNL 34. København. mann ragan eða stroðiN. eða sorðiN. Oc scal søkia Björn Þórólfsson (ed.). 1925. Fóstbræðra saga. sem avnnor full rettis orð, enda a maðr vígt igegn SUGNL 49. Copenhagen. þeim orðum þrimr (Finsen 1852–1870, 2: 392; 1/2: Breen, G. 1999. “‘The Wolf is at the door’: Outlaws, 183–184) [‘There are three words that corrupt Assassins, and Avengers Who Cry ‘Wolf!’”. men’s speech to such an extent that they all incur ANF 114: 31–43. outlawry. If a man calls another man ragr or stroðinn or sorðinn, he shall prosecute as for other

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Brynjulfson, G. (ed.). 1878. Saga af Tristram ok Ísönd Sørensen, P. M. 1983. The Unmanly Man: Concept of samt Möttuls saga. Udg. af det kongelige nordiske Sexual Defamation in Early Northern Society. The Oldskrift-Selskab. Kjöbenhavn. Viking Collection 1. Odense. Cederschiöld, G. (ed.). 1884. “Konráðs saga”. In Unger, C. R. (ed.) 1860. Karlamagnus Saga ok Kappa Fornsögur Sudrlanda: Magus saga jarls, Konraðs hans: Fortællinger om Keiser Karl Magnus og hans saga, Bærings saga, Flovents saga, Bevers saga. Jævninger i norsk Bearbeidelse fra det trettende Lund; Berling. Aarhundrede. Christiania. Cleasby, R. & Gudbrand Vigfusson. 1874. An Weisweiler, J. 1923. “Beiträge zur Icelandic-English Dictionary. Oxford. Bedeutungsentwicklung germanischer Wörter für Cross, S. H. (trans.). 1930. The Russian Primary sittliche Begriffe: Erster Teil”. Indogermanischen Chronicle. Harvard Studies and Notes in Philology Forschungen 41: 13–77. and Literature 12. Cambridge. Wisén, Th. 1872 (ed.). Homiliu-bók. Isländska The Dictionary of Old Norse Prose. Available at Homilier efter en handskrift från tolfte http://www.onp.hum.ku.dk/webart/o/oa/57921cvkal århundradet: Isländska skinnboken 15 qv. å Kungl. fkol.htm. Bibliotheket i Stockholm. Lund. Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1886–1888. Egils saga Zitzelsberger, O. J. (ed.). 1988. Konráðs saga Skallagrímssonar tilligemed Egils större kvad. Keisarsonar. American University Studies. Series SUGNL 17. København. 1; Germanic Languages and Literature 63. New Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1900. Snorri Sturluson. Edda. York, Bern, Frankfurt am Main, Paris. København. услаев, Ф. 1851. “Значение собственны имен: Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1932. Morkinskinna. SUGNL 53. Л тичи, иль ы и олчки в истории языка”. København. Временник Имп. Московского общества Finsen, V. (ed.). 1852–1870. Grágás. Islændernes Истории и Древностей Российских 10. Lovbog i Fristatens Tid 1–4. Kjøbenhavn. Ивакин, И. М. 1901. Князь Владимир Мономах и его Gade, K. E. 1986. “Homosexuality and Rape of Males Поучение, ч. 1: Поучение детям, Письмо Олегу и in Old Norse Law and Literature”. Scandinavian отрывки. Москва. Studies 58: 124–141. Клейненберг, И. Э. 1969. “Л тый зверь в печатя Guðmundur Þorláksson (ed.). 1881. Gydinga saga. еликого Новгорода XV в.” Вспомогательные SUGNL 6. København. исторические дисциплины 2. Hermann Pálsson & Edwards, P. (transl.). 1976. Egil’s Королев, Г. И. 1998. “Несколько дополнений к Saga. Harmondsworth. ‘л тому звер ’”. Гербоведъ 30. Jakobson, R. 1966. “Édition critique du Slovo”. In ПС Л = Полное собрание русских летописей I– Selected Writings IV. Paris. XLIII. Санкт-Петербург (Петроград, Ленинград), Kålund, Kr. (ed.) 1908. Alfræði Íslenzk. Islandsk Москва 1841–2009. encyklopædisk litteratur I: Cod. Mbr. AM. 194, 8vo. Савельева, Н. . 1995. “Л тый зверь”. In SUGNL 37. København. Энциклопедия «Слова о полку Игореве» 3. Nabokov, V. (trans.). 1960. The Song of Igor’s Санкт-Петербург. Campaign: An Epic of the 12th Century. New York. Сумникова, Т. А. 1986. “О словосочетании л тый Neckel, G. (ed.). 1936. Edda: Die Lieder des Codex зверь в некоторы памятника Regius nebst verwandten Denkmälern I: Text. 3rd восточнославянской письменности”. In Балто- revised edition. Germanische Bibliothek 9. славянские исследования 1984. Москва. Heidelberg. Топоров, . Н. 1988. “ округ “л того зверя” (голос SUGNL = Samfund(et) til Udgivelse at gammel в дискуссии)”. In Балто-славянские nordisk Litteratur. исследования 1986. Москва. Успенский, Ф. . 2004. “Лютый зверь на уси и в Скандинавии”. Славяноведение 2.

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Part IV: Function, Structure and Statistics

Function, Structure and Statistics: An Introduction

The closing section of this collection brings not mean that research and analysis are together four articles on methods and divorced from cultural sensitivity, and the methodologies related to the analysis of differences in scope make these different patterns within broad corpora of data. types of studies complementary (Bradley, this Whereas the articles in Culturally Sensitive volume). Reading were inclined to focus on specific In “Categorising Christ within an Age-ǫld cases or phenomena, these papers prioritize Paradigm: The ‘Kenning System’ and developing perspectives on the corpus or Shifting Cultural Referents”, Emily Osborne corpora as broad contextual frames. This was (Cambridge University) presents a strong anticipated by Frog’s usage-based approach to opening to the section. Whereas Fjodor cultural expression in Method in Practice. Uspenskij closed the last section with a Observing patterns of functions and structures discussion of particular verbal formulas throughout a corpus can be employed as associated with naming-avoidance and their abstract contextualizing models for individual changing use in a Christian environment, case studies (Bradley, this volume). Osborne advances discussion to and entire This is a methodological area that (and highly flexible) system of poetic atrophied in the wake of the paradigm shifts language of naming-avoidance and its and methodological transformations that adaptation following the conversion to Christ- foregrounded emic readings. Highlighting ianity. She contests the predominating per- specific variation produced scepticism toward spective that this poetic idiom and associated generalizations about broad social patterns. conceptual system were constant and uniform. Early studies were associated with these She explores the dialogic interaction of this priorities, such as seeking to reconstruct dynamic poetic language with changing social ‘original forms’ and reveal ‘universals’ and historical circumstances across a period according to models of culture that had of hundreds of years. She connects with Erin become untenable in the changing academic Michelle Goeres’s discussion of the power environment. The methods and goals relations between reader and editor by remained associated with the methodological exposing the problematics of resolving these baggage of that earlier era and were neglected circumlocutions in translation. Her treatment in the new environment. Ironically, this of tensions between ambiguity and produced the methodological paradox that interpretation will be of interest to anyone studies of specific variation lacked the tools faced with challenges of portraying idiomatic for producing new models of these broad and specialized formulaic language. Osborne social patterns, and the social conventions in highlights this problem by engaging the relation to which specific variation occurred theme of mythologies, She elucidates the often remained ambiguous and poorly ability of formulaic expressions to maintain defined. Rather than being opposed to case- continuity, while mythic conceptions and specific studies, investigations of this type their world-models alter (cf. Saussure 1916 simply have a different scope and emphasis – [1967]: 104–140). i.e. developing perspectives on contexts rather Whereas the poetic idiom focused on by than the situation of specific cases within Osborne was characterized by verbal those contexts. Each type of study will be variation, oral poetry is far better known for primarily oriented to uses that the other is not stability in formulaic language. This aspect of (cf. Suenson, this volume). As these studies poetic traditions has a long and prestigious show, analysis of an extensive corpus does history of statistical assessment in philology

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(e.g. Meyer 1889; Parry 1928). On the one [1967]) treatment of emergent cultural hand, this is because of the startling degree to categories, such as binary oppositions (male– which expressions associated with traditional female, raw–cooked, etc.), and Vladimir meters can exhibit historical stability; on the Propp’s structuralist approach to narrative other hand, traditional poets such as Homer or studies, best known through his Morphology the unknown poet of Beowulf were elevated to of the Folktale (1958). Although the methods an iconic status already in the era of and theories of these structural approaches Romanticism. The long-term historical were at their inception oriented toward continuities of poems, poetries and poetic archetypal ideals and universals, the types of idioms has long held a fascination, initially social and semiotic patterns from which they for accessing the archaic past, and later for emerge have been encountered and described understanding how oral poetry could be used, again and again in traditions from around the reused and even radically adapted through world. Their specific forms and structures are changing social and historical circumstances now recognized increasingly as generative (cf. Goeres, Sykäri, this volume). rather than ideally imposed, and tradition- In “Poetic Formulas in Late Medieval dependent, genre-dependent or potentially Icelandic Folk Poetry: The Case of even text-dependent (cf. Foley 1988: 108– Vambarljóð”, Haukur Þorgeirsson (University 111). Whether such patterns are culturally of Iceland) addresses diachronic continuities bound, specific to small-group communities, across corpora documented over a period of or even exclusive to certain genres within a about five centuries. He examines interactions single culture, it is essential to recognize these of poetic language with the meters of different sorts of frames when developing a context for poetics systems, and also the intersections of specific cases. verbal expression with semantics and In “A Method for Analyzing World- pragmatics of use. He illustrates a philological Models in Scandinavian Mythology”, Mathias method based on multi-poetic statistical Nordvig (University of Aarhus) returns to the surveys of formulaic language use, aspiring to theme of mythic conceptual models opened an exhaustive data set (cf. Bradley, this by Osborne. He engages structural approaches volume). Haukur Þorgeirsson’s survey is in narrative analysis to develop perspectives contextualized in relation to metrical systems, on vernacular conceptual modelling of the poetic language use more generally, and also mythic sphere (cf. Frog, this volume). Propp’s prose. Much as Rebecca M.C. Fisher structural approach to folktales was originally highlighted the intersection of multimodal descriptive. Nordvig adapts this descriptive contexts in a specific case, this study model in order to identify patterns in the highlights the intersection of diverse factors representation of spatial relations. This required for consideration when addressing necessarily engages categories functioning the lexicon of one poetry among multiple within patterns of representation and poetries. In this process, Haukur Þorgeirsson oppositions among them. The emerging reveals the fluidity between qualitative patterns can then be interpreted as reflecting sensitive readings on the one hand and world-models insofar as narratives are quantitative data on the other. structured in accordance with conceptions of Broad surveys of data can allow insights the mythic world. The method outlined by into semiotic patterns much more complex Nordvig is relevant to a broad range of than purely linguistic forms. Models from materials for developing broad, abstract linguistics (esp. Saussure 1916 [1967]) have understandings of cultural conceptions of been extremely influential in structural studies space (cf. Lazo-Florez, this volume). This can and in other areas of semiotics as well, even if provide a frame for approaching different linguistic templates are not always fully aspects of specific material (cf. Latvala & compatible without adaptation (Sebeok 1994; Laurén, this volume). This article is an cf. Frog, this volume). Among the most excellent example of how methods developed prominent and widely recognized approaches under an outdated methodology can be have been Claude Lévi-Strauss’s (e.g. 1963 adapted to current research interests.

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One of the most central themes that comes competence. Ethnic identity is therefore to the fore again and again in contributions to approached in relation to cultural competence Approaching Methodology is situating that exists at the level of social meanings, material and interpretations within a relevant understandings and appraisals which cannot cultural context, with sensitivity to the be literally communicated or translated across functions, structures and broader semiotics in languages or cultures. In other words, which a type of expression occurs. Articles participation in an ethnic identity is access to repeatedly emphasize the need for developing that level of the semiotic system which only extended contexts for approaching data of a those fully competent in the culture’s particular phenomenon. This presents the semiotics can (intuitively) grasp and challenge that such frames are not generally understand. The product of such a survey has available: those that have been produced often tremendous potential as a reference for concentrate on a single traditional ‘text’ like a researchers of different fields and disciplines song, tale or proverb, in isolation, or they when approaching cultural phenomena, such present a dynamic picture of traditions in as those discussed by Bradley in the interaction on a highly localized level, such as beginning of this collection. It opens avenues a repertoire study of a single individual. Such of further exploration regarding why variation resources are valuable, but their use in is exhibited across genres or other uses of developing extended contexts is limited by these meaningful elements. The frame of their respective scopes – scopes aligned to reference it offers also has great potential for particular methodologies and research approaching limits to acceptable ranges of paradigms. Developing more dynamic and variation as well as exceptional variation extended contextualizing frames will no doubt within a corpus that could either be related to be a protracted multidisciplinary process that meaning-generation in synchronic contexts or will be negotiated by researchers for many be an outcome of diachronic processes (Frog, decades to come (Frog, this volume). this volume). Nevertheless, this does not mean that methods Perhaps the most central theme of for developing very broad contextualizing Approaching Methodology is the significance frames are completely unavailable. of developing contexts for data construction In “A System of Techniques and and analysis. The opening section of this Stratagems for Outlining a Traditional Ethnic collection began with articles offering widely Identity”, Vladamir Glukhov† & Natalia relevant discussions of Method in Practice, Glukhova (Mari State University) present the advancing to articles concentrating on model for a large-scale quantitative survey Constructing Data and then approaching oriented to reveal a dynamic lexicon of items and cases within that data through images and symbols and correlated system of Culturally Sensitive Reading. It concludes in values. Together, these constitute the core or Function, Structure and Statistics with the cores of cultural competence. This is an development of broader frames of reference in approach to ethnic identity according to a corpus-based surveys. It therefore seems semiotic model. The semiotic model is appropriate that the collection as a whole constructed through a survey of images, should be brought to a close with the symbols and values in extensive and diverse collection’s most advanced and extensive corpora of cultural material characterized as method for developing a reference-frame in ‘traditional’. Rather than focusing on which emic cultural understandings can be propositional meanings, this survey focuses cultuvated and interpretations tested. on the valuations, semantic prosody and indexical associations of images and symbols Works Cited in relation to evidence of cultural attitudes Foley, John Miles. 1988. The Theory of Oral and evaluations. The result can be considered Composition: History and Methodology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. generally descriptive of an essential Lévi-Strauss, Claude 1963 [1967]. Structural framework for understandings within the Anthropology. Trans. Claire Jacobson & Brooke relevant cultural group equivalent to cultural Grundfest Schoepf. New York: Basic Books.

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Meyer, R. M. 1889. Die altgermanische Poesie nach Propp, Vladimir. 1958. Morphology of the Folktale. ihren formelhaften Elementen beschrieben. Berlin: Ed. Satava Pirkova-Jakobson. Trans. Laurence Hertz. Scott. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Parry, Milman. 1928. L’épithète traditionnelle dans Saussure, Ferdinand de. 1916 [1967]. Cours de Homère. Paris: Société d’Éditions “Les Belles linguistique générale. Paris: Éditions Payot & Lettres” Rivages. Sebeok, Thomas A. 1994. An Introduction to Semiotics. London: Pinter.

Categorising Christ within an Age-ǫld Paradigm: The ‘Kenning System’ and Shifting Cultural Referents Emily Osborne, University of Cambridge

The kenning remains one of the most (Fidjestøl 1997: 31, 41). Adaptability of the recognisable and yet enigmatic components of kenning is advantageous in allowing skalds skaldic verse. The Icelandic and Norwegian not only to harmonise nominal elements with skalds of the 9th to the 14th centuries coined a the demanding metrical and alliterative vast array of individual kennings by requirements of intricate skaldic metres, but modifying recognised types with synonyms, also to bring into association diverse spheres associated images, or allusions to myth and of reference. This vast and evolving poetic legend. In its most basic form, the skaldic lexicon with its types and sub-types has long kenning combines a base word and been referred to retrospectively as a ‘system’, determinant to circumscribe a referent, which which scholars have reconstructed into is an element described but not stated in the paradigms. Paradigms reveal a system of verse. For example, the referent ‘blood’ can substitution which is both fixed and in flux, have a base word denoting a ‘liquid’, with a marked by the intersection of conformity and determinant denoting a weapon, as in originality, traditional patterns and creative 1 vápnlauðr [‘froth of weapons’] (Skj BI: 366), design. The potential for variation within the oddlá [‘sea of points’] (Skj BI: 58), or móða kenning system likely contributed to its spjóta [‘river of spears’] (Skj BI: 350). longevity, just as the capacity to adapt Synonymic or symbolic substitutions in both increases the variety and longevity of species the base word and determinant categories in the biological sphere. The enormous range allows this basic kenning type of blood as of periphrastic diction testifies to a process of ‘liquid of weapon’ to have many micro-evolution (see Gurevich 2002), to the manifestations. Blood can also be the drink or effective interfacing of its inner systematic drinking well of an anthropomorphised beast workings and its outside stimuli. As an of battle, as in hrafnvín [‘raven-wine’] (Skj ‘adaptive system’, external stimuli are BI: 619) or brunnr ylgjar [‘fountain of the constantly being exerted upon it from the 2 she-wolf’] (Skj BI: 494), or the body of water individual skald’s creative touch. of a corpse, as in benþeyr [‘wound-thaw’] (Skj Yet when more dramatic external change BI: 425) or hrælǫgr [‘corpse-sea’] (Skj BI: exerts itself upon a system, either macro- 309), which renders the corpse as a figurative evolution or demise of the system can be land or field of battle. stimulated. The increasing process of Synonymic substitution and the conversion to Christianity in Scandinavia, adaptability of types allows for almost which began in the 8th century but which limitless expansion of kennings, as Bjarne became far more pronounced by the 10th and Fidjestøl has pointed out: the base word and 11th, posed this challenge to the kenning determinant each represent “an open class of system, for Christian hermeneutics eventually synonym” (1997: 19), and in their brought new ways of figuring word and combinations, a considerable number of world. Values of claritas at times engendered kenning types and an even greater number of an apparent distaste for kennings rooted in individual kennings can be produced older religion, myths or cultural capital —

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hulin fornyrðin [‘hidden archaisms’] as the How shall battle be referred to? By calling it Lilja poet labelled them (Skj BII: 416) — yet weather of weapons or shield, or of Odin or skalds of the 12th to 14th centuries continued valkyrie or war-kings, or their clash or noise. Hornklofi said this: to use and adapt many older forms while simultaneously developing an explicitly The prince waged storm of spears [battle] Christian periphrastic lexicon modelled on the against men where wound-goslings traditional linguistic structures.3 Editors of the [arrows] clashed in Skogul’s din. Red skaldic lexicon have confronted unique wounds spewed blood. challenges when categorising newer Christian (Faulkes 1987: 117.) kennings within traditional paradigms and More recent paradigms and analyses of the when tracing their involvement with kenning system follow Skáldskaparmál in established kenning types. In the following I bringing kennings and referents together will outline scholarly methods of organising within prose paragraphs or in lists, tables and kennings into paradigms and of resolving columns. Well-known examples include them into referential equivalents, and will Rudolph Meissner’s Die Kenningar der discuss various implications and challenges of Skalden (1921), Guðbrandur Vigfússon & these methods. I will then consider ways in Frederick York Powell’s Corpus Poeticum which explicitly Christian kennings can be Boreale (1883), Hendrik van der Merwe- seen to fit, and not to fit, within traditional Scholtz’ The Kenning in Anglo-Saxon and frameworks of the kenning system. Old Norse Poetry (1927), Bjarne Fidjestøl’s Kenningsystemet (1974; 1997), and the Kenning System Paradigms Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Paradigms of the kenning system bridge the Ages online database. These studies differ in distance between words and the world, the the extent of supplementary material provided known and the unknown, kenning and in the form of descriptive paragraphs or referent. The earliest extant written explanatory notes, yet all the kenning system codification of the skaldic kenning system paradigms work to ‘reduce’ complex was produced by a prolific skald, Snorri kennings into single-word equivalents. Sturluson. In his Skáldskaparmál (ca. 1220) Generally these processes of translation and he presents kenning referents alongside simplification are precisely delineated, as is exemplary kenning types by using lists and apparent in Fidjestøl’s table of a basic ship- 4 verse quotations. Skáldskaparmál contains kenning type ‘animal of water’, where /D/ prose explanations of some mythic elements represents determinant, /B/ represents base and (in certain manuscript versions), a word, and ‘S’ represents the ‘sense word’, or narrative frame which places the work within referent: a mythological setting. The question-and- answer format also situates the work within /D/ /B/ ‘S’ contemporary learned traditions (Clunies hestr /water/ + fákr = ‘ship’ Ross 1987). A simple quotation, followed by Visundr Anthony Faulkes’ widely-used English translation, demonstrates Skáldskaparmál’s The increasing availability and digitization of format of providing referents alongside poetic such paradigms has made possible much periphrases: semantic and linguistic investigation of the kenning system and of relationships between Hvernig skal kenna orrostu? Svá at kalla kennings and their referents: paradigms veðr vápna eða hlífa eða Óðins eða valkyrju eða herkonunga eða gný eða glym. Svá kvað provide readers with a way into an elusive Hornklofi: language of hulin fornyrðin [‘hidden archaisms’] by uncovering and categorising Háði gramr, þar er gnúðu, its rudimentary fields of reference. Paradigms geira hregg við seggi, obviously mediate the relationship between —rauð fnýstu ben blóði— poetic language and audience response in bengǫgl at dyn Skǫglar. (Faulkes 1998: 66.) many important ways – the effects of such 173

mediation upon the appreciation, editing and kenning resolution evident in Faulkes’ emendation of poems warrant further English translation of Þorbjörn’s stanza, scrutiny. Skáldskaparmál rendered oral poetry which resolves the kennings hregg geira into written form, couched it within scholarly [‘storm of arrows’] and bengǫgl [‘wound- discussion, and translated metaphoric goslings’], not only attests to a comparative language into referential language by loss of familiarity with skaldic diction recording kenning referents alongside base (knowledge of which had apparently already words and determinants. In the skaldic poem, declined in Snorri’s time, judging by his the kenning holds its referent at a linguistic systematic presentation; Quinn 1994: 72–73), distance; paradigms which resolve kennings but also self-consciously reflects upon the to referents bridge some of the cognitive reconstructed system with which the verse distance generated by the skaldic form. Yet dialogues. Modern translations of skaldic cracking the kenning code appears a far-off verse frequently include only referents and no task for the modern reader without the actual kennings, particularly in the case of cultural and linguistic landscapes which are kennings based on more familiar or simpler telescoped into such paradigms, particularly types. For instance, Finnur Jónsson translates where specialised mythological or cultural a line from Eyvindr skáldaspillir Finnsson’s knowledge is required. Without a cultural or Hákonarmál, svarraði sárgymir / á sverða historical guide, it would often not be possible nesi [‘wound-sea answered on the sword’s to translate from kenning language into a headland’] (Skj BI: 58.5–6) as “blodströmmen referential language. bruste på skjoldene” [‘currents of blood How have kenning system paradigms roared on the shield’], half-resolving the piloted this journey from word to world? blood-kenning sárgymir into the more literal While paradigms point towards the potentially compound ‘blood-currents’ and fully unlimited number of kennings which the resolving the shield-kenning sverða nes into kenning system can yield, they its referential equivalent. When a translation simultaneously limit and/or delimit the lexical such as this is accomplished, how should and semantic range of the referent, reducing related verbal elements including verbs and complex kennings into one-word equivalents. adjectives be rendered? Marold (1983: 62–66) In paradigms, referents become simplices, and Sverdlov (2003) have discussed ways in reduced to their most basic value or semantic which other verbal elements interact frame: man, woman, sword, fire, battle.5 It semantically with kennings or influence their has often been noted that referents must be formation. In the case of Eyvindr’s image, the small in number if audiences were to decipher semantic and symbolic capacity of svarraði a wide range of kennings. Thus, Meissner rests in an implicit connection between the finds that most kennings can be referred to corpse as an element of the battle’s landscape just over one hundred cultural or semantic (which subsequently accesses the related categories of referents. Considering referents blood-kenning type as the body of water of a as simply as possible aids understanding of corpse), which contains a sea of blood that the ‘literal’ meaning of a skaldic stanza or the laps and echoes against another part of the topical situation it describes, such as the battle landscape of battle, the sword’s ‘headland’ in Þorbjörn Hornklofi’s stanza quoted above. (shield). Corpse, sea and land also converge Further steering modern audiences towards in the mythological resonance of gymir, a this literal meaning is the standard practice of derivative of the giant-name Gymir, for the resolving kennings within translations or bodies of giants appear as integral modern editions of skaldic stanzas; the components of universal creation throughout ‘translation’ of kennings into referents is in Gylfaginning, eddic verse and skaldic diction. turn informed by paradigms and the Finnur’s translation of svarraði as bruste resolution of kennings contained within the [‘roared’] retains the image of conversation Lexicon Poeticum antiquæ linguæ and the aural potential of strömme, yet the septentrionalis of Sveinbjörn Egilsson & imagistic harmony between corpse and shield Finnur Jónsson (1931). The process of as natural bodies in the battle’s landscape is

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deactivated by resolution of sverða nes to abstractions created by metaphor and ‘shield’ and sárgymir to ‘currents of blood’. metonymy;7 and ways in which cognitive Translating skaldic verse into a modern linguistics and conceptual blending theories language becomes a two-stage process, from can elucidate the mind’s play between a Old Norse to the target language and from kenning and its referent.8 In contrast, kenning periphrastic language to referential language, paradigms and systematic methods of kenning which offers many routes along the journey resolution and translation in turn bring these between word and world. The second stage of two spheres into closer connection. translation is usually noted in close proximity As referents of metaphors (or their to verse in order to aid reader accessibility, semantic frames) are not normally reproduced through parenthetical insertions or side-notes within poetic editions or translations as opposed to spatially removed footnotes. (compare modern editions of British The new editions produced by the Skaldic metaphysical verse or Homeric hymns which Editing Project (volumes II and VII) have also employ elaborate conceits and adopted mathematical symbols to refine a periphrases), established methods of procedure of kenning resolution, as for translating the skaldic poetic lexicon within instance in these examples from the skald the verse are unusual in the degree to which Einarr Skúlason: they paraphrase periphrases. Translating or resolving kennings refers the reader to the 1. harri hauðrtjalda: lord of earth-tents [SKY/HEAVEN > = God (= Christ)] kenning system and its paradigms, (Clunies Ross et al. 2007: 22–23) acknowledging a governing body within 2. hauka fróns leyghati: hater of the flame of which a kenning operates and anticipating an the hawks’ land audience’s response to a poem; at the same [(lit. ‘flame-hater of the hawks’ land’) time, kenning translation can alter or disguise ARM > GOLD > GENEROUS MAN] the symbolic substrata of a type, as is evident (Gade et al. 2009: 540–541) in Finnur Jónsson’s above translation. This

The referent appears in square brackets. essentially egocentric method of relating the Majuscules indicate traditional kenning words we find in poetry to the world we see referents while minuscules with ‘=’ sign around us is further complicated by the fact indicate the names of deities and other that the cultural value of a referent’s semantic persons. Example (1) is what is known as a frame must adapt over time: a corpse’s tvíkennt [‘twice-named’] kenning, because significance could vary among different one of its determinants has been expanded religious belief structures. While the kenning into a kenning. The referent of this internal language system may have operated within a kenning is represented first, because it must remarkably similar framework over centuries, be resolved before the referent of the entire the cultural categories to which it referred kenning can be discerned. Progression from naturally shifted, especially in the context of one kenning to another is indicated by the ‘>’ the socio-literary changes engendered by the sign. Example (2) is known as a rekit conversion to Christianity in Scandinavia. As [‘driven’] kenning; in this construction, two such, many Christian kennings resist defined or more determinants or base words are categorisation and resolution within patterns expanded into kennings. The ability to extend established for older ones. kennings internally unsurprisingly increases the number of their types and their cross- Kenning Paradigms and Cultural Context references within the kenning system. Kenning system paradigms differ in the Referential ambiguity or plurality degree of explanation provided for a simultaneously increases, distancing the real- kenning’s external context and its world referent and its semantic frame from mythological or cultural allusions. the audience’s cognitive grasp.6 Cognitive Skáldskaparmál incorporates many narratives, distance from word to world is a focal point frames and explanatory asides which situate of studies which explore: correspondences kennings within mythological, religious, between kennings and riddles (Lindow 1975); social or literary contexts. In the Corpus 175

Poeticum Boreale, Guðbrandur Vigfússon & like and unlike sets. (Clunies Ross 1989: Powell frequently enlarge upon a kenning’s 272.) social constitution. Bragi inn gamli’s kenning What effects do the paradigmatic for ‘shield’, salpenningr [‘hall-coin’]: arrangements of Snorri, Meissner and calls up the picture of the long smoke- Guðbrandur Vigfússon & Powell have upon darkened wooden hall, set round with tables readers’ and editors’ perception of the and benches, crowded by a goodly crew of kennings therein and in turn upon the merchant-adventurers, and filled by the interpretation, translation or emendation of merry sounds of the clinking can, blithe talk, verses? and laughter, while the light of torch and The juxtaposition of kenning types or hearth plays upon the long row of glittering referents within paradigms encourages readers brazen targets that deck the walls above their to find affinity between those groups. The owners’ heads. (Guðbrandur Vigfússon & Powell 1883: 450.) Corpus Poeticum Boreale, Die Kenningar and the different manuscript versions of Die Kenningar includes explanatory notes on Skáldskaparmál frequently arrange referents mythological and cultural phenomena, in spite and kenning types by tacit socio-religious of Meissner’s attempt to distance his study similarities, although the online Skaldic from such ethno-cultural horizons: Editing Project database of kenning referents

Mein Buch ist eine systematische, nicht eine departs from these models in organising historisch-kritische Darstellung der referents alphabetically. In Die Kenningar, Kenningar. Es soll ein Hülfsmittel zur heaven-kennings follow sky-kennings, God- Bearbeitung der großen Aufgaben sein, die kennings follow man-kennings, kennings for der Philologie auf diesem Gebiete gestellt holy women and the Virgin Mary follow sind, es ist aber auch zur Ehre der noch woman-kennings, and church-kennings immer verkannten Skaldendichtung follow house-kennings. Conceptual continuity geschrieben. (Meissner 1921: vii.) may exist between these historical individuals My book is a systematic, and not a and cosmological and social spaces, and it is historical-critical, presentation of kenningar. thus more surprising to note that lexical It is intended to be an auxiliary tool for similarity does not necessarily follow suit; for resolving the fundamental tasks which instance, the church-kennings Meissner lists philology is confronted with in this subject are not closely linked with house-kenning area; it is, however, also written for the models (Meissner 1921: 430–432), nor are honour of the still not widely acclaimed most periphrases for the Virgin Mary similar skaldic poetry. to traditional woman kennings (Meissner Paradigms of the kenning system can give the 1921: 395ff., 423ff.). Skáldskaparmál’s appearance that they are objective and hierarchy is also frequently based upon systematic presentations, organised connections between things, as opposed to categorically by the lexical value, and not between the ways in which kennings necessarily by the cosmological or semantic represent things.9 For example, sky-, earth- boundaries, of the referent. However, the very and sea-kennings are juxtaposed, and for each organisation of kenning types and referents of these cosmological spaces the first kenning into stemmas, catalogues and categories can types catalogued are those based on the myth expose underlying assumptions about the of cosmic creation from the body of the giant ways in which poetic terms relate to culture. Ymir, followed by those based on familial Here, an observation made by Clunies Ross relations of gods, and then by those based on over twenty years ago still rings true: symbolic relations with other natural environments: sky as ‘sun’s land’, earth as What we lack so far is a definitive study of the deeper structures of Old Norse skaldic ‘sky’s floor’, sea as ‘ships’ land’ (Faulkes poetics which focuses on the cultural 1998: 35–38; Clunies Ross 1987: 119ff.). categories and cognitive models that There are points at which Skáldskaparmál’s underlie the groupings of kenning types into close paralleling leaves common kenning types unaccounted for, as becomes apparent 176

in the juxtaposition of man- and woman- fundamental structure and the way in which kennings. Skáldskaparmál contains woman- skalds constructed kennings off pre-existing kennings which conform to models already types persisted, it is quite possible that the established for man-kennings (where woman perceived relationship of periphrasis to is the ‘prop’, ‘tree’, ‘distributor’ or ‘goddess’ referent, word to world, changed according to of gold, jewellery or mead, as man is the kenning type (tvíkennt, rekit, nomen agentis, ‘pillar’, ‘tree’, ‘trier’ or ‘god’ of weapons or metaphoric, etc.). One area in which this kind gold) (Faulkes 1998: 62–66; Clunies Ross of change can be discerned lies in the 1987: 107–110); this careful paralleling influence of Christian hermeneutics and excludes a large class of woman-kennings foreign literary traditions on later skalds. which do not derive, like Eve from Adam’s While the pre-Snorrian picture of the rib, from man-kennings. Base words denoting involvement between the periphrastic and the ‘land’, ‘ground’ or ‘earth’, are used real remains for us in shadows, knowledge of exclusively in woman-kennings, even though Christian exegesis brings later connections parts of both men’s and women’s bodies can between word and world into sharper focus be identified in this manner (the arm, for (Nordal 2001: 199ff.). The typological view example, might be ‘ground of rings’).10 The of scripture (in which Old Testament words causes and effects of this distinction in the and events foreshadowed those in the New) kenning system have not been thoroughly came to shape the hermeneutic approach to considered, as far as I am aware, perhaps due non-scriptural history and literature. If God to the lasting influence of Skáldskaparmál’s was author of the Bible and also history, organisation. Meissner (1921: 399, 409) symbols and allegories could represent truth explains the woman-kenning type as a natural and actualities in manifold ways. ‘Allegory’ outgrowth of kenning categories included and ‘symbol’ were no longer terms reserved elsewhere in Skáldskaparmál: the goddess for words alone (the allegoria verbis), but name Jörð, used as a base word in woman- they could also describe events (the allegoria kennings, has a synonym in the noun jörð factis) which could themselves point towards ‘earth’, and Jörð the goddess in turn can other events within divine history. Widely- personify the earth in land-kennings (Faulkes disseminated discourse, such as De doctrina 1998: 35, 485). However, considering the christiana of Augustine, reformulated the extent of nature metaphors in body- and Word/word/world hierarchy, and the world people-kennings (Nordal 2001: 271ff.), the became a text inscribed by God. Parish and frequency with which ‘land’ base words occur Episcopal schools in Iceland (notably at in woman-kennings and Jörð’s problematic Skálholt, Haukadalr and Oddi) appear to have and complex position within the Norse taught similar curricula to those employed in pantheon (Haukur Þorgeirsson 2008; Clunies western European schools (Chase 2005a: Ross 1987: 120–123), the situation merits 204–205; Chase 2005b: 15; Nordal 2001: further exploration. 77ff.); it is therefore no surprise that scholars have found evidence of allegory and typology Categorising and Translating Christian in diverse genres of Icelandic texts from the Kennings within the ‘System’ 12th to the 14th centuries, for example in the Adopting one method of writing out kenning Old Icelandic Book of Homilies, Physiologus, referents with parenthetical equivalents and/or Rauðúlfs þáttr and skaldic verse such as by symbolic designation fosters clarity, but it Níkulás Bergsson’s Kristsdrápa or Einarr gives the impression that all kennings have Skúlason’s Geisli.11 very similar semantic relationships with their Christianity obviously created the need for referents, regardless of a kenning’s use of new semantic categories for kennings, a metaphor, metonymy or nomen agentis, the subject which Guðrún Nordal (2001), kenning’s rhetorical function within a stanza, Margaret Clunies Ross (1987) and Katrina or that stanza’s topical agenda (encomia for a Attwood (2005) have examined in depth (see king, record of a saint’s life, or níð also Chase 2005b: 20). Yet the ways in which [‘defamation’]). While the kenning’s Christian skalds used traditional elements of

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the system to compose kennings with new better seen through analysis of kennings in cultural resonance deserves more attention. context and through comparison among Christian skalds composed their periphrases Christian kennings, as the organisation of the both by building on established kennings (as Corpus Poeticum Boreale encourages. is evident in Einarr’s kenning for God, harri Christian kennings are both married to and hauðrtjalda, which contains a sky-kenning divorced from their pre-Christian within it) and by employing calques of counterparts; attention to context, in addition foreign metaphors (for example in calling to content, is particularly important when Mary ker miskunnar [‘the vessel of mercy’] working within a ‘pre-Christian/Christian’ (Skj BII: 499). In this dual capacity, we might framework, as Rebecca M.C. Fisher’s (this see many Christian skaldic kennings or volume) study of the editing of Anglo-Saxon periphrases as expressing a kind of charms makes clear. typological exegesis of traditional kennings, The appropriate means of categorising by combining new concepts and older Christian referents within traditional kenning exemplars; within the self-referencing paradigms was apparently a contemporary mechanics familiar to skalds, time-honoured issue. In a well-known passage from phrases were employed in the service of Skáldskaparmál, Snorri explores referential expressing a new worldview. Typological ambiguity occurring where Christ-kennings study of semantic evolution in the kenning overlap with established kenning forms. system can be compared to Elena Gurevich’s Quoting an Arnórr járlaskald helmingr in (2002) study of evolving kenning patterns and which Christ is vörðr Grikkja ok Garða to Fjodor Uspenskij’s (this volume) [‘protector of Greeks and Russians’] and an typological analysis of the Norse compound Eilífr kúlnasveinn fragment in which he is óargr dýr. stillir hölða [‘ruler of men’] and konungr alls The organisation of Die Kenningar draws [‘king of all’], Snorri writes: attention to the ways in which many Christian Þar koma saman kenningar, ok verðr sá at referents relate to similar non-Christian skilja af stoð, er ræðr skáldskapinn, um cultural constructs, revealing where the hvárn kveðit er konunginn, þvíat rétt er at kennings themselves are or are not rooted in kalla Miklagarðs keisara Grikkja konung, ok previous kenning constructs. Guðbrandur svá þann konung er ræðr Jórsalalandi, at Vigfússon & Powell (1883: 486ff.), however, kalla Jórsala konung, svá ok at kalla Róms group many Christian kennings together, konung Rómaborgar keisara eða Engla isolating them by the cultural value of their konung þann er Englandi ræðr. En sú referents. Each method points towards a kenning er áðr var ritat, at kalla Krist meaningful aspect of kenning construction. konung manna, þá kenning má eiga hverr Although Meissner’s taxonomy can reveal the konungr. Konunga alla er rétt at kenna svá at kalla þá landráðendr eða lands vǫrðu eða self-referencing mechanisms of an evolving lands sœki eða hirðstjóra eða vǫrð system, it does not emphasise practical usage landsfólks. (Faulkes 1998: 78.) of these Christian kennings, as for instance in tvíkennt or rekit constructions. For instance, Here kennings come together, and the one while earlier sky-kennings tend to be simple who is interpreting the poetry must compounds, heaven-kennings are mostly determine from the situation which king is being spoken about, because it is correct to incorporated into periphrases for God, angels call the emperor of Constantinople the ‘king and saints, and more rarely appear in verse to of the Greeks’, and likewise to call the king designate the cosmological sphere of the sky who governs Jerusalem, ‘king of Jerusalem’, alone. Thus while Meissner’s organisation and also to call ‘king of Rome’ the Roman emphasises linguistic similarities and emperor or ‘king of England’ the one who differences between the construction of sky- rules England. And that kenning which was and heaven-kennings, the skaldic heaven written before, which calls Christ ‘king of gains much of its character from its lexical men’, that kenning can refer to any king. It and referential association with God and other is correct to name all kings so as to call them supernatural or apotheosised subjects, a fact ‘rulers of land’ or ‘guardian of country’ or

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‘invader of land’ or ‘guardian of the people throughout the Bible (Psalm 84:2; Psalm of the land’. 92:13), but the location about which they

How exactly do kennings koma saman [‘come speak is not circumscribed more specifically. together’]? Plurality of referents seems to be Referential plurality is advantageous in a involved in Snorri’s example because many typological interpretation of scripture, in classes of kennings are generically which ‘God’s house’ or ‘God’s tent’ are representative but can also be used conceptually related to other structures such indicatively depending on context (Amory as the tabernacle, the tent of meeting in 1982: 74–75). Christ-kennings, as Snorri’s Exodus, Solomon’s temple, the church and example implies, can be ambiguous in the the individual believer. Similarly, many translation of word to world, for the kenning types have multiple symbolic audience’s perception of the cultural location reverberations within the kenning system. A of kenning referents must evolve over time sky-kenning like hǫll guðs shares common (Quinn 1994: 75). ground with church-kennings such as goðs Kennings for heaven also frequently hús [‘God’s house’] (Skj BII: 33) and dróttins involve referential and cultural ambiguity and hús [‘the lord’s house’] (Skj BII: 450), or with test the limits of resolving and categorising periphrases for the Virgin Mary and her kenning referents. For Einarr’s kenning womb as herbergi guðs [‘God’s lodging’] (Skj hauðrtjald [‘earth-tent’] quoted above, it is BII: 413), höll himna drottins [‘hall of the lord possible to conceive of the internal referent as of the sky’] (Skj BII: 387), skrín þengils sólar either ‘sky’ or ‘heaven’ because the kenning [‘shrine of the prince of the sun’] (Skj BII: is of a long-standing sky-kenning type (which 372) and höll Krists [‘hall of Christ’] (Clunies figures it as a ‘building’ for earth, celestial Ross et al. 2007: 534). Heaven, the church bodies or weather phenomena), yet it also and Mary’s womb may all be ‘home’ from exists within a God-kenning in a Christian God’s perspective, yet resolving to ‘heaven’, poem. By exposing its place within the ‘church’ or ‘womb’ orients the kenning kenning system, a kenning assimilates the towards the audience’s angle of perception. semantic value of existing kenning types even Clarification in this instance circumnavigates as it points towards an external referent (‘the the artistry of the Christian kenning: as king’ > ‘Christ’). The editors of the Skaldic referential plurality was crucial to the Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages typological system, claritas may have Volume VII have chosen the designation provided only a thin veil to cover the old with ‘SKY/HEAVEN’ to encompass an aspect of the new. this duality. Yet the kenning system also attests to much subtler networks of meaning Acknowledgements: I wish to thank Erin Michelle Goeres and Debbie Potts for useful feedback on within the heavenly sphere (Nordal 2001: this paper. 285ff.), as is suggested by a comparison of harri hauðrtjald [‘lord of the earth-tent’], hǫll Notes guðs [‘hall of God’] (Skj BII: 589), and stillir 1. References following this format are to Finnur st ǫrnu hallar [‘ruler of the star-hall’] (Skj BII: Jónsson’s edited (B) volumes of skaldic poetry, 509). These kennings subsume the space of Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning. the pre-Christian sky into Christian 2. Concepts of kenning adaptation as a reflex of culture designations and concepts, in typological may usefully be compared with the contribution of Frog (this volume) on the Parallax Approach. fashion. 3. See Lie 1952: 78; Meissner 1922: 48–49; Lindow While linguistic reflexes may resound 1982: 119–120; Clunies Ross 2005: 114–140; clearly within these kennings, the ideological Attwood 2005. orchestration between sky, heaven, God and 4. The categorical component of Skáldskaparmál (also his hall is less audible. The sky-as-building apparent in the roughly contemporary text Litla Skálda) was likely influenced by established Norse metaphor has foundations in both pre- genres of lexical list like the þulur (Gurevich 1992: Christian skaldic kennings and typological 36; Clunies Ross 1987: 80ff.; 2005: 31, 172; Finnur readings of scripture. Designations like Jónsson 1931: xlviii–xlix; Faulkes, 1998: xvi; ‘courts of the lord’ and ‘house of God’ appear 179

Jesch, 2009: 450ff.; Nordal 2001: 288; Faulkes Steiner, H.C. Boas & S. Schierholz. Frankfurt, New 1998: xiii–xiv). York: Peter Lang. Pp. 119–149. 5. Holland 2005: 139–142; Clunies Ross 1989: 275– Chase, Martin. 2005a. “The Refracted Beam: Einarr 276; on frame semantics, see Fillmore 1976; Skúlason's Liturgical Theology”. In Verbal Petruck 1996; Goddard 1998; Boas 2006. Encounters: Festschrift for Roberta Frank. Ed. 6. Other types of poetic irony also create referential Antonina Harbus & Russell Poole. Toronto Old ambiguity, for example the poetic punning known English Series 13. Toronto: University of Toronto as ofljóst [‘too clear’], which involves word-play on Press. Pp. 203–222. near-homonyms differing in vowel-length (for Chase, Martin (ed.). 2005b. Einarr Skúlason’s Geisli: example fár for ‘anger’ and far for ‘ship; lið, which A Critical Edition. Toronto: University of Toronto can denote ‘people’, ‘ship’, or ‘ale’ (also líð); Press. Faulkes 1998: 109). Clunies Ross, Margaret. 1987. Skáldskaparmál: Snorri 7. Fidjestøl 1974; 1997; Holland 2005; Krömmelbein Sturluson’s ars poetica and Medieval Theories of 1983; Amory 1988; 1997. Language. Viking Collection 4. Odense: Odense 8. Bergsveinn Birgisson 2008; Orton 2007; Holland University Press. 2005; Sullivan 2008; Clunies Ross 1989 contains Clunies Ross, Margaret. 1989. “The Cognitive an earlier overview of cognitive approaches to Approach to Scaldic Poetics: From Snorri to skaldic poetics. Vigfússon and Beyond”. In Úr Dölum til Dala: 9. On the content-related organisation of Guðbrandur Vigfússon Centenary Essays. Ed. Rory Skáldskaparmál, see Clunies Ross 1987; Frog McTurk & Andrew Wawn. Leeds Studies in 2009: 271–272, 277. English. Leeds: Leeds University Press. Pp. 265– 10. These woman-kennings are of course related to the 286. ofljóst punning on the goddess Jörð, with her Clunies Ross, Margaret. 2005. A History of Old Norse homonym jörð, ‘earth’. Poetry and Poetics. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer. 11. Lindblad 1976; Loescher 1981; Louis-Jensen 1981; Clunies Ross, Margaret, et al. (eds.). 2007. Poetry on Chase 2005a: 208–216; Chase 2005b: 27, 35. While Christian Subjects. 2 vols. Skaldic Poetry of the the medieval Icelandic grammatical treatises, Scandinavian Middle Ages 7. Turnhout: Brepols. including Snorri’s Skáldskaparmál (Faulkes 1998: Faulkes, Anthony (trans.). 1987. Edda: Snorri 41, 74, 108) and Háttatal (Faulkes 1999: 7) and Sturluson. London: David Campbell. Óláfr hvítaskáld Þórðarson’s Third Grammatical Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 1998. Snorri Sturluson Edda: Treatise (Finnur Jónsson 1927: 56) attest to an Skáldskaparmál 1: Introduction, Text and Notes. indigenous Norse poetic device with affinities to London: Viking Society for Northern Research. allegory (called nýgervingar [‘new-creations’]), it Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 1998. Edda: Skáldskaparmál appears to be quite different from Christian 2: Glossary and Index of Names. London: Viking framings of the symbolic and allegorical. Society for Northern Research. Nýgervingar is an extended metaphor, but overall a Faulkes, Anthony (ed.). 1999. Snorri Sturluson Edda: phenomenon with significance localised to a stanza Háttatal. London: Viking Society for Northern or poem. It is worth noting that Óláfr was obviously Research. well-schooled in both Christian and Classical Fidjestøl, Bjarne. 1974. “Kenningsystemet: Forsøk på literary traditions and Snorri likely was as well lingvistisk analysis”. Maal og Minne 1974: 5–50. (Clunies Ross 2005: 157, 185–202; Nordal 2001: Fidjestøl, Bjarne. 1997. “The Kenning System: An 46–72). Attempt at a Linguistic Analysis”. In Selected Papers. Ed. Odd Einar Haugen & Else Mundal. Works Cited Trans. Peter Foote. Viking Collection 9. Odense: Amory, Frederic. 1982. “Towards a Grammatical Odense University Press. Classification of Kennings as Compounds”. Arkiv Fillmore, Charles. 1976. Frame Semantics and the för Nordisk Filologi 97: 67–80. Nature of Language: Origins and Evolution of Amory, Frederic. 1988. “Kennings, Referentiality, and Language and Speech. Ed. S.R. Harnad, et al. New Metaphors”. Arkiv för Nordisk Filologi 103: 87– York: New York Academy of Sciences. Pp. 20–32. 101. Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1912–1915. Den norsk-islandske Attwood. Katrina. 2005. “Christian Poetry”. In A skjaldedigtning A–B. Copenhagen: Villadsen & Companion to Old-Norse Icelandic Poetry. Ed. R. Christensen. McTurk. Malden: Blackwell. Pp. 43–63. Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1931. Snorra-Edda. Copenhagen: Bergsveinn Birgisson. 2008. Inn i skaldens sinn: Gyldendalske boghandel. Kognitive, estetiske og historiske skatter i den Finnur Jónsson. 1927. Óláfr Þórðarson: Málhljóða- og norrøne skaldediktingen. PhD dissertation, málskrúðsrit: Grammatisk-retorisk afhandling. Det University of Bergen. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab Historisk- Boas, Hans. 2006. “A Frame-Semantic Approach to filologiske Meddelelser 13:2. Copenhagen: Bianco Identifying Syntactically Relevant Elements of Luno. Meaning”. In Contrastive Studies and Valency: Frog. 2009. “Snorri Sturluson and Oral Traditions”. In Studies in Honor of Hans Ulrich Boas. Ed. P. Ney, Williams & Ljungqvist 2009: 270–278.

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Gade, Kari Ellen, et al. (eds.). 2009. Poetry from the Marold, Edith. 1983. Kenningkunst: Ein Beitrag zu Kings’ Sagas 2: From c.1035–c.1300. 2 vols. einer Poetik der Skaidendichtung. Berlin: De Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages 2. Gruyter. Turnhout: Brepols. Meissner, Rudolph. 1921. Die Kenningar der Skalden: Goddard, Cliff. 1998. Semantic Analysis. Oxford: Ein Beitrag zur skaldischen Poetik. Bonn, Leipzig: Oxford University Press. Kurt Schroeder. Guðbrandur Vigfússon & Frederick York Powell. Merwe-Scholtz, Herik van der. 1927. The Kenning in 1883. Corpus Poeticum Boreale: The Poetry of the Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse Poetry. Utrecht: N.V. Old Northern Tongue from the Earliest Times to the Dekker & Van de Vegt. Thirteenth Century II: Court Poetry. Oxford: Ney, Agneta, Henrik Williams & Fredrik Charpentier Oxford University Press. Ljungqvist (eds.). 2009. Á austrvega: Saga and Gurevich, Elena. 2002. “Skaldic Variation and East Scandinavia: Preprint Papers of The 14th Evolution of Kenning Patterns”. Skandinavistik 32: International Saga Conference Uppsala, 9th–15th 31–38. August 2009. Gävle: Gävle University Press. Gurevich, Elena. 1992. “Þulur in Skáldskaparmál: An Nordal, Guðrún. 2001. Tools of Literacy: The Role of Attempt at Skaldic Lexicology”. Arkiv för Nordisk Skaldic Verse in Icelandic Textual Culture of the Filologi 103: 35–52. Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Toronto: Haukur Þorgeirsson. 2008. “‘Hinn fagri foldar son’: University of Toronto Press. Þáttur úr handrita- og viðtökusögu Snorra-Eddu”. Orton, Peter. 2007. “Spouting Poetry: Cognitive Gripla 19: 159–168. Metaphor and Conceptual Blending in the Old Holland, Gary. 2005. “Kennings, Metaphors, and Norse Myth of the Poetic Mead”. In Constructing Semantic Formulae in Norse dróttkvætt”. Arkiv för Nations, Reconstructing Myth. Ed. Andrew Wawn. Nordisk Filologi 120: 123–147. Making the Middle Ages 9. Turnhout: Brepols. Pp. Jesch, Judith. 2009. “The Sea-Kings of Litla Skálda”. 277–300. In Ney, Williams & Ljungqvist 2009: 443–451 Petruck, Miriam. 1996. “Frame Semantics”. In Krömmelbein, Thomas. 1983. Skaldische Metaphorik: Handbook of Pragmatics. Ed. J. Verschueren, J.-O. Studien zur Funktion der Kenningsprache in Östman, J. Blommaert, & C. Bulcaen. Amsterdam, skaldischen Dichtungen des 9. und 10. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Pp: 1–13. Jahrhunderts. Kirchzarten: Burg-Verlag. Quinn, Judy. 1994. “Eddu list: The Emergence of Lie, Hallvard. 1952. “Skaldestil-studier”. Maal og Skaldic Pedagogy in Medieval Iceland”. alvíssmál Minne 1952: 1–92 4: 69–92. Lindblad, Gustaf. 1976. “Den rätta läsningen av Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages: Isländska homilieboken”. Scripta Islandica 26: 25– Skaldic Database. 2001–2012. Available at: 45. http://skaldic.arts.usyd.edu.au/db.php?if=default&ta Lindow, John. 1975. “Riddles, Kennings, and the ble=home&view. Complexity of Skaldic Poetry”. Scandinavian Skj = Finnur Jónsson 1912–1915. Studies 47: 311–327. Sullivan, Karen. 2008. “Genre-Dependent Metonymy Lindow, John. 1982. “Narrative and the Nature of in Norse Skaldic Poetry”. Language and Literature Skaldic Poetry”. Arkiv för Nordisk Filologi 97: 94– 17: 21–36. 121. Sveinbjörn Egilsson & Finnur Jónsson. 1931. Lexicon Loescher, Gerhard. 1981. “Raudulfs Þáttr”. Zeitschrift poeticum antiquæ linguæ septentrionalis. 2nd edn. für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur Copenhagen: Møller. 110(4): 253–266. Sverdlov, Ilya. 2003. “Extra Elements in Kennings, or Louis-Jensen, Jonna. 1981. “Vǫndr er Máría mynduð”. Different Ways to Feed the Wolf Single- In Specvlvm Norroenvm: Norse Studies in Memory Wordedly”. Skandinavistik 33(2): 101–113. of Gabriel Turville-Petre. Ed. Ursula Dronke et al. Odense: Odense University Press. Pp. 328–336.

Poetic Formulas in Late Medieval Icelandic Folk Poetry: The Case of Vambarljóð Haukur Þorgeirsson, University of Iceland

A group of alliterative poems recorded from poetic formulas in one such poem, oral tradition in late 17th century Iceland share Vambarljóð. Using a simple comparative textual similarities or poetic formulas with method, I attempt to identify which poems each other and with older poetry in similar share the greatest formulaic affinity with the meters, including poems in the Poetic Edda. poem under study. The article explores the The present article contains a survey of the reason why Vambarljóð shares formulas with

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older poetry and argues in favor of a Vambarljóð and Its Manuscripts continuous oral tradition rather than learned Vambarljóð tells a fairy-tale about a princess borrowings. named Signý. She is cursed by her stepmother and transformed into a cow’s stomach. To The sagnakvæði break the curse she uses magic and cunning to In the second half of the 17th century there force a prince into marrying her. was a new development in the history of The poem is published in Ólafur Icelandic poetry. Starting in the Western Davíðsson’s 1898 collection of folk poetry Fjords, members of the intellectual elite came but the edition is not reliable (Aðalheiður to be interested in collecting folk poetry and Guðmundsdóttir 1997) so I have made a new committing it to writing. The collectors study of the manuscripts. classified the poems they were writing down The manuscripts NKS 1141 fol (=V1) and to as fornkvæði [‘old poems’]. These were JS 405 4 (=V2) are faithful copies of the poems of unknown authorship, circulating in same lost manuscript, referred to by Jón an oral tradition as entertainment for the Helgason as V (Jón Helgason 1960: 39–41). common people. Most of the poems in the The V manuscript was written in 1699–1700. fornkvæði collections are ballads, usually It is not clear whether the scribe of V translated from Scandinavian ballads which recorded Vambarljóð directly from oral are still otherwise extant in some form. Many tradition or whether he followed a written of the ballads must have reached Iceland no source. In the V version, the poem consists of th later than the 15 century and then spent a 62 stanzas. There is a copy of the V1 text of couple of centuries circulating in the oral Vambarljóð in JS 406 4to. tradition (Vésteinn Ólason 1982). The manuscript Thott 489 8vo (=T) The Icelandic ballad collections, however, contains a copy of the first three strophes of also contain poems with no parallel on the Vambarljóð (=T1) and then a full copy of the continent, namely poems in the eddic poem (=T2), consisting of 70 strophes. What fornyrðislag meter. These poems, referred to seems to have happened here is that the scribe as sagnakvæði [‘folktale poems’], share with had access to two versions of the poem. He the ballads proper a certain feminine began to write down one but after three sensibility and taste and seem to have co- strophes he decided that the other version was existed with them in the oral tradition. more suitable for his purposes and started There are only eight1 preserved over. The text he now decided to use as his sagnakvæði, all published in 1898 but little base seems to have been derived from V. But studied since then. In previous articles I have on several occasions he referred back to his examined two sagnakvæði in some detail; first source and took additional strophes and Gullkársljóð and Þóruljóð (Haukur some variants from there, thus producing a Þorgeirsson 2010; 2011). On the basis of hybrid text. metrical and linguistic criteria, I argued that The manuscript NKS 1894 4to (=N) these two poems are relatively early, perhaps preserves a recording of the poem from oral originally composed in the 14th century. This tradition made for Árni Magnússon. The is not to say that the 17th century versions we informant was afgömul kerling, móðir now have are 14th century texts in pristine Guðmundar Bergþórssonar [‘an ancient condition; allowances must be made for woman, the mother of Guðmundur changes in the process of oral transmission. Bergþórsson’] (NKS 1894 4to, p. 154). One striking aspect of the sagnakvæði, Guðmundur Bergþórsson (1657–1705) was a which I have until now not examined in any major rímur poet. His mother appears in the detail, is the prevalence of textual similarities Icelandic census of 1703 under the name or formulas within and between individual Þorbjörg Guðmundsdóttir, born in 1636. poems. As a start to coming to grips with this, According to the scant sources available, she I would like to examine the potential use of was a poor woman and a lover of poetry. Her formulas in one poem, Vambarljóð. son spoke kindly of her in his poetry (Finnur Sigmundsson 1947).

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The recording of the poem in N consists of Formulas and Other Textual Similarities only 27 strophes. It is introduced with a few In what follows I will seek to list instances of sentences in prose and has some rather abrupt textual similarities between verses in transitions compared to the more extensive Vambarljóð and other texts. In cases where recordings in V and T. Nevertheless, it is two poems have a similar choice of words recognizably the same poem. The manuscripts there are, generally speaking, several JS 581 4to and Lbs 202 8vo contain the same possibilities. Some of them are: text and are probably derived from N. 1. The choice of words originated with the According to Jón Þorkelsson (1888: 208), to first poem. The poet who composed the the manuscript JS 398 4 contains a version second poem knew the first poem and of Vambarljóð whose first few verses he cites. borrowed the phrasing from it, whether Those are similar (but not identical) to the consciously or unconsciously. text in T1. Ólafur Davíðsson also lists this 2. The choice of words originated with a poem manuscript as containing a copy of that is now lost. Both the extant poems Vambarljóð. Unfortunately, I have not been borrowed from that lost poem. able to find any trace of the poem here. Nor is 3. The phrasing was in wide circulation but the manuscript listed as containing the poem only the two instances in question happen in the manuscript catalogue (Páll Eggert to be preserved. 4. Two poets coincidentally hit upon the same Ólason 1935–1937: 411). A possible to phrasing. explanation is that Jón got JS 398 4 confused with T and then quoted T1 somewhat Generally speaking, I do not think there are imprecisely. The catalogue does list Lbs 2033 any effective methods available for 4to, a collection of materials belonging to Jón distinguishing between possibilities (1), (2) Þorkelsson, as containing Vambarljóð but the and (3). For my purposes here, I think such a relevant part of the collection is on loan distinction is not necessary and for abroad and I have not been able to access it convenience, I will refer to all non- yet. coincidental textual similarities between two There is another, longer, poem called strophes as poetic formulas. Vambarljóð preserved in Lbs 985 4to and AM I agree with Joseph Harris that 154 8vo (there is a copy of the latter in NKS traditionally: to 1894 4 ). Both manuscripts are defective. Eddic scholarship seems to have This poem tells the same story as the previous overestimated the individual borrowings and one and in the same meter but there are undervalued the force of collective tradition, almost no textual similarities. I regard it as a especially at the level of lexical choice and separate work and will not discuss it further phrasing. (Harris 2008: 211.) here. There are two 18th century rímur cycles A research program that puts its main focus based on this version, one by Þórður Pálsson on supposed borrowings and allusions, as if (ÍB 895 8vo and Lbs 2324 4to) and one by we were working with modern written Helgi Bjarnason (Lbs 985 4to and JS 579 4to). literature, will quickly find itself on tenuous It is not my objective here to date ground. Bernt Øyvind Thorvaldsen (2008) Vambarljóð but it is worth noting that shows this convincingly for the case of linguistically and metrically the poem, as it Þrymskviða. has come down to us, seems less archaic than Oral-formulaic theory offers a either Gullkársljóð or Þóruljóð. As we shall counterbalance to the traditional focus on see, however, it does have a significant borrowings and allusions but I am not number of textual similarities to old poetry. attempting to apply oral theory to the I use the complete text of Vambarljóð in T 2 Icelandic material (for work in that vein see as a basis for my investigation below. Gísli Sigurðsson 1990, for a recent overview Variants from V, N and T are mentioned as 1 of the study of orality in Old Norse verse, see occasions seem to warrant. For convenience, I Frog 2011). The present survey is concerned normalize the spelling but I make no attempt with relationships of verbal elements across to archaize it.

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texts and the relevance of these relationships Kringilnefjukvæði 18.3–4 (Þulur 41): for the composition in and continuities of the þú skalt skunda / til skipa ofan poetic idiom rather than flexibility and [‘you shall hurry down to the ships’] variation of that idiom in the process of Kringilnefjukvæði 19.1–2 (Þulur 41): reproduction by a single performer or as a skunda eg ekki / til skipa ofan historical process of transmission from one [‘I will not hurry down to the ships’] performer to the next.2 Kringilnefjukvæði 22.1–2 (Þulur 42): For my purposes here, I define a formula skundar hún síðan / til skipa ofan operationally as ‘a combination of words [‘then she hurries down to the ships’] found at least twice in texts using a poetic register but not elsewhere’. I sometimes relax Bryngerðarljóð 37.3–4 (Þulur 88): this to require only one identical word if the skundað hefir skjöldungur / til skipa sinna [‘the king has hurried to his ships’] semantic or structural context is otherwise similar. I have thus cast a fairly wide net and Hervararkviða 15.7–8 (Skj BII: 266): included some textual similarities which skynt mær ef mátt / til skipa þinna could be coincidental. My definition would [‘hurry, maiden, if you can, to your ships’] allow many kennings to be included as This formula (previously discussed in Haukur formulas but I will nevertheless consider Þorgeirsson 2010: 320–321) occurs in four of kennings in a separate section. the sagnakvæði and also in two poems in the When searching for formulas in legendary sagas. The word skunda is common Vambarljóð, I read the poem through line by in the rímur but it rarely alliterates with skip line and searched for phrases and individual and the instances which I am aware of do not words in an electronic concordance which I appear to be a part of this formulaic system. have assembled containing most Icelandic The instances are: poetry prior to 1550 and a selection of 5 younger poems. When I found similarities Úlfhams rímur V.21.3 (Rímnasafn II: 158): that seemed interesting I typically followed skunda af hafinu skip svó fríð [‘the ships so fair hurry from the sea’] up the words involved in dictionaries and commentaries. The Dictionary of Old Norse Pontus rímur I.59.3 (Magnús Jónsson et al. 1961: Prose (ONP) and Ritmálssafn Orðabókar 11): Háskólans were particularly useful. I also af skipunum tólf þeir skunda hratt used Google and Google Books, as a quick [‘they hurry quickly from the twelve ships’] way to find possible prose occurrences. Formula M2 Formulas in Multiple Texts Vambarljóð 57.3 (Þulur 52), In what follows, I will list the possible Kötludraumur 44.3 (Þulur 10), formulas that I have been able to find in Bryngerðarljóð 9.2 (Þulur 85), Vambarljóð. We will start with formulas that Bryngerðarljóð 10.2 (Þulur 85), occur in more than two texts; I will label Bryngerðarljóð 57.3 (Þulur 90): those formulas with the prefix M. svinn seima Bil [‘the wise Bil of gold’]

Formula M1 The kenning seima Bil occurs in a strophe in Vambarljóð 67.3–4 (Þulur 54):3 Vǫlsa þáttr (Skj BII: 237) and some 15 times en eg mun skunda / til skipa ofan in the medieval rímur. In three of those fifteen [‘and I will hurry down to the ships’] cases it is combined with the adjective svinnr:

Ǫrvar-Odds saga IX.13.1–2 (Skj BII: 327): Ölvis rímur III.58.3 (Ölvis rímur): Réðum skunda / til skipa ofan svinna seima Bil [‘we hurried down to the ships’] [‘the wise Bil of gold’]

Gullkársljóð 31.3–4 (Þulur 79):4 Konráðs rímur II.52.1 (Wisén 1881: 110): verð eg að skunda / til skipa ofan svinnust seima Bil [‘I must hurry down to the ships’] [‘the wisest Bil of gold’]

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Landrés rímur II.70.3 (Rímnasafn II: 407): [‘Virtuous and wise king, tell in more detail svinnri gef eg það seima Bil than I can ask to Sigurðr, if you seem to [‘I will give it to the wise Bil of gold’] see’]

Although these could be regarded as instances Grípisspá 30.3–4 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 168): of the same formula, it should be kept in mind segðu, Grípir, þat, / ef þú siá þicciz that the word svinnur is very common in the [‘Tell this, Grípir, if you seem to see’] rímur and alliterates conveniently with In this case we seem to have three related kennings including the common seima formula systems: element. Instances can be found of: 1. segðu + sjá þykjast (Bryngerðarljóð 60, svinnur + seima þöll Grípisspá 8, 30) svinnur + seima grund 2. svik + sjá þykjast (Vambarljóð 7, svinnur + seima Ná Helgakviða Hundingsbana II 40, 41) svinnur + seima brú 3. hér sit eg hjá þér / og sjá þykjunst svinnur + seima rjóðr (Vambarljóð 7, Bryngerðarljóð 11) svinnur + seima Týr – etc. Vambarljóð 7 instantiates type 2 and 3 In contrast, seima Bil occurs nowhere in the together. The sjá þykjast element can be sagnakvæði apart from the instances listed regarded as a base formula within the system. above and in all five instances the phrase It always occurs in a line with the same svinn seima Bil covers a single verse. This metrical structure (type C in Sievers’ system). seems sufficient to regard it as a formula Mellor makes some more general points rather than coincidence. about the formulaic use of segðu in the Poetic Edda. He concludes that certain peculiarities Formula M3 in the use of segðu phrases in Grípisspá Vambarljóð 7.1–4 (Þulur 47): indicate that “the poet of Grípispá [sic] is a Hér sit eg hjá þér / og sjá þykjunst lesser poet and, perhaps, a poet not working að munir, siklingur, / fyrir svikum verða. within the tradition” (Mellor 2008: 122). This [‘I sit here by you and I seem to see that seems an overly bold conclusion. While its you, king, will be afflicted by deception’] aesthetic merits can of course be debated,

Helgakviða Hundingsbana II 40.1–2 (Neckel– Grípisspá has its share of traditional formulas. Kuhn 1983: 159): A poor poem can still be a traditional poem Hvárt ero þat svic ein, / er ec siá þicciomz ... ? and I am not convinced that Grípisspá is a [‘Is that only a deception, which I seem to poor poem. see?’]

Helgakviða Hundingsbana II 41.1–2 (Neckel– Formula M4 Kuhn 1983: 159): Vambarljóð 34.5–8 (Þulur 50): Era þat svic ein, / er þú siá þicciz spurði á móti / margs fróðlega, [‘It is not only a deception which you seem ‘eða er hér nokkuð / nýtt í fréttum?’ to see’] Vambarljóð 64.5–8 (Þulur 53): Bryngerðarljóð 11.1–2 (Þulur 85): spurði á móti / margs fróðlega, Hér sit eg hjá þér / og sjá þykjunst ‘eða er hér nokkuð / nýtt í fréttum?’ [‘I sit here by you and I seem to see’] [‘He asked many knowledgeable

Bryngerðarljóð 60.5–6 (Þulur 91): questions in turn, “or is there anything new to report?”’] Segðu hið sanna til / því eg sjá þykist [‘Tell the truth about this because I seem to Kötludraumur 32.5–6 (Þulur 9): see’] Hvort er nokkuð / nýtt í fréttum

[‘Is there anything new to report?’] Grípisspá 8.1–4 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 165): Segðu, gegn konungr, / gerr, enn ec spyria, Bryngerðarljóð 37.5–6 (Þulur 88): snotr, Sigurði, / ef þú siá þicciz Vera mun nokkuð / nýtt í fréttum [‘There will be something new to report’]

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Formula M5 suspect that Ǫrvar-Odds saga paraphrases a poetic formula similar to the one preserved in Vambarljóð 14.7–8 (Þulur 48): því að mart við þig / mæla eg vildi the two sagnakvæði. [‘because I would like to say many things to you’] Formula M8

Bryngerðarljóð 51.3–4 (Þulur 90): Vambarljóð 5.1–2 (Þulur 46): kvaðst hún mart við þig / mæla vilja Fagurvaxin gekk / við föður að mæla [‘she said that she would like to say many [‘the shapely one went to speak with her things to you’] father’]

Merlínússpá I 41.7–8 (Skj BII: 18): Grípisspá 2.3–4 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 164): kvezk mart við svín / mæla vilja mun sá gramr við mic / ganga at mæla? [‘he says that he would like to say many [‘Will that king go to speak with me?’]

things to the pig’] Skírnismál 2.3 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 69): ef ec geng at mæla við mǫg Formula M6 [‘if I go to speak with my son’]

Vambarljóð 33.1–2 (Þulur 50): Formula M8 is a borderline case; the Heim kom að hausti / horskur stillir similarity could be coincidental. I include it [‘the wise leader came home in the autumn’] here because ganga at mæla is an unusual Vambarljóð 45.5–6 (Þulur 51): turn of phrase in Icelandic; I have not found it hélt heim þaðan / horskur stillir elsewhere in poetry or prose. Nevertheless, it [‘the wise leader went home from there’] is not flagged as a formula by Thorvaldsen

Gullkársljóð 37.1–2 (Þulur 80): (2006: 224) or the Kommentar (II: 71) and Heim kom að hausti / herjar [v.l. horskur] that may turn out to be correct. stillir [‘the leader of the host [v.l. the wise leader] Formula M9 came home in the autumn’] Vambarljóð 62.3–4 (Þulur 53): Ǫrvar-Odds saga IX.46.1–2 (Skj BII: 333): og þig, mær, / við mundi kaupa Fóru heim þaðan / horskir drengir [‘and buy you, maiden, with a bridal [‘the wise and valiant men went home from payment’] there’] Kringilnefjukvæði 32.3–4 (Þulur 43):

Eg vil meyjuna / mundi kaupa Formula M7 [‘I want to buy the maiden with a bridal Vambarljóð 16.1–4 (Þulur 48): payment’]

Gakk í öndvegi / æðra að sitja, Grípisspá 30.5–6 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 168): eig svo við mig / át og drykkju mun ec meyna / mundi kaupa [‘Come to the nobler high-seat and sit down, [‘I will buy the maiden with a bridal then have food and drink with me’] payment’] Þóruljóð 19.5–8 (Haukur Þorgeirsson 2011: 215): Hálfs saga IX.9.5–6 (Skj BII: 288): Gakktu í öndugi / og æðra sæti mey bað hverja / mundi kaupa eigðu ung við mig / át og drykkju [v.l. ‘ung’ [‘He asked that every maiden be bought with a omitted] bridal payment’] [‘Come to the high-seat, and the nobler seat. Have food and drink with me.’] See Kommentar (V: 187) for some notes on this expression. Ǫrvar-Odds saga prose (Boer 1888: 171): Stíg upp, Oddr, í hásætit hjá oss ok eig við oss át ok drykkju! Formula M10 [‘Step up, Oddr, into the high-seat with us and Vambarljóð 6.5–6 (Þulur 47): have food and drink with us’] Mey veit eg öngva / né manns konu

[‘I know of no maiden, nor a man’s wife’] As I suggested on a previous occasion (Haukur Þorgeirsson 2011: 220), one might

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Lokasenna 37.4–5 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 104): Breta sögur alliterative prose (ONP: s.v. ‘dǿlska’): mey hann né grœtir / né mannz kono gnægri hafi þér Bretar dul ok dælsku, hól ok [‘he does not bring a maiden to tears, nor a hræsni, heldr en harðleik ok hyggendi man’s wife’] [‘you Britons have more conceit and foolishness, self-flattery and vanity rather Sigrdrífumál 32.4–5 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 196): than toughness and wisdom’] mey þú teygiat / né mannz kono [‘do not seduce a maiden, nor a man’s wife’] The Hávamál phrase is not flagged by

Hávamál 163.3 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 44): Thorvaldsen (2006: 191) as a formula, mey né mannz kono presumably because of the obscurity of the [‘a maiden nor a man’s wife’] other sources containing it. The alliteration between dælskr and dul seems to make Formula M10 is listed by Thorvaldsen along formula M12 a reasonably clear case. The with some further examples of mær–maðr word dælskr is very rare in Icelandic. collocations (Thorvaldsen 2006: 271). Formula M13 Formula M11 Vambarljóð 2.1–2 (Þulur 46): Vambarljóð 9.7–8 (Þulur 47): Ól sér döglingur / dóttur eina Sit þú, hilmir, heill / með huga glöðum [‘the king begat one daughter’] [‘Sit hail, king, in glad spirits’] Gullkársljóð 2.3–4 (Þulur 76): Vambarljóð 39.7–8 (Þulur 50): þó átti döglingur / dóttur eina Vertu hilmir heill / með huga glöðum [‘yet the king had one daughter’] [‘Be hail, king, in glad spirits’] These two cases may be coincidental. The Hymiskviða 11.1–2 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 90): following two occurrences in the rímur are, Ver þú heill, Hymir, / í hugom góðom! however, so similar that a connection seems [‘Be hail, Hymir, in good spirits!’] likely: Runic inscription N B380 from Bergen:6 Heill sé þú / ok í hugum góðum Geðraunir I.11.1–2 (Rímnasafn II: 173): [‘Be hail and in good spirits’] Dögling ól við dúka Fríð / dóttur eina væna [‘the king begat one fine daughter with the Hervarar saga III.20.3–4 (Skj BII: 269): Fríðr of cloth’] nú er hilmis mær / í hugum góðum [‘Now the king’s maiden is in good spirits’] Sigurðar rímur þögla I.28.1–2 (Þorvaldur Sigurðsson 1986: 70): Thorvaldsen (2006: 273) regards the heill– Dögling ól við dúka Gná / dóttur eina ríka hugr collocation as a formula and lists some [‘the king begat one great daughter with the additional examples. Vambarljóð and Gná of cloth’] Hervararkviða suggest hilmir–hugr as another possible formula. Formulas in Two Texts The N manuscript has this alternative We will now look at formulas which occur in version: Vambarljóð and only one other text; I will label those with the prefix T. Sittu heill, kóngur, / með hirð glöðu [‘Sit hail, king, with the glad court’] Formula T1

Formula M12 Vambarljóð 2.5–6 (Þulur 46): hafði hverja / hannyrð numið Vambarljóð 37.1–2 (Þulur 50): [‘she had learned every sort of needlework’] Þið eruð dælskir / og dulberir [‘You are foolish and conceited’] Gullkársljóð 4.7–8 (Þulur 77): og á hvern veg / hannyrð nema Hávamál 57.6 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 26): [‘and in every way learn needlework’] enn til dœlscr af dul [‘but too foolish from conceit’]

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Formula T2 Formula T6 Vambarljóð 11.5–8 (Þulur 47): Vambarljóð 67.1–2 (Þulur 54): spurt hef eg alllítt / öðling heilan Það skulu aðrir / ýtar þjóna og mun eg brátt á því / bætur vinna [‘other men will serve’] [‘I have heard that the king is not at all well Gullkársljóð 21.5–6 (Þulur 78): and I will soon improve upon that’] Þér skulu allir / ýtar þjóna Gullkársljóð 51.5–8 (Þulur 82): [‘other men will serve you’] Spurt hef eg Æsu / alllítt heila, mun eg brátt á því / bætr vinna Formula T7 [‘I have heard that Æsa is not at all well, I will soon improve upon that’] Vambarljóð 68.1–2 (Þulur 54): Dreif drengjalið / á dreka gylltan

Formula T3 Bryngerðarljóð 35.1–2 (Þulur 88): Dreif drengjalið / á dreka gylltan Vambarljóð 34.1–4 (Þulur 50): [‘a host of valiant men rushed onto the golden Illt er undrum / eptir að frétta dragon-ship’] og þó er enn verra / að vita af sýnum. [‘It is bad to ask about wonders and yet it is worse still to know beyond doubt’] Formula T8

Vambarljóð 48.1–4 (Þulur 51): Vambarljóð 30.5–8 (Þulur 49): Illt er undrum / eptir að frétta eg skal hvern dag / hjarðar gæta þó enn verra / vita að sýnum en þið sæl megið / sitja heima [‘It is bad to ask about wonders, yet worse [‘I will watch the herd every day but you still to know beyond doubt’] two can sit happy at home’]

Gullkársljóð 66.1–4 (Þulur 83): Bryngerðarljóð 14.5–8 (Þulur 86): Illt er undrum / eptir að frétta Þig bað hann heima / hjarðar gæta þó er enn verra / að vita sýnna en mig ganga / hvert gaman þætti. [‘It is bad to ask about wonders, yet it is [‘He asked you to watch the herd at home worse still to know more clearly’] but me to go where I would enjoy myself’]

Examples of formula T8 share only one Formula T4 identical line but there are clear thematic Vambarljóð 56.3–4 (Þulur 52): similarities. vertu fljóð komið / með fagnaði [‘be welcome, girl, with good cheer’] Formula T9

Gullkársljóð 71.3–4 (Þulur 84): Vambarljóð 1.5–6 (Þulur 46): og þótti fljóð komið / með fagnaði konu átti sér / kynstórrar ættar [‘and felt the girl had come with good cheer’] [‘he had a wife from a noble family’]

Kringilnefjukvæði 1.5–6 (Þulur 39): Formula T5 konu átti hann sér / af kyni góðu Vambarljóð 60.6 (Þulur 53): [‘he had a wife from a good family’]

úr ánauð þegið The textual variants are worth presenting [‘delivered from oppression’] here. The half-stanza has the following form Gullkársljóð 22.4 (Þulur 78): in T1: úr nauðum þegin [‘delivered from distress’] Konu átti sér, / kænn að afli, kappsamur konungur, / af kyni góðu. The resemblance here may seem weak at first [‘That energetic king, keen in might, had a glance, but this use of the word þiggja wife from a good family’]

[normally ‘accept’] is unusual and distinctive. The form in V is as follows: The words ánauð and nauðir share a root morpheme and have a similar meaning. Konu átti hann sér / kynstórrar ættar, kappsamur konungur / kænn að flestu.

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[‘That energetic king, keen in most things, Formula T14 had a wife from a noble family’] Vambarljóð 39.1–2 (Þulur 50): The T2 instance is identical to the one in V Reiður gekk þaðan / rekka drottinn except that the word hann is missing. The Hyndluljóð yngri 23.1–2 (Þulur 67): stanza is not in N, which has a short prose Reiður gekk þaðan / rekka drottinn introduction instead of the first five stanzas of [‘The lord of men walked angry from there’] V and T. Vambarljóð 41.1–2 (Þulur 50): Formula T10 Þá réð að reiðast / rekka drottinn [‘Then the lord of men grew angry’] Vambarljóð 18.5–6 (Þulur 48): ein á skógi Hyndluljóð is one of the sagnakvæði. To distinguish it from the poem of the same Kringilnefjukvæði 6.5–6 (Þulur 39): name preserved in Flateyjarbók I refer to it ein á skógi here as Hyndluljóð yngri [‘the younger [‘alone in the woods’] Hyndluljóð’]. This seems like it might be a common phrase, A stanza in the 17th century Hyndlu rímur but I have not found it anywhere else, in paraphrases Hyndluljóð yngri: poetry or prose. Hyndlu rímur III.40.1 (Steinunn Finnsdóttir 1950: 26): Formula T11 Reiður þaðan rekka drottinn réð burt vitja [‘The lord of men went angry from there’] Vambarljóð 19.3–4 (Þulur 48): að þú fegri ert / fljóði hverju In this case, it seems safe to assume that we [‘that you are fairer than every girl’] have a direct textual borrowing (Bergljót Kringilnefjukvæði 11.7–8 (Þulur 40): Kristjánsdóttir 1996: 214). The rímur are að þú fegri ert / en fljóð önnur clearly based on the fornyrðislag poem and [‘that you are fairer than other girls’] the kenning rekka drottinn is found nowhere else. Formula T12 Vambarljóð 40.2 (Þulur 50): Formula T15 ljótvaxin mær Vambarljóð 23 (Þulur 48): [‘misshapen maiden’] Látum við hvorugt / haldast þetta

Kringilnefjukvæði 12.2 (Þulur 40) sem eg mær við þig / mælti af fólsku velvaxin mær það mun hvorttveggja / haldast verða [‘shapely maiden’] þó með meinum / minn sé aldur. [‘“Neither of us two should make those things endure which I, maiden, spoke to you Formula T13 out of foolishness.” “Both of those things Vambarljóð 59.5–6 (Þulur 53): will have to endure though my life will be a nú mun eldslitnum / öllum linna harsh one.”’] [‘now all the ? will come to an end’] Hyndluljóð yngri 46 (Þulur 69): Kringilnefjukvæði 31.5–6 (Þulur 43): Við skulum þetta / hvorigt haldast láta Nú mun álögum / öllum linna þó eg við meyna / mælt hafi af fólsku. [‘now all the enchantments will come to an Aldrei skal eg það / aptur taka end’] þó með meinum / að minn sé aldur. [‘“We two should make neither of those The Vambarljóð instance also refers to an things endure though I have spoken out of enchantment but the word eldslitnum is foolishness to the maiden.” “I will never obscure. take it back, though my life will be a harsh one.”’]

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Formula T16 Formula T20 Vambarljóð 25.5–8 (Þulur 49): Vambarljóð 13.7–8 (Þulur 47): Ýtum þótti / hann Ásmundur vera þá gaf hún honum / horn fullt mjaðar í fornum sið / frægur snemmindis. [‘then she gave him a horn full of mead’] [‘In the time of the old religion, men thought Sigrdrífumál prose: (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 189): Ásmundur quickly famous.’] Hon tóc þá horn, fult miaðar, ok gaf hánom Þóruljóð 3.5–8 (Haukur Þorgeirsson 2011: 213): minnisveig. þótti þjóðum / Þorkell vera [‘then she took a horn full of mead and gave í fornum sið / frægur snemmendis him a memory-drink’] [‘In the time of the old religion people thought Þorkell quickly famous.’] It is possible that the Sigrdrífumál prose paraphrases what is originally a metrical text. Here we see the poems making use of The noun phrase horn fullt mjaðar [‘a horn synonyms for alliteration purposes. The full of mead’] forms the metrical A2k pattern. formula accommodates vowel alliteration in The drink in Vambarljóð causes Vambarljóð by using ýtar [‘men’] and forgetfulness while the one in Sigrdrífumál alliteration on ‘þ’ in Þóruljóð by using þjóðir causes remembrance. Drinks affecting [‘people’]. memory also occur in Guðrúnarkviða II 21, Dráp Niflunga, Hyndluljóð 45 and Formula T17 Bryngerðarljóð 34 (cf. Kommentar V: 540– Vambarljóð 5.3–4 (Þulur 46): 541). og um háls grami / hendur lagði [‘and laid her hands around the neck of the Formula T21 king’] Vambarljóð 14.2 (Þulur 47): Sigurðarkviða in skamma 42.3–4 (Neckel–Kuhn kóngur víðrisinn 1983: 214): [‘the king who gained renown from [?]’] oc um háls kono / hendr um lagði Grípisspá 13.8 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 166): [‘and laid his hands around the neck of the gramr vígrisinn woman’] [‘the king who gained renown from battle’]

Formula T18 The word víðrisinn (thus in all manuscripts containing the strophe) is of unclear meaning, Vambarljóð 7.7–8 (Þulur 47): occurs nowhere else and appears to be an oral þó má skjöldungur ei / við sköpum vinna [‘yet the king cannot win out against fate’] corruption of vígrisinn. The adjective is not found outside Grípisspá (Kommentar V: 165). Helgakviða Hundingsbana II 29.3 (Neckel–Kuhn The words kóngur [‘king’] and gramr 1983: 155): [‘king’] carry the alliteration in each case. If it vinnat scioldungar scǫpom is correct to regard T21 as some sort of [‘the kings cannot win out against fate’] formula, then the synonym usage is the same Kommentar (IV: 720) cites several parallels to strategy to accommodate alliteration as found the Helgakviða line but none as close as in T16. Vambarljóð. Formula T22 Formula T19 Vambarljóð 1.7 (Þulur 46): Vambarljóð 10.1 (Þulur 47): kappsamr konungr leyfður konungur [‘the energetic king’] [‘the praised king’] Nórgskonunga tal 4.1–2 (Skj BI: 575): Sigurðarbálkr 23.1 (Skj BI: 471): Tók kappsamr / við konungs nafni leyfðr konungr [‘the energetic one took on the name of king’] [‘the praised king’] Nóregskonunga tal 14.1–2 (Skj BI: 577): This resemblance could be coincidental. Réð kappsamr / fyr konungdómi

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[‘the energetic one held the kingship’] Formula T26

Vambarljóð 8.7–8 (Þulur 47): Formula T23 með gulli rauðu / og gersemum Vambarljóð 4 (Þulur 4): [‘with red gold and precious things’] Gekk á hávan / haug Alþrúðar Vǫlundarkviða 21.7–8 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 120): morgin hverjan / mætur landreki. at væri gull rautt / oc gorsimar En fyrir hilmi / á margan veg [‘that there was red gold and precious tignarmenn hans / telja fóru. things’] [‘Every morning the worthy ruler of the land went upon the high mound of Alþrúður. But The collocation gull og gersemar [‘gold and the nobles went to recount in many ways precious things’] appears in many poems and before the king.’] also in prose texts (Kommentar III: 209) even

Guðrúnarhvöt 9 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 265): up to the present day. The adjective rautt Guðrún grátandi, / Giúca dóttir, [‘red’] is frequently applied to gold gecc hon tregliga / á tái sitia, (Kommentar III: 153). Vambarljóð and oc at telia, / táruchlýra, Vǫlundarkviða are the only texts I have found móðug spioll / á margan veg: where those two expressions occur together. [‘Weeping did Guðrún, Gjúki’s daughter, go Formula T26 could be seen as a more specific to sit sadly on the threshold and with tear- type of the gull og gersemar collocation, or as stained cheeks she recounted her sorrows in a coincidence. many ways:’]

The formula here is telja á margan veg Formulas within Vambarljóð [‘recount in many ways’] but it is worth The last five formulas I will look at are quoting the strophes in full to show the repetitions within Vambarljóð, not found, as thematic similarity of a grief-stricken person far as I can tell, in other poems. I will mark going somewhere to sit. these with the prefix V.

Formula T24 Formula V1 Vambarljóð 63.3–4 (Þulur 53): Vambarljóð 39.5–6 (Þulur 50): mannviti / mestu valt að honum / Vömb óþvegin [‘most good sense’] [‘The unwashed Belly rolled towards him’]

Hávamál 6.9, 10.3, 11.3 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 18): Vambarljóð 42.1–2 (Þulur 51): manvit mikit Valt óþvegin / Vömb til nauta [‘much good sense’] [‘The unwashed Belly rolled to the bulls’]

Formula T24 is a borderline case. Vambarljóð 50.1–27 (Þulur 52): Valt að vagni / Vömb óþvegin Formula T25 [‘The unwashed Belly rolled to the carriage’]

Vambarljóð 33.4 (Þulur 50), Vambarljóð 52.1–2 (Þulur 52): Veltist um urðir / Vömb óþvegin Merlínússpá I 56.7–8 (Skj BII: 21), Blómsturvalla rímur IV.80.3 (Jón Eggertsson [‘The unwashed Belly tumbled over the scree’]

1976: 62), The adjective óþvegin [‘unwashed’] (several other rímur): constitues a fixed epithet for the heroine. ýta mengi

[‘a multitude of men’] Formula V2 In Vambarljóð, Merlínússpá and Vambarljóð 8.3–4 (Þulur 47): Blómsturvalla rímur, the context is that of var eigi lofðungs mær / létt um drykkjur drinking. [‘The king’s maiden did not have an easy time drinking’]

Vambarljóð 45.7–8 (Þulur 51): var eigi lofðungi / létt um drykkju 191

[‘The king did not have an easy time Kenning 2 drinking’] Vambarljóð 5.6 (Þulur 47): skatna drottinn Formula V3 Grípisspá 5.2 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 165): Vambarljóð 26.5–6 (Þulur 49): scatna dróttinn hún stýrði löndum / og lýði víða [‘She ruled widely over lands and people’] Friðþjófs saga 26.2: skatna dróttinn Vambarljóð 54.5–6 (Þulur 52): stýrðu vel löndum / og lýði víða Einarr Skúlason, Geisli 64.7: [‘Rule well and widely over lands and people’] skatna dróttin [‘lord of men’ = ruler]

Formula V4 Kenning 2 is another distinctive kenning, Vambarljóð 22.1–2 (Þulur 48): found only in a few poems. In this case, one Ef svo ólíklega / um verða mætti of the poems is in dróttkvætt. This kenning is [‘If such an unlikely thing were to happen’] not used in the rímur.

Vambarljóð 47 (Þulur 51): Hvað er svo ólíklegt / orðið um þig Kenning 3 [‘What unlikely thing has happened to you’] Vambarljóð 54.4 (Þulur 52): gumna drottinn Formula V5 Atlakviða 23.2 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 244): Vambarljóð 63.7–8 (Þulur 53): gumna dróttinn unz til hallar kom / Hrings að kveldi [‘until he came to the hall of Hringur in the Þórbjǫrn skakkaskáld, Erlingsdrápa 2.1 (Skj BI: evening’] 515): gumna dróttinn Vambarljóð 68.7–8 (Þulur 54): unz til hallar kom / Ásmunds að kveldi Beowulf 1824 (Klaeber 1941: 68; in other Old [‘until he came to the hall of Ásmundur in English poetry, see Whallon 1969: 137): the evening’] gumena dryhten [‘lord of men’ = ruler]

Kennings Kenning 3 is a third distinctive kenning which We now turn to the kennings, which can be I have not found in rímur or other young regarded as a special case of poetic formulas. poetry. Each kenning is not only a formulaic combination of particular words but an Kenning 4 instantiation of a broader system of conventional base words, determinants and rekka drottinn [‘lord of men’ = ruler] referents. For an up-to-date introduction to kennings see Osborne, this volume. On the four examples, see formula T14 above: Kenning 1 Kenning 5 Vambarljóð 44.2 (Þulur 51), Bryngerðarljóð 20.8 (Þulur 86), seima Bil Bryngerðarljóð 23.2 (Þulur 87): [‘Bil of gold’ = woman] bauga deilir On the eight examples and its much wider Oddrúnargrátr 20.3 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 237): use, see formula M2 above. bauga deili [‘divider of rings’ = ruler] Kenning 6 Kenning 1 is only found in three poems. The Vambarljóð 2.7 (Þulur 46): kenning element deilir is not used in the auðar Bil (v.l. Lín) rímur. [‘Bil/Lín of wealth’ = woman] 192

Both V1 and V2 have Bil while both T1 and T2 Skógar-Krists rímur I.46 (Sólveig Ebba have Lín. Ólafsdóttir 2006: 23): Both the auðar Bil and auðar Lín variants bauga þilja th [‘the plank of rings’ = woman] are common post-13 century kennings and auðar Bil occurs several times in The word þilja is fairly frequent as a base Gullkársljóð. word in women kennings in the rímur. This usage is also found in a stanza quoted in the Kenning 7 Fourth Grammatical Treatise. Vambarljóð 3.7 (Þulur 46): hlaðsól Results and Interpretation [‘sun of lace’ = woman] It is readily apparent that the greatest textual similarities in Vambarljóð lie with the other Kenning 7 is also found in Hjálmþérs rímur sagnakvæði. Out of the 47 formulas I.38.3, XI.9.2 and in a hálfhneppt stanza in a th (including kennings) which have here been late 16 century manuscript (Yelena Sesselja identified as occurring in Vambarljóð and at Helgadóttir 2007: 76, 154–155). least one other text, there are 27 that occur in other sagnakvæði. In a number of cases, these Kenning 8 are textual similarities which reach across Vambarljóð 21.2 (Þulur 48): multiple verses. The poem with the largest língrundin number of textual affinities to Vambarljóð is [‘the linen ground’ = woman] Gullkársljóð, with 10 shared formulas.

I have not found this exact kenning elsewhere Bryngerðarljóð has 8 shared formulas, though many similar ones can be found (e.g. Kringilnefjukvæði 7 and Kötludraumur, Þóruljóð and Hyndluljóð yngri have 2 shared hlaðgrund, línjörð). The N manuscript has 8 línspöngin [‘the linen spangle’], which is formulas each. found already in the 13th century. The poetic language of Vambarljóð has some connection with that of the rímur, Kenning 9 mostly in the kennings. Here we have identified 6 shared formulas. This is less than Vambarljóð 26.3 (Þulur 49): one might expect considering that both the veiga þöll rímur and the sagnakvæði are late-medieval [‘fir-tree of beverages’ = woman] secular poetry and that the corpus of rímur to Kenning 9 occurs in some six medieval rímur. compare with is vast. Vambarljóð has even Kenning 10 less in common with pre-14th century poetry in dróttkvætt and related meters (‘skaldic’ Vambarljóð 52.6 (Þulur 52): poetry), the list above shows only a couple of herja stillir examples. Guðrúnarkviða III 4.2 (Neckel–Kuhn 1983: 232): There is clearly a tendency for poetic heria stilli formulas to be limited to a particular type of [‘the commander of hosts’ = ruler] poetry. To some extent this is explained by Gullkársljóð 37.2 (Þulur 80): metrical reasons. A formulaic component like herjar stillir “né manns konu” would not fit into the [‘the commander of the host’ = ruler] trochaic rhythm of the rímur. It is also worth keeping in mind that the rímur were largely a Kenning 11 literate enterprise while the sagnakvæði Vambarljóð 69.2 (Þulur 54): existed in oral tradition – this would certainly bauga þilju predict a difference in their use of formulas. The most prominent formulaic part of the Móðars rímur I.32.4 (Jón Helgason 1950: 6): rímur is the system of kennings and, indeed, bauga þilja that is where we encounter commonalities Móðars rímur II.11.2 (Jón Helgason 1950: 10): with the sagnakvæði. Even so, there are bauga þilja perfectly trochaic kennings such as bauga 193

deilir (kenning 1) and skatna drottinn [‘many people know that poem by heart’]) (kenning 2) which are found in the (Jón Sigurðsson 1849: 13; cf. discussion in sagnakvæði but do not occur in the rímur. Jón Helgason 1952: 99). Vambarljóð shares a number of similarities Vambarljóð shares 17 formulas with the with eddic poetry, some vague, some quite Poetic Edda and 10 with other poems in striking. How should these similarities be fornyrðislag and related meters. The only interpreted? Böðvar Guðmundsson (2006: poem that stands out here is Grípisspá, with 5 483) and Óskar Halldórsson (2004: 233–234) shared formulas. As I have previously have hinted that they could be the result of discussed, Grípisspá also has formulas in Renaissance humanism in post-Reformation common with other sagnakvæði (Haukur Iceland. If this were the case, we would have Þorgeirsson 2010; 2011). Grípisspá is learned authors deliberately employing universally considered to be among the archaic expressions known to them from the youngest poems in the Poetic Edda, perhaps Poetic Edda. But this explanation fails to fit the very youngest. This might explain its the facts. comparatively greater affinity to late- It was only in 1643 that the Codex Regius medieval poetry. manuscript of the Poetic Edda came into Bishop Brynjólfur Sveinsson’s posession and Methodological Questions and Future Work thus became known to the Icelandic cultural In the present text, I have sought to show how elite. Vambarljóð is recorded, in more than we might try to establish the relative degree one version, some 60 years later. Its subject is of closeness or relatedness between poems not legendary history or high mythology but a within the same tradition by looking en masse simple fairytale, something the learned men at the formulaic textual elements they have in of 17th century Iceland looked down upon. common. I think the preliminary results show Icelandic Renaissance humanists certainly did some promise and that this is an avenue worth try their hand at writing eddic poetry, but the exploring further. But many questions remain results – the best known of which is open. Hrafnagaldur Óðins – were very different In this Vambarljóð investigation, I have from the sagnakvæði in style, meter, subject, simply counted every instance of possible language and use of formulas (Haukur formulas that I was able to identify and then Þorgeirsson 2010; see also Lassen 2011). One added up the raw numbers for every related would not expect deliberately archaic and poem. But one might try to classify formulas obscure poetry to easily enter the popular depending on how certain or striking or tradition and, indeed, Hrafnagaldur shows no extensive they are. For some purposes, we signs of oral transmission. It also has no will certainly want to distinguish between formulas in common with the sagnakvæði, formulas consisting of, say, one verse from mostly restricting itself to borrowings from those which cover a whole stanza. We may Vǫluspá and the so-called Prose Edda (or also want to distinguish between expressions Snorra Edda). that occur only in two poems and those that Jón Helgason believed that the sagnakvæði occur more widely. And what about formulaic were a continuation of the eddic tradition9 and expressions that also occur in prose? The gull this remains the best explanation for why they og gersemar [‘gold and precious things’] share formulas with the poems of the Codex example (T26) is a case in point. A Regius. The tradition of narrative fornyrðislag collocation that can occur in any sort of poetry retained an oral component long after poetry and also in prose is hardly distinctive the introduction of writing. In one of the two enough to tell us much about stylistic affinity. manuscripts of Breta sǫgur, we find the Another open question is whether it makes information that many people know sense to treat kennings as a part of the wider Merlínússpá (a long poem in fornyrðislag) by array of formulaic expressions or whether heart and this seems to be the reason why the they need any special provisions (cf. K8 scribe felt it to be unnecessary to include it in above). Again, we may wish to distinguish the manuscript (kunna margir menn þat kuæði between kennings which seem confined to a

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few poems or a certain genre (e.g. K1, bauga 8. The numbers add up to more than 27 because of deilir) and those that have a wide and general formulas occurring in multiple sagnakvæði. 9. “Eddadigtningens tradition fortsættes i distribution (e.g. K5, seima Bil). senmiddelalderen ved nogle anonyme digte i Finally, I have not dealt with individual fornyrðislag med tilknytning til eventyr og poetic words but those are certainly an folkesagn” [‘The tradition of eddic poetry continues important part of the poetic diction. To take in the late Middle Ages with some anonymous an example, the word landreki [‘ruler’]10 poems in fornyrðislag connected to fairy tales and folk tales’] (Jón Helgason 1952: 167). occurs three times in Vambarljóð. It does not 10. This word is at the borderline between kenning and occur in prose but is frequent in pre-1400 heiti (cf. Meissner 1921: 353). poetry, whether in dróttkvætt or eddic meters. I have not found it in rímur or in post-1400 Manuscripts religious poetry. Another example is the word AM 154 8vo bölstafir [‘staves of woe’] which is found in NKS 1141 fol Vambarljóð and Sigrdrífumál and not in other NKS 1894 4to sources familiar to me (Kommentar V: 608 JS 398 4to calls it a hapax legomenon). Both of those JS 405 4to examples are part of the archaic poetic JS 406 4to language found in Vambarljóð. JS 579 4to An investigation of this sort will only ever JS 581 4to be as good as its philological groundwork. As Thott 489 8vo a basis for future investigation of the Lbs 985 4to sagnakvæði, a new critical edition of every Lbs 2324 4to poem is a necessity. Such an edition will be a Lbs 202 8vo particularly interesting undertaking for ÍB 895 8vo Kötludraumur, which is preserved in numerous versions independently collected Works Cited from oral tradition (Gísli Sigurðsson 1995). Aðalheiður Guðmundsdóttir. 1997. “(Ó)Traustar To a somewhat lesser extent, the same is true heimildir. Um söfnun og útgáfu þjóðkvæði”. for Snjáskvæði and Kringilnefjukvæði. It Skáldskaparmál 4: 210–226. Bergljót Kristjánsdóttir. 1996. “„Gunnlöð ekki gaf mér remains to be seen whether research on the neitt af geymsludrykknum forðum...“ Um Steinunni fornyrðislag oral tradition as it existed in the Finnsdóttur, Hyndlurímur og Snækóngsrímur”. In th 17 century can throw light on the medieval Guðamjöður og arnarleir. Safn ritgerða um tradition in the same meter. eddulist. Ed. Sverrir Tómasson. Reykjavík: Háskólaútgáfan. Pp. 165–219. Boer, R. C (ed.). 1888. Ǫrvar-Odds saga. Leiden. Notes Böðvar Guðmundsson. 2006. “Nýir siðir og nýir 1. The exact number can be argued over. In this paper, lærdómar. Bókmenntir 1550–1750”. In Íslensk I regard the younger Vambarljóð as a completely bókmenntasaga II. Ed. Vésteinn Ólason. Reykjavík: separate poem, which would arguably bring the Mál og menning. Pp. 381–521. number up to nine. Kötludraumur, also, exists in Finnur Sigmundsson. 1947. “Um Guðmund versions so divergent that a case could be made that Bergþórsson”. In Olgeirs rímur danska. By they constitute different poems. Guðmundur Bergþórsson. Eds. Björn K. Þórólfsson 2. I am indebted to Frog for this formulation. & Finnur Sigmundsson. Reykjavík: Landsbókasafn 3. For the readers’ convenience, I list citations to Íslands. Pp. xi–xxiii. Ólafur Davíðsson’s published edition of Frog. 2011. “Alvíssmál and Orality I”. Arkiv för Vambarljóð, despite basing my work on the nordisk filologi 126: 17–71. manuscripts. Gísli Sigurðsson. 1990. “On the Classification of Eddic 4. When using text from Þulur I have normalized the Heroic Poetry in View of the Oral Theory”. In spelling. Poetry in the Scandinavian Middle Ages. Ed. 5. I have normalized the spelling when referring to Teresa Pàroli. Spoleto: Presso la Sede del Centro rímur texts or other texts published in diplomatic Studi. Pp. 245–255. editions. Gísli Sigurðsson. 1995. “Kötludraumur. Flökkuminni 6. Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages: eða þjóðfélagsumræða?” Gripla 9: 189–217. Skaldic Database, available at: http://skaldic.arts. Harris, J. 2008 [1983]. “Eddic Poetry as Oral Poetry: usyd.edu.au/db.php?table=mss&id=15079. The Evidence of Parallel Passages in the Helgi 7. This strophe is only preserved in T2. Poems for Questions of Composition and

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Performance”. In “Speak Useful Words or Say ONP = Ordbog over det norrøne prosasprog. A Nothing”: Old Norse Studies. By J. Harris. Dictionary of Old Norse Prose. Available at: Islandica 53. Ithaca: Cornell University Library. Pp. http://www.onp.hum.ku.dk/. 189–225. Ólafur Davíðsson. 1898. Íslenzkar þulur og þjóðkvæði. Haukur Þorgeirsson. 2010. “Gullkársljóð og Kaupmannahöfn: Hið íslenzka bókmentafélag. Hrafnagaldur: Framlag til sögu fornyrðislags”. Óskar Halldórsson. 2004. “Bókmenntir á lærdómsöld Gripla 21: 299–334. 1550–1770”. In Saga Íslands VII. Ed. Sigurður Haukur Þorgeirsson. 2011. “Þóruljóð og Háu- Líndal. Reykjavík: Hið íslenzka bókmenntafélag, Þóruleikur”. Gripla 22: 211–227. Sögufélag. Pp. 213–316. Jón Eggertsson. 1976. Blómsturvallarímur. Eds. Rímnasafn = Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1905–1922. Grímur M. Helgason & Hallferður Örn Eiríksson. Rímnasafn. Samling af de ældste islandske rimer I– Rit Rímnafélagsins 11. Reykjavík: Rímnafélagið. II. STUAGNL 35. København: Samfund til Jón Helgason (ed.). 1950. Móðars rímur og Móðars udgivelse af gammel nordisk litteratur. þáttur. Íslenzk rit síðari alda 5. Kaupmannahöfn: Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages. Hið íslenzka fræðafélag. Available at http://skaldic.arts.usyd.edu.au. Jón Helgason. 1952. “Norges og Islands digtning”. Skj = Finnur Jónsson (ed.). 1912–1915. Den norsk- Offprint from Nordisk kultur VIIIB. islandske skjaldedigtning A–B. København, Litteraturhistoria: Norge og Island. Stockholm, Kristiania: Gyldendalske boghandel, Nordisk Oslo, Köpenhamn. forlag. Jón Helgason. 1960. Kvæðabók séra Gissurar Sólveig Ebba Ólafsdóttir. 2006. “Rímur af Skógar- Sveinssonar. Kaupmannahöfn: Hið íslenzka Kristi”. Són 4: 9–31. fræðafélag. Steinunn Finnsdóttir. 1950. Hyndlu rímur og Snækóngs Jón Sigurðsson. 1849. “Trójumanna saga ok Breta rímur. Ed. Bjarni Vilhjálmsson. Rit Rímnafélagsins sögur”. Annaler for nordisk Oldkyndighed og 3. Reykjavík: Rímnafélagið. Historier. Pp. 3–145. Thorvaldsen, Bernt Øyvind. 2006. Svá er sagt í fornum Klaeber, Friedrich. 1941. Beowulf and the Fight at vísindum: Tekstualiseringen av de mytologiske Finnsburg. 3rd edn., with supplement. Boston etc.: eddadikt. Bergen: Senter for middelalderstudier. D. C. Heath. Thorvaldsen, Bernt Øyvind. 2008. “Om Þrymskviða, Kommentar = von See, Klaus, et al. 1997–2006. tekstlån og tradisjon”. Maal og Minne 2008(2): Kommentar zu den Liedern der Edda II–V. 142–166. Heidelberg: Winter. Vésteinn Ólason. 1982. The Traditional Ballads of Lassen, Annette. 2011. Hrafnagaldur Óðins Iceland. Reykjavík: Stofnun Árna Magnússonar. (Forspjallsljóð). London: Viking Society for Whallon, William. 1969. Formula, Character, and Northern Research. Context: Studies in Homeric, Old English, and Old Magnús Jónsson, Pétur Einarsson and Ólafur Testament Poetry. Washington, D.C.: Center for Halldórsson. 1961. Pontus rímur. Rit Hellenic Studies. Rímnafélagsins 10. Ed. Grímur M. Helgason. Wisén, Theodor. 1881. Riddara-rímur. STUAGNL 4. Reykjavík: Rímnafélagið. Köpenhamn: Samfund til udgivelse af gammel Meissner, Rudolf. 1921. Die Kenningar der Skalden: nordisk litteratur. Ein Beitrag zur skaldischen Poetik. Bonn, Leipzig. Yelena Sesselja Helgadóttir. 2007. Lausavísur frá Mellor, Scott A. 2008. Analyzing Ten Poems from The svartadauða til siðaskipta. Reykjavík: Poetic Edda: Oral Formula and Mythic Patterns. Háskólaútgáfan. Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press. Þorvaldur Sigurðsson (ed.). 1986. Sigurðar rímur Neckel–Kuhn 1983 = Neckel, Gustav, & Hans Kuhn þögla. Unpublished cand. mag. dissertation, (eds.). 1983. Edda: Die Lieder des Codex Regius University of Iceland. nebst verwandten Denkmälern I: Text. Germanische Þulur = Ólafur Davíðsson 1898. Bibliothek, 4th ser. 5th revised edn. Heidelberg: Carl Ölvis rímur. Unpublished transcript at Stofnun Árna Winter. Magnússonar.

A Method for Analyzing World-Models in Scandinavian Mythology Mathias Nordvig, Aarhus University

This paper discusses how to construct a analyzing the world-models employed in a method for analyzing and interpreting world- certain type of narratives about Scandinavian models1 in Scandinavian mythology2 by gods, which will be called gods’ ourneys. adapting and developing Vladimir Propp’s Gods’ journeys comprise approximately 50% schema for the dramatis personae of folktales of the number of identifiable narratives about found in The Morphology of the Folktale Scandinavian gods in the work called Edda by (1968 [1928]) as a foundational method for Snorri Sturluson (Snorra Edda hereafter), in 196

eddic poetry and in skaldic poetry. The theme and narrative motifs (Meletinsky 1973: 43). common to all gods’ journeys is a situation of Meletinsky was heavily influenced by Claude confrontation between a Nordic god (referred Lévi-Strauss and Lévi-Strauss’s notion of to hereafter by the vernacular term æsir) and binary oppositional categories (Meletinsky an inhabitant of ‘the otherworld’. In the other 1973: 45). This leads Meletinsky to suggest a types of narratives, this situation of a model of the pre-Christian Scandinavian confrontation between inhabitants of Ásgarðr cosmos divided according to both a horizontal [‘God-Realm’] and inhabitants of different and a vertical axes imbued with mythological types of otherworld is also very often present, meaning in oppositional categories making this more general theme the most (Meletinsky 1973: 46–57). In the 1980s, common one in the mythology. The analysis Kirsten Hastrup adopted and expanded on of the narrative structures of the gods’ Meletinsky’s world-model in multiple studies journeys constitutes another approach to the (Hastrup 1981; 1985; 1990). Most construction of world-models in Scandinavian importantly, Hastrup proposed the widely mythology, which is different from the accepted model of concentric circles that prevalent discussion in scholarship about the sketches out the horizontal opposition subject (see below). By employing the between æsir and ǫtnar [‘Giants’] in the analysis of narrative structures it may be monolithic cosmological terms Ásgarðr possible to more skillfully negotiate the issues [‘God-Realm’] and Útgarðr [‘Out-Realm’], of genre and form in this varied type of presumably corresponding directly to the medieval literature about the pre-Christian linguistic concepts of the spatial arrangement past. This paper will begin by providing an of the farm in Icelandic: innangarðs [‘inside overview of the methodological problem of the fence’] and útangards [‘outside the analyzing world-models in Scandinavian fence’] (Hastrup 1990: 28–32). mythology, then proceed to applying Propp’s Meletinsky and Hastrup were criticized by functions to the narratives and conclude with Jens Peter Schjødt (1990) for their use of some remarks on combining Propp’s schema source material, followed by Margaret with spatial analysis. The object is not to Clunies Ross (1994), who suggested that there construct detailed world-models, but rather to may not have been such a sharp division keep the discussion on an abstract level in between the æsir and ǫtnar after all. Clunies order to be generally accurate in assessing the Ross also pointed out that the term Útgarðr is methodological value of world-models.3 not a common locution in the mythological vocabulary, the plural term Jǫtunheimar The Methodological Problem [‘Giant-Realms’] is the one most widely used The analysis of world-models in Scandinavian (Clunies Ross 1994: 51–52). Of special notice mythology was first promoted by Aaron Ya. is the critique raised by Stefan Brink (2004: Gurevich (1969) and Eleazar M. Meletinsky 295–297) , in which he explicitly opposes the (1973). In Space and Time in the Weltmodell notion of a coherent spatial system in of the Old Scandinavian Peoples, Gurevich Scandinavian mythology, denounces the approached this subject from the perspective semantic oppositions of Lévi-Strauss’s of the pre-Christian Scandinavians’ inability structuralism (and structuralism in general), to separate themselves from their environment and suggests that the cosmology of Snorra (Gurevich 1969: 42), arguing that there was a Edda in particular was “färgats av den kristna, direct correlation between the reality of pre- retoriska polariteten mellan himmel och modern Scandinavians and the literary helvete” [‘coloured by the Christian rhetorical imagery of the mythological poetry and prose, polarity between Heaven and Hell’] (Brink as well as linguistic concepts (Gurevich 1969: 2004: 298). A similar critique of structuralism 42–43). In his article “Scandinavian and the use of Snorra Edda to describe the Mythology as a System”, Meletinsky pre-Christian Scandinavian world-model was proposed an analytical approach to also raised by Gro Steinsland (2005: 141– Scandinavian mythology that systematically 142). seeks out elementary semantic oppositions

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To date, only one doctoral dissertation has not constant in its various areas; there are been produced devoted to this subject. This is also contradictions difficult to overcome. Nanna Løkka’s Sted og landskap i norrøn (Meletinsky 1973: 43.) mytologi (2010). Methodologically, Løkka’s Meletinsky posits that one should not look for dissertation is interesting because she a complete and universally coherent system, concedes to Brink’s critique of Meletinskij’s but asserts that structures of commonalities and Hastrup’s analyses, but at the same time are present. This simply calls for a further confesses to perform a structuralist analyses development of methodological tools for herself (Løkka 2010: 35). She rejects the analyzing the world-model of Scandinavian Lévi-Straussian notion of semantic mythology. Løkka has provided us with a oppositions and suggests that the causal groundbreaking attempt to develop these and premises on which cosmology works are there is still much that can be done. To the inherently monistic rather than dualistic. study of the Scandinavian mythological Dualism is assigned to a Christian conception world-model, Løkka’s sequential analyses of the world, while it is believed that the applied to the eddic poems of gods’ journeys eddic poems, taken to be sources to the pre- are the most intriguing ones. If the proper Christian era, arguably display notions of tools for carrying out such sequential analyses monism (Løkka 2010: 259–263). Snorra can be developed, it is possible to transgress Edda is left out of the investigation owing to the different genres that communicate its literary complexity and indisputable Scandinavian mythology and perform world- composition in Christian times (Løkka 2010: model analyses accounting for the greater part 22). In Løkka’s view it seems that the of the material. cosmology of Snorra Edda is indeed an expression of the “Christian rhetorical The Data polarity between Heaven and Hell” that Brink The gods’ journeys are broadly represented in describes in the above quote. Løkka (2010: Scandinavian mythology. Of the thirteen 37–44) makes use of two different methods individually distinguishable mythological for analysis: sequential analyses bordering on fictions5 about the æsir in Snorra Edda, narratological text-analysis; and the analysis approximately eight are narratives about a of motifs as symbols in a structured socio- god’s journey to the otherworld. (See the religious context. source index in (1) below). Snorra Edda also Evidently there is a later scholarly preserves skaldic versions of Þjazi’s tendency to move away from Lévi-Straussian abduction of ðunn and Þórr’s encounter with notions of semantic oppositions, and even a Geirrøðr in the poems Haustlǫng and lowered willingness to utilize the contents of Þórsdrápa. These are also journey narratives. Snorra Edda as a source for pre-Christian In eddic poetry, the ratio is the opposite: five Scandinavian mythology. There are, of journey narratives out of approximately course, good reasons to be cautious in the use twelve individual eddic poems on gods extant of Snorra Edda as a source and this material in the main manuscripts Codex Regius (GkS 4 must be addressed with care, but to discard 2365 4to) and AM 748 4to. Saxo this material or ignore it entirely is to rob this Grammaticus’s Gesta Danorum presents four field of an invaluable source for new narratives: two about the hero Thorkillus; one realizations. Recent scholarship seems rather about Othinus’s rape of Rind; and one about overhasty in judging both the content of Høtherus’s acquisition of a sword. The Snorra Edda, as well as the notion of narratives about Thorkillus can be identified semantic oppositions in the pre-Christian as derivatives of some of the Þórr-myths Scandinavian world-model. In fact, preserved in Snorra Edda. This is also the Meletinsky already has a ready answer to case for one short saga called Þorsteins saga critics such as Brink on the first page of his bæjarmagns. (See McKinnell 1994: 57–86.) article: Because of their relationship with the Þórr-

The systematic order of Scandinavian myths, these may also be defined as gods’ mythology is not absolute and its degree is 198

journeys. The journey narratives preserved in narrative frame of the monologic and dialogic Scandinavian mythology are therefore: eddic poems Vǫluspá, Vafþrúðnismál, Grímnismál, Alvíssmál and Hyndluljóð. The (1) Source index of gods’ journey narratives. primary problem with fitting these narratives Prose narratives from Snorra Edda to the functions of the dramatis personae is Þórr’s Journey to Útgarðaloki (ÞJÚ) that they simply lack a significant number of Þórr and Miðgarðsormr (ÞM) the relevant functions. It does, however, seem The Death of Baldr (DB) that the subject of confrontation between the Þjazi and Íðunn (ÞÍ) æsir and the primary inhabitants of the The Mead of Poetry (MP) Þórr and Hrungnir (ÞH) otherworld is widely represented in Þórr’s Journey to Geirrøðr (ÞJG) Scandinavian mythology, and that the Æsir’s Journey to Hreiðmar* (ÆJH) narrative plots are either the situation of confrontation or the narrative sequence Eddic poems leading up to and including the confrontation. Skírnismál (Skm) The form, function and result of these Hymiskviða (Hym) Þrymskviða (Þrk) confrontations vary greatly, but the structures Baldrs draumar (Bdr) of the journey narratives have many features Reginsmál (Rm) and details in common.

Skaldic poems Analytical Approach Þjazi and Íðunn in Haustlǫng (Hl) Vladimir Propp’s (1968: 25–65) pattern for Þórr and Geirrøðr in Þórsdrápa (Þd) approaching the folktale is adapted here as an Prose narratives from Gesta Danorum analytical tool in order to consider the Thorkillus’s Journey to Geruthus (TJG) distinguishable functions of the narrative Thorkillus’s Journey to Ugarthilocus (TJU) structures. These unique functions of the Høtherus’s Acquisition of the Sword (HS) narrative structures reveal the dynamics Othinus’s Rape of Rind (OR) between the protagonists and antagonists of Prose sagas the narratives, and are thus expressions of Þorsteins saga bæjarmagns (Þsb)6 movements in a conceivable world-model that

* ÆJH is the prelude to the tale of Sigurðr must be present for the mythology to work. In Fafnisbani. 1928, the Russian formalist Vladimir Propp published his morphological analysis of The plot of each of these narratives consists Russian fairy tales in Morphology of the of a situation, where one or more Folktale (Morfológija skázki). The aim was representatives of the æsir group undertake a the structural description of the Russian fairy journey to Útgarðr, Hel, Jǫtunheimar or the tale (Propp 1968: xx–xxi). Propp observed location of an antagonist that is named after that the fairy tales have a limited set of its owner, such as Geirrøðargarðar, functions related to the characters, or dramatis Þrymheimr, etc. These locations may personae, which are constant elements of the commonly be denoted as the otherworld. tales, and appear throughout the material There are many different reasons for the independently of how and by whom they are otherworld journeys, but in each instance the fulfilled. These functions are realized within a culmination of the journey is the formalized structure in narratives. This can be confrontation with a primary inhabitant of the illustrated with the following four variants of otherworld. This situation of confrontation is a journey-plot (Propp 1968: 19–22) in also present in several other narratives, which example (2): for different reasons cannot be satisfyingly analyzed as gods’ journeys using the (2) 1. A tsar gives an eagle to a hero. The functions of the dramatis personae. These eagle carries the hero away to another narratives include the tale of the kingdom. Masterbuilder in Snorra Edda (describing the 2. An old man gives Súčenko a horse. The horse carries him away to another origins of the walls of Ásgarðr) and the kingdom.

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3. A sorcerer gives Iván a little boat. The A: Villainy (the villain causes harm to a boat takes Iván to another kingdom. member of the protagonist group) 4. A princess gives Iván a ring. Young men a: Lack (a member of the protagonist appearing from out of the ring carry group lacks something. This can Iván away into another kingdom. supplant A) B: The connective incident (the lack or The corresponding plot in journey narratives misfortune is made known) in Scandinavian mythology can be identified C: Beginning counteraction (the seeker- in a similar manner as outlined in (3). It is hero agrees to counteract) observed that they include a similar motion: a ↑: Departure (the hero leaves home) member of the collective must for some D: Donor situation (a potential donor tests, reason undertake a journey to the otherworld interrogates, attacks or in another way by some special means: interacts with the hero) E: Reaction (the hero reacts to the (3) 1. One or more gods desire something that confrontation with the donor) is located in the otherworld. Someone F: Provision/receipt of a magical agent from the æsir collective is sent there to (the hero acquires provision of some retrieve it. kind from the donor) 2. A crisis situation occurs in Ásgarðr as a G: Spatial transference/guidance (the hero result of social exchange with the enters another realm) otherworld. Someone from the æsir H: Struggle (the hero engages in a collective is sent there to resolve the confrontation with the villain) situation. J: Branding (the hero is branded in his

Propp observed that all the fairy tales that he confrontation with the villain) analyzed are of one type in regards to their I: Victory (the hero defeats the villain) K: Liquidation of lack or misfortune (the structure (Propp 1968: 23). This structure balance is restored and the lack or outlines a set of actions or functions that are misfortune represented by ‘A’ or ‘a’ identified as part of a chain of events relating is liquidated) to the plot of journeying to another world. ↓: Return (the hero returns home) This makes his method highly useful for this Pr: Pursuit (the hero is pursued by the present study of world-models in villain) Scandinavian mythology. Rs: Rescue (the hero is rescued from the villan) (4) Complete list of functions in folktales o: Unrecognized arrival (the hero arrives according to Propp (1968: 25–65). at home without being recognized, or α: Initial situation (introduction of the he arrives in another country) hero, enumeration of a family) L: Unfounded claims (in the absence of β: Absentation (one of the protagonist the hero, another man claims to be the group leaves home) hero) γ: Interdiction (the hero is presented with M: Difficult task (the hero is faced with a an interdiction in some capacity) difficult task to prove his authenticity) δ: Violation (the hero violates the N: Solution (the task is resolved) interdiction) Q: Recognition (the hero is recognized) ε: Reconnaissance (the villain attempts to Ex: Xxposure (the false hero [or the villain obtain information in order to hurt the in disguise] is exposed) protagonist and/or his group, or a T: Transfiguration (the hero is given a new member of this group) appearance) ζ: Delivery (the villain obtains U: Punishment (the villain is punished) information) W: Wedding (the hero is married or receives η: Trickery (the villain attempts to deceive compensation)

or take possession of a victim or his Margaret Clunies Ross & B.K. Martin (1986) belongings) have suggested that it is possible to apply θ: Complicity (the victim of the villain’s deception submits) Propp’s pattern to the mythological fictions of Snorra Edda, and demonstrated this with the example of Þórr’s Journey to Geirrøðr (ÞJG). 200

The attempt at doing so is carried out with elements of journey narratives. With very few certain difficulty, assigning several of Propp’s exceptions, the available material displays a functions to be presupposed in the course of structure that is built around a preparatory the ÞJG narrative and after giving another part; a complication; a donor situation and a example, this time applied to Þjazi’s confrontation (see below). It is important to Abduction of Íðunn (ÞÍ), they conclude that note, however, that it is not the entire “Snorri appears to conform to the Proppian structure of Propp’s folktale pattern which is pattern, but uses it skillfully and freely” relevant to this material. Practically none of (Clunies Ross & Martin 1986: 65). According Propp’s functions from ‘o’ to ‘W’ are present to Clunies Ross & Martin, this suggests a in this material. This is due to the genre and conscious attempt on behalf of the author of theme of the mythic fictions of Snorra Edda Snorra Edda to employ folktale patterns in his as well as the eddic and skaldic poems. The treatment of the myths, and further that it folktales are preoccupied with human life, indicates this was purely a 13th century whereas the central narratives of phenomenon (Clunies Ross & Martin 1986: Scandinavian mythology do not typically 72). This view is problematic. There is no engage such themes: they are most often reason to assume that this pattern was only preoccupied with events of numinous or adapted to myths in the 13th century, and that cosmic significance.8 It is, however, the pattern was only meaningful in a medieval interesting to note that some of these elements context. There is also no reason to assume are incorporated in TJG/TJU and Þsb, where that such structural patterning is specific to the characters are human. This is an obvious the genre of folktales as opposed to other condition derived from the fact that a) types and genres of traditional narrative (cf. Propp’s pattern was developed for a certain Lord 1960; Briggs & Bauman 1992: 133– type of narrative in a certain culture, and b) 134). As will be shown below, the same Scandinavian mythology is transmitted in structural pattern is also perceivable in eddic several types of genre. However, if the poems (traditional Old Norse narrative poetry Proppian pattern is employed in instances that offers the closest equivalent to epic). This where it is meaningful as a tool to examine pattern corresponds to a plot of journeying to the narrative structure, the situation is the otherworld. It could be argued that this different. plot of journeying simply requires the basic Clunies Ross & Martin have established narrative units as identified by Propp, and so that the Proppian pattern can meaningfully be it does not necessarily suggest conscious applied to the mythological fictions of Snorra redaction on behalf of a medieval author.7 Edda. In other areas of Old Norse studies, However, the purpose here is not to address structural analyses are being used for generic strategies of specific examples but discussing embedded ritual structures in rather to illustrate the application of Proppian narratives. The scholar of religion Jens Peter pattern analysis of narratives of Scandinavian Schjødt argues that a myth in Scandinavian mythology, and what such analysis can mythology is a sequence of Proppian reveal. functions which are combined in a certain The patterns of the two examples given by order, and that the narratives deal with events Clunies Ross & Martin (1986: 64–65) are that play out in the field between this world provided in example (5): and the other world. This is important to the way in which society’s worldview is (5) a. (ÞJG): (α) β (γ) (δ) ε ζ η θ A (B) (C) ↑ (D) (E) F G Hx3 Ix3 K (↓) organized. (Schjødt 2008: 65–66.) Although b. (Þ ): α β η θ A B C ↑ G K ↓ Pr Rs : a C Schjødt does not directly employ Propp’s ↑ G M N K/W pattern in his structural analyses, his current work attests to the applicability of sequential These examples can serve as models for analysis to Scandinavian mythology for analyzing the other journey narratives in discussions about worldview.9 The Scandinavian mythology, and the structures observation of the realization of spatial codes can thus serve as model examples of the basic and conceptions in narrative patterns is

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present in Schjødt’s work as well as the work surrounding these. In the following, Propp’s of other scholars of religion, anthropologists principles for the narrative analysis of and even philosophers. folktales is applied to the myths of gods’ The anthropologist Roy Wagner (2001) has journeys in Scandinavian mythology for the observed how spatial structures of the cosmos purpose of understanding the experienced and world among tribes in Papua New Guinea space of these tales, and negotiate this are directly involved in the narrative web of problem. The analysis follows a grouping of their cosmological myths, and philosophers of functions in four phases which are logical place and space such as J.E. Malpas (1999: narrative consequences of one another. These 44–45) argue that space is only fully phases are: the preparatory phase, which is conceivable if understood as space for identified as the course of dramatis personae movement and activity. To Malpas (1999: 50) actions leading to Propp’s function ‘A’ space is egocentric and experiential, and villainy or ‘a’ lack; the complication, which is should be understood on the premises of a the course of actions initiated by the creature’s involvement with its world. protagonist collective to counteract the effect Notions of the connectedness of space and of ‘A’/’a’; the donor situation, which time in narratology is also at the basis of corresponds to a point of no return, where the Mikhail Bakhtin’s (1981: 84–258) theory of journeying god has entered another realm; chronotopes. The sequential analysis of the and the confrontation, which is the final journey narratives reveals expressions of situation, where the god engages the primary movements in a conceived world-model. That inhabitant of the otherworld. world-model must be present for the mythology to function insofar as such an The Preparatory Phase analysis reveals narrative characters’ The preparatory phase sets the stage for a involvement with their world. Consequently, narrative, presenting the essential conditions analysis of journey narratives produces for the complication and movement of plot. information about conceptions of the world- Propp represents the chain of functions with model within which the narrative is framed. Greek letters (see (4) above). In the narratives On this basis, a world-model can be of Snorra Edda,10 the preparatory phase is abstracted. The analysis of world-models in initiated by the absentation (β) of one or more Scandinavian mythology is thus essentially an members of the æsir collective and it is attempt to understand the space experienced characterized as a situation that is of threat to in the narratives. the stability of the æsir: The author of Snorra Edda, who also (6) The preparatory phase of gods’ journeys in makes an analysis of the cosmic space of Snorra Edda. Scandinavian mythology on his own terms, puts his understanding of the world-model a. DB: Frigg is alone in the hall and into the mouths of Hár, Jafnhár and Þriði susceptible to Loki’s deceit. The within the frame of the Gylfaginning section preparatory phase leads to the murder of Baldr (murder/loss): α β ε ζ η θ = A/a of this work. The composers of eddic poems b. Þ : Óðinn, Hœnir and Loki are out in the place corresponding understandings in the wilderness (eyðimǫrk). The preparatory mouths of Óðinn, the vǫlva, Alvíss, phase leads to Þjazi’s abduction of Íðunn Vafþrúðnir and other characters in monologic (abduction/loss): α β η θ = A/a and dialoguic presentations. This is described c. MP: Kvasir leaves the æsir and travels the space, which stands in contrast to experienced world exposing himself to the crimes of space in so far as experienced space is Fjalar and Galar. The preparatory phase accessible through the analysis of narrative leads to Bǫlverkr’s quest for the mead (a sequences. Described space is consciously need is implied: murder/need): α β η θ = locked in its contemporary frame of reference A(/a) as a medieval attempt to describe the world- d. ÞH: Óðinn rides to Jǫtunheimar and is confronted with Hrungnir. The preparatory model that is otherwise reflected in narratives, phase leads to Hrungnir’s threat to Ásgarðr experience and the cultural discourses (giant threatens): α β ε ζ η = A 202

e. ÞJG: Loki flies to Geirrøðargarðar and is instances it is one of the æsir. There are ten captured. The preparatory phase leads to a narratives with a preparatory phase. In seven threat to Loki and thus the collective of the of these, the violation occurs outside of æsir (giant threatens): α β ε ζ η θ = A Ásgarðr (6b, 6c, 6d, 6e, 6f, 7b, 7d), indicating f. ÆJH: Óðinn, Hœnir and Loki kill Óttar and a conception of the realm outside as a place are confronted (tricked?) by Hreiðmar who where the æsir are vulnerable. In each case, it is a skilled magician (f ǫlkunnigr). The preparatory phase leads to a threat against is an outsider that violates the social rules the æsir collective (threat/need): α β η θ = (also in the cases where a god has some A/a responsibility for the situation, such as in the case of Óðinn challenging Hrungnir (6d) or In the gods’ journeys of skaldic and eddic Loki luring Íðunn outside to Þjazi (6e)). In the poetry, there is a little more variation, but the three narratives where the violation occurs same structure is identifiable: inside Ásgarðr (6a, 7a, 7c), there are two (7) The preparatory phase of gods’ journeys in instances where Loki is the villain (6a, 7c), eddic and skaldic poetry. and one instance where Freyr violates what must be construed as an interdiction not to sit a. Skm: Freyr sits on Hlíðskjalfr (violating an implicit interdiction) and sees Gerðr. The on Hliðskjálfr, causing him to be lovesick preparatory phase leads to Freyr’s need to (7a). When the violation occurs inside have Gerðr (need): α γ δ = a Ásgarðr, the subject of it relates to internal b. Hym: Þórr demands of Ægir that he holds a affairs, such as Loki’s disloyalty or Freyr’s feast for the æsir, but the ǫtunn attempts emotions.11 When the violation occurs to cheat him, saying that he has no kettle outside, it is because of hostile creatures (thereby leading Þórr to Hymir in an attempting to deceive, kill or take possession attempt to have him killed). The of the æsir. preparatory phase leads to the need for the kettle (need): α β (ε) η = A The Complication c. Þd: Loki tricks Þórr to go search for The preparatory part leads to the Geirrøðr and Þórr accepts this. The preparatory phase leads to a threat against complication, which works in the journey Þórr and a need to kill Geirrøðr narratives much as in Propp’s folktales. This (threat/need): η θ = A/a phase is initiated by the act of villainy which d. Hl: Þjazi seeks out the æsir, finds them, is the result of the preparatory phase. It abducts Loki and coerces him to bring him consists of the functions A/a B C ↑ (Propp Íðunn. The preparatory phase leads to 1968: 31–39). It is by means of ‘A’/’a’ that ðunn’s abduction (abduction/loss): α ε ζ η the movement of the journeying god (seeker) θ = A/a is launched (Propp 1968: 30) and the

In the cases of Þrk and Bdr the preparatory following functions ‘B’ ‘C’ and ‘↑’ are phase is not as such present in the narrative. reactions to ‘A’, where the collective seeks to Both begin in medias res and in the case of remedy that act that constitutes ‘A’ (murder, Þrk it is clear that the preparatory phase is loss, abduction, need, threat to the collective, presupposed (Þrymr, the villain, has already threat to a representative of the collective). stolen Þórr’s hammer when Þórr wakes up, The complication results in the transfer of the and it is at this point the poem begins). In seeker to the otherworld. There is an aspect of Bdr, it is not possible to analyze the these mythological fictions that is not preparatory phase in the same way, as the recorded by Propp in relation to his folktales; events leading to ‘a’ (lack) are not caused by before departure, the journeying god is quite an individual, but by ominous dreams. often equipped with some special means for The preparatory phase is a situation of the journey (designated by me as ‘P’): violation: where one or more social rules are (8) The god is equipped for the journey (‘P’).12 violated by a transgressor – i.e. someone who crosses the line from a socially acceptable a. DB: Hermóðr is given Sleipnir. b. ÞÍ: Loki dresses as a falcon. state to a state of crisis. The transgressor can c. MP: Óðinn is disguised as Bǫlverkr. be from outside of Ásgarðr, but in a few 203

d. ÞH: The duel is prepared and the giant confrontation between Þórr and Mokkurkálfi is created (this is an inversion). Hrungnir.14 e. Skm: Skírnir receives the sword and horse. f. ÞJG: Gríðr acts as a benevolent donor to f. Þrk: Loki is dressed in Freyja’s feathers. Þórr; Geirrøðr’s daughters act as g. Bdr: Óðinn prepares Sleipnir. malevolent ‘donors’ attempting to kill Þórr h. ÞM: Þórr disguises himself as a youth. (this corresponds to the functions D8/9 and E8/9 in Propp’s schema [1968: 42–43]). The Donor Situation Geirrøðr’s daughters involuntarily lead On his way to the primary destination in the Þórr to Geirrøðr. otherworld, the journeying god encounters a g. ÆJH: Loki acquires the gold from Andvari donor figure that in some way facilitates his in order to pay wergild to Hreiðmar. h. Skm: Skírnir’s encounter with the shepherd further movement. An inhabitant of the fills the donor’s interrogative function otherworld tests, interrogates, attacks or in (Propp 1968: 40). another ways interacts with the journeying i. Hym: Týr’s mother hides Þórr and Týr. god, if for not other reason than simply to j. Þrk: Loki’s question to Þrymr. Here Þrymr signify the entry into this new world. This plays the part of the donor although he is action is the sequence ‘D’ ‘E’ ‘F’. In terms of also the primary inhabitant of the the narratives, it can be classified as a donor otherworld. This is similar to the case of situation, where the encounter between the Útgarðaloki who disguises himself as seeker and the donor has the sole function of Skrýmir. leading the narrative on to the confrontation k. Bdr: Óðinn is met by the Hel-hound. with the primary inhabitant of the otherworld: l. Þd: Þórr is saved from Gjálp and Vímur by Þjálfi, and they vanquish the ǫtnar before (9) Donor situations in gods’ journey narratives. confronting Geirrøðr.

a. ÞJÚ: There are two types of donors: the The donor situation and the confrontation peasant’s family and Skrýmir. The occur in all these narratives except in both peasant’s family provides Þórr with Þjálfi, versions of Þjazi’s Abduction of ðunn (Þ who is of use in Útgarðr, and the test is and Hl), where the narratives advance directly Þórr having to master his temper when he from the complication to the confrontation. It learns that Þjálfi has broken the goat’s leg. is important to note that the donor can have When they have crossed the sea, Þórr is faced with another – quite comical – test in many different roles and that the situation can the donor Skrýmir. Skrymir also tests have many different outcomes (Propp 1968: Þórr’s temper, but here Þórr responds with 43). It may also be noted that this testing violence,13 and Skrýmir’s role is to direct function occurs repeatedly in several the æsir to Útgarðr. This function of narratives and that spatial transference/ directing the journeying god is found quite guidance (function G) may occur multiple often. times in this sequence.15 b. ÞM: Hymir’s testing of Þórr has the In the complication, advice is often sought function of bringing Þórr to the among the æsir, indicating strong synergy in confrontation with Miðgarðsormr, but at the familiar group. The journeying god is the same time also to provide him with chosen among its members (never from an utilities for the confrontation (the ox-head). c. DB: Móðguðr directs Hermóðr on his way, outsider group) and he is equipped with some when he has told her his name and family. special means for the journey (in eight cases d. MP: Bǫlverkr’s encounter with Baugi and out of twelve: see index (8) above). The his slaves fills the function of providing notion that the journeying god must be him with tools and access to Gunnlǫð. equipped with a means of transportation or a e. ÞH: Þjálfi’s persuading of Hrungnir to stand guise of some kind shows that the journey is on his shield can fill the donor function, not taken lightly. If there was no need for though not in a way that corresponds to equipment, the journey would be very local. Propp’s definition. It nevertheless has the (See also McKinnell 1994: 63–65). The same function as D E F because the equipping of the journeying god indicates a narrative element leads to the long distance, a complicated journey and/or

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that the journey requires special attention. Loki resolves (Þrymr’s questions about This presumably points to the notion that the ‘Freyja’) and eventually Þórr kills Þrymr. destination is in fact distant from home. l. Bdr: Óðinn confronts the dead ‘vǫlva’. The meeting with the donor signifies the m. Þd: Þórr kills Geirrøðr. n. Hl: Þjazi is killed by the æsir. journeying god’s entry into the otherworld and quite often includes a warning against The confrontation is often violent and life- danger, if not an expression of danger. threatening, but this is dependent on the Skrýmir warns the æsir against Útgardaloki theme of the narrative. There is no threat to and his men (9a); Hymir says Þórr is too the male protagonist’s life when he small to row out to sea (9b); Baugi tries to kill encounters a female inhabitant of the Bǫlverkr (9d); Geirrøðr’s daughters try to kill otherworld (the only case is in the donor Þórr (9f); the shepherd warns Skírnir (9h); situation in ÞJG (9f)). Both in Skm (10i) and Týr’s mother hides Þórr and Týr (9i); and the in MP (10e) the male associates of Gunnlǫð Hel-hound that Óðinn meets has an ominous and Gerðr are threats to the protagonist’s life, appearance (9k). Þórr’s behavior in ÞJÚ (9a) though the female themselves – including Hel is also an indicator of the inherently in DB (10c) and the vǫlva in Bdr (10l) – seem dangerous situation in travelling out of the rather hostile. As in the case of the donor familiar realm; Þórr is constantly aggressive situation, the functions of the confrontation and violent in Útgarðr and in the company of can be repeated, but what separates the two Skrýmir. This may be understood as a situations is that the confrontation comes after defensive strategy. the donor situation, when the journeying god has obtained helping items and/or has been The Confrontation guided to the location of the confrontation. The element of confrontation in each of these The narratives end with the return function tales corresponds to the series of functions in (‘↓’) and different kinds of resolutions are Propp’s (1968: 51–57) schema designated as involved. These vary greatly and relate only ‘H’ ‘J’ ‘I’ ‘Pr’ and ‘Rs’. This is where the to the logic of the individual narrative. The journeying god confronts the primary resolution (designated by me as ‘K’) in ÞJÚ is inhabitant of the otherworld – the being that Útgarðaloki’s explanation of his tricks (10a); the journeying god was looking for in the first in DB it is the punishment of Loki (10c); in place: ÞH Magni gets Gullfaxi and Óðinn comments

(10) Confrontations in gods’ journey narratives. (jealously) on this (10f); in Þd, the resolution could be identified as the skald’s (poet’s) a. ÞJÚ: Útgarðaloki confronts Þórr and his praise of Þórr’s might (10m), which might be party with a series of tests. considered a genre-dependent variation as the b. ÞM: Þórr and Miðgardsormr join in a trial poem is oriented to different priorities to of strength and combat. which communicating the narrative is c. DB: Hermóðr confronts Hel and is given an ultimatum. secondary. d. ÞÍ: Þjazi is killed in his pursuit of Loki. e. MP: Bǫlverkr trades sex for mead with From Structural Analysis to Information Gunnlǫð and Suttung is defeated in his about the World-Model pursuit of Óðinn. Propp’s functions are applied to these f. ÞH: Þórr kills Hrungnir. narratives as a tool for analyzing their g. ÞJG: Þórr kills Geirrøðr. structure and to understanding the exchange h. ÆJH: Óðinn, Hœnir and Loki pay wergild between the world of the æsir and the to Hreiðmar. otherworld as described in Table 1. Propp’s i. Skm: Skírnir confronts Gerðr. pattern can be used as a tool to distinguish j. Hym: Þórr has a series of trials with Hymir, action-defined sequences in the narratives gets the kettle, is pursued by Hymir and kills him.16 about gods’ journeys. Most of the narratives k. Þrk: Loki and Þórr are confronted with include all the sequences, but it is noteworthy Þrymr in a series of comical ‘trials’ that that ÞJÚ and ÞM do not include the preparatory and complication phase. They

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begin at the point of departure, where Þórr been argued that structuralism reproduces a sets off to go to Útgarðr or to confront binary opposition that reflects a Christian Miðgarðsormr.17 All the narratives include the rhetorical polarity between Heaven and Hell, part of confrontation with a primary and that this is mainly expressed in Snorra inhabitant of the otherworld, and this Edda. The above analyses show that a pattern indicates that this is the whole purpose of of protagonist-antagonist exchanges may be telling the narrative. When the journey generated from a specific type of narratives culminates with a visit to an otherworld throughout the different genres of inhabitant who is male, the confrontation Scandinavian mythology. This pattern is involves violence or a threat to the safety of indicative of a spatial structure within which the journeying god. If the otherworld the characters exercise these exchanges – a inhabitant is female, there is no primary threat world-model. This model consists of: to the gods’ life and safety from her, but there 1. A sanctum, an inviolable space belonging is from donors. There is no donor situation in to the Scandinavian gods which must be ÞÍ and Hl, which both relate the tale of Þjazi’s protected at all costs from outside advance Abduction of Íðunn. This is the only case upon it. where there is no donor, and it may be 2. An outfield where the inhabitants of the surmised that this sequence is a fairly constant inner sanctum are vulnerable to attack and element too. Both the donor situation and the plots against their safety. confrontation may repeat the pattern of 3. A ‘realm beyond’, or otherworld,19 to functions multiple times. Table 1 thus shows which the journeying representative must the following pattern for the majority of gods’ go in order to restore the imbalance that journeys in Snorra Edda, eddic and skaldic has been created by a violation or disturbance in the sanctum. poetry. These patterns are generated as the The functions of the dramatis personae in minimal functions of a certain type of tales in these tales reflect these aspects of the world- Scandinavian mythology. It has been raised as model of the mythology. The information a problem in the discussion of the method of about the world-model that this produces is constructing world-models that structuralism highly abstract. However, abstract yet produces binary oppositions, even in generally applicable information about the circumstances where there are none. It has world-model of the mythology provides a

Table 1. Overview of the sequence of functions in gods’ ourneys.18

Preparatory Compli- Donor situation Confrontation phase cation ÞJÚ: ↑ DEF G DEF DE-DE-DEF G HI-HI-HI-HI-HIK↓ ÞM: ↑ DEF G DE-DE G HI↓ DB: α β ε ζ η θ A/aBCP↑ DEG H↓IK ÞÍ: α β η θ A/aBCP↑ H↓IK MP: α β η θ A(/a) P↑ DEF-DEF-DE-DE G H↓IK ÞH: α β ε ζ η ABCP↑ DEF HIJ-HI-HI-K↓ ÞJG: α β ε ζ η θ A(BC)↑ DEF(P)-DE G DE G HIK↓ ÆJH: α β η θ A/aB(C)↑ DEF G HIK(↓) Skm: α γ δ aBCP↑ DE G HI-HI-HI-HI↓K Hym: α β (ε) η A/aBC↑ D(E)F HI-HI-HI G HI G HI-HI↓HIK Þrk: aB(C)P↑ DEF G DE-DEF G HI-HI-HIK(↓) Bdr: a(B)CP↑ DE G HIK(↓) Þd: η θ A/aB(C)↑ DEF G DE G HI-HI-HIK(↓) Hl: α ε ζ η θ A/aB(C)P↑ HIK(↓)

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contextualizing frame for approaching 2. The term ‘Scandinavian mythology’ is described individual sources and narratives within the here on the basis of the work by Snorri Sturluson called Edda, and of both skaldic and eddic poetry. mythology (cf. Bradley, this volume, and also Even though these are medieval Icelandic texts note 7 above). written in a West-Nordic language, the Danish (i.e. East Norse) chronicler Saxo Grammaticus uses this Conclusion mythology in his Gesta Danorum, and it will be Propp’s narratological tools have been treated as generally representative. As evidenced below, scholarship also traditionally makes use of specifically chosen because of their the ethnic term ‘Scandinavian’ rather than ‘Old applicability to this type of texts. The current Norse’ to refer to the mythology in relation to scholarly environment seems to reflect a world-model analysis. paradigmatic crisis (cf. Lewis-Peterson, this 3. It must be underlined that this discussion is under volume) that has been born from critique of development and should be seen as preliminary, as it is part of my PhD dissertation, scheduled for Lévi-Strauss (Geertz 1973) and a tendency in completition in August 2013. Old Norse scholarship to distrust the 4. See for instance Bugge 1880; Mogk 1923; Baetke usefulness of Snorra Edda because of its 1950; von See 1988; and most recently Lassen apparent Christian influence. It must be the 2011. point of developing methods not to do this 5. These are termed frásagnir and appear in Edda as longer narratives about the gods, almost invariably simply on basis of opposition to existing preceded by an identifying (formulaic) sentence tools, but to apply the most appropriate tool such as: “Hann hóf þar frásǫgn at [...]” for a given type of texts. Structuralism has its (Skáldskaparmál 1998: 1) [‘He told the story that advantages and certainly also some [...]’]; “Þat er upphaf þessa máls at [...]” disadvantages, but to indiscriminately reject it (Gylfaginning 2005: 37) [‘The beginning of this tale is [...]’]; or “Sjá saga er til þess at [...]” as a method altogether would be disastrous. In (Skáldskaparmál 1998: 4) [‘The story about this is the present case, I have applied the [...]’]. On the term ‘mythological fictions’, see structuralist approach of Propp to the gods’ Clunies Ross 1992: 204. It is obvious that there are journeys of Scandinavian mythology because more myths than the extended narratives extant, but these narratives have a structure that is suited as a distinguishable genre of narratives there are approximately thirteen frásagnir in Snorra Edda. to this type of analysis. This new application 6. For the sake of brevity Rm, Þsb, HS, OR, TJG and of the Proppian structuralist approach may be TJU will not be included in the following. applied to other systems as well in order to 7. Notably, ÞJÚ and ÞM seem to form a special case produce information about principle and among the mythological fictions in Snorra Edda, world-model structures, for example in and it is not entirely impossible that they are constructed to fit in the narrative frame of medieval sagas, epic traditions, and modern Gylfaginning for the purpose of insulting Þórr (see experience narratives (cf. Latvala & Laurén, Frog 2011: 18–23). These two narratives lack both this volume). This method has the potential to a preparatory phase and the complication (see be complementary to surveys of valuation below), and if they are indeed narrative associated with different types of movement constructions of the medieval period, they seem to contradict the notions of Clunies Ross & Martin and locations that can be revealed in large that the adapted Proppian pattern reveals medieval corpus-based studies of different traditions. redaction of myths, as they only make use of half the pattern. On the contrary, deviation from the Acknowledgements: I would like to express my traditional structural paradigm could be a symptom gratitude to Mr. Frog for his help, suggestions and of non-traditional adaptation of narrative material. comments in the process of writing this article. This 8. It must be stressed that this is a generalized article has advanced greatly both in form and content observation, and that some of the elements can and owing to our discussion. will occur in Snorra Edda, eddic and skaldic poetry. An example of this is, of course, the above- Notes mentioned ÞÍ, where a marriage occurs. 1. World-models may be understood as a physical 9. Another scholar who has used Propp in worldview attribute to worldview, which represents the studies is Juha Pentikäinen (1978: 273–294) on broader spectrum of cultural elements in ethnic Karelian folk-material. identity See also Osborne and Frog, this volume. 10. In this instance, the two narratives ÞJÚ and ÞM in On ethnic identity, see Glukhov & Glukhova, this Gylfaginning about Þórr have been left out because volume. of their different nature (see note 7 above).

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11. Þrk is a special case because, if it had a preparatory Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas phase, it could possibly take place inside Ásgarðr, Press. Pp. 84-258. where an outsider violates the inner sanctuary. Baumann, Richard & Charles L. Briggs. 1992. “Genre, 12. In TJG, TJU and Þsb, the ships are prepared for the Intertextuality and Social Power”. Journal of journey. This has special importance in TJG and Linguistic Anthropology 2 (2): 131–172. TJU because the preparation has a strong protective Brink, Stefan. 2004. “Mytologiska rum och function in the hostile environment to the north eskatologiska föreställningar i det vikingatida beyond the sunlight. The element may also be noted Norden”. In Ordning mot kaos. Ed. Anders Andrén. to appear in the version of this narrative in ÞJG, Lund: Nordic Academic Press. Pp. 291–316. where Þórr receives the staff and iron gloves from Bugge, Sophus. 1881. Studier over de nordiske gude- Griðr, although in this case it is function ‘F’ as a og heltesagns oprindelse. Christiania: Feilberg & result of the encounter with the donor: ‘D’ ‘E’ ‘F’ Landmark. (Propp 1968: 39–50). On a situation of equipping Clunies Ross, Margaret & B.K. Martin. 1986. the hero as an indicator of more than a light “Narrative Structures and Intertextuality in Snorra journey, see below. Edda”. In Structure and Meaning in Old Norse 13. On this difference in Þórr’s behavior, see Lindow Literature. Ed. John Lindow. Odense: Odense 2001. University Press. Pp. 56–72. 14. ÞH generally makes use of the same elements, but Clunies Ross, Margaret. 1994. Prolonged Echoes I. it distributes them a bit differently and their Odense: Odense University Press. causality does not always correspond to the other Clunies Ross, Margaret. 1992. “The Mythological narratives. This is because of its theme of a duel Fictions of Snorra Edda”. In Snorrastefna. Ed. that is caused by the ǫtunn’s invasion of Ásgarðr, Úlfar Bragason. Reykjavík: Stofnun Sigurðar and it could thus be understood as a special Nordals. Pp. 204–215. narrative that deals with the problem of invasion. Edda: Gylfaginning and Prologue. Ed. Anthony 15. In ÞH, as a special case, function ‘G’ also appears Faulkes. 2nd edn. London: University College in between the preparatory phase and the London, 2005. complication, as Óðinn and Hrungnir return to Edda: Skáldskaparmál. Ed. Anthony Faulkes. London: Ásgarðr. University College London, 1998. 16. The encounter with Miðgarðsormr is not included Frog. 2011. “Snorri Sturluson qua Fulcrum: here, because it is not the purpose of the journey. Perspectives on the Cultural Activity of Myth, The fishing trip for Miðgarðsormr in this narrative Mythological Poetry and Narrative in Medieval is one in the series of tests leading to the final Iceland”. Mirator 12: 1–28. confrontation with the giant Hymir. Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. 17. It could be argued that ÞJÚ appears to be the New York: Basic Books. preparatory phase and complication leading up to Gesta Danorum = Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Danorum the departure, donor situation and confrontation in Danmarkshistorien I. Ed. Karsten Friis-Jensen. ÞM, but the two narratives are separated in the text København: Det Danske Sprog- og by Gylfi’s comments and Hár’s answer. The causal Litteraturselskab & Gads Forlag, 2005. progression from ÞJÚ to ÞM is thus imposed from Gurevich, A. Ya. 1969. “Space and Time in the outside the internal narrative logic of ÞJÚ and ÞM Weltmodell of the Old Scandinavian Peoples”. by a narrating voice. This means that it cannot be Medieval Scandinavia 2: 43–53. assumed that they correspond to each other in the Hastrup, Kirsten. 1981. “Cosmology and Society in same way as the preparatory phase and Medieval Iceland: A Social Anthropological complication do to the donor situation and Perspective on World-View”. Ethnologia confrontation. Scandinavica 1981: 63–78. 18. Parentheses indicate that the function is Hastrup, Kirsten. 1985. Culture and History in presupposed from the narrative context. Medieval Iceland. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 19. This is not necessarily the same space as the Hastrup, Kirsten. 1990. Island of Anthropology. outfield. It seems that at least in the narratives about Odense: Odense University Press. Þjazi, there is a distinction between the eyðimǫrkr Lassen, Annette. 2011. Odin på kristent pergament. where the gods meet Þjazi and the realm that Þjazi København: Museum Tusculanums Forlag. rules. The notion of multiple versions of “outfield” Leslie, Helen F. 2009. “Border Crossings. Landscape and otherworld also seems present in some and the Other World in the Fornaldarsögur”. fornaldarsǫgur (Leslie 2009). Scripta Islandica 60: 119–136. Lindow, John. 2001. “Thor’s Visit to Útgarðaloki”. Works Cited Oral Tradition 15(1): 170–186. Baetke, Walter. 1950. Die Götterlehre der Snorra- Lord, Albert B. 2000 [1960]. The Singer of Tales. Ed. Edda. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. Stephen Mitchell & Gregory Nagy. Massachusetts: Bakhtin, Mikhail. 1981. “Forms of Time and the Harvard University Press. Chronotope in the Novel”. In The Dialogic Løkka, Nanna. 2010. Sted og landskap i norrøn Imagination. Four Essays by Mikhail Bakhtin. Ed. mytologi. Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo.

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Malpas, J.E. 1999. Place and Experience. Cambridge : and Cultic Place-Names. Ed. Tore Ahlbäck. Cambridge University Press. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International. Pp. McKinnell, John. 1994. Both One and Many. Roma: “Il 35–57. Calamo”. von See, Klaus. 1988. Mythos und Theologie im Meletinsky, E. 1973. “Scandinavian Mythology as a skandinavischen Hochmittelalter. Heidelberg: Carl System I”. Journal of Symbolic Anthropology 1(1): Winter Universitätsverlag. 43–57. Schjødt, Jens Peter. 2008. Initiation between Two Mogk, Eugen. 1923. Novellistische Darstellung Worlds. Odense: Odense University Press. mythologischer Stoffe Snorris und seiner Schule. FF Steinsland, Gro. 2005. “The Late Iron Age Worldview Communications 51. Helsinki: Suomalainen and the Concept of ‘Utmark’”. In ‘Utmark’. Ed. Tiedeakatemia. Ingunn Holm. Bergen: University of Bergen. Pp. Pentikäinen, Juha. 1978. Oral Repertoire and World 137–146. View. FF Communications 219. Helsinki: Wagner, Roy. 2001. “Condensed Mapping: Myth and Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia. the Folding of Space / Space and the Folding of Propp, Vladimir. 1968. Morphology of the Folktale. 2nd Myth”. In Emplaced Myth: Space, Narrative, and edn. Austin: University of Texas Press. Knowledge in Aboriginal Australia and Papua New Schjødt, Jens Peter. 1990. “Horisontale und vertikale Guinea. Ed. Alan Rumsey. Honolulu: University of Achsen in der vorchristlichen skandinavischen Hawai’i Press. Pp. 71–78. Kosmologie”. In Old Norse and Finnish Religions

A System of Techniques and Stratagems for Outlining a Traditional Ethnic Identity Vladimir Glukhov† and Natalia Glukhova, Mari State University

This paper presents the description of a hierarchical enumeration of symbols system of techniques and stratagems applied embodying emotions and feelings to Mari folklore texts of different genres with  describe ethnic values and to elucidate the the aim of outlining a traditional Mari ethnic systemic ties among them, as knowledge of identity. ethnic values is of primary importance for The authors have analyzed the concept of the prevention of interethnic tension and conflicts ethnic identity, which has the status of an analytical term and is often defined as one’s The complex analysis of an ethnic semiotic sense of belonging to an ethnic group and system, embracing images, symbols and one’s identification with this group, as well as values, deduced with the help of complex the part of one’s thinking and feeling, systemic analysis of folklore texts, can reveal sensation and intuition, volition and will the character of the correlation between (Jung 2003: 511–515). Ethnic identity in this sensory/emotional and abstract types of ethnic paper is viewed as the authenticity of an reality evaluation, leading to a better ethnic culture to itself, considering culture as understanding of ethnic mentality and making a triad system of images, symbols and values possible a further prediction of the behavior that reflect a nation’s type of thinking and of a typical representative of the culture feeling. (Glukhov & Gluhkova 2007). The combination of techniques shown here could be of help to researchers of other Algorithm of Research and Selection of cultures as this methodology makes it Material possible to: One difficulty in ethnic identity reconstruction lies in the absence of a  investigate the character and evolution of standard by which one can assess and ethnic psychological time and space perception, which brings into existence a interpret ethnicity (cf. Phinney 1992). The subsystem of images authors offer an approach that allows a  reveal the metaphorical character of solution to this problem. As a standard for the numerals and colors as well as the analysis, the work proposes to use a rank (a representations of flora and fauna, typical of place in a scale) of images, symbols and the ethnic landscape, thus leading to a values in a histogram depicting probability 209

distributions of their mention in the genres psychological time perception in lyric songs analyzed. For any two probability histograms, as well as in proverbs and sayings. Time a correlation coefficient, quantitatively perception is analyzed with the help of five showing coincidence of different nations’ factors to which the authors refer: images, symbols and values (or in our case- 1. Discreteness different sub-ethnoses), can be calculated. 2. Intensity The algorithm of the research includes the 3. Emotional attitude following steps: 4. Cyclic recurrence 5. The possibility of prediction 1. The process of reading texts with the aim of discerning images, symbols or values By convention, discreteness is marked by ‘–’. (referred to with the unifying term ‘factor’) In the analyzed songs, discreteness is after applying methods of semantic expressed by the following lexeme investigation (componential and contextual combinations: ‘end of love’, ‘everything is in types of text and lexeme analysis). 2. The compilation of the list of factors. the past’, ‘did not have enough time’, ‘haven’t 3. The distribution of the texts according to managed to do’, ‘will not happen’. In the factors. contrast, continuity as antithesis of 4. The estimation of factor incidence and a discreteness is shown by such phrases as calculation of the probability of factor ‘whole life’, ‘always’, ‘without end’, ‘will usage (the preparation of tables). be/come/happen’ and is marked by ‘+’. 5. The ranking of factors in descending order Intensity is expressed by such words and of probability (the preparation of phrases as ‘much to do’, ‘quickly’, ‘cares’, probability distribution histograms). ‘one must do it’, ‘one has to do it’, and is 6. The singling out of dominant, marked as ‘+’. Absence of intensity is shown complementary, auxiliary and insignificant by the following word-combinations ‘to wait factors by a dichotomous method, applying the principle of simple majority employed for fate (what will happen)’, ‘no haste’, in mathematical statistics. ‘slowly’, and is marked by ‘–’. Positive emotional attitude (‘+’) is The described algorithm has been applied to revealed through such words and phrases as Mari songs (2,118 texts), proverbs and ‘joy’, ‘marriage’, ‘love’, ‘happiness’, sayings (7,590), myths and legends (177 ‘beauty’, ‘a new life’. Negative emotions (‘–’) texts) and Mari proper names (9,348). is revealed through fear of death, ‘everything One of the outcomes of the mathematical passes away’, ‘youth has gone’, ‘being sorry’, statistical method is deriving the histogram ‘regret’, ‘finiteness of youth’. depicting probability distributions of the Cyclic recurrence, when referring to factors mentioned in the genres analyzed. The periods longer than a year, is marked ‘+’; reliability of the results obtained is assured by when the mentioned periods is shorter than a highly illustrative, plausible evidence that year, it is marked ‘–’. embodys opinions on all phenomena of the Forecasting, or the possibility of nations’ life and that captures peoples’ prediction, when representing a possibility, is interests, culled from thousands of folkloristic marked with the positive mark (‘+’). When texts representing material as filtered through representing impossibility expressed by the the Mari nations’ memory over hundreds of words and phrases: ‘impossible’, ‘if’, ‘would years. As a starting point, the authors posit an like to’, ‘have thought as’ etc., this is shown almost self-evident idea: namely, that the by the negative mark ‘–’. more important a factor is for a Mari ethnos, The procedure of discerning factors is the more often it will be mentioned in its illustrated below with the song Pervi cäšän texts, or that the whole meaning of the text šačdelna [‘We Were Not Born Happy’] as an will be devoted to this certain factor. example. Songs of each subethnos have been analysed similarly, then the averaged Identifying Mari Images of Time meanings of each factor have been deduced. A revealed subsystem of images in Mari The outcomes are tabulated in Table 1. culture has been based on the analysis of 210

Table 1. Time perception factors probability distribution in Mari songs (three subethnoses) № Number of Probability Number of Probability Total Total Time perception mentions of usage mentions of usage number probability factor with with with with positive positive negative negative connotation connotation connotation connotation + + − − 1 Emotional 205 0,27 32 0,04 237 0,31 evaluation/attitude 2 Possibility of 121 0,16 87 0,115 208 0,28 prediction 3 Discreteness 21 0,028 157 0,208 178 0,238 4 Intensity 59 0,078 58 0,077 117 0,16 5 (Cyclic) recurrence 1 0,001 13 0,017 14 0,021

Перви цäшäн шачделна The psychological time perception factors Кого шӹргӹ покшалнет are then shown graphically in the forms of Олма садет ак пелед. differential and summarizing diagrams i Перви äшäн шачделна, presented by Figures 1 and 2. Ӹнде äшäн ана ли. Кӱшнӹ-кӱшнӹ, кырык вӹлнет, улнан оксам погышым. улнан оксан пе äт уке – Мäлäннä курым äш уке.ii Йӹрäн вӹлнӹ ӱдӹшӹм, Кого макым ӱдӹшӹм, Шошым шоэшiii – пеледеш,iii Шӹжӹ шоэшiii – вилеш.iii Ӹшке äти-äви гӹ Айырлен кеäш веремä шон.iv Ӹшке äти-äви сага Курым ӹлäш ӹш ли.

We Were Not Born Happy Figure 1. Averaged differential diagram of time perception factors probability distribution in Mari In the middle of a big forest songs. The apple tree garden does not bloom. If we were born unhappy, We would never be happy.i High up on the hill top I gathered tin coins. There is no stamp on the coins – We are not happy during the whole life- time.ii On the garden-beds, I sowed the double poppy. iii iii Spring will come – it will blossom, Autumn will comeiii – it will fall away.iii Figure 2. Averaged summarizing diagram of time To go away from father and mother perception factors probability distribution in Mari The time has come.iv songs.

To live near father and mother The diagrams clearly demonstrate that out of For ever1 is not predestined. the five factors in the analyzed Mari songs, Within this poem, (i) indicates a prognosis time is mainly perceived emotionally. Cyclic with the possibility of prediction [‘+’]. The recurrence is felt least of all. absence of discreteness [‘+’] is indicated with Analogous algorithm has been applied to (ii). Cyclic recurrence [‘–’] is denoted by (iii). the analysis of proverbs and sayings. Discreteness itself [‘–’] is depicted by (iv). Diagrams illustrate that together with

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Table 2. Results of the analysis of space types mention number in Mari old songs. № Space type Number of Probability № Space type Number of Probability mentions/ mentions/ frequency frequency 1 Meadow, field 52 0,133 14 Sky, clouds 10 0,026 2 Forest 44 0,113 15 City 7 0,018 3 River 43 0,110 16 Tree top 5 0,013 4 Native village 28 0,072 17 Outhouses 5 0,013 5 Native home 27 0,069 18 Ravine 5 0,013 6 Hill 24 0,062 19 Swamp 4 0,01 7 Home farmstead 23 0,059 20 Native land 4 0,01 8 Garden/orchard 21 0,054 21 Market, shop 3 0,008 9 Another’s village 18 0,046 22 Fair 3 0,008 10 Road 16 0,04 23 Mill, 2 0,005 11 Spring, stream 15 0,038 24 Barracks 2 0,005 12 Remote place 14 0,036 25 Larder/store-room 1 0,003 13 The Earth, world 13 0,033 26 Sauna 1 0,003 emotional evaluation, proverbs and sayings frequency, in old songs are shown graphically stress the intensity of time that is appraised in the form of a diagram (Figure 3). The same negatively, reflecting people’s attitude technique has been applied to Mari modern towards the brevity of life more vividly. songs (Glukhov & Glukhova 2007: 70–76) as well as to proverbs and sayings (Glukhov & Revealing Mari Images of Space Glukhova 2007: 53–62). The conclusions The results of the psychological space have also been presented as tables and perception in songs and proverbs have shown diagrams. that images of space are mainly based on the landscape surrounding Mari villages. One of Determining and Interpreting Mari Symbols the most important parameters in The subsystem of typical images deduced psychological space perception is its volume. mainly from folksongs and proverbs shows The authors pioneer the use of several close ties with the system of symbols. A parameters in combination to characterize the symbol differs from an image by a greater volume of the perceived space. The degree of generalization and typicality. Their parameters used for its analysis are: meanings are understood in texts. The analysis of the subsystem of symbols has been 1. Topography (description of surface shape and other features) carried out on the material of Mari proper 2. Type of space (an area / location, place) names and lyric songs and it has shown that in 3. Space attainability Mari ethnic culture, emotions and feelings are 4. Explored possibilities of space expressed with the help of five leading groups 5. Space value of symbols. Statistical analysis, together with 6. Arrangement of the physical qualities of a dichotomous method, reveals the most space widespread names of plants, numerals, colors,

The complex combination of volume birds and animals, organized into groups of parameters leads to the creation of different dominant, auxiliary and additional symbols, space types. The space types used in Mari significant for the Mari. The data on each proverbs and songs, expressed by lexemes in group have been shown in tables and then their direct meaning, vary from 16 to 32, with presented in the form of histograms of the dominant group from three (in proverbs) probabilities of plants, numerals, colors, to six (in songs), which create ethnic images animals and birds mentioned by number in of space. Mari songs (Glukhov & Glukhova 2007: 77– The outcomes of the psychological space 98). perception, especially types of space

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Figure 3. Differential diagram of space types mention number in Mari old songs.

The analysis and interpretation of Mari Different ethnos’s values are not the same, ethnic names (9,348) has revealed their and this fact may lead to misunderstandings specific semantic and pragmatic properties. when peoples come into contact. Therefore Investigation into the semantic nature of the awareness of and acquaintance with value names brought to light the subsystems of systems is a high priority for intercultural (nine dominant) ethnic symbols and (five communication. It is axiomatic that there are dominant) values which have also been common moral standards, principles and summarized in tables and histograms. The norms, but the importance, diversity and characteristic features of the form of Mari systemic ties among them are different. proper names – their average length (between The term “value” is understood in different four and ten letters\sounds) and distinct sound ways. Dictionaries define it both in terms of: pattern (the most spread initial sounds are  abstract concepts of worth, principle Ə [j][k][t][a][p][o][ ], and the typical final standards or qualities considered worthwhile sounds are [j][k][a][p][s]) have also been or desirable, and discovered. A summary of the meanings of all  material objects (e.g. an apartment, a car, a of these reveals that Mari proper personal precious ring or painting etc.). In a word – names were created in a patriarchal society in what we think is good or is significant to us a tribal system during the Iron Age, under the strong influence of neighboring tribes in a The values expressed in Mari proverbs and forest zone (Glukhov & Glukhova 2007: 99– sayings refer mainly to a sphere of notions, 117). Thus in comparison with folklore genres standards and qualities, but not to the material that have been analyzed, Mari names contain realm of life. symbolically elements of several Study of the values of individuals and ethnocultural substrata, showing the transition social groups, not to mention of a whole to agrarian settlements as well as the society, is difficult. The fundamental problem appearance of new technologies in the Iron is to find proper indicators of a given value. Age (Frog 2011: 25–26). Proverbs and sayings in Mari culture are used in their direct and figurative meanings, Describing Mari Values therefore semantic analysis of these texts is The Mari value subsystem is the next complemented by factor analysis, a statistical component of the Mari ethnic cultural triad. data method used to reduce the number of variables (values in our case) and to see their

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interrelation. The essence of the applied separately. The number ‘eight’ does not technique lies in the distribution of proverbs appear random: operational memory has an and sayings into groups by the type of values average volume, ranging from five to nine (factors) expressed in them and in further units (Dushkov 2002: 444), and the number of calculation of the value mention in each values revealed appears in that range. These group. Number of values will be different and eight groups, depicted in Figure 4, are: family dependent on their significance to the nation. (21%), ethics (20%), labour (14.4 %), The more important the value is the more knowledge (13%), food (12.3), speech (9%), often it is mentioned in the texts. This allows wealth (7.2), and health (2.9%). We took into the operation of ranking values in order of account the figurative meaning of the their priority which: proverbs and sayings as well as the generalized direct meaning of the chosen  shows a system of priorities mini-texts. It can be shown in the following  differentiates values by their importance examples: family (Парня шуко гынат,  predicts the choice of values in concrete situations иктыжымат руал шуымо ок шу [‘Fingers are many, but you will not cut any’]); respect One more reason for such method choice (and for parents (Авалан кеч копавундашешет therefore the further taxonomy of factors) lies мунопулашкам шолто, садак парымыште in the fact that each value represents a certain лият [‘Even if you make an omelette on your goal to be achieved. Owing to a limited own palm still you will be in debt to your number of human resources (time, space, mother’]). energy, etc.), one has to inevitably choose among the values. Therefore it is suggested that all mentioned values should be divided into four groups:

I. Main/dominant values II. Auxiliary values III. Additional values IV. Insignificant values

The classification follows the consecutive dichotomy technique based on the choice by simple majority. First, we calculated the percentage content of each value in the total sum of priorities. Then we added up all the figures together, beginning with the largest until the total exceeded 50%. The biggest group was called ‘main’, ‘dominant’. For the rest of the values Figure 4. Differential factor diagram of Mari ethnic values. (factors), the same procedure described above was carried out twice. Thus, the auxiliary, Analyzing these data, we draw the conclusion additional and insignificant groups – eight that the dominant values for the Mari are: 1 values all in all – are revealed. family, ethics, labor. The group of auxiliary According to a universal dialectic principle values is made up of two – knowledge and of complementarity, each value might food. Additional values embrace such factors manifest itself in two ways: positively and as speech and wealth. And of secondary negatively. This division is justified by the importance, the least vital is health. Family, thought that any attitude might be expressed ethics, knowledge and food are mainly either as a laudation of some virtue or as a positively assessed. Speech and wealth are disapproval of its antipode. Therefore one evaluated more negatively than positively. might get additional information on values Thus, diagram analysis shows that in Mari considering negative or positive mention proverbs and sayings, we can find a high

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‘An empty head is like a lamp without light’]); violence, aggression (Кредалше агытан вуйжым йомдара [‘A fighting rooster loses its head’]); greed (Поянын намысыжын пундашыже уке [‘A rich man’s greed is bottomless’]; ingratitude (Пуры – пу вуйышты, тау – Тамарай вуйышты

[‘Kindness is on the tree top and Figure 5. The Mari ethnic values represented in proverbs and sayings. gratitude is near the village of Tamaraikino’ (a non-existent evaluation of the family, ethics and work and place)]); cowardice (Меранг коваште дене absence of striving for wealth and money. The кÿрыкым ургыктет гын, пий опталтыме еда difficult life conditions of the Mari кушкедалтеш [‘A coat made of hare skins determined labor as the main value and, more tears off every time a dog barks’]); heavy negative in comparison with it, is the drinking (Арака кленчашке ончалат гын, evaluation of speech. It is interesting to note коеш: кÿшнö – пире, кыдалне – маска, that the factor food occupies the low, fifth йымалне – сöсна [‘If you look into the vodka place, and health is valued least of all. bottle, you will see a wolf at the top, a bear in In addition to its elements/factors, any the middle, and a swine at the bottom’]); theft system is characterized by the type and (Икте шолыштеш, нылле иктылан йолаже number of ties among these. Proverbs and лиеш [‘One steals – forty are suspected’]); sayings represent a reliable data set for envy (Енгын ватыже, марийже эре мотор establishing these ties, as nearly all of them [‘The husbands and wives of others are contain a judgment on causal, equivalent or always beautiful’]). Once calculated, the data complementary relations. Relying on this on the Mari ethical system are tabulated and assumption, we may show the links within the constitute the basis for drawing a histogram of system graphically , depicting them as lines probabilities. and arrows (Figure 5). It would appear Semantic investigation of 9,348 Mari reasonable that main systemic elements proper names has shown that they contain an (factors) should be arranged in the center of a inventory of 21 values, enumerated in the diagram and be shown by ‘bold’ lines table and graphically presented by connected with arrows. Arrow directions histograms. The main group includes five of mainly show a cause and effect relationship; them (Glukhov & Glukhova 2007: 137–144). ties depicted by two opposite arrows show interaction of a relationship of equivalence or Conclusion: A Systemic Character of Mari interdependence. Identity The authors hold that their research of Mari Specifying Mari Ethical Values ethnic culture in its folklore genres has shown The Mari ethnic ethical system is also the main aspects of Mari collective analyzed. The authors show the vices and consciousness. Three leading subsystems – a moral flaws disapproved of by the Mari in subsystem of images, a subsystem of symbols their proverbs and sayings. Mari proverbs and and a subsystem of values – show the sayings criticize such ethical vices as: laziness character of a nation’s thinking and feeling, (Йолагай почеш мардеж омсам петыра demonstrating a harmonious correlation [‘Wind closes the doors after the lazy’]); lies among sensory-pictorial, pictorial and rational (Ик гана шойыштат, колымешкет шояче types of reality evaluation. Psychological time лият [‘Lie only once and you will be labeled perception is harmonious and emotional. Out a liar for the rest of the life’]); stupidity of the five factors singled out in this study, (Ушдымо вуй тулдымо понар гай [‘A head only cyclic recurrence is not well represented. without brains is like a lamp without light’ or Ethnic time images are associated with the

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blooming of flowers, trees and plants and their withering. Acknowledgements: I would like to express my sincere The evolution of ethnic space perception gratitude to Frog for his generous and valuable comments and suggestions which helped to explain shows the change of three leading images of several ideas and restructure an earlier version of the native land – starting with a narrow forest article. My special thanks are also due to Ms. Helen F. path (leading to a distant place where life is Leslie for proofreading and editing my English text, much better than in a native place), through thus helping to make the style clear and lucid. the image of meadows and fields (surrounding a native village), and finishing Notes with a village street with one’s own house, 1. The analysis of folklore collections shows that proverbs and sayings, for example, can express garden and orchard. appreciation of ‘beauty’, ‘freedom’, ‘friendship’, The analysis and interpretation of the ‘power’, warn against ‘fate’, show ‘cause and symbolic meanings of plants, numerals, effect’ relations as well as ‘different character colors, birds, and animals reveal the unique features’, describe ‘natural calamities’, give ethnic system of symbols reflecting an ‘different advice’, etc. They are not numerous. In addition, many small thematic groups, embracing emotional evaluation of life phenomena. As ethnic values, such as ‘diligent people’ and ‘lazy the Mari culture is characterized by animistic people and laziness’, or ‘children and parents’, beliefs and the worship of trees and forests, ‘family relationships’, ‘love and marriage’ can be the investigated genres lack images and united into larger and more general categories, thus symbols typical of monotheistic religions. constituting eight chosen groups. The essential idea expressed in the system of leading Mari symbols, especially in names, Works Cited Dushkov, Boris A., Anton V. Korolyov, Boris A. comes down to the reproduction of the clan in Smirnov. 2002. Osnovy ingenernoi psikhologii. a nuclear, monogamous family within a large Moskva: Akademicheskii proyekt, Yekaterinburg: extended family. Delovaya kniga. The Mari ethnic system of values embraces Frog. 2011. “Ethnocultural Substratum: Its Potential as a wide range of priorities; of which eight are a Tool for Lateral Approaches to Tradition History”. RMN Newsletter 3: 23–37. highlighted as the most important. The list of Glukhov, Vladimir, & Glukhova, Natalia. 2007. these priorities may seem trivial, but they Sistemnaia rekonstruktsiia mariiskoi etnicheskoi show a wise economy of resources for clan identichnosti. Yoshkar-Ola: String. survival under severe climatic circumstances, Jung, Carl Gustav. 2003. Psikhologicheskiyie tipy. Ed. limiting the consumption of resources, as well Perevod S. Loris. Minsk: OOO “Harvest”. Pesni gornykh mari. 2005. Pesni gornykh mari: Svod as complicated interpersonal relationships mariiskogo folklora. Yoshkar-Ola: Marisskii within a large extended family. nauchno-issledovatelskii institut yazyka i literatury The reconstructed and analyzed imeni V.M. Vasiliyeva. subsystems of images, symbols and values Phinney, Jean S. 1992. “The Multigroup Ethnic constituting Mari ethnic identity have no Identity Measure: A New Scale for Use with Adolescents and Young Adults from Diverse counterparts in the described cultures of the Groups”. Journal of Adolescent Research: 156– world, and being authentic and unique, they 176. organize the complete and exclusive triad- system of Mari culture.

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COMMENTS AND COMMUNICATIONS

Conferences and Seminars

Conference Report: Old Norse Folklorist Network Meeting 1st–3rd December 2011, Tartu, Estonia Triin Laidoner, University of Aberdeen

As the Fairy-tale stands related to legend, so Eldar Heide, on whose initiative the does legend to history, and (we may add) so Retrospective Methods Network was founded does history to real life. [...] The ancient in 2009 with the purpose of developing mythus, however, combines to some extent retrospective studies in a wider sense. As the qualities of fairy-tale and legend; emphasised by the Professor of Scandinavian untrammelled in its flight, it can yet settle Studies in Tartu, Daniel Sävborg, the Old down in a local home. (Grimm 1885: xv.) Norse Folklorist Network aims to The legendary German scholar Jacob Grimm complement its predecessor and discuss the (1785–1863) treated folk culture as living problems concerned with the use of late history. For him, folktales were remnants of sources, with special focus on the use of old myths long suppressed by Christianity but folklore. The first meeting of the Old Norse still surviving in rural areas, and therefore, Folklorist Network was intended mainly as an essential components for the study of Old opening event, with the purpose of provoking Norse religion and mythology. Our modern fresh ideas on research directions and understanding and interpretation of folklore methods, and allowing members to pick up nearly two hundred years after Grimm’s time ideas from each other. The programme of the is perhaps more cautious and limited in its first meeting thus consisted of four broad scope of use and generalisation. However, thematic areas: the otherworld in sagas and in folklore studies have a long history that has folklore, the question of continuity, learned continued to this day, and academic interest in tradition and folk tradition, and finally, folklore has widely increased in recent years. reconstruction. Prior to the meeting, That folklore is an essential part of cultural participants had been provided with the heritage, no one is likely to deny. This vision ‘manifesto’ of the Old Norse Folklorist was amply demonstrated by the first Old Network, as well as guiding questions and Norse Folklorist Network Meeting, held from examples from different sources, with the aim the 1st to the 3rd of December 2011 in Tartu, of offering a starting point and a clearer idea Estonia. The event, funded by the Swedish of the structure and purpose of the event. The Riksbankens Jubileumsfond and hosted by the symposium was certainly unconventional in Department of Scandinavian Studies at The its arrangement, consisting mainly of University of Tartu, certainly justified the two workshops. Four plenary papers were strands in the title, bringing together both Old nevertheless presented by different speakers, Norse scholars and folklorists from various designed to represent the four sections and to universities to discuss the future development raise questions for discussion. Group of Old Norse studies. workshops were scheduled after each talk. The idea for the foundation of the Old These allowed every participant – in a free Norse Folklorist Network grew out of the form – to address the proposed issues. New Focus on Retrospective Methods Following the workshops, each of the groups conference held on the 13th–14th December, presented a report of the discussion and 2010, in Bergen, Norway. The Bergen conference was initiated and organised by 217

perspectives provided by the various personal present to the other groups. After a short and theoretical viewpoints. break for re-caffination and back-stretching, A reception was held at the close of the the guests gathered again and one member of first day in Ülikooli Kohvik [‘The University each group conducted a feedback session in Coffee-Shop’] located next to the main which ideas, opinions, experiences, university building. An opening speech was conclusions, recommendations etc. that had given by the founders of the Network – been covered during the session were Daniel Sävborg and Karen Bek-Pedersen – highlighted for the rest of the participants. who introduced the background and purpose The presentations were followed by lunch at of the meeting and gave everyone a warm restaurant Volga. welcome. Along with a selection of drinks The afternoon saw another plenary paper and snacks, the Network members had the and a session of workshops. Stephen Mitchell chance to get acquainted and give each other a carried the group forward with his hearty welcome. The relaxed atmosphere of presentation on continuity between Old Norse the event permitted an informal exchange of sources and later folklore. Mitchell discussed thoughts and sparked enthusiasm in the guests the difference between literary and oral already on the first evening. “After all, a lot of tradition, the different authority and emphasis the best ideas are born during coffee breaks,” they have, and how oral cultures function. as Bek-Pedersen noted with amusement. Particularly interesting was Mitchell’s Indeed, owing to the helpful students of Tartu analysis of a 15th century Swedish court trial University, the workshops over the next two of two men accused of Church theft and of days were interspersed with coffee breaks and serving Óðinn. As Mitchell noted, this, and lunch provided for all. other later sources, demonstrate the continuity The meeting kicked off the next morning at of certain Odinic elements in Swedish popular the Department of Scandinavian Studies. The tradition where a figure with this name – first speaker was Aðalheiður Guðmundsóttir, despite the changed cultural scene – is often who presented her ideas on the first of the associated with wealth. Mitchell’s paper was four topics on the agenda – the otherworld. followed by another coffee break, group Aðalheiður discussed the concept of workshops and presentations of the topics otherworld in both folklore and the sagas, covered by each of the groups. Later the same with special emphasis on the fornaldarsǫgur. evening, a guided town walk in Tartu was She raised various important issues regarding arranged for those interested. the fantastic and supernatural in these sources The second day of the meeting started and how it could be approached. Can under grey, rainy skies, with a plenary fornaldarsǫgur be treated as folklore? As presentation to plenty of warm and friendly Aðalheiður maintained, the fornaldarsǫgur faces. The first speaker of the day was can contain elements typical to folktales, Thomas DuBois, who shared thoughts on however, they are structurally more complex learned and folk tradition, discussed the than folktales and are not necessarily subject objectivity of saga-writers and brought to to the same rules. Therefore they cannot be attention different aspects of their personal treated with exactly the same analytical history, attitudes and agendas. As DuBois methods, she concluded. noted, the main difficulty for us is to decide After a cup of coffee and light snack, it which elements are based on literate channels was time for discussion. The members of the and which on oral. How learned were the Network were divided into groups of five or Icelandic saga-writers? Do they belong six, consisting of people of various somewhere between folk and learned culture? nationalities and backgrounds and ranging In one way or another, we must credit saga- from professors to students, in order to help writers with taking an active part in oral generate ideas from different perspectives. tradition, DuBois concluded. Each group was allowed an hour and a half to The programme again continued with a discuss among themselves the research brief coffee break, workshops related to the strategies they would like to pursue and theme and presentations followed by lunch.

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At the request of several guests to meet other central theme: progress requires collaborative Network members, people were re-arranged effort across a number of disciplines. It is into new work groups. The fourth and final necessary to involve people from outside session – revolving around the idea of the disciplines to participate – particularly reconstruction of past traditions – was opened professional folklorists, – to enhance and by Karen Bek-Pedersen, whose lively and explore different research perspectives. The humorous comparison of her friend’s dead objective of the first meeting was to explore crab and its empty shell with our modern the importance of folklore in Old Norse attempt to reconstruct old traditions, made the studies, to facilitate an international faces in the audience break into smiles. An discussion and develop recommendations for empty shell is not a crab; yet a crab without future activities. The future workshops, as its shell is not a crab either, Bek-Pedersen was collectively agreed, should also focus on argued. The same applies to our Old Norse more particular case studies, instead of sources – the different elements that are abstract theories. The positive combined in these various pieces of evidence acknowledgements and energetic attitudes that have come down to us cannot exist ensured that our views will continue to evolve independently. But how do we go about and promote other similar meetings and studying the possible meanings of those conferences in the future. fragments? And more importantly, is it right The first Old Norse Folklorist Network to re-construct? Are we re-constructing or meeting was brought to a successful close by constructing? And what happens if we end up a final dinner at the restaurant Volga and final having more claws than a crab could have? words of thanks, after which it was, sadly, Although our reconstructed drafts and new time to say goodbye. The meeting must be methodologies are problematic and never reckoned a successful and thought-provoking offer final results, they are enlightening and event. Moreover, its unique setup, allowing a relevant, Bek-Pedersen conceded. The great sense of interaction for all of the event challenging questions proposed by her were participants, created a greater level of more than enough to engage people in lively freedom and a very positive atmosphere. One discussions for the next ninety minutes. can only hope that next time the weather The final workshops and presentations, in spirits will not forget to turn on their snow conjunction with coffee breaks, were then mills. rounded off by a final overall discussion of next steps, future prospects and the message Works Cited of the meeting. Although the themes of Grimm, Jacob. 1885. Teutonic Mythology III. Trans. discussion and presentations covered a very James Steven Stallybrass. London: Bell & Sons. broad range of issues, they underlined a

Conference Announcement: VAF III: Identity and Identification and the Viking Age in Finland (with Special Emphasis on the Åland Islands) 3rd–4th September 2012, Mariehamn, Åland Joonas Ahola, University of Helsinki, and Frog, University of Helsinki

The Viking Age in Finland (VAF) is a the project was 2011, organized around two collaborative interdisciplinary research seminars hosted by Folklore Studies project which undertakes to explore and (University of Helsinki), made possible assess the significance of the Viking Age (ca. thanks to support from the Finnish Cultural 800–1050) for cultural areas and linguistic- Foundation. The VAF seminars seek to cultural groups in regions east of Sweden to construct synthetic, cross-disciplinary Lake Onega, and North of the Gulf of Finland perspectives on the cultures and regions up to the White Sea, and to a lesser extent the within the scope of the project in relation to Barents Sea more generally. The pilot year of the relevance (and applicability) of the Viking 219

Age to them according to the perspectives of identity or identification and how such diverse disciplines. problems can be addressed

The theme of this seminar offers the possibility also to discuss interpretations and the utilization of the Viking Age in later historical periods, such as in new social and political structures where identity has been and is being discussed and constructed through reflections upon the past. Åland is a relevant and interesting venue and frame of reference for discussing these issues in general and especially with regard to the Viking Age in Finland. Åland formed and continues to form a border area between Scandinavia, to which the whole Viking Age is largely ascribed, and Finland. The The third VAF seminar “Identity and connections between Scandinavia and Finland identification and the Viking Age in Finland undoubtedly took place largely via Åland, and (with Special Emphasis on the Åland this could not happen without leaving a trace Islands)” will be held in cooperation with the of these connections. Nevertheless, the Viking Åland Museum. This seminar approaches the Age in Åland as reflected, for example in the issues of defining groups of people from archaeological record, remains unfamiliar in within and externally, and how identity and both Finland and Scandinavia, and the identification function within groups and the position of Åland in the history of Finland in relationships between them. The seminar particular has been controversial in many invites discussions relevant to approaching ways. The present seminar is intended to help the Viking Age around the following topics: open those discussions and raise awareness of  Group formation in the processes of the historical significance of Åland along with demonstrating difference from and similarity the important research carried out there. to a group in the interaction between people The intention is that speakers bring  The role of language groups and discussion and data from the disciplines they multilingualism in groups and group represent to specialists from OTHER formation disciplines in order to open discussion in  The role of other cultural practices or which we can investigate and negotiate items that appear as identity-markers or relationships between them. In many attributes by which groups are seminars, the central question of each differentiated participant in both presenting and listening to  The interplay between indigenous and adopted cultural phenomena in the papers is: ‘How is this useful to me?’ In this identification process seminar, it is our hope that participants will  Identification as active construction of one’s arrive with the questions: ‘How is what I do identity in these processes and identity as a useful to scholars from other disciplines? result of these processes, enabling identity How can I help to make the data, resources generally as a tool in research and insights from my field intellectually  Expressions of identity and cultural accessible to scholars from other fields? How phenomena that enhanced identity that are can I help scholars from other fields avoid observable in different materials that shed using data or resources from my field light upon the Viking Age – such as material inappropriately?’ culture, technologies, livelihoods, forms of Each speaker will have approximately one residence, ritual practices, narrative hour, of which 20 minutes should be traditions and language estimated for an opening presentation,  The problem of accurately (or followed by 40 minutes for discussion. This inaccurately) correlating data on strategy is intended to promote discussion and 220

allow time for explanations and dialogue Åland Museum. The event will be open to the among representatives of diverse disciplines. public. If you are interested in attending this The language of the seminar will be English. event or participating with a presentation, VAF III will be held in cooperation with please contact Joonas Ahola the Åland Museum 3rd–4th September 2012, ([email protected]) or Frog Mariehamn, Åland, on the premises of the ([email protected]) for more information.

Meeting of the Retrospective Methods Network’s Old Norse Scholars 9th August 2012, Aarhus, Denmark Helen F. Leslie, University of Bergen

The Retrospective Methods Network (RMN)  Emerging groups, events, activities and has become an important and fruitful meeting communications within the RMN: place for researchers across a variety of  The Austmarr Network disciplines. Dissemination of research,  The Old Norse Folklorist Network networking and the formation of new projects  Activities in Bergen are only some of the valuable outcomes of  A network focusing on Uralic Cultures this network. Accessibility and  RMN Newsletter communication is crucial for its ongoing  What has the RMN done; how useful has it success. Thanks to the internet, this is been? possible for all our colleagues across the  The next RMN meeting world. That said, there is still great  Organizing and coordinating research projects importance in the possibility of meeting and  Additional future plans discussing face to face and members of the RMN need to take advantage of this If you are not planning to attend the Saga possibility when opportunity arises. The 15th Conference but would like to raise any points International Saga Conference (5th–11th at the meeting, please contact Helen F. Leslie August 2012, Aarhus, Denmark) presents just at [email protected], who will happily such an opportunity for scholars of Old Norse present your opinions to those present. The studies through whom the RMN initially precise location of the meeting has not yet formed, and was planned at the first meeting been fixed. That information will be made of the RMN (13th–14th September 2010, available as soon as possible. If you would Bergen, Norway). like to insure that you receive this information The informal meeting will be held at the by e-mail, please contact Leslie at the address Saga Conference at Aarhus University listed above. following the conclusion of the day’s sessions A report on this meeting will be published on Thursday, August 9th, at 16:30. The in the December 2012 issue of RMN meeting will be open to any wishing to attend. Newsletter. We hope that in the near future, Of course, we are aware that members of the the RMN will be able to have meetings where RMN will not be able to attend, especially different cross-sections of our membership those without immediate interest in the are present. RMN Newsletter’s online venue conference. Nevertheless, this conference will continue to ensure that the network offers a potentially pleasant and fruitful remains as dynamic as possible, and the opportunity that could not be passed by. editors hope that members of the RMN, Some potential topics to be opened at the representing diverse fields and disciplines, meeting include: continue their exchange of ideas and to foster productive academic cooperation – both  The scope of the RMN with perspectives on online and face to face when the opportunity both active and passive members arises!

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PEOPLE

Research Reports

Shamans, Christians, and Things in Between: Riddles of Cultural Transition in Medieval Karelia Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at Conversions and Ideological Changes in Middle Ages in Comparative Perspective, organized by the Institute of History, University of Rzeszów, 29th September – 1st October 2011, Rzeszów, Poland.

Finnic cultures belong to the Finno-Ugric and This process was associated with a radical more broadly to the Uralic language families. discontinuity in conceptions of the soul and Finnic cultures can therefore be reasonably strategies for interaction with the unseen hypothesized to have carried a reflex of world. It involved reconceptualising mythic Northern Eurasian or ‘classic’ shamanism as figures and their relationships to one another. part of that linguistic-cultural heritage. By The rise of the institution of the tietäjä to the the 19th century, shamanism and some of its exclusion of the vernacular shaman can be most basic conceptual foundations were no approached as a conversion process affiliated longer maintained in North Finnic cultures. with a ‘new’ ideological system. The new Evidence of earlier shamanic ethnocultural ideological system appears connected with a substrata remains evident in linguistic and (potentially) ‘new’ technology of verbal folkloric evidence. By this late period, a magic. The paper will consider population different type of ritual specialist called a movements from western Finland eastward, tietäjä [‘one who knows, knower’] had and the role of the Christianization process as emerged under Germanic influence in an ideological system that interacted with particular. This paper will outline the both the institutions of the tietäjä and the evidence of a transition from the institution of ‘shaman’. the ‘shaman’ to the institution of the ‘tietäjä’ Any outline of the process of changing as a response to Germanic contact. Although ideologies in medieval Karelia is necessarily this process potentially began very early, speculative owing to the lateness of the comparative evidence suggests that it sources. Rather than ‘solid’ conclusions occurred after the introduction of iron- about this process, this paper seeks to offer an working technologies and most probably was overview of the problems and to construct a already established in southern coastal regions broad and flexible working model for of Finland before the Viking Age. This approaching an era of cultural history, which provides a foundation for discussing is as yet poorly understood. A version of this problematic questions concerning when and paper will appear in a collection of selected how this new institution spread through the proceedings from the conference edited by North Finnic linguistic-cultural areas. Rudolf Simek and Leszek Słupecki to appear The paper opens a discussion of the in the Studia Medievalia Septentrionalia problem of the spread of the tietäjä-institution series. and the parallel villainization of ‘shamanism’.

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Systemic Reconstruction of Mari Ethnic Identity Natalia Glukhova, Mari State University

Paper presented at the Fifth International Symposium on Finno-Ugric Languages: The Finno-Ugric Contribution to International Research on Folklore, Myth and Cultural Identity, organized by the Department of Finno-Ugric Languages and Cultures, University of Groningen, 7th–9th June 2011, Groningen, the Netherlands.

The authors examine the core psychological dichotomous method applying the principle of components of Mari ethnic identity simple majority and complemented by reconstructed from authentic folklore texts of methods of semantic investigation. The different genres. The outcomes of cognitive reliability of the results obtained has been psychological processes and emotional assured by highly illustrative, plausible reactions are kept in a nation’s memory in evidence filtered through the Mari nation’s different folklore genres. The research has memory over hundreds of years and spread shown that the innermost part of the nation’s out over vast territories and embodying past experience is organized into three leading opinions on all the phenomena of the nation’ subsystems: a subsystem of images, a life and showing people’ interests. These were subsystem of symbols and a subsystem of culled from Mari folklore genres such as values. They show the character of nation’s songs (2,118 texts), proverbs and sayings feeling and thinking. The authors also analyze (7,590), myths (177). The results of the Mari the nations’ perception of time and space, and proper names (9,348) analysis are also used in obtain new results. the research. The authors use graphical In order to reconstruct Mari ethnic identity, representations of the data obtained: tables, the research includes a methodological basis summarizing and differential diagrams, resting on systems theory, which, in turn, histograms of probabilities and cumulative involves decision-making theory as well as curves and matrices. factor and statistical analysis, with a

Travel and Holy Islands in Eireks saga víðförla and Eiríks saga rauða Mart Kuldkepp, University of Tartu

Paper presented at Supernatural Places: The 6th Nordic-Celtic-Baltic Folklore Symposium, organized by the Department of Estonian and Comparative Folklore and the Department of Scandinavian Studies, University of Tartu, 4th–7th June 2012,Tartu, Estonia.

Building on Eldar Heide’s (2011) idea that an motifs to enter the ‘realistic’ saga narrative. important aspect of the otherworldly and As movement in space is thus invested with “holy island” imagery in literature and symbolic meaning, crossing the sea becomes folklore is the motif of crossing water, I an allegory of baptism and the holy island examine two Old Icelandic texts that describe something equivalent to Paradise, while the journeys to half-mythical places lying beyond travelers Leifr and Eirekr themselves lose a the sea. Although the two sagas in question, degree of their ‘humanity’ during the journey Eireks saga víðförla and Eiríks saga rauða (in and become more saint-like. These traits, which I will focus on the story of Leifr although much stronger in Eireks saga Eriksson’s discovery of Vinland) are in many víðförla, are nevertheless detectable in the ways different in both form and content, I much more well-known Eiríks saga rauða argue that there is a commonality in how the and I think that a comparison between these idea of attaining Christian holiness is two might better illuminate this aspect of the connected to the undertaking of a journey to latter. faraway islands. Proceeding from that, I propose that one In both cases, it is the journey towards a way of conceptualizing holiness, or even ‘the liminal land at the world’s end – Vinland and supernatural’ in general in Old Norse sagas, is ‘The Third India’ – that enables Christian to consider it as a function of distance, which 223

can be geographical, but also temporal or reality in much the same way that a the even social. In this light, places, people or journey over the sea to the world’s end would. objects that appear to be especially otherworldly (grave mounds, sacred groves, Works Cited churches, ancestors, foreigners, berserks, Heide, Eldar. 2011. “Holy Islands and the Otherworld: swords, gold rings and so forth) can be Places Beyond Water”. In Isolated Islands in Medieval Nature, Culture and Mind. Ed. Gerhard understood as shortcuts (in time, space or Jaritz & Torstein Jørgensen. CEU Medievalia 14; social order) that lead outside conventional The Muhu Proceedings 2. Budapest; Bergen: Central European University; Centre for Medieval Studies, University of Bergen. Pp. 57–80.

Within and between Languages: Spheres and Functions of Different Languages in Written and Oral Practical Communication in the Late Medieval Baltic Sea Region Ilkka Leskelä, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at Register: Intersections of Language, Context and Communication, organized by Folklore Studies, University of Helsinki, and the Academy of Finland project Oral and Literary Culture in the Medieval and Early Modern Baltic Sea Region of the Finnish Literature Society, 23th–25th May 2012, Helsinki, Finland.

Based on examples from the letter archives of Within these writing traditions, well- Pawel Scheel and the Sture family, the city established formulas guided expression. council records of Stockholm and the However, at times these formulas were diplomatic correspondence of Viipuri broken, and non-customary languages were castellans, I discuss the use of different used in contexts normally dominated by languages and of variances within one Swedish or German. Such anomalies show language in various spheres of that people were fully aware of the correspondence between medieval Sweden importance of the choice of the relevant and the Hanseatic cities. language with its relevant formulas, and could In the multi-linguistic northern Baltic Sea actively use different languages, formulas and region, with written Latin, Old Swedish and oral registers in writing as means of Low Middle German and spoken Finnish and expression. Estonian, the choice of language used in Based on written evidence, our ability to correspondence followed established customs. study oral communication borders on the Juridical documents were written in the impossible. However, the written sources language of the rulers (Swedish or German), make the broad sphere of oral communication German almost totally dominated in overseas evident even in situations where letters and correspondence, and Latin remained the juridical documents had become common language of diplomacy and of the learned elite practice. In my presentation, I also discuss the (clergy). role of written communication in a predominantly oral context.

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The Battle of Kosovo (1389) in Oral Epic Tradition: Story Models, Forms, Ideologies Sonja Petrović, University of Belgrade

Paper presented at Traditional and Literary Epics of the World: Textuality, Authorship, Identity, the Kalevipoeg 150, organized by the Estonian Literary Museum and the Institute for Cultural Research and Fine Arts, University of Tartu, 29th –30th November 2011, Tartu, Estonia.

Oral epic tradition about the Battle of Kosovo Murad as a conqueror and martyr for the faith. (28th June 1389) started soon after the battle. While in the early sources the narratives about After the Serbian and Turkish armies clashed the Kosovo Battle were brief and succinct, in on a battlefield near Priština, Sultan Murad time they became more extensive and were was struck down by the sword of a Serbian adapted to the folkloric and literary style. nobleman Miloš Obilić, and the Serbian Ideologically coloured narratives about the Prince Lazar was captured and killed. Both Kosovo Battle were transmitted orally and in Lazar and Murad were canonised and praised writing, and influenced the development of in cult texts. The contemporary sources testify epic songs, as well as imitations of epics. to the confusing rumours and controversial From the end of the 17th century, some 400 versions of the outcome of the battle. The songs were collected in the form of episodic appearance of rumours points to the early forms (80–300 verses) and integral epic forms development of oral tradition, which, as a (200–2500 verses). Integral epic songs mainly channel of information, preserved, transmitted develop the Christian model of the defamed and invented narratives on the protagonists of hero who kills the Turkish emperor, expanded the Kosovo Battle. by the motifs of Lazar’s capture and the Vuk From 1389 to the end of the 18th century, at Branković’s treachery. Some typically epic least 70 historical and legendary sources have motifs have been added to these episodes: been preserved in which different versions of omens and prophetic dreams foretelling the the historical lore and accounts are embedded. death of the heroes and the downfall of the Oral narratives and recounts of the battle were kingdom, the heroicization of the warriors, an important source for epic songs. A and Miloš’s burial at the feet of Prince Lazar. comparative analysis of sources and songs has A small number of integral epic songs are shown that there are great similarities between strongly influenced by Murad’s religious cult them with regard to narrative units, motifs and narrate his campaign, killing and and formulae. Story models of epic songs, martyrdom. Episodic songs expand only the folk motifs and even fragments of epic verses Christian model and form a kind of epic are noted in many 15th and 16th century cycle. They are concentrated around Miloš’s sources; however, the first collections of epic adventures prior to the battle and Prince songs were made at the end of the 17th Lazar’s epic life (his wedding and link with century. Narratives of the Battle of Kosovo in the Nemanjić dynasty, the building of both sources and epic songs are marked Ravanica). Episodic songs expand, add to or ideologically, reflecting different political explain the pivotal motifs, or share in the epic aspirations and the different historical and biography of the heroes through formulaic social background of various cultural milieux. themes and models: Murad’s challenge, An analysis of the sources shows two Lazar’s response, the supper at which Lazar basic, ideologically polarised versions in the suspects Miloš of treachery, Miloš’s pledge to years immediately following the battle – the kill Murad, the spying on the Turkish troops, Christian and the Ottoman. The secular the mustering of the army, the choice of the Christian sources celebrate Miloš, the daring heavenly kingdom, the army taking the hero who proved that it was possible to Eucharist, Lazar’s curse, the betrothal of the oppose Ottoman power. The religious heroes on the eve of the battle, a sister who Christian sources honoured Prince Lazar as a tries to hold back her brothers, and the hero martyr and defender of faith. On the other who arrives too late. The last segment of the hand, Turkish chronicles celebrated Sultan cycle consists of retrospective descriptions of 225

the battle through reports from ravens or influence of these compiled and devised wounded servants, then the events after the epopées, the epic singers continued to make battle are narrated: the wailing of the up their own versions of integral epic songs in betrothed maiden on the battlefield, the death the second half of the 19th century and in the of the mother pining for her sons, and the 20th century. In these songs, the backbone of miracle of the joining of Prince Lazar’s head the action consists of the same narrative to his body. models noted in the earliest sources of the Literary attempts to devise an epopée Battle of Kosovo. Therefore, independently of remained at the merging of episodes from folk the long or short form of tradition, epic songs into a whole, with varying success. Not narratives have been passed on for hundreds infrequently, verse and prose were combined of years as semantically coded or re-coded to complete the artistic picture. Under the ideological information.

Published Articles

Circum-Baltic Mythology? – The Curious Case of the Theft of the Thunder Instrument (AT 1148b) Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper published in Archaeologia Baltica 15, special issue: Archaeology, Religion and Folklore in the Baltic Sea Region, Daiva Vaitkevičienė & Vykintas Vaitkevičius (eds.), pp. 78–98. Available at: http://www.ku.lt/leidykla/leidiniai/Archaeologia_BALTICA/Archaeologia_BALTICA_15.pdf

The myth or tale of the theft of the thunder- and dynamic process of interaction between instrument from the thunder-god by his cultures. This development makes it adversary, knows as tale-type ATU 1148b, is unreasonable to attribute the Circum-Baltic encountered almost exclusively in the traditions and forms exclusively to either Circum-Baltic. It is found in Germanic, Finno-Ugric or Indo-European traditions. It is Sámic, Finnic and Baltic cultures. It is proposed that ATU 1148b is best approached otherwise only encountered in one early as a Circum-Baltic phenomenon and Greek source of questionable cultural representative of a Circum-Baltic mythology provenance. This paper reviews the evidence dependent on historical processes of of the tradition in different cultures, with a linguistic-cultural interaction and exchange. reassessment of the Germanic traditions, The aetiology of thunder on which the which have often been given priority. narrative is dependent is briefly discussed – This article approaches ATU 1148b as a i.e. that thunder is produced by an object Circum-Baltic phenomenon. Distinct forms which can be stolen and unwittingly returned of ATU 1148b in each culture’s traditions are to the god, and can also literally or discussed as reflecting socio-historical metaphorically be ‘played’, but only by the processes. Emphasis is given to patterns of god owing to his exceptional physical social use and how these are conditioned by strength. The foundation of this myth remains relationships to other traditions and obscure. Etymological and comparative conceptions in each cultural milieu. The evidence is surveyed leading to the hypothesis evolution of the tradition into its various that in an early cultural era, presumably prior forms is considered as the outcome of a long to the establishment of aetiologies of thunder

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dependent on iron-working technologies, It is proposed that the concentration of there was a widespread aetiology of thunder ATU 1148b across diverse cultures in the deriving from a hand-mill, and which was Circum-Baltic is at least partially attributable sufficiently central to become established in to the maintenance of corresponding mythic the lexicon of the mythology in multiple narratives in adjacent cultures. This cultures. This presents the possibility that the phenomenon at the level of mythological aetiology was associated with technological narrative or plot is thus compared to parallels developments paralleling an alternative in the persistence and form of genres and aetiology which spread through the Circum- stylistic priorities that appear to exhibit Baltic in connection with iron-working as a isoglosses in the Circum-Baltic region. technology.

The Flying Noaidi of the North: Sámi Tradition Reflected in the Figure Loki Laufeyjarson in Old Norse Mythology Triin Laidoner, University of Aberdeen

Paper to be published in Scripta Islandica 63 (2012): 59–91.

This article considers possible Sámi Following an analysis of characteristically influences on Old Norse mythology, Sámi features which seem to be inherent in specifically, the possible connection of Loki, his character is explained in the light of aspects of Sámi noaidevuohta practice with the noaidi tradition. The suggested the complex mythological figure of Loki perspective is that Loki might be better Laufeyjarson. The focus is placed on the dual understood in the context of the noaidi figures and ambivalent nature of this figure, qualities – and perhaps through his role as a trickster – which have always made it impossible for that are found in a number of circumpolar him to be placed in a clear-cut framework and cultures, including the Sámi. This encourages suggest that perhaps we are dealing with a a novel approach to Loki from which tentative changeable figure. The written sources are conclusions are drawn about his erratic nature briefly examined as are possibly connected and his independent development in the archaeological finds and place-names that northern parts of Scandinavia from the very shed light on Loki and point towards his early outset. existence in the northern parts of Europe.

‘The Matter of Hrafnista’ Helen F. Leslie, University of Bergen.

Paper published in Quaestio Insularis 11 (2010): 169–208.

This paper considers the evidence for a body belonging properly to this group, although it of oral tradition surrounding the family of the has been discounted by some scholars. men of Hrafnista reflected in Ketil saga That there must have been a tradition hængs, Gríms saga loðinkinna, Örvar-Odds surrounding the Hrafnistumenn [‘the men of saga and Áns saga bogsveigis. It attempts to Hrafnista’] is shown by the fact that the ascertain which parts of their stories might protagonists are mentioned in the stem from a common tradition about the men Hrafnisutmenn sagas that do not bear their of Hrafnista that would, at one point, have names – i.e. in Egils saga and in been exclusively in oral circulation. Landnámabók. The narratives about the Furthermore, it argues that Áns saga characters, their descendants and the objects bogsveigis should indeed be counted as they are associated with therefore are examined in order to attempt to determine 227

whether these reveal any evidence of the different sagas, allowing the versions to be existence of an overall tradition about the compared. Close wording between the sagas Hrafnistumenn. indicates textual borrowing, that likely The material is also considered with a view happened during the transmission of the sagas to determining whether they preserve in their written form. The continuum formed memories of events that actually happened or can be concluded to be one of an entire story other social realities. In the Hrafnistumenn tradition as whole, and that the four sagas sagas, this is mainly found in the description should be read together. The findings also of places and travel routes, and also of the suggest that, while the sagas are not historical, food supply in Hálogaland. there is a latent possibility that the fictive Most indicative of a continuum of tradition elements of the texts may be constructed surrounding the Hrafnistumenn is when the around a kernel of truth. same characters or events are recounted in

Reflections of Belief Systems in Karelian and Lithuanian Laments: Shared Systems of Traditional Referentiality? Eila Stepanova, University of Helsinki

Paper published in Archaeologia Baltica 15, special issue: Archaeology, Religion and Folklore in the Baltic Sea Region, Daiva Vaitkevičienė & Vykintas Vaitkevičius (eds.), pp. 128–143. Available at: http://www.ku.lt/leidykla/leidiniai/Archaeologia_BALTICA/Archaeologia_BALTICA_15.pdf

The objective of this article is to open a The language and performance of laments discussion of relationships between Karelian conforms to certain conventions such as and Lithuanian lament traditions as alliteration, parallelism, as well as employing representative examples of Finnic (otherwise an abundance of plural and diminutive- known as “Balto-Finnic”) and Baltic possessive forms. This poetry was not subject traditions, respectively. Both traditions to fixed meter. The primary organizational maintained rites de passage as central units were based on the rhythms of melodic contexts of lamenting and women ritual phrases of varying length and were marked by specialists as lamenters. Both are a consistent pattern of alliteration. improvisational – even ritual laments The Lithuanian lament tradition, like the incorporate situationally specific Karelian tradition, was an important part of improvisations. I will focus on the life cycle of the individual and of the representations of vernacular religion or ritual life of the community, where it “belief systems” as these are reflected through maintained a role in funerals, weddings, and the poetic features, images and motifs of both perhaps in other areas of life as well. These Karelian and Lithuanian funeral laments. traditions are rooted in a pre-Christian past, Finnic lament traditions were found and yet persisted through the process of primarily in Orthodox areas and were Christianization up to the present day. As in exclusively performed by women. Both ritual the Karelian tradition, Lithuanian laments are and occasional laments were found among improvised poetry performed by women with Karelians and Vepsians, in Ingria among the a recitative melody, astrophic form, and have Ižors and Votes, and among the Seto of south- the essential poetic features of parallelism, eastern Estonia. The main feature of Finnic diminutive forms, epithets and metaphors, and laments is that their special poetic idiom is rhetorical questions; rather than metered lines not easily comprehensible to the uninitiated and stanzas, the poetics develop around listener. In Karelian laments, relatives, syntactic periods similar to Karelian laments. intimate people, as well as certain objects and In this study, representations of vernacular phenomena are never named directly. Instead religion reflected through the poetic features of direct names, coded metaphorical of lament traditions are approached on three expressions or circumlocutions were used. levels: 1) on the level of stylistic features; 2) 228

on the level of metaphoric or formulaic similar systems of traditional referentiality. language and expressions; and 3) on the level These systems of traditional referentiality are of motifs employed in funeral laments. The necessarily rooted in the history of each traditions of Karelian and Lithuanian laments, tradition, drawing on its past in applications as well as Lithuanian and Latvian folk songs, of “word power” in the present. Moreover, share numerous similar features. These these traditions reflect common conceptions features occur on all levels, from the of death and the otherworld, where the elementary aspects of poetic language (their ancestors of the community meet the newly stylistic and grammatical features, poetic deceased. If the sources accessible to me images and metaphors), to larger motifs and prove to be generally representative of the more comprehensive aspects of ritual tradition, then the Karelian and Lithuanian activities. This shows that although the laments appear to share certain significant language of the tradition was different in each features of mythology, worldview and beliefs, culture, they were utilizing remarkably which are unlikely to be accidental.

PhD Projects

Entangled Worlds: Archaeologies of Ambivalence in the Viking Age Leszek Gardeła, University of Aberdeen

Dissertation defended for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology at the Department of Archaeology, University of Aberdeen on the 21st May 2012. Supervisors: Professor Neil S. Price (University of Aberdeen) and Dr Peter Jordan (University of Aberdeen). Opponents: Professor Andrew Reynolds (University College London), Professor Stefan Brink (University of Aberdeen).

During the last decade, the research are trying to get a more detailed paradigms in Viking-Age scholarship have understanding of those archaeological undergone a significant change. Textual remains from the Viking Age that seem to be scholars and archaeologists have begun to material reflections of the multivariate beliefs collaborate more closely than before, people held at that time. engaging in an open yet critical dialogue, In recent years, there has been an which among other things has opened new increasing interest, especially from possibilities in examining the notions of belief Scandinavian scholars, in the archaeology and and ritual practices and their practitioners in anthropology of early medieval ritual the past. specialists.1 This thesis is intended to be a Today, it is frequently argued that the new contribution to the debate on the social Scandinavian societies of the late Iron Age, in role and especially to the social perception of a perceptual sense, lived in what could be such individuals. On the basis of the available regarded as an ‘ensouled world’ where the textual accounts, as well as broad ‘sacred’ could manifest itself in a wide range archaeological evidence, it is argued that the of forms – in places, beings and objects. With approaches to and the multiple understandings the assistance of textual sources (mostly in the of these individuals, as well as the different form of Old Norse written accounts, but also forms of tools of their trades were, and are other comparative evidence from other areas bound to be today, suffused with the notion of of the early medieval world), archaeologists ‘ambivalence’.

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The concept of ‘ambivalence’ is a common given for the immense diversity with regards theme in the studies of past beliefs and it was to the Old Norse beliefs and especially originally introduced in the history of mortuary practices in the Viking diaspora. I religions by Rudolf Otto in his famous work argue that extreme caution is needed when The Idea of the Holy: An Inquiry Into the one tries to evaluate and interpret the Non-Rational Factor in the Idea of the Divine intentions of mourners responsible for and its Relation to the Rational (1958 composing particular kinds of burials, and [1923]). In later years it was taken up by other that there is a necessity to acknowledge their scholars, most notably Mircea Eliade (e.g. multivalence. In Central-European and 1987, 1996, 2000 [1937]; see also Allen Anglo-Saxon archaeology, the terms 2002). ‘Ambivalence’, in the understanding of ‘atypical’ and ‘deviant burials/graves’ have Otto, could be seen in the way humans think frequently been employed in studies of what and experience the ‘sacred’. The ‘sacred’ may is today regarded as unusual funerary arouse both profound fascination, but also behaviour (i.e. prone burial, decapitation, fear or even terror. In relation to the concept stoning the corpse, mutilation etc.). of ‘ambivalence’, Otto also introduced the Occasionally, the terms ‘deviant grave’ or notion of mysterium fascinans and mysterium ‘atypical grave’ have also been used in the tremendum, the latter of which he defined in Viking context in relation to graves that, to the following way: their interpreters, demonstrate some signs of ‘oddity’. In my discussion, I argue that, The feeling of it may at times come sweeping like a gentle tide, pervading the contrary to the assumptions of many modern mind with a tranquil mood of deepest scholars, the so-called ‘deviant graves’ do not worship. It may pass over into a more set always have to indicate that the deceased and lasting attitude of the soul, continuing as individual was treated with contempt in life or it were, thrillingly vibrant and resonant, until upon death. On the basis of textual evidence at last it dies away and the soul resumes its and comparative archaeological evidence, it ‘profane’, non-religious mood of everyday may be inferred that what we would today experience. It may burst in sudden eruption regard as ‘violence’ or ‘oddity’, may have in up from the depths of the soul with spasms the past in fact signaled the utmost respect. In and convulsions, or lead to the strangest Viking-Age Scandinavia, the peculiar or (to excitements of intoxicated frenzy, to our minds) odd treatment of the body may not transport and to ecstasy. It has its wild and demonic forms and can sink to an almost always suggest that the particular person was grizzly horror and shuddering. It has crud, regarded as malevolent, but rather signal fear barbaric antecedents and early of what might become of them (or what they manifestations, and again it may be might ‘transform’ into) after the moment of developed into something beautiful and pure death. I therefore suggest that some unusual and glorious. (Otto 1958 [1923]: 12–13.) burial practices may be a form of

In this thesis, the concept of ‘ambivalence’ is ‘communicating’ certain social insecurities or discussed with regards to three themes: the superstitions and be a form of ‘negotiating’ treatment and the perception of the dead, the the multivalent and fluid identities of the perception of ritual specialists and the deceased. perception of their ritual objects. These are Chapter 3 (“The Archaeology of Late Iron- briefly summarized below. Age Ritual Specialists”) is devoted to the examination of different factors that are taken Ambivalence with Regard to the Treatment into account when contemporary and Perception of the Dead archaeologists try to interpret some of the so- Chapter 1 (“Prolegomena”) and Chapter 2 called ‘deviant graves’ as belonging to (“Funerary Diversity and Deviance in the Viking-Age ritual specialists. In my Viking Age”) serve as theoretical and discussion, I adopt a rather critical approach empirical introductions to the further debates to such interpretations and argue that a on ritual specialists. Therein arguments are significant proportion of them are either completely ad hoc and ungrounded (for

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example they have no actual reflection in the early medieval England and Poland, shows available archaeological material or they are that in fact every ‘stoned’ grave demonstrates based on archaeological data that is highly different features with regards to the buried problematic and published nearly over a individuals themselves (in an anthropological century ago in a rudimentary manner) or are sense – e.g. age, gender and other physical based purely on modern-day preconceptions characteristics), and also to the objects placed of what ritual specialists and their graves alongside them and the overall, widely ‘should look like’ – as implied by popular understood external and internal composition. culture, novels, films etc. Despite my criticisms, however, I maintain the opinion that it may nonetheless be plausible to interpret some graves as those of ritual specialists, but in such endeavors extreme caution is always needed. It is vital that studies of this kind are conducted on material that is both well preserved and professionally published. Additionally, it may also be valuable to take into account the wider context of the particular burial evidence and compare or contrast it with other sources (both archaeological and textual) from not only Viking-Age Scandinavia, but also from other areas of early medieval Europe.

Ambivalence in the Perception of Viking- Age Ritual Specialists After reevaluating the different problems associated with the archaeology of early medieval ritual specialists, in Chapter 4 (“Ambivalent Beings: Death by Stoning and Burial under Stones”) I examine various social responses to such individuals as recorded in the Old Norse written accounts. Figure 1. An artistic reconstruction of grave A505 from Special attention was given to the motif of Trekroner-Grydehøj, Sjælland, Denmark. Illustration ‘stoning’ seiðr-working individuals and other by Mirosław Kuźma. © Leszek Gardeła and Mirosław Kuźma. beings related to magic practices or endowed with magic qualities. I argue that this Ideally, as I argue, each grave of this kind particular motif of stoning may have some should be approached individually, since it concrete parallels in the archaeological seems that each offers a different story (or material. On the basis of an extensive stories) that could be ‘read’ from it. In my comparative study that employs final conclusions, I postulate that all such archaeological, historical and (occasionally) considerations and attempts at providing folkloristic sources, I suggest that it is not deeper interpretations are only substantiated unlikely that some of the deceased individuals in the instances when the graves are both well whose bodies were purposefully covered with preserved and documented. In my analyses of stones were indeed regarded as people dealing the burial evidence from Viking-Age with magic. However, I also explicitly stress Scandinavia, only graves that were excavated that this interpretation is only one of several relatively recently and/or which were possibilities. described in detail in the archaeological My detailed analysis of the archaeological literature were taken into consideration. In material from Viking-Age Scandinavia, selected cases it was possible to actually supplemented by comparative evidence from consult the evidence and new interpretations

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of it with the original excavators (with special includes over 160 pages of appendices. thanks to Dr Tom Christensen and Dr Jens Appendix 1 contains nine artistic Ulriksen from Roskilde Museum and to Dr reconstructions of early medieval ‘deviant Dan Carlsson from Gotland University). The graves’ from Sweden (grave Bj. 959 from new studies of the ‘stoned’ graves conducted Birka; grave 19/89 from Fröjel in Gotland), as part of this doctoral research project also Denmark (the Gerdrup grave; grave A505 allowed the creation of nine artistic from Trekroner-Grydehøj; graves P and T reconstructions aimed at demonstrating how from Bogøvei), Iceland (Grave Kt-145: 2 the graves may have appeared before they from Vað, Suður Múlasýsla), Poland (Grave were back-filled. The reconstructions were 146 from Cedynia, Pomorze Zachodnie) and exclusively prepared for my thesis by the England (Grave 5056 from Raunds Furnells, Polish artist-illustrator Mirosław Kuźma. Northamptonshire). Appendices 2 and 3 contain handlists of all early medieval Ambivalence in the Perception of Viking- ‘stoned’ graves from Scandinavia, Iceland and Age Ritual Objects Poland known to the author. Appendix 4 is a As argued, the notion of ambivalence may detailed catalogue of 33 alleged magic staffs also be related to objects. Therefore, Chapter from the Viking-Age supplemented by new, 5 (“Ambivalent Objects: A Biography of high-quality photographs that were taken by Magic Staffs”) is devoted to the idea of a the author during the period between 2008– ‘magic staff’ in the Viking Age and, as 2011 in archaeological museums in Sweden, before, the discussion involves an Norway, Denmark, Iceland and Ireland. interdisciplinary and cross-cultural approach. Appendix 5 discusses a modern replica of one At its core is the examination of textual of the alleged magic staffs (the staff from evidence for the existence of such objects and Gnesta in Sweden) which was commissioned also their alleged archaeological analogues for this doctoral research project and created from prehistory to modern times. The by two professional re-enactors Grzegorz concluding interpretations, supplemented by a ‘Greg’ Pilarczyk and Łukasz ‘Einar’ detailed empirical and experimental study Szczepański. In addition, Appendix 5 also (included in Appendices 4 and 5), show that seeks to examine the possible uses of similar some of the iron rods considered may have objects through a discussion of a range of indeed been perceived by Viking-Age experiments conducted, where the alleged individuals as ritual tools. However, given the staff was employed as a roasting spit and a possibilities of using these objects for distaff. multiple purposes and also the fact that their physical forms have so many associations (practical or symbolic) with other items, it is difficult to determine which items specifically may have served as magic staffs. The conclusion reached is that they should be seen as ambivalent or even multivalent objects – both in the past and today. What they represented in the past may have been intended as a matter of interpretation and it the same holds true today. The last Chapter 6 (Entangled Worlds: Archaeologies of Ambivalence in the Viking

Age) concludes the thesis and offers some new research avenues. Figure 2. A reconstruction of an alleged magic staff from Gnesta, Sweden. The reconstruction was made by Grzegorz ‘Greg’ Pilarczyk (the bronze fittings) and Exclusive Illustrations and Appendices Łukasz ‘Einar’ Szczepański (the iron shaft). Photo by The thesis is lavishly illustrated and in Kamil Stachowiak. addition to the chapters summarized above it

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Notes Gardeła, Leszek. 2008. “Into Viking Minds: 1. Cf. Adolfson & Lundström 1993, 1995; Price 2002; Reinterpreting the Staffs of Sorcery and Solli 2002; Raudvere 2003; Artelius 2005; Back Unravelling Seiðr”. Viking and Medieval Danielsson 2007; Graner 2007; Sundqvist 2007; Scandinavia 4: 45–84. Gardeła 2008, 2009a, 2009b, 2011; Pentz, Panum Gardeła Leszek. 2009a. “A Biography of the Seiðr- Baastrup, Karg & Mannering 2009; but see also Staffs. Towards an Archaeology of Emotions”. In important studies of Dillmann 2006; Heide 2006; Between Paganism and Christianity in the North. Tolley 2009. Ed. Leszek Paweł Słupecki & Jakub Morawiec. Rzeszów: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego. Pp. 188–217. Works Cited Gardeła, Leszek. 2009b. “The Good, the Bad and the Adolfsson, Gundula, & Inga Lundström. 1993. Den Undead: New Thoughts on the Ambivalence of Old starka kvinnan: Fran völva till häxa. Norse Sorcery”. In Á austrvega: Saga and East Museiarkeologi 6. Stockholm: Statens Historiska Scandinavia: Preprint Papers of the 14th Museum. International Saga Conference, Uppsala 9th-15th Adolfsson, Gundula, & Inga Lundström. 1995. Den August 2009. Ed. Agneta Ney, Henrik Williams & sterke kvinnen: Fra volve til heks. AmS Smatrykk. Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist. Gävle: Gävle Stavanger: Stavanger Archaeological Museum. University Press. Pp. 285–294. Allen, Douglas. 2002. Myth and Religion in Mircea Gardeła, Leszek. 2011. “Buried with Honour and Eliade. New York; London: Routledge. Stoned to Death: The Ambivalence of Viking Age Artelius, Tore. 2005. “The Revenant by the Lake: Magic in the Light of Archaeology”. Analecta Spear Symbolism in Scandinavian Late Viking Age Archaeologica Ressoviensia 4(2009): 339–375. Burial Ritual”. In Dealing with the Dead: Graner, Gunlög (ed.). 2007. Spåkvinnans stav och 11 Archaeological Perspectives on Prehistoric andra arkeologiska berättelser. Stockholm: Scandinavian Burial Ritual. Riksantikvarieambetet Riksantikvarieämbetet. Arkeologiska Undersökningar Skrifter 65. Ed. Tore Heide, Eldar. 2006. Seid, gand og åndevind. Bergen: Artelius & Fredrik Svanberg. Stockholm: National Universitetet i Bergen. Heritage Board. Pp. 261–276. Otto, Rudolf. 1958 [1923]. The Idea of the Holy: An Back Danielsson, Ing-Marie. 2007. Masking Moments. Inquiry into the Non-Rational Factor in the Idea of The Transitions of Bodies and Beings in Late Iron the Divine and Its Relation to the Rational. London; Age Scandinavia. Stockholm Studies in Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Archaeology 40. Stockholm: Stockholm University Pentz, Peter, Maria Panum Baastrup, Sabine Karg & Press. Ulla Mannering. 2009. “Kong Haralds vølve”. Dillmann, François-Xavier. 2006. Les magiciens dans Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark 2009: 215–232. l’Islande ancienne: Études sur la representation de Price, Neil .S. 2002. The Viking Way: Religion and la magie islandaise et de ses agents dans les War in Late Iron Age Scandinavia. AUN 31. sources littéraires norroises. Acta Academiae Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient Regiae Gustavi Adolphi 92. Uppsala: Kungl. History Uppsala University. Gustav Adolfs Akademien för svensk folkkultur. Raudvere, Catharina. 2003. Kunskap och insikt i Eliade, Mircea. 1987. The Sacred and the Profane: The nörron tradition: Mytologi, ritualer och Nature of Religion. Orlando; Austin; New York; trolldomsanklagelser. Vägar till Midgard 3. Lund: San Diego; Toronto; London: A Harvest Book / Nordic Academic Press. Harcourt Inc. Sundqvist, Olof. 2007. Kultledare i fornskandinavisk Eliade, Mircea. 1996. Patterns in Comparative religion. Occasional Papers in Archaeology 41. Religion. Lincoln; London: University of Nebraska Uppsala: Department of Archaeology and Ancient Press. History Uppsala University. Eliade, Mircea. 2000 [1937]. Kosmologia i alchemia Tolley, Clive. 2009. Shamanism in Norse Myth and babilońska. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo KR. Magic. I–II. Folklore Fellows Communications 296–297. Helsinki: Academia Scientarum Fennica.

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Charms, Prayers, Amulets: Verbal Magic and Daily Life in Medieval and Early Modern Bulgaria Svetlana Tsonkova, Central European University and University of Tartu

Research project undertaken for the completion of a degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Department of Medieval Studies, Central European University (Budapest), and the Department of Estonian and Comparative Folklore, University of Tartu, scheduled for completion in 2013. Supervisors: Professor Gerhard Jaritz (Central European University) and Professor Gábor Klaniczay (Central European University); Professor Ülo Valk (University of Tartu) and Dr. Jonathan Roper (University of Tartu).

The source material for my doctoral knowledge, no such study on this particular dissertation project consists of medieval and source material has been conducted so far, early modern Bulgarian verbal charms. These although both the topic and the data require are texts of variable length and regarded as and deserve serious interdisciplinary research. typical representatives of apotropaic verbal Ritual activity now requires systematic magic. They are written in Old Church investigation, not least in the historical Slavonic, preserved in manuscripts and on th th periods for which we have more background amulets, and dated from 9 to 18 century. information. (Merrifield 1987: 194.) The content of the charms covers three topics: health care, protection (against evil, against This statement is even more relevant to the forces of nature and against disasters) and the field of verbal magic and charming texts and practices. My research questions here are: provision of good luck and success in different activities.  How broad is the network of supernatural In broader terms, the topic of my and quotidian? dissertation is verbal magic as a crossing-  How do the connections between them point, where ‘our world’ and the ‘otherworld’ work? intersect. More specifically, my thesis is an  What are the interrelations between verbal interdisciplinary study of medieval and early charms, amulets and their contexts? modern Bulgarian verbal charm and amulets,  What is the modus operandi of the entire and their role and application in human verbal magic complex within the framework of everyday life? quotidian life and culture. Verbal magic and verbal charms To sum up, this dissertation is an attempt to

are a cultural near-universal (perhaps, even a get at the underlife of everyday life (Clark universal), a way of coping with ill health, 1982: viii) and at the magical underworld with misfortune, and with anxiety about (Merrifield 1987: 119) of verbal charms and success in fields from agriculture to love. amulets. In addition, the dissertation aims to This is a fair claim to their significance. examine and reveal if these are really an (Roper 2009: xiv.) underlife and an underworld, or simply

Based on concrete data (Roper 2005: 52), my different aspects of the human life and human aim is to initiate and urge a discussion of world. Among other tasks, such an attempt medieval and early modern Bulgarian verbal requires entering deeply into the territory of charms as complex cultural phenomena, mentalities, which are elusive and difficult to related to the contexts of both the supernatural seize. Nevertheless, such a difficult task is a and the quotidian. The focus is on the charms worthy mission of cultural history, and surely not so much as pieces of texts, but more as its results are interesting and noteworthy. factors, products, elements and instruments of “What is needed is an open mind and an this rich and diverse supernatural-daily life appreciation of the great diversity of human milieu. behaviour” (Merrifield 1987: 21). My thesis also relates and examines Previous Bulgarian scholarship studied the together verbal charms from both manuscripts medieval and early modern Bulgarian charms and amulets, addressing these against the mainly from the perspective of philology and background of different contexts. To my literary analysis, which resulted in the production of important and valuable research 234

pieces. However, the field has other key  A synthesis of all of these pieces, drawing aspects too: for example, the connections conclusions and relating to later folklore between medieval and early modern written data. verbal magic and folklore; also the place of The dissertation will also be provided with an medieval and early modern charms in appendix containing the original texts and the everyday life, their practical functions, and English translations of the most important their roles in the multilayered complex of charms. crisis management and coping system. In terms of methodology and theory, I put Although often acknowledged by a number of special emphasis and efforts into relating the Bulgarian scholars (Petkanova 1981: 14–18), Bulgarian source material to academic all these questions have been relatively discussions on verbal magic, coming from neglected. In my opinion, an interdisciplinary different disciplines and different countries research investigation is very much needed, (including Hungary, Estonia, Finland and especially in the direction of cultural history. Russia). In my opinion, it is very important to Therefore, my dissertation is an attempt to fill situate the data about medieval and early this gap. Rooted in cultural history, it includes modern Bulgarian charms within a theoretical also philology, history of magic, history of framework, which is more interdisciplinary mentalities, archaeology, folklore and and more international (Kapaló 2011: ethnology. passim). Moreover, in order to fully The dissertation has the aim to discuss the understand the cultural role and impact of above-mentioned charms not in their medieval and early modern Bugarian written linguistic, but in their cultural context. The verbal magic, it is crucial to examine the thesis is arranged in the following several connections and parallels with folklore parts: examples from a later period. As such  A discussion and clarification of the comparisons and parallels run throughout the Bulgarian terminology of verbal magic and analytical parts of my dissertation, it appears charms as a step in this direction.  A discussion of the methodological approaches to the source material and the Works Cited research questions Clark, David. 1982. Between Pulpit and Pew: Folk  A presentation of the relevant Bulgarian Religion in a North Yorkshire Fishing Village. scholarship and the starting points it Cambridge: Cambridge Universitry Press. provides Honko, Lauri. 1979. “Theories Concerning the Ritual  A presentation of the source material, with a Process: An Orientation”. In Science of Religion: Studies in Methodology. Ed. Lauri Honko. The special emphasis of the charms’ contexts of Hague: Mouton. existence, variations and transmission Kapaló, James Alexander. 2011. Text, Context and  A discussion of the functional aspect of the Performance: Gagauz Folk Religion in Discource charms and Practice. Leiden: Brill.  A presentation and discussion of the roles of Merrifield, Ralph. 1987. The Archaeology of Ritual the supernatrural agents and the mentalily and Magic. London: B.T. Batsford. behind the charms Petkanova 1981 = Петканова, Донка. 1981. Стара  A discussion of the verbal charms and the българска литература в седем тома: Том I: Апокрифи [‘Old Bulgarian Literature in Seven amulets as representative of Fachliteratur Volumes: Volume I: Apocrypha’]. Sofia: and as practical instruments of crisis ългарска академия на науките. management and coping strategies Roper, Jonathan. 2005. English Verbal Charms.  A presentation of the different roles of Helsinki: Suomalainen tiedeakatemia. verbal charms in crisis rites and crisis Roper, Jonathan, ed., 2009. Charms, Charmers and management (Honko 1979: 377–380) Charming. International Research on Verbal Magic. New York : Palgrave Macmillan.

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