World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 February 2013

ECO-LOGICA LA1 LTD ISSN 1352-7614 © 2012 ECO-LOGICA LA1 LTD FRANCIS ERIC KNIGHT BRITTON MANAGING DIRECTOR/EDITOR PROFESSOR JOHN WHITELEGG ECOPLAN. INTERNATIONAL/WORLD STREETS STOCKHOLM ENVIRONMENT INSTITUTE AT 69003 LYON FRANCE YORK, T. +336 5088 0787 / S. NEWMOBILITY UNIVERSITY OF YORK, E. [email protected] YORK, YO10 5DD, U.K PAUL TRANTER SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTAL & EDITORIAL BOARD MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, PROFESSOR HELMUT HOLZAPFEL AUSTRALIAN DEFENCE FORCE ACADEMY UNIVERSITÄT KASSEL, CANBERRA ACT 2600, AUSTRALIA FACHBEREICH 06 - ARCHITEKTUR, STADT- UND LANDSCHAFTSPLANUNG PUBLISHER AG INTEGRIERTE VERKEHRSPLANUN- ECO-LOGICA LA1 LTD., 53 DERWENT ROAD, GOTTSCHALKSTRAßE 28, LANCASTER,LA1 3ES, U.K. D-34127 KASSEL GERMANY TELEPHONE +44 (0)1524 63175 E-MAIL: [email protected] HTTP://WWW.ECO-LOGICA.CO.UK

CONTENTS

Page

Front Cover Picture: We are grateful to Stan Parrot who took 1 the photographs and to “Transport Solutions for Lancaster and Morecambe” (TSLM) for permission to use the photos of the otters threatened by the route of the Heysham M6 Link Road in Lancaster, UK.

Editorial 3

Abstracts and Keywords 6

Road congestion, vehicles emissions and the intention to use public bus services in Malaysia – A flexible bus utility model Serena A. G. Kang, K. Jayaraman, Keng Lin Soh 8

Governance and Ecological Sustainability: the case of transport funding in New Zealand Dr Stephen Knight-Lenihan 25

Bürgerbus - German experiences in community transport Martin Schiefelbusch 35

A Swedish Bicycle Plan Tomas Björnsson 45

2 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 EDITORIAL The inner (green) shaded nonagon repre- Planetary Boundaries sents the safe operating space with proposed boundary levels at its outer contour. This is an unusual editorial. It is entire- The extent of the wedges for each bound- ly concerned with one book published in ary shows the estimate of current position 2012 called “The Human Quest” (Note 1). of the control variable. Points show the To say this book is important is an underestimated recent time trajectory (1950– statement. It is hugely important because present) of each control variable. For biodi- it shows that the current trajectory of the versity loss, the estimated current bound- human species on this planet is on auto- ary level of >100 extinctions per million matic pilot with the self-destruct option species-years exceeds the space available initiated. This may sound rather dramatic in the figure. Although climate change, but the book is based on a very traditional ocean acidification, stratospheric ozone scientific analysis and a strong evidence depletion, land-use change, freshwater based logic rooted in the best scientific use, and interference with the phosphorus tradition and especially Swedish scientific cycle are boundaries defined as the state traditions. It is a solid, objective, scien- of a variable (concentration of atmospheric tific analysis. The book shows that there CO2, aragonite saturation state, and strat- are “planetary boundaries” that should not ospheric ozone concentration, percentage be crossed and we have now crossed 3 of of land under crops, maximum amount them and are in danger of crossing the re- of global annual freshwater use, cumu- mainder. The planetary boundaries are il- lative P loading in oceans, respectively), lustrated in Figure 1 the remaining boundary, biodiversity loss,

Figure 1: Planetary Boundaries Source:http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/figure6.html 3 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 and the component of the biogeochemical The key messages are: boundary related to the human interfer- • We are the first generation to rec- ence with the N cycle are defined by rates ognize that humanity has become a force of change for each respective control vari- capable of undermining Earth’s capacity to able (extinctions per million species per support our prosperity. year, rate of N2 removed from atmosphere • We live in a globalized phase of en- for human use). vironmental change. Our economies and the world as we know it is at risk of under- The planetary boundaries that we have al- going major changes. ready crossed are flagged in red and are • We live in an interconnected world. climate change, biodiversity loss and ni- The stability of the Earth system and its trogen cycle excesses. We await further long-term capacity to support our wellbe- analysis and information on the other ing has become every nation’s and citi- boundaries and the rate at which we ap- zen’s concern. We must all manage the proach crossing the boundary and the ir- biosphere as a world community. reversible damage associated with this • If we keep Earth within the safe op- crossing. erating space of these planetary boundaries, we can all thrive. But if we push these The publicity accompanying the book em- scientifically drawn boundaries, we will phasises the science and the need for ur- trigger catastrophic events. gent action: • Our Human Quest is to change the trajectory of negative global environmen- The Human Quest combines evidence tal change to support development, as hu- from the many scientific disciplines manity moves toward a population of nine that reveal how planet Earth operates billion people. and the tenuous relations between the Earth system and humans. Rockström What has this got to do with and Klum not only diagnose the prob- transport? lems, but also look at the opportunities and evidence supporting the transition We are now approaching the 20th anniver- to a sustainable future. sary of the journal “World Transport Policy and Practice”. In these 20 years we have “We need to find ways to ‘turn’ these tracked the enormous damage on people, curves away from such global risks,” communities, ecology and the planet that says Rockström, “and we need to do it are directly related to increasing levels of now, in what may be the most decisive automobile dependency, distances trav- decade in human history. This book is elled, aviation and road freight. We have about deepening the insights of our so- published approximately 300 articles and cial-ecological predicament as a source the majority of these articles have mapped of hope and innovation. We need noth- out practical, implementable strategies ing less than a great transformation of and proposals to deliver a sustainable societies in the world, and I believe it future and to make sure that we do not is possible.” (in this one sector) transgress planetary boundaries. Transport is a core problem The book highlights that action needs in any discussion of planetary boundaries to be taken now.. in what may be the because the global trajectory is entirely most crucial decade in human history. in the wrong direction and every coun- With a fundamental shift in mindset, try on the planet (including Sweden) has humanity can succeed in a transition to strongly embedded cultural, professional global sustainability. The Human Quest and fiscal biases towards year on year can help turn the page to that new par- increases in vehicle kilometres travelled, adigm.” air miles used and billions of dollars and Euros spent on investments in new infrastructure. We have made it clear in almost every issue of the journal that transport policy everywhere has a deeply embedded strand of DNA that delivers more travel, 4 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 more roads, more airports and more high it is sometimes difficult to grasp what is speed rail and is motivated by a strong going on beyond stories of pandas, polar sense that more is better than less, faster bears and rare orchids but in Lancaster is better than slower and human progress all levels of government have conspired depends absolutely on higher levels of mo- to reduce biodiversity by ignoring the ot- bility. We think that this is a fundamental ters and contributing to habitat loss and error. More importantly still we provide a their demise. If we scale this up to all the different perspective and solutions that are highway plans and high speed rail plans in ready to go on a Monday morning when China, India and Africa we can see where politicians and decision makers turn up at the big red transgressing wedge labelled work and ask “what shall we do today”. “biodiversity” comes from.

We do not say that transport issues are the In this issue of WTPP we once again fo- biggest issues that have to be addressed cus on intelligent solutions to future trans- on the planet (hunger, poverty, war, dis- port that have the potential to shift us into ease, torture, violence and rape are also a way of thinking and doing that avoids abominations). However if we really want transgressing planetary boundaries. To- to advance towards a sustainable future mas Björnsson draws attention to the ur- we do say that the transport debate is still gent need for improved cycling facilities in in very poor shape with little understand- southern Sweden that cost a small frac- ing of the need to sort out our relationship tion of what is spent on highways. Martin with mobility, speed and distance if we are Schiefelbusch shows how rural transport to achieve other declared policy objec- problems can be solved by community tives. Put very crudely we have no chance transport initiatives. Stephen Knight- whatsoever of altering paradigms or de- Lenihan reveals the extent to which development trajectories related to planetary sirable sustainability objectives can be boundaries if we do not sort out transport. undermined by a lack of will at national Even more worryingly those who alert us level. His account of the situation in New to planetary boundary trajectories and Zealand will resonate strongly with the consequences do not have a lot to offer situation in many other countries. The ar- on the Monday morning question. How do ticle by Serena Kang describes a “flexible we deliver a new transport future, how do bus utility model” that has the potential we restructure space and time to reduce to more closely match the supply of bus vehicle numbers and distances travelled services with the demand for those serv- by vehicles by at least 50%? How do we ices and thereby increase levels of use of reallocate transport spending to produce public transport. a better quality of life for everyone and thereby terminate the building of expen- As always we welcome feedback on these sive new transport infrastructure and cre- articles and on our editorial comment. ate a socially and ecologically just society? This is a problem for planetary bounda- Professor John Whitelegg ries especially the climate change and Editor biodiversity boundaries. We are drown- ing in high quality analyses of the impact Note 1: of transport on greenhouse gas emissions The book can be accessed from this site: and the impact of transport infrastructure http://thehumanquest.org/ and fossil fuel exploitation on biodiver- There is also an article describing the sity. Even in the small city of Lancaster planetary boundaries research and this is in NW England a totally useless road, un- available here: der 5kms in length, costing £120 million is http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art32/ making its way through funding and decision making procedures towards delivery. Note 2: Amongst many large, negative impacts http://www.lancasterguardian.co.uk/news/lancaster-and-district-news/tv-star-backs-m6-link-ot- of this road scheme is the damage it will ters-1-5133129 do to an otter colony on the River Lune (Note 2 and the cover picture on this is- http://www.lancasterguardian.co.uk/news/business/ sue). Biodiversity is such a big issue that m6-link-otters-hitch-1-5063345 5 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 ABSTRACTS AND KEYWORDS Road congestion, vehicles emissions to ensuring environmental sustainability and the intention to use public bus have been compromised by central gov- services in Malaysia – A flexible bus ernment’s narrowing interpretation of the utility model law. This paper explores the difficulty of embedding sound sustainability principles Serena A. G. Kang, K. Jayaraman, Keng in a democracy lacking strong mechanisms Lin Soh for holding the executive to account, and suggestions are made as to how to over- Abstract: come this. The unreliable public transport services Keywords: ecological assessment, sus- of the world have caused dissatisfaction tainability, legislation, transport among its commuters. In Malaysia, despite the hefty government subsidy, only 16% Bürgerbus - German experiences in of all commuters use the public transport community transport (Government’s Performance Management and Delivery Unit, 2011). The increase in Martin Schiefelbusch the use of private vehicles has caused road congestion and air pollution. The harmful Abstract: pollutants from vehicular emission signifi- The paper presents the concept of “Bürger- cantly impact human health and chronic bus”, the main form of voluntary-based diseases. This conceptual paper draws community transport in Germany. It sums upon literature in service marketing, con- up the history of the concept, but is mainly sumer behaviour and social cognitive the- based on experiences made by the author ories, and the input from the experts of a during a three-year consultancy project in public bus company. The paper suggests a the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. flexible bus utility model that will be able Core elements of a Bürgerbus are a mini- to meet the variation of demand - in order bus, which can be driven with a car li- to fill the gaps between service expecta- cence, the volunteer drivers, and the local tions, perception and satisfaction of bus knowledge and contacts they bring into commuters - to sustain and promote rid- the development of the service. However, ership. The bus utility model offers a likely the process relies also on cooperation with solution to enhance bus ridership and re- the local authorities, public transport produce environmental emissions caused by viders, local businesses and other stake- the heavy reliance on private vehicles. holders. Various models exist to organise The bus utility model may be customized this “teamwork”. For a successful imple- to benefit other developing countries with mentation, it is essential to know and re- similar low ridership. spond to the motivations and interests of the volunteers and to allow space for flex- Key words: Car Dependence; Demand ible solutions. Responsive Services; Bus Utilization; Rid- There are currently about 170 Bürgerbus ership. services in Germany. Experience shows that the development process often re- Governance and Ecological Sustain- quires patience and commitment from all ability: the case of transport funding parties involved, as the formal framework in New Zealand for public transport is not well suited to small-scale, volunteer-based concepts Dr Stephen Knight-Lenihan like this. However, once started, very few schemes have closed for lack of drivers Abstract or demand. A Bürgerbus cannot replace Since 2003 New Zealand’s transport sec- mainline public transport, but it provides tor has been legally required to contrib- a low-cost way of filling gaps and catering ute to sustainable development outcomes, for specific needs that are otherwise- dif including environmental sustainability. At- ficult to capture. tempts by the state’s funding agency to Keywords: community transport, volint- identify how transport could contribute eers, public transport 6 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 A Swedish Bicycle Plan

Tomas Björnsson

Abstract The Swedish Society for Nature Conser- vation has compiled a bicycle plan for the southernmost region of Sweden. The plan elaborates the need to build or improve bicycle tracks between the built-up areas in the region to facilitate commuting and to create a complete bicycle network in the region. A comparison with the budget spent on new road construction shows that a mere ten per cent of the current road budget will have to be redirected to new bicycle tracks in order to complete this plan in ten years. Keywords: Cycling, bicycle tracks, climate change, Sweden, mitigation, peak car

7 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Road congestion, vehicles emissions it is aggravated by the relatively low fuel and the intention to use public bus charges even though it has been slightly services in Malaysia – A flexible bus revised upward lately. While restriction utility model of car ownership is seen in its neighbour country, Singapore, there is no such policy Serena A. G. Kang, K. Jayaraman, Keng to dissuade car ownership in Malaysia. The Lin Soh alarming statistics produced and published by the Malaysian Road Transport Depart- 1. Introduction ment (RTD) shows a rise of 11% in the The Malaysian government introduced registration of new cars and 28% of motor- seven National Key Result Areas (NKRAs) cycles in the last six years (2005 – 2010). for improvement between the duration of There was also a 26% increase in licenses 2009 to 2011 in an attempt to transform issued to drivers. The increase of private the country to become a developed nation. vehicles on roads amplifies road conges- One of the NKRAs addresses the need to tion which is already rampant in urban ar- improve public transport infrastructure eas has created severe parking problems and its current low ridership. While the and fatal accidents (Table 1 & Figure 1). NKRAs introduced in the Malaysian Gov- The Road Safety Department (MIROS) ernment Transformation Program (GTP) reported an increase of more than 50% set the need to improve public transport of total casualties and fatality rates from infrastructures and ridership, the latest road accidents involving private vehicles. annual report (2011) of the Government’s A case study in the district of Klang was Performance Management and Delivery conducted to assess the usage of private Unit (PEMANDU) showed a modal split of vehicles and occurrence of accidents. 16:84 ratio between the ridership of public The assessment focused on motorcyclists transport and private vehicles. The gov- killed and seriously injured (MKI) showing ernment has committed USD11.6 billion the percentage of MKI and areas involving to build infrastructures to fulfil the need high MKI. These areas are the residential, for better public transport services (Min- industrial, businesses and residential ad- istry of Finance Malaysia, 2009). In spite jacent to school or industrial places. of the effort, the unfilled service capacity in public transport has left a cumulative In 2006, the National Cancer Registry Ma- loss of USD118 million after tax in the laysia registered 2.05 million cases of lung book of ‘Prasarana’, the wholly owned and cancer, and it ranked as the second most government linked public transport com- common cancer among the population in pany (Syarikat Prasarana Negara Berhad, the country (Zainal et al., 2006). Lung 2009). The conjoint management between cancer has been linked to motor vehicle Economic Planning Unit (EPU), Ministry of exhaust emissions (WHO, 2012). There- Transport (MOT), Road Transport Depart- fore, the commonly believed negative im- ment (RTD), Commercial Vehicles Licens- pact of vehicular emissions on health costs ing Board (CVLB) and Prasarana in the past and potential risk leading to mortality and contributed to multiple jurisdictions in the chronic diseases should not be ignored. public transport industry and has led to in- The rationale of this conceptual paper to effective coordination of public transport examine the current policy on freedom of system in the country until the establish- vehicle ownership is therefore legitimised. ment of Land Public Transport Commission The poor utilization of public transport has (SPAD) in 2010. Table 1: Klang District MKI, Source: MIROS, Malaysia (2009) Area % of MKI Besides, car own- Residential 32 ership is affordable Industrial 19 Business and service 12 and encouraged Residential adjacent to school or industrial 11 by the economic Institutional 9 growth. The habit of Vacant lands 9 travelling in private Agriculture 5 vehicles has been Others 3 embedded strongly in society. This hab- Table 1: Klang District MKI, Source: MIROS, Malaysia (2009) 8 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 to the nearest stops/ stations of the public transport in the absence of park and ride facilities. The distance of walking is partly caused by poor town- ship planning which focused on buildings as landscape (Sulaim- an, 2010) instead of transportation and its connectivity with the stops/stations. Figure 1: Nationwide accidents rate involving private vehicles Source: MIROS, Malaysia (1995 -2010) been speculated to be associated with neg- 2. Urban centres and the sub-sets of ative public perception of the services and urban centres poor cognition of clean air in the environ- The integrated national transportation ment among citizens. Although research network has been proposed for four con- revealed that people desire to be driven urbations to be developed as integrated (Diana and Mokhtarian, 2009) when en- regions, with emphasis on levels of impor- countering a worsening traffic condition, tance which take priority as growth zone the continuous use of private vehicles as in the country (Table 2 & Figure 2). Table 2: Levels of conurbation, Source: Adapted from National Physical Plan of Malaysia (2010) Level 1 National growth conurbation Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya, Shah Alam, Klang, Nilai and Seremban Level 2 Regional growth conurbation George Town, Johor Bahru and Kuantan Level 3 Intermediate (connective) Ipoh and Melaka growth conurbation Level 4 Urban growth centres Kota Bahru, Alor Star, Kuala Terengganu and Kangar Table 2: Levels of conurbation, Source: Adapted from National Physical Plan of Malaysia (2010)

This study takes a snap- shot of level 1 conurbation (Kuala Lumpur) and level 2 conurbation (George Town) to dis- cuss and understand the diminishing modal share of public transport. Al- though there is an increase in population in the regions, the decline in public transport rider- Figure 2: Integrated national transportation network, ship (Table 3) is appar- Source: The Federal Department of Town and Country ent. The declining modal Planning, National share may be related to Physical Plan (2010), Ministry of Housing and Local the increase in highway Government, Malaysia. a daily transport mode remains a trend. network supply, changes in household While people are also being driven in pub- sizes, a rise in household incomes, afford- lic buses, public transport companies have ability of cars, and poor quality and unre- not succeeded in persuading higher rider- liability of services offered by the public ship because of a lack of flexibility in its transport. services. In addition, there is a need to walk more than 400 meters from home 9 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 transport system in urban centre of KL, Year % of modal share Table 3: Modalparticularly share of public in transportproviding the high capacity 1995 34 Source: Japanlinkages International between Co-operation the sub Agency sets (JICA) to the– Study ur - 1999 20 on integratedban urban centre transport of strategiesKL (Figure for environmen 3 & Figuretal 4). In 2008 12 improvementplaces not served by rail, public bus serv- 2010 13 ices will provide support as feeders to the rail network, specifically on the routes to Table 3: Modal share of public trans- the centre of KL. The forming of orbital de- port mands in the sub sets of the urban area Source: Japan International Co-oper- within KL, especially to areas such as to ation Agency (JICA) – Study on inte- Petaling Jaya (PJ), Damansara, Serdang, grated urban transport strategies for Cheras Gombak or Selayang (Figure 4), environmental improvement are still unexplored and these routes need 3. Travel pattern and demand the services of public buses. In relation The most common transport vehicles used to travelling within the sub sets of the ur- for regular and short distance trips in urban area, for instance, from Shah Alam to ban transport are motorcycles, cars and Klang, the destinations are visibly scat- monorails. In contrast, modes of transport tered. Although it is lower than the radial that cater for longer distance trips in inter- demands compared to the centre of KL, city transports are usually by way of cars, this travelling requires better accessibility taxis, chartered buses and trains. Visibly, and good quality of public bus services. there are rarely walking and cycling in the country as there are no proper infrastructures such as walkways, cycle lanes and parking built to encourage these activities. Similarly, pedestrian routes, signage, crossing facilities and bridges or subways are minimal. The dual carriageways were generally constructed without off-street parking, pedestrians are not protected from humid weather and subject to risk of massive traffic of the streets. The alternative modes of transportation such as car pooling and sharing are also not popular among the Figure 4: Travel demand in KL, Malaysia. urban commuters. For instance, among Source: adapted from SPAD (2011). the 3 million vehicles in urban centre of In the George Town (GT) urban centre, car- Kuala Lumpur (KL), over 65% of these riageways had originally been constructed vehicles are travelling as single occupan- along the east coast of the Penang Island cy vehicles (Rosly, 2010). The urban rail (Figure 5) to be linked to the north of Pe- has been recognised as the spine of the ninsular Malaysia. While the market and industrial forces have further induced new development along the east coast of the island, there are more commuters travelling to work by private vehicles (as indicated in numeric figures in Figure 6) caused by higher employment opportunities coming from the development. As a result, the GT urban centre has a much higher traffic volume. However, the improvement of carriageways is not keeping abreast with this development, mainly because these dual carriageways cannot be widened despite the increasing traffic volume. There- Figure 3: Future structural plan of KL fore public buses have to make their ways urban centre. within the narrow and congested streets in Source: adapted from SPAD (2011). order to serve the riders. 10 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 4. Government subsidies in public transport By the beginning of April 2010, the Malay- sian government has expended USD550 million in infrastructures of public transport, and provided the highest direct subsidy of USD443 million to the public transport company (Table 4). Rapid Kuala Lumpur and Rapid Penang, being public bus companies and also as subsidiaries of Prasarana, each received 100% capital subsidy and 50% operational subsidy from the Ministry of Finance (Table 4 & Table Figure 5: Future structural plan of 5). That funding was used to subsidise George Town urban centre. 31% petroleum and 32% diesel fuel of Source: adapted from SPAD (2011). Rapid bus in KL and in George Town urban centres respectively (Table 5). While PE- MANDU was praised highly on its achieve- ment, the overall performance of the public transport company left a huge loss in the book of Prasarana (Table 6). Type (year) of allocation Amount Infrastructure (2010) USD0.55 billion Expenditure (2011) USD443 million Additional Budget (2012) USD40 million

Table 4: Government subsidies in Figure 6: Travel demand in George public transport Town, Malaysia. Source: adapted Source: Budgets Malaysia (2009 – from Rapid Penang (2011). 2012)

Total Type per litre Amount (%) of subsidies Urban centre riders (price versus cost to a rider) Petroleum/litre Government subsidises RM0.85 George Town 80,000 (Actual price - RM2.75, rider pays - RM1.90) (31%)

Diesel/litre Government subsidises RM0.86 Kuala Lumpur 380,000 (Actual price - RM2.66, (32%) rider pays - RM1.80) Table 5: Daily ridership of public bus/ Government subsidies in fuel consumption (2010 – 2012) Source: RAPID Kuala Lumpur, RAPID Penang (2011) and Budgets Malaysia (2009 – 2012)

Table 6: Financial Statements (Syarikat Prasarana Berhad) Source: Companies Commission Malaysia (2010) 11 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 5. Intention to use public bus and serve as independent variables are service pro-environment cognition reliability, service quality, service informa- In social cognitive research, intention is tion, demand responsive services, pricing assumed to be the immediate antecedent of ticket, smart ticketing, bus right-of-way of behaviour (Bamberg et al., 2003). The and bus image. These variables are used need to identify the primary cause of not collectively to test the intention to use bus using public bus service and work towards services, the dependent variable, through removing the barrier to enhance usage is confirmation of service delivery and- sat fundamentally crucial. People may have isfaction. The socio economic factor is in- different needs and expectations which corporated to moderate the relationship of serve to motivate usage of public bus serv- the variables. The detailed descriptions of ices. At the same time, strategies to attract these variables are listed below. commuters and provide more information about an improved bus service system 6.1. Service reliability may produce higher switching opportunity. Commuters may experience longer wait at While recognizing that there is no ‘one size bus stops if bus bunching occurs due to fits all’ bus utility model, the overall sus- unreliable service schedules. This causes tainability of bus services (Kennedy, 2002) anxiety during waiting time and probably in the long run need to be considered. uncertainty during trips. Bus service reli- Mesa et al. (2009) had studied robustness ability is critical in influencing travel de- on “system that maintains its functionality cision and researches have been studied under perturbations”. It was also said that on punctuality, time deviation at stops, a good bus utility model must be able to unevenness on stops as a dimension of absorb unplanned demand and minimize service reliability (Chen et al., 2009), operating costs in lost ridership. In addi- route length, service frequency and pro- tion, environmentally sustainable buses vision of bus lanes to identify causes of compared to overcrowded private vehicles unreliable bus services. Marketing litera- need to be encouraged. An effort to in- tures claimed that punctuality or delay vestigate health risk awareness caused by of buses impacted overall service quality transportation related environmental pol- evaluation (Taylor, 1994), while Transpor- lution was conducted by Morris and Smart tation research reported that punctuality (2012), but showed no significant result. increases reliability of bus services (Oort An environmental awareness survey con- and Nes, 2008). Previous researches ducted among the four largest cities in the have recognized service reliability as the East Asia, namely Beijing, Seoul, Taipei key factor which measures performance and Tokyo, reported that “riding a pub- of bus operations (Benh, 1995). Several lic transportation” is believed by most to methods have been advanced to minimize be environmental friendly (Zheng, 2009). waiting time, such as offering various The major findings recently indicated that types of bus ticket, provide better service involvement of the public in direct experi- information at bus stops, selling advance ences of pro-environmental activities will bus ticket and rounding up fare price to catalyse environmental knowledge into avoid keeping of small change (Dorbritz et a stronger motivating force compared to al., 2009). Bus punctuality ensures con- indirect experiences (Duerden and Witt, sistency of bus services and is expected 2010). The contribution from research of to build confidence among commuters pro-environmental cognition in promoting towards bus services. Later research us- decision to take public bus, change in life- ing Direct Ridership Model (Cervero et al., style and to be less dependent on conven- 2010), identified bus service frequency as tional vehicles need to be stressed by the the key service variable to estimate rider- policy makers. ship and found that patronage of bus services increases when the frequency of bus 6. Literature review services increases. Hensher et al. (2003) This study includes eight domains of through their quality service index, de- service expectations and perceptions of duced that service frequency is an impor- service which are pertinent to bus rider- tant attribute in public transport ridership. ship and will be used to test relationships The same was also stated by Friman and among the variables. The variables that Garling (2001) that absolute frequency is 12 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 important in public transport services. In sengers’ demands subject to various con- an attempt to grow the bus market, im- straints, including time taken for transfers provement of bus reliability could increase of buses, frequency headways and work patronage of up to 20% and improvement rules (Kimpel et al., 2008). Information on smooth riding has the highest impact displayed is found to have impact on bus compared to other improvement. patronage (Currie and Wallis, 2008). This includes displaying a large route number 6.2. Service quality and destination signage in front, at the The level of comfort projected by bus var- side and rear of the bus vehicle. This elec- ies widely from its seating arrangement to tronic signage must be easily readable and cleanliness, design, video, audio systems come also with audio announcement upon and air conditioning facilities. With a good arrival at stops, especially to prepare the public transport system and a very low elderly alight from a bus. Most commut- car use in Hong Kong, people still travel in ers generally appreciate service informa- cars citing primarily car usage as “helpful tion which is accurate and timely in order for carry things” (Cullinane and Cullinane, to travel with a peace of mind, minimum 2003). Fujii and Van (2009) discovered stress and tension, while trying to cope the relationship between perceived quality with the competing white collar work and and intention to use bus services is found city lives. Molin and Timmermans (2006) to be significant. The thermal comfort and showed service information plays a major air quality offered by bus is found to in- role in increasing the accessibility of the crease satisfaction of commuters (Shek bus services and commuters are willing and Chan, 2008). An approach used by to pay more for service information pro- Singapore government to promote public vided if it is useful to them. Khattak et al. transport as a more competitive trans- (2003) showed similar findings. Dziekan port mode has ascertained improved com- and Kottenhoff (2007) developed a commuter travel times, greater comfort and prehensive framework of the possible ef- convenience in bus service network helps fects of “dynamic at-stop real-time infor- create positive public perception on public mation displays” for public transportation transport and less dependency on private and such displays yield better service qual- cars. Chen and Chao (2011) revealed that ity. Bus companies in Japan, the UK and drivers perceive greater inconvenience or Singapore provide real time information difficulty to use public transport compared on the expected time of arrival and routing to private car use. Friman (2004) claimed via mobile phones. In the United States, that the interior design and seat availabil- the training given to the elderly to access ity in a bus should be given attention com- public transit information has increased pared to other attributes. Travel time and their confidence and comfort in using pub- travel cost are also the factors triggering lic transport. This confirms the postulation people’s intention to shift modes of trans- service information could result in a likely portation (Nor et al., 2006). Kato and Fu- change of longer-term travel behaviour. jiu (2007) has also derived the theoretical analysis of the value of travel time savings 6.4. Demand Responsive Services (VTTSs) observing increases as income Base on the original idea of Demand Re- increases; the variation of VTTS over in- sponsive Transport (DRT) (Bakker, 1999), come depends on whether the marginal this conceptual paper incorporates flexibil- utility is increasing or decreasing with re- ity feature as a service design to suit com- spect to work time. muters living more than 400 meters away from the bus stops. The demand respon- 6.3. Service information sive service is to serve journeys that are Commuters need information of service currently not well served by the traditional hours to decide on regular transport ac- services. The flexible bus utility model will tivities such as shopping, travel to work or subsequently provide Rapid with insights basic social interaction. A good and timely to improve or reinforce service expecta- service information of routes and schedules tion to align with the perception of people helps to meet the demand of such activi- who intend to use the bus services. It is ties. Scheduling is a complex process and recognised that service routes are to ac- it consists of matching bus services to pas- commodate needs, if not the demands 13 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 of commuters, but well planned service ular stops. Therefore it would continue routes and feeder services enhance utili- to service the rest of the regular stops to zation of the services. There are many in- allow commuters to board or alight. The teresting researches in the field of trans- cut service is notably essential during the portation, but a conceptual utility model of morning peak (5.30 am to 8.10 am) and bus services remains unprecedented. No the evening peak (4.30 pm to 7.30 pm) of significant research on bus routing strate- local time. This would save travel time for gies has been attempted using the flexible commuters. During those peak hours, cut service routes and schedules, along vari- services can be introduced to complement ous directional approaches to increase rid- or substitute the normal fixed route for ership. There are so far, Palma and Lindsey selected routes. Therefore identification of (2001) who adopted an optimal timetable stops along those selected routes with low which minimizes the delay of service and population density providing strategic op- cost, while Kageson (2009) debated on the portunity for cut service is crucial. use of preferred travel time of commuters. There is also the stated preference ap- 6.4(b) Selected stop service proach (Hensher et al., 2003) which devel- Selected stop service targets specific mar- oped a service index based on passengers’ kets and delivers commuters directly to perspectives. This is later identified as a specific destinations such as a high- sat strong influence of passenger satisfaction urated employment hub, popular tourist and ridership of bus services. It is reported spots, an airport during peak hour, leisure that a large market exists for flexible bus and festival trips. The bus serves the com- services both for the seniors and juniors muters of specific segments. Timetables (Alsnih and Hensher, 2003). The different may be geared specifically for target mar- purposes of trips made by active commut- kets to meet particular needs. The bus op- ers will entail demand on flexible bus serv- erators plan the stops with the coopera- ices and create challenges to bus operation of the “destined” segments. tors in meeting the various needs of the commuting population. The experiences 6.4(c) Feeder service gained in India has shown bus operators The bus serves as a feeder link to tradi- introduced cut services during office peak tional bus services. It pools commuters hours by truncating the regular distances from residential areas, brings them to the to reduce commuters waiting time. In Ma- main bus hub or station and then takes the laysia, commuters expect a larger fleet commuters by the regular services accord- of buses to serve demand during peak ing to scheduled timetables and service hours and to combat congestion caused routes. The feeder service may overcome by car dependence. The revived initiative the congestion caused by the over use of on DRT in the UK which enhances tradi- private vehicles. It serves the majority of tional bus services is an innovative serv- the residential areas leading to the com- ice designed to address wider transport mon and frequently visited places such as and environmental policy problem. DRT grocery markets, shopping malls, schools is recognized as a flexible bus operations and recreational places (demonstrated in tailored for travel from point to point with- Figure 7). out fixed routes and timetables (Sihvola et al., 2010), but it is based on commuters’ 6.5. Pricing of tickets travel desires and trip requests to pick and Research has proven a higher acceptabil- deliver (Cortes and Jayakrishnan, 2002). ity and more positive personal outcome The different and spatial demand level of expectation in relation to transport pricing bus services could be met by the various policy when it is intended to reduce con- improved DRTs which fit well into the re- gestion (Schuitema et al., 2010). Empiri- sponsiveness of bus utility model. This bus cal findings also showed that personal out- utility model has incorporated three forms come expectation is proven to be a good of DRTs reported by Enoch et al. (2004): predictor on acceptability of road pricing (Schade and Schlag, 2003). Another find- 6.4(a) Cut service ing reported “one-way bus fare” gives rise A cut service is similar to the normal fixed to a strong negative impact on satisfaction route service but would skip selected reg- (Hensher et al., 2003). The preliminary 14 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Figure 7: Diagram shows imposed linkages from suburban to city centre using the feeder bus services network. Source: adapting from SPAD, Malaysia (2011). survey conducted by the Rapid expert and 6.6. Smart ticketing sponsored by the Malaysian Government, The smart ticketing system deploys inte- confirmed that the price of ticket is a sen- grated ticketing and automatic fare collec- sitive factor to the Malaysian commuters tion system (Government Transformation and it is one of the major factors affect- Program, 2010). The process involves stor- ing the demand of bus ridership. Litman ing the entitlement of passenger to travel (2004) concluded similar findings on fare electronically on a chip that is usually em- reduction and service improvements as ef- bedded in a plastic card. The card serves fective ways to increase bus ridership. The as a smart ticket which is then validated study in four major Swiss cities of Basel, when it is presented to a smart reader and Bern, Geneva and Zurich which introduced an ‘integrated’ ticketing system. The valid cheap season tickets to increase the de- travel card becomes a legitimate ticket to mand of bus services claimed to have zero travel with the bus. Bus service reliabil- marginal trip cost, and another study con- ity is often affected by variability in time ducted in the German city of Freiburg was spent due to onboard ticketing and sale found to have similar outcomes (FitzRoy (Dorbritz et al., 2009). The proposal to and Smith, 1999), but added that cheap use the smart ticketing system is intended and attractive bus season tickets must to reduce the time taken to wait for the be offered with dense, frequent and fast transaction of purchasing tickets on board bus services in order to offset the inher- and the subsequent journey time of com- ent disadvantages of time and cost factors muters. Henceforth, smart ticketing hopes in public transport. Chen and Chao (2011) to stimulate demand and draw more peo- suggested to reduce bus fare and to offer ple to use bus services. Empirical research free service for a period of time to break in smart ticketing is lacking to address the habit of car use. Hensher et al. (2003) the concerns of waiting time spent on the identified fares of bus services impacts ticketing process. A comparison between on user choice of travelling mode. The smart ticketing and onboard ticketing as change in fare levels and change in fare single server will be undertaken in this types are both found significant in the study. study by Gkritza et al. (2011). With these indications, the Penang state government 6.7. Bus right -of-way has initiated the free travel incentive pass It is evident that drivers are likely to for six months in 2011 and that incentive change routes when they receive real-time has also proven it was effective in attract- information relating to traffic congestion ing a fraction of habitual car drivers to use and make decision to divert from conges- public transport, especially the workers tion (Feng and Kuo, 2007). Traffic conges- working in Penang industrial park. tion caused by overwhelming private vehicles on roads contributes to unhealthy stress for drivers. Cullinane and Cullinane 15 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 (2003) recommended to increase bus-on- significantly their future satisfaction. Perez ly-lanes to resolve the congestion. There et al. (2007) found that there is a limit in are many practical ways to implement spe- increasing service quality to bring about cific bus lanes. In a similar direction, Nor improvement in intention to use but sug- et al. (2006) also recommended the use gested a proactive enhancement of per- of bus lanes, bus gates and information ception of services in order to improve technology system (ITS) to improve the intention to use bus services. Joewono efficiency of bus services, while Cervero et and Kubota (2007) showed public per- al. (2010) found exclusive lane increases ception is useful to bridge the differences bus ridership. Lastly, it was observed the of perceptions among service users. This same provision of an exclusive bus-lane is agreed in Ajzen (1991) who concluded was also recommended other major cities that social norm influences on behavioural in the world (Table 7). intention and is also favoured by Schade and Schlag (2003). 6.8. Bus image Waiting has been the symbolic image of 6.10. Service delivery public bus transport. The readily available The distance from home to bus stops and access to a car conveys a higher status of the distance from home to work are the a person who needs transportation. In the factors influencing the usage of bus serv- Malaysian society, waiting is perceived as ices and private cars (Nor et al., 2006). a measurement of status. An observation Perez et al. (2007) concluded that em- has superiors wait less and in better sur- ployee training programs are essential roundings than their subordinates. On the to enhance service quality and delivery. other hand, subordinates wait more and Thorsten (2004) studied customer orien- sometimes even unnecessarily. Therefore tation of service employees and found that a projection of superior bus image is im- employing customer-oriented service per- sonnel is a crucial step towards the economic success of service firm. This is also supported later by Patterson and Mattila’s (2008) proposi- tion in service encounter evaluations which stated recruitment and training should be based on “hire for attitude and train for Table 7: Bus lane provision of major cities skill”. Various researches Source: PEMANDU (2011) have acknowledged the portant, and images relating to the follow- evidence of customers’ ing may be effective in promoting rider- satisfaction when behaviours of employ- ship: ees were given emphasis in the process • Bus status – “taking a bus” is no of service design and delivery (Friman, longer meant for only lower income group. 2004, Friman et al., 2001, Friman and • Bus saves time – commuters wait Garling, 2001). Among the specific -at less because of more punctual bus. tributes which give satisfaction (Friman • Bus and efficient workers - travel- and Garling, 2001) there is an indication ling as passengers and less as drivers give of strong influence on overall satisfaction less tension to commuters and they will by employees’ reliability and interaction in be able to multitask while on board of bus delivering public transport services. In the such as planning. quest of creating an overall service quality index (SQI) on commercial bus service 6.9. Perception of service attributes, Hensher et al. (2003) identified In a study of users satisfaction with public several bus service attribute levels which transport, Pedersen et al. (2010) reported contributes substantially towards passen- that the past biasness derived from nega- ger satisfaction and service effectiveness. tive incidents with public transport affect Domains included in this study of service 16 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 delivery are bus stop facilities and drivers’ 8. Development of conceptual frame- attitude. Construction of bus stop is based work on the number of considerations such as For the purposes of replication, these con- the number of loading areas, design of cerns are taken into the conceptual devel- loading areas, one way or two way traffic, opment of a bus utility model (Figure 8). and traffic signals along the road. It is also The conceptual model reveals the follow- dependent on whether the bus stop is an ing: off line bus stop or on-the-street bus stop. • The degree of satisfaction of the Zaworski (2003) gave an explanation on traditional users of bus services design and types of bus stops. The choice • Factors influencing the non users of of bus stop locations could potentially in- the bus services fluence bus utilization. However, the pre- • To make policy recommendations requisite to bus capacity planning is to in- to improve overall utilization of the bus fluence the desire to utilize services. Other services factors considered in design and choice The bus transport networks and services of bus stop locations will include: shelter differ from country to country. The vari- for the bus stop, walking distances to bus ables proposed in the framework may be stop, locations of passenger, driveway lo- customized to suit generic needs. This cations, physical obstructions, transfer op- conceptual model is related to two well portunities and dwell time. Since bus stops established theories, namely Expectation are the first point of contact between the Confirmation Theory (ECT) (Oliver, 1980) passenger and the bus service provider and Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Yang et al., 2009), its service impression (Ajzen, 1991). TPB supports behaviour on commuters’ satisfaction should not be that is determined by an intention to pro- overlooked. There was a suggestion to duce behaviour, and such intention and assess the overall attributes of bus stop actual behaviour have been found to be design in the satisfaction of commuters highly correlated. TPB explained in liter- (Friman and Garling, 2001). ature is the perception of service as a form of attitude and overall evaluation of 7. Users perception of traditional bus services (Bolton and Drew, 1991). The dif- services ference between service expectation and This article reports on an original empiri- perception of service is of interest in the cal study conducted by ‘Urusbudi Transp- present article. If this difference is negli- lan’ in 2010 drawing feedback from pub- gible, the confirmation of bus services is lic bus transport users (n = 10,000) in ensured, and in turn it leads to the ex- Klang. Only 38% of bus users found the tent of satisfaction. Based on the extent of service provided satisfactory, and 46% satisfaction, the frequent commuters will of them found it acceptable (PEMANDU, continue to use the bus services while the 2010). As at 2011, another feedback sur- intention of the occasional commuters of vey on users perception of public trans- bus services may improve. port was again conducted (n = 20,000) Churchill and Surprenant (1982) elucidat- and revealed a rating of 50% on level of ed expectation as an anticipated behav- satisfaction, a bus loading factor of 56% iour which is characterized as predictive, in the peak of capacity filling, and a mar- and satisfaction is an attitude towards the ginal improvement of ridership from 12% total sum of various attributes of a par- to 16% in public transport modal share ticular service. Commuters as users of as compared to private vehicles. In these bus services derive satisfaction in using empirical studies, the key issues identified bus services. Satisfaction creates positive by the public as hindrance to utilise the effect on commuter’s intention to use or public bus services are the overall punc- continuance intention to use bus services. tuality, long waiting and travel time, re- The satisfaction construct was prominent stricted accessibility, poor bus condition, in marketing researches as the main rea- the need of interchange service between son for users to patronize services (Oliver, stops, poor bus drivers’ attitude, and lack 2010), which could be equated to a simi- of availability of information on service op- lar context of patronizing bus services. Ex- eration (PEMANDU, 2011). periencing the bus services leads to confirmation of service delivery and brings users 17 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Figure 8: Conceptual framework to either feel good or otherwise about such 9. Implications for managerial prac- services, and further derives positive or tice negative impact on users’ satisfaction. In In view of the discussion appended above, addition, in the TPB (Ajzen, 1991), it was it is recognized that effort in reducing revealed that attitude is the predictor of emissions, congestion and air pollution the intention to use certain travel mode, requires serious attention to manage the and descriptive norm as an added variable number of vehicles on roads as well as is a significant predictor to use bus serv- providing an alternative modes of trans- ices (Eriksson and Forward, 2011). Infor- portation. The introduction of environmen- mation availability on bus schedules and tal friendly cars may help in resolving the routes are crucial to intended users irre- problem but it comes with high research spective of the diverse objectives of trips. costs. It makes the development of a bus Punctuality of bus arrival and departure utility model timely and warranted. Both at bus stops are hinged to the arrival and carrots and sticks must be carried out as departure of its destination and vice ver- means for more effective city environmen- sa. Service information made available to tal management. The effective and flex- users facilitates intention to use and con- ible bus utility model may serve as one tinuance intention to use services. Once of the carrots, while higher taxes to limit users are onboard the bus, other services car ownership and traffic management be- will become apparent and their impact on ing the sticks are expected concurrently usage continues. The intended use and to reduce the current heavy dependence continuance intention to use bus services on car use. Although Demand Responsive depend heavily on the inherent character- Transport (DRT) provides the benefit as a istics of services and cost of services as an flexible transport service when encounter- alternative mode of transportation. These ing changes in travel demand (Jokinen et characteristics pose a degree of ease or al., 2011), its implementation requires a difficulty to use bus services. Moreover, thorough understanding of its market seg- drivers’ ethics and location of bus stops mentation and prudent cost management. are instrumental to the level of satisfac- The introduction of Feeder Service (FS) is tion of bus users. The better the experi- intended to overcome issues on accessibil- ence of service delivery will give rise to ity and connectivity encountered by 63% confirmation of both the tangible and in- (Government Transformation Program, tangible performances of bus services. Us- 2010) of the Malaysian population who live ers of services compare the service deliv- within the inner city at 400 meters radius ery and their expectations of bus services. from the main bus routes or transfer hubs. The more satisfied the users, the higher In addition, the Cut Service (CS) combats the intention and/or continuance intention the commuters’ cars loading on the road to use bus services. during the peak hours. When the demand warrants additional bus services, Selected 18 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Stop Service (SS) may rightfully serves adapted bus utility model. this purpose. Pricing strategy is crucial in the successful implementation of DRT services. It should be monitored and pe- Author Details; riodically checked against the costs of car Serena A. G. Kang use in order to persuade the needy com- Wawasan Open University, muters to use bus services, and eventually School of Business and Administration, embrace the bus as their daily transporta- 54 Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, tion tools. In addition, DRT could be de- 10050 Penang, Malaysia. signed with commuters pooling strategy to Email: [email protected] complement the existing regular service. The selected forms of DRTs introduced K. Jayaraman, in the bus utility model are to tackle the Universiti Sains Malaysia, specific and identified issues of bus serv- Graduate School of Business, ice utilization in the country. It is worth 11800 Penang, Malaysia. to mention that whether it is the demand Email: [email protected] that fluctuates during the service hours or issues about service delivery, it remains Keng Lin Soh contextual. Transport practitioners may Universiti Sains Malaysia, consider and require adaptation of the bus School of Management, utility model to address respective local is- 11800 Penang, Malaysia. sues and needs. Email: [email protected]

10. Conclusions Acknowledgements: The global economy is going through dif- The conceptual paper represents the cul- ficult times and pinching on the country’s mination of two years of collaboration be- competitiveness. The conceptualization of tween the first author and Rapid, the larg- bus utility model is timely to enable the est bus company in Malaysia and a wholly optimal use of bus services, reduce traf- owned subsidiary of the government- fic congestion and boosts productivity of linked public transport company. Special workers. The government aims to achieve thanks are due to Osman Amir, Yaw Aun 25% of public transport ridership by the Lee, and Mohd. Tajudin from Rapid Pen- year 2013, mainly by integrating all rail ang, they have each given generous sup- lines in the Klang Valley into one anoth- port and information about Rapid’s oper to create a seamless travelling experi- erations. Anonymous reviewers offered ence for commuters. A provisional sum of useful criticisms in the 9th International USD11.2 billion is expended for five years Conference of the Asian Academy of Man- to purchase more buses of different sizes, agement where a conference paper was and create better infrastructure and facili- presented. The authors have also drawn ties for bus operations. It is vital to consid- on the research of many others, cited in er four strategic aspects of management the text, to conceptualize the model. We of bus services, namely 1) the accessibil- thank John D. Nelson and Steve Wright ity and connectivity, 2) the availability and (Centre for Transport Research, UK), and capacity, 3) the reliability and quality of John Whitelegg (Stockholm Environment journey time, and 4) the efficiency and Institute, UK), who have read an earlier status of bus as a transport tool. These draft of this article and provided many in- aspects have been built in as service de- sightful comments. signs of the bus utility model. Scholarly, this conceptual model has initiated a wide spectrum of future research in a variety of disciplines. For instance, research in relation to sustainability of flexible transport, service integration of DRT with traditional bus, and specific and effective funding of future projects on public transport. It will be also interesting to predict behaviours across diverse cultural context using the 19 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Appendix: Glossary of terms

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24 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Governance and Ecological Sustain- the activities councils wish to undertake. ability: the case of transport funding in New Zealand Securing state funding for regional and local activities requires consistency with na- Dr Stephen Knight-Lenihan tional land transport funding goals identified by Government and realised through Introduction the National Land Transport Programme The 1999 New Zealand General Election (NLTP). So, for example, a local govern- saw a Labour-led Coalition government ment applying for cycling infrastructure replace a nine-year National-led govern- or demand management projects will be ment. The Coalition introduced sustain- funded if the proposal complies with na- able development provisions into legisla- tional priorities. Councils can also fund tion, in particular the Local Government such initiatives themselves, although as Act 2002 (LGA) and the Land Transport they are commonly part of a package of Management Act 2003 (LTMA). This com- activities, funding is usually shared. plemented the inclusion of sustainability provisions in the Resource Management In summary, the RMA, LGA and LTMA pro- Act 1991 (RMA; Table 1). vide the legal framework for integrating land use and transport as part of a process The LTMA is a strategic shift away from of addressing sustainable development. the previously narrow focus on efficiency Funding is a key influence on outcomes, and safety (Robertson, 2004), challenging and is substantially controlled (with stake- those administering central government- holder consultation) by central govern- allocated funds to demonstrate how trans- ment. port programmes address the significantly broader range of outcomes. In 2008 there was a change back to a Na- tional-led government, resulting in a shift Funds are raised through fuel excise and back to emphasising efficiency and safety. road user charges, vehicle registration, The substantive part of this paper offers and direct Government contributions. The proof that this National-led Cabinet focus funds are allocated across the ‘activity fails to fully account for LTMA sustainable classes’ of road infrastructure and main- development requirements. The paper also tenance, public transport, policing, coastal notes that it falls to the Transport Minister shipping, rail and behaviour change pro- (on advice from the Transport Ministry) grammes and projects. Funds are ad- to decide whether Cabinet’s focus reflects ministered by the New Zealand Transport legislative intent, and that Cabinet is now Agency, which also manages national proposing the removal of the LTMA sus- transport initiatives such as highways, tainable development provisions. The cir- which are fully funded through the NZTA. cularity of this process is questioned. Local government manages local transport The paper provides a cases study of the programmes through a mix of NZTA allo- difficulties in pursing sustainable develop- cated funds and local funding. Historically ment outcomes in a democracy that has an average of 50-60% of local transport minimal controls on the executive. Possi- initiatives are NZTA funded. ble mechanisms for reducing these difficulties are proposed. There are currently 11 regional, 61 city/ district and six unitary councils in New Method Zealand, with unitary councils having the A critique is undertaken of how funding al- combined functions of both local and re- location takes account of the need to con- gional government. Regional councils and tribute to ensuring environmental sustain- unitary authorities develop land transport ability. This is used to demonstrate the strategies and programmes, and plan for shifts in focus since 2003 with the pass- the funding and delivery of public trans- ing of the LTMA. As part of the critique, a port. The latter is governed by the Public definition of what ensuring environmental Transport Management Act 2008. The re- sustainability means is provided. In the gional programmes, prepared every three context of the LTMA, environmental sus- years, are key documents as they describe tainability is taken to mean ecological sus- 25 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013

Legislation/Policy Purpose/Objective Comment Resource Section 5: to promote the sustainable The RMA requires local Management Act management of natural and physical government to develop local and 1991 resources [by] managing the use, regional policy responses (plans) to development, and protection of natural reflect their local environmental and physical resources in a way, or at a conditions, with associated methods rate, which enables people and (usually in the form of regulatory communities to provide for their social, rules) and monitoring approaches to economic, and cultural well-being and give effect to the local agreed policy for their health and safety while responses. This is the dominant (a) sustaining the potential of natural piece of planning legislation and physical resources (excluding managing development and resource minerals) to meet the reasonably use in New Zealand, and is the foreseeable needs of future legislation outlining the process for generations; and (b) safeguarding the assessing the environmental effects life-supporting capacity of air, water, of any development. soil, and ecosystems; and (c) avoiding, remedying, or mitigating any adverse effects of activities on the environment. Local Government Section 3, inter alia, provides for local Sets out the purpose, role, functions, Act 2002 authorities to play a broad role in powers and duties of local promoting the social, economic, government. Enables communities environmental, and cultural well-being to work with local government to of their communities, taking a create long term plans reflecting a sustainable development approach. range of sustainable development outcomes. These are then incorporated into RMA-generated planning processes. Monitoring of outcomes emphasized. Land Transport Sections 14(a)(ii) and 19B(a)(ii)) None of the economic, social or Management Act require national and regional transport environmental aspects of sections 14 2003 programmes to contribute to assisting and 19 are assumed to dominate any economic development, safety and other outcome. National and security, improving access and regional transport programmes can mobility, protecting and promoting integrate with each other, long term public health, and ensuring plans and district plans, thereby environmental sustainability addressing sustainability outcomes across the RMA, LGA and LTMA. Government Policy GPS 2008 produced to guide how Reflects the sustainability Statement on Land transport funds should be allocated to requirements in the LTMA. Transport Funding realise the LTMA requirements. 2008 GPS 2009 Produced following the 2008 General Focuses on economic efficiency. Election and a change in government. GPS 2012 Updates the GPS 2009. Focuses on economic efficiency but with greater emphasis on energy efficiency and alternatives to private motor vehicles. General Elections & Dominant Party (all are coalition governments under New Zealand’s mixed member proportional voting system ). 1999 – Labour 2002 – Labour re- 2005 – Labour re- 2008 – National 2011 – National wins election elected elected Party wins re-elected. from National. election from Labour Table 1 Sustainability provisions in New Zealand legislation of direct relevance to the transport sector, and related policy shifts and elections referred to in text. tainability, given the broader social and Ecological sustainability is defined using economic aspects of environmental sus- an ecological assessment matrix (EAM) tainability are incorporated elsewhere in created by the author (Knight-Lenihan, sections 14 and 19 of the LTMA (Table 1). 2007). This identifies New Zealand’s key No definition of environmental sustainabil- ecological sustainability trends. The EAM ity is offered in the LTMA. assess the extent to which transport fund- 26 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 ing allocation accounts for such trends. Next, country-specific key trends are identified. These fall into two categories: The political critique focuses on the use of connectivity, and spatial and temporal cy- government policy statements as a tool cles. The results of this analysis for New to guide transport funding allocation, and Zealand are summarised in Table 32. The whether this circumvents legislative in- conclusion from this analysis is that New tent. Zealand is in net ecological decline.

Ecological Assessment Matrix Ecological sustainability can be defined in Estimating ecological sustainability ac- the context of the transport sector as fol- counts for the ecological price paid for lows. In order to contribute to ensuring economic growth and consequent com- environmental sustainability in the New promising of social-ecological system re- Zealand context, it would be necessary to silience, adaptability and transformability identify how a transport programme could (MA, 2005; Walker et al, 2004; Walker et assist in remediating the accumulated ef- al, 2006) as well as the need for a more fects of disturbance, modification and sophisticated linking between globalised fragmentation of the natural and physi- economics and ecological sustainability cal environment. This would incorporate (eg Kissinger & Rees, 2009). physical and contaminant accumulation and biodiversity impacts, and would ac- Ecological sustainability can be defined count for contributions to global impacts, as a measure of the net gain or loss from primarily climate change. The suggested human aggregate demand on the Earth’s management responses in Table 3 would gross ecological capacity to sustain hu- be used as a guide. Where remediation man (Moran et al, 2008) and non-human were not possible, avoiding exacerbating (WWF, 2010) life. the trends in Table 3 should be a requirement, with residual unavoidable impacts New Zealand’s positive economic perform- mitigated. ance continues to track declining ecologi- Principle Description 1. Scale, Ecosystems operate at different scales of space and time, and are nested. There is no interaction and absolute delineation between systems, and equally, functioning systems rely on complexity interactions with other systems. Complexity is a function of the overlap and interaction at different scales. Many ecosystem-level features arise only as a result of this complexity, and are not necessarily predictable from the component parts. 2. Bio- Disturbance of biological, geological and chemical cycles can be accommodated geochemical within ecological systems. However, cumulative disturbances and/or large-scale cycles disturbances can create profound changes to ecosystem functioning. 3. Specificity The basic biogeochemical cycles operate differently in different places and of place therefore take on or demonstrate unique aspects associated with those places. Ecological processes and the consequent abundance and distribution of species are influenced by local climate, altitude, longitude and latitude, coastal relationships, hydrology, soil characteristics and geomorphology, as well as biotic interactions (Dale & Haeuber 2001). Table 2 Ecological principles cal conditions (MfE, 2007) exemplified by This framing of the meaning of ecologi- net reductions in water quality (e.g. Scars- cal sustainability would have the following brook, 2006; Verburg et al, 2010) and bi- effect. Applications for transport funding odiversity values (DoC, 2011; Green and would need to demonstrate mechanisms Clarkson, 2005; Hitchmough et al, 2007). for assessing the direct and indirect eco- The EAM is a contribution to halting this logical impacts of transport initiatives lo- decline. It identifies key ecological issues cally, regionally and nationally. This would to be addressed as part of all development 1 Full references can be found in Knight-Lenihan and decision-making. This includes the 2007 (http://researchspace.itss.auckland.ac.nz/ transport sector. The EAM was created in handle/2292/3076) & Harker et al forthcoming two steps. The first describes the generic (available on request). 2 The trends are drawn a broad literature focusing ecological principles underpinning ecosys- on New Zealand ecosystems (Knight-Lenihan, 2007; tem functioning (Table 2)1. Harker et al, forthcoming). 27 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Key trend Description Suggested management responses: the tools31 available to decision-makers should enable Disturbance, Indigenous forest clearance, An assessment of, and response to, DMF relative to modification, wetland drainage, loss of the local situation and in a national context. fragmentation riparian systems, river The assessment of the self-sustainability of remnant damming, abstraction and ecosystems. channelization, soil erosion, introduction of exotic plants and animals. Contaminant Habitat clearance, introducing A strategic environmental assessment of accumulation pest species, changes in soil 1. cumulative and synergistic effects of and synergy, chemistry, structure and development over time and space. and availability, contaminant 2. where appropriate, ecological capacity accumulated impacts on water bodies. (biophysical limits) of local, regional, or physical Cumulative impacts (possibly national ecosystems or interacting sets of change significantly) underestimated. ecosystems to assess their ability to cope Non-linear (‘tipping point’) with accumulation and synergy. responses consequently under- 3. the risk (probability and scale of impact) of appreciated, requiring better triggering ‘tipping points’, both locally and assessment of biological and/or globally, and the consequent creation of structural/functional ecosystem low-value ecosystems. processes. Absence of 4. the potential for development with a net understanding possibly leading ecological benefit, and the creation of high to decisions compounding value/highly resilient ecological systems. existing negative trends. 5. the establishment of short, medium and long-term monitoring and feedback regimes as part of assessing trade-offs between current decision-making and long- term ecological welfare. Biodiversity Many areas with the highest The identification of opportunities to integrate decline biodiversity potential lie indigenous biodiversity management into coastal, outside the conservation estate. lowland and montane ‘working’ ecosystems 42. Functional biodiversity needs Focus on habitat protection and rehabilitation plus to be better managed to incorporating indigenous and functionally valuable increase the likelihood of exotic species into agricultural, commercial and improving ecosystem health, domestic land systems. integrity and resilience, as well A process to increase Government capacity for as contributions to ecosystem protecting indigenous biodiversity. services. The designing of a method to estimate the Underfunding for conservation improvement in ecosystem health and associated estate management needs to be resilience as a result of the restoration and/or addressed. protection of indigenous and exotic biodiversity.

Table 3 Key New Zealand terrestrial and freshwater trends and management responses. include cumulative impacts on land use And the current New Zealand situation? (such as stimulating growth at urban lim- Transport-related, project-by-project en- its and whether this was deemed desir- vironmental effects assessments do in- able). Full emissions profiles would also volve thorough examinations of local and be required. In addition, unavoidable re- catchment-wide ecological impacts. Two sidual effects would require compensatory recent (2010-2012) examples are Wel- actions to result in a net ecological ben- lington’s Transmission Gully (TG) and efit. Examples of the latter could include Auckland’s Waterview Connection (WC)5 contributing to land or water rehabilitation . Both involved in-depth assessments of within the same or similar catchments. ecological values and consequent avoiding

Off-setting through carbon sequestration or mitigating/offsetting more-than-minor 1 Tools refers to the strategies, policies, legislation, plans or programmes available for would be a secondary option to reducing impacts on locally or nationally significant the decision-makers to use. emissions. The overall effect would be to flora and fauna, and compensatory activ- require2 Refer transportGreen & Clarkson programmes, 2005. to dem- 3 Tools refers to the strategies, policies, legislation, plans or programmes available for the deci- onstrate a net ecologically beneficial out- sion-makers to use. come as a contribution to addressing New 4 Refer Green & Clarkson, 2005. Zealand’s net ecological decline. 5 The reports and findings can be found atwww. epa.govt.nz. 28 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 ity accounting for such things as impacts structure plans addressing urban, peri- on waterways and coastlines. urban and rural form that had a range of sustainability goals. However, atmospheric emissions cannot be considered, primarily as these are ac- Potentially, transport funding decisions counted for nationally through an emis- could take increasing account of critical sions trading scheme (discussed further natural capital (soils, water and air qual- below). Project alternatives are assessed, ity for example) and possibly ecological but are restricted to narrow assessments processes and biodiversity values. This of the best way to achieve particular could assist transport funders in identify- transport outcomes. Broader questions of ing packages of activities contributing to a how transport affects long-term land use range of sustainability outcomes, including patterns and ecological sustainability are more comprehensive ways to mitigate the poorly addressed. There is consideration negative impacts of roads on ecosystems of cumulative ecological effects over time (Spellerberg, 2002) and plan for climate and space in relevant catchments, but ad- change and peak oil. ditional impacts on top of existing histori- cal changes are poorly accounted for, as is Applying the EAM to this period (2003- a project’s contribution to regional or na- 2008) highlights the following: tional cumulative impacts. • there is a clear legislative framework enabling an integrated approach to In addition, interpretations of sustainabil- achieving ecological sustainability; ity vary between projects. A 2012 Auck- • the importance of cumulative ef- land University Masters student assess- fects is recognized, but there is a lack of ment of the TG and WC projects concluded clarity over how to manage them; syner- that while the TG application reflects the gistic effects, tipping points and resilience five sustainability provisions in the LTMA are not addressed; (Table 1) the WC application emphasises • biodiversity management is ena- economic efficiency and productivity,- ac bled but no guidance given as to how this cessibility, infrastructure security and traf- should be addressed through the transport fic flow (Murphy 2012). sector. Partly due to the lack of guidance, the LTMA As discussed below, the current situation was amended in 2008 to allow the creation reflects both the momentum prior to 2009 of the first Government Policy Statement towards a more integrated transport, land on Land Transport Funding (GPS) (Harker use and ecosystem assessment and man- et al forthcoming), as discussed in the fol- agement system, and the loss of such mo- lowing section. mentum after that date. Government Policy Statements Application of the Ecological Matrix to In 2008, a national transport strategy Transport Funding was released (New Zealand Government, As noted, central government funding al- 2008a). The strategy emphasised a 30- location is done according to the National year time horizon with actions fitting in Land Transport Programme (NLTP). The with government sustainable develop- 2007-08 NLTP guidelines identified 13 ment, energy and climate change agendas trends to be addressed to achieve a more such as reducing greenhouse gas emis- sustainable and safer transport system. sions and single-occupancy vehicle kilo- These were chosen from indicators relat- metres travelled. ing to such things as the need to reduce new roads through, for example, increas- In August that year, the first GPS was rees in public transport and travel demand leased (New Zealand Government 2008b; management; reducing atmospheric emis- Table 1). This enables the Transport Min- sions; and moving toward renewable re- ister to provide funding guidelines on how sources (LTNZ, 2006). Combined with to achieve Crown outcomes and objec- LGA-driven long term planning, this raised tives (LTMA s84) via the NLTP. The NLTP, the possibility of contributing funding to in turn, must contribute to the five sus- integrated land use and transport infra- tainability outcomes (Table 1). Hence the 29 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 GPS guides the NZTA on how to allocate Zealand Energy Efficiency and Conserva- funds to achieve the outcomes. This first tion Strategy 2011–2016. The 2012 GPS GPS reflected goals in the 2008 transport includes recognition of the role of walk- strategy. ing, cycling, public transport, improving energy efficiency, more efficient freight The November 2008 general election saw movements, and promoting the uptake of a change in government and in May 2009, low carbon fuels and technologies. There the newly-elected National-led govern- is an expectation on local government to ment amended the GPS (Table 1). It re- ensure integrated travel options through quired transport funding to focus on stim- its transport and planning roles. There is ulating economic development and growth also an emphasis on optimizing existing to help address impacts from the global networks, something expected to favour financial crisis (New Zealand Government public transport, walking and cycling, as 2009). It noted a commitment to shifting these can reduce congestion, offer more the way people travelled, but only in so far options, and improve safety in a cost ef- as this did not compromise economic and fective way. environmental efficiency, the latter a term that was undefined. However, the GPS approach forecasts from existing trends and remains unsophisticat- The document does not require a climate ed. It ‘continues the government’s strong change risk assessment when assessing focus on removing key bottlenecks in the transport alternatives for funding, and land transport network, encouraging eco- does not require any cross-reference to nomic growth and productivity, obtaining New Zealand’s (then proposed) energy value for money and improving road safe- strategy. In reference to oil supply security ty’ (New Zealand Government, 2011:6). and price, the document does note oil volatility should be taken into account through A contrast can be made with the transport (for example) having public transport op- and carbon simulation backcasting mod- tions to ameliorate household costs. But el applied to London, which attempts to the 2009 GPS does not give any guidance quantify the effects of a range of policy op- as to how to assess this risk over the me- tions relative to emission reductions goals dium to long term when deciding between (Hickman et al, 2010; www.vibat.org). The investments in roads or public transport. Vibat model contextualises options such as improving energy efficiencies, promot- The NZTA must give effect to the GPS ing low carbon fuels, behaviour change through the NLTP (LTMA s19B(a)(iii)) while and rising fuel costs, and highlights the contributing to local initiatives that may jurisdictional Gordian knot of international have a range of goals under the LGA and air travel. Application of Vibat has been LTMA. Given central government’s narrow- scoped out for Auckland, New Zealand ing interpretation of the sustainability pro- (Austin et al, 2011), but there has been visions in the LTMA, this can raise tensions no local or central government uptake at between local and central government as this stage. each may have different interpretations of not only LTMA requirements but also The GPS process should be seen in the con- LGA sustainable development provisions. text of New Zealand’s approach to meeting The tension has contributed to proposed total atmospheric carbon emission reduc- changes in the wording of the LGA and tion obligations. The current conditional LTMA, as discussed further in the following emissions reduction target is 10-20% of section. 1990 levels by 2020, but it is unlikely conditions for this target will be met by that The third GPS, covering 2012/13 – date (MfE 2011). Meanwhile the Transport 2021/22 does pay more attention to the Ministry forecasts a 2009-2030 growth in need to reduce the currently high trans- passenger traffic of 14% and road freight port energy intensity (New Zealand Gov- of 24% (MoT 2011). As of 2010, emissions ernment 2011; Table 1). There is a strong- from road transport account for 17.4% of er cross-reference to the New Zealand all greenhouse gas emissions, having in- Energy Strategy 2011–2021 and the New creased 66% since 1990 (MfE 2012a). The 30 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Government’s primary tool for managing Evidence of the Shift greenhouse gas emission, the Emissions Funding allocations apparently confirm the Trading Scheme, will have a minimal effect shift away from encouraging more sus- on fuel consumption. Even if the current tainable transport (Knight-Lenihan 2011; price per tonne of atmospheric carbon in- data provided by Glen Koorey, University creased several-fold to NZ$100, the effect of Canterbury, based on analysis of NLTP would be to reduce the growth in trans- and GPS projections). Comparisons can port emissions between 2010 and 2030 by be made between national funding alloca- about one per cent (MoT 2011). tions for activities that could be expected to contribute to sustainability outcomes As of 2012 nationally, with the help of car- (public transport, demand management bon offsets, New Zealand is assessed as and walking and cycling) and investment being on track to meeting its current Kyoto in highways and local roads. The ratio be- Protocol net emission target (MfE 2012b). tween alternatives to roading and roading In November 2012 Climate Change Min- shifted from 0.17-0.19 in the 2006-07 to ister Tim Groser announced New Zealand 2009-10 periods to 0.13 for 2010-11 when would not sign up to the second commit- comparing initial allocations. Indicative ment period under the Kyoto Protocol, but allocations out to 2018-19 are steady at instead would pledge under the Climate 0.15. Change Convention Framework. While there is legitimate debate over the real ef- The 2012 GPS indicates a funding range fect on emissions of Kyoto commitments, that may steadily increase support for this decision reinforces a view that Cabinet public transport beyond 2013, but oth- wants to avoid being bound by the Kyoto er funding levels remain little improved approach. through to 2021.

Ultimately, while regional land transport However, such figures can mislead. Fund- programmes can, and do, identify a range ing allocations to state highways and lo- of activities and programmes, any gov- cal roads may include such things as cy- ernment funding is conditional upon GPS cleways and public transport facilities. In compliance. The 2009 and 2012 GPSs pro- addition, allocations to facilities such as vide limited guidance as to how to address cycleways are less expensive per kilome- transport emissions, and no guidance on tre, altering benefit-cost ratios and -mak how to assess roading impacts on ecologi- ing a dollar metric misleading. Finally, the cal functioning, or undertake a peak oil NZTA has some flexibility in responding to risk analysis. Funding applications aimed requests for projects identified in regional at addressing such issues can be expected land transport programmes. Initial alloca- to carry relatively little weight, except in- tions normally differ from final allocations. sofar as they may contribute to network Even under the previous Labour-led ad- optimization. ministration, actual allocation to roading This suggests that both the policy guide alternatives declined, suggesting rhetoric and, consequently, funding allocation failed to match investment. mechanisms, are biased against many of the sustainability outcomes identified in A more accurate measure of the influence the LTMA and the current national land of the GPS would compare how local au- transport strategy. thorities altered the way they put together funding applications following the passage While there remains support for such of the 2003 LTMA (marking a shift from things as mode shift through behaviour efficiency to sustainability), then following change, moves towards walking and cy- the 2007-08 NLTP (which had associated cling, and public transport, the emphasis sustainability trends), and finally after the on economic growth and value for money 2009 GPS (and the move back to empha- reduces options for incorporating such ini- sising efficiency). As these requirements tiatives in transport packages when com- have changed over time, anecdotal evi- pared to the situation prior to 2009. dence suggests so to have applications6. This needs to be verified. Equally, what activities did the NZTA (and its predeces- 31 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 sor Land Transport New Zealand) fund cularity of allowing a Minister to identify over the same time periods, and did this transport priorities, decide whether those change? This would identify shifts in how priorities are legally justified, and be part funding was allocated between activity of a cabinet considering alterations to the classes as a result of policy shifts. Results legislation which either intentionally or would need to be coupled with analysis of fortuitously make the priorities a better fit, projects done at different times to assess appears legally questionable (Harker et al the relative contribution made to econom- forthcoming). ic, social and ecological outcomes, and the extent to which non-economic outcomes Conclusion were taken into account. This analysis will The paper demonstrates how a govern- form the basis of follow-up research. ment’s duty of care and requirement to exercise judgement in the best interests of Finally, further evidence of an intention to its citizens can be undermined by what is a shift the funding focus comes in the form legal but arguably unethical use of execu- of government intentions to change the tive power. In this case, New Zealand has LTMA and LGA. lost momentum towards including mean- ingful ecological sustainability provisions The Land Transport Management Amend- in the national transport funding allocation ment Bill (2012) proposes removing the process. five sustainability provisions (Table 1) and instead emphasising the need to contrib- In particular, the 2009 and 2012 Govern- ute to an effective, efficient, and safe land ment Policy Statements on Land Trans- transport system that supports the public port Funding dilute strategies to reduce interest, and makes the GPS more strate- transport-related greenhouse gas emis- gically relevant. sions, and pay little regard to empirical evidence showing cumulative ecological The Local Government Act 2002 Amend- decline associated with land use patterns. ment Bill (2012) proposes removing the This contrasts with the first GPS – GPS provision for local government to promote 2008 – introduced by an earlier adminis- sustainable development, and would in- tration to provide guidance for addressing stead provide for local authorities to play non-economic sustainable development a broad role in meeting the current and fu- outcomes. The current administration now ture needs of their communities for good- suggests changing the legislation to dilute quality local infrastructure, local public the need to address these broader issues. services, and performance of regulatory Apart from other effects, this would make functions. it easier to justify producing future GPSs that minimise non-economic outcomes. Just how much discretion remains for councils with such changes is unclear. The Operational decisions on funding alloca- intent however is to encourage councils tion remain sufficiently flexible to partially to focus on what the Government sees as compensate for this focus on economic their core business. In particular, the pro- outcomes. posed LTMA amendments would shift the legislation back towards where it was pre- A suggested alternative approach (Harker 2003, emphasising efficiency and safety. et al forthcoming) is to consider placing ecological sustainability into entrenched In addition, the broader legal framework legislation, including New Zealand’s con- enabling decision-makers to identify and stitution7, against which Parliament would move towards environmental sustainabil- assess ordinary legislation. A national sus- ity is compromised by the 2009 and 2012 tainable development strategy should also GPSs. It is up to the Minister of Transport be formulated. In combination, this would (on advice from the Ministry) to assesses provide the judiciary with a means to hold whether the GPS contributes to the aim 6 Based on discussions with regional council transport officers and NZTA officials. of achieving an affordable, integrated, safe, responsive, efficient and sustainable 7 New Zealand’s constitution is not in one document, but is found in key legislation and documents, transport system (LTMA s87). The cir- common law, and constitutional conventions. 32 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 the executive to account. The state could ing Ecological Principles to Land Manage- then be a trustee with a fundamental ob- ment New York , Springer-Verlag. ligation to actively protect ecological systems. Internationally, aspects of environ- DoC (2011) Briefing to the Incoming Min- mental trusteeship are already a part of ister of Conservation Wellington, Depart- domestic constitutional law, common law ment of Conservation. and international law8. Green W & Clarkson B (2005) A Review In addition to investigating the legal ef- of the First Five Years of the New Zealand fect of this idea, further research will ex- Biodiversity Strategy: The Synthesis Re- amine the extent to which the exercising port Wellington, New Zealand Biodiversity of existing political power in New Zealand Chief Executives, Department of Conser- threatens efforts to achieve higher lev- vation. els of sustainability. Specifically, whether the different versions of the GPS resulted Harker J, Taylor P & Knight-Lenihan in measurable changes in transport out- S forthcoming ‘The Government Policy comes. The result of this additional re- Statement on Land Transport Funding and search will contribute to how a community Sustainability’ New Zealand Journal of En- might approach central Government when vironmental Law, Auckland, University of it appears to be moving in a direction con- Auckland. trary to that assumed through legislation. It will also clarify the legal grounds upon Hickman R, Ashiru O & Banister D (2010) which governments could be challenged if ‘Transport and climate change: simulating the contrary action compromises efforts to the options for carbon reduction in Lon- increase levels of sustainability. don’ Transport Policy 17:110-125.

Author details: Hitchmough R, Bull L & Cromarty P (2007) Dr Stephen Knight-Lenihan, New Zealand Threat Classification System Department of Planning, List 2005 Parts one and two. Wellington, School of Architecture and Planning Department of Conservation, Science and National Institute of Creative Arts and Technical Publishing. Industry, University of Auckland, Kissinger M & Rees W (2009) ‘Assessing Private Bag 92019, sustainability in a globalizing world: to- Auckland 1142, wards interregional industrial ecology’ New Zealand. Journal of Industrial Ecology 13(3):357- Email: [email protected] 360.

Acknowledgements: Knight-Lenihan S (2007) A Critique of the With thanks to Julia Harker, Prue Taylor Influence of Sustainable Development on and Lee Beattie. Ecological Sustainability: a New Zealand application Doctoral thesis, Auckland, Uni- References: versity of Auckland. http://researchspace.itss. Austin T, Howell M, Utley T, Fergusson E & auckland.ac.nz/handle/2292/3076. Hickman R (2011) ‘Visualising the Impos- sible? Simulating Options for Low Carbon Knight-Lenihan S (2011) ‘Sustaining sus- Transport Options in Auckland, New Zea- tainable transport in a democracy’ paper land’ State of Australian Cities conference, presented at the World Planning Schools 29 November-2 December 2011, Mel- Congress conference, Planning’s Future, bourne, Australia, http://soac2011.com.au/full- Futures Planning: Planning in an Era of papers-list.php accessed March 2012. Global (Un)Certainty and Transformation, Perth, Western Australia. 4-8 July. Avail- Bosselmann K (2008) The Principle of Sus- able on request. tainability: Transforming Law and Govern- ance Burlington VT, Ashgate. LTNZ (2006) Land Transport NZ Statement Dale V H & Haeuber R A Eds (2001) Apply- 8 See for example Bosselmann 2008 chapter 5. 33 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 of Intent 2006-2009 Wellington, Land ment Policy Statement on Land Transport Transport New Zealand. funding 2009/10 – 2018/19 Wellington, New Zealand Government. MA (2005) Millennium Ecosystem Assess- ment, 2005: Ecosystems and Human Well- New Zealand Government (2011) Govern- Being: Synthesis Washington D.C, Island ment Policy Statement on Land Transport Press. Funding 2012/13-2021/22 Wellington, New Zealand Government. MfE (2007) Environment New Zealand 2007 Wellington, Ministry for the Environ- Robertson, D (2004) Community Develop- ment. ment and the Local Government Act 2002 and the Land Transport Management Act MfE (2011) Environmental Stewardship 2003. Presentation at a Land Transport for a Prosperous New Zealand: Briefing for Safety Authority workshop by Davide Rob- the incoming Minister for the Environment ertson, regional manager LTSA, Oamaru, and Minister for Climate Change Issues New Zealand. Wellington, Ministry for the Environment. Scarsbrook M (2006) State and Trends in Mf E (2012a) New Zealand’s Greenhouse the National River Water Quality Network: Gas Inventory 1990-2010 Wellington, Min- 1989-2005 Wellington, Ministry for the En- istry for the Environment. vironment.

MfE (2012b) New Zealand’s Greenhouse Spellerberg I F (2002) Ecological Effects Gas Inventory and Net Position Report of Roads New Hampshire, Enfield Science 1990-2010 Wellington, Ministry for the En- Publications. vironment. Verburg P, Hamill K, Unwin M & Abell, J Moran D D, Wackernagel M, Kitzes J A, (2010) Lake Water Quality in New Zealand Goldfinger S.H & Boutaud A (2008) ’Meas- 2010: Status and Trends National Institute uring sustainable development – nation by of Water and Atmospheric Research, client nation’ Ecological Economics 64:470-474. report HAM 2010-107, Wellington, Minis- try for the Environment. MoT (2011) Briefing to the Incoming Min- ister of Transport: policy challenges and Walker B, Holling C S, Carpenter S R & upcoming decisions Wellington, Ministry of Kinzig A (2004) ‘Resilience, adaptability Transport. and transformability in social-ecological systems’ Ecology and Society 9(2) e5. Murphy, V (2012) An Investigation into the True Application of Sustainability by New Walker B, Anderies J, Kinzig A P & Ryan P Zealand’s Planning Framework in the case (2006) ‘Exploring resilience in social-eco- of Road Transport Infrastructure. Master of logical systems through comparative stud- Planning Practice Research Project, School ies and theory development: introduction of Architecture and Planning, University of to the special issue’, Ecology and Society Auckland, New Zealand. 11(1) e12.

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New Zealand Government (2009) Govern- 34 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Bürgerbus - German experiences in service into the framework of formal pub- community transport lic transport arrangements is deemed too complicated and out of place. Martin Schiefelbusch There are also many variations of the basic 1. Overview and context idea - to help others in maintaining their This paper presents findings from a very everyday mobility - that is behind many practice-oriented project on what can be Bürgerbus projects. People giving lifts to called governance of rural mobility. Read- neighbours or doing car-pooling respond ers will learn about issues in the develop- to the same need. They do not have to ment of “Bürgerbus” services, a type of follow the same rules a Bürgerbus does, small-scale public transport service that but they do not get the same support ei- closes gaps in the network of traditional ther. The underlying question of all these public transport at much lower cost, thanks different approaches therefore is how to to volunteers driving the vehicles and do- “govern” this part of mobility in a way ing part of the other tasks associated with that allows these initiatives to develop and providing a public transport service. contribute their part to working communities and a (slightly more) sustainable life. A Bürgerbus (“citizens’ bus”, plural “Bürger- Over the last three years, the author has busse”) builds upon local resources and been closely involved in consultancy and initiatives, therefore it can be considered advice for Bürgerbus initiatives in Ger- as one variation of “community transport”, many. This work has allowed good insights to quote a term more widely known in the into the tasks linked to setting up such a English speaking world - but there are dif- service. ferences to the English concept, briefly discussed in section 4. Indeed, the basic 2. Situation of rural public transport concept of volunteer-based public trans- and rural mobility port has its origins in England, and there The provision and enhancement of bus and are further variants of that basic idea also rail services has for long been a key ele- in some other countries. We will briefly ment in strategies to deal with the prob- look at these, but then focus on the Ger- lems caused by massive car use. But while man situation. public transport still can be successful for travel to and within the city centres and on One might think that to set up a Bürger- certain intercity corridors, it faces major bus is a planning and administrative task. difficulties on other markets. In particular This is also true, but only part of the story. in rural areas, public transport often caters It is even more a communicative chal- only for a residual part of travel demand. lenge, requiring good knowledge of the Small settlements and dispersed patterns local people, social talent, some technical of mobility do not permit a viable devel- know-how and last but not least a lot of opment of a comprehensive offer, so that patience. It seems therefore much more even for those remaining “captive” users adequate to use the term “governance” only a basic service is provided. But a ba- for the development of such services than sic level of public transport provision is just “planning”. nevertheless widely considered necessary to cater for the mobility needs of those By combining these skills and bringing a without access to a car or who are unable service to work, a valuable contribution to to drive. local community life can be made at mod- In many parts of Europe, demographic est cost. The Bürgerbus idea has without change - the aging and shrinking of popu- doubt also its limits, but there are certainly lations - will make the situation worse in still many places in Germany - and prob- the future (EC 2005, EC 2006:4): Fewer ably also beyond - where such a service potential users will be available, hence the could be set up and assist in solving mo- provision of many services (both commer- bility problems. There are also locations cial and in the public sector) will therefore where a Bürgerbus actually exists, but in become increasingly difficult (Blümel et al a hidden way, known only to local “insid- 2007, EC 2009, p 6). However, demands ers” because the difficulties of bringing the by these users will remain stable or rise, 35 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 in particular in health and social services. port tailored to a certain group’s needs, Transport is one of the sectors affected by such as school buses, patients’ and disa- this development, and at the same time bled persons’ transport. an important tool to provide continued access to other services. While future sen- Volunteers: This is the key feature of a ior citizens will have a higher level of car Bürgerbus service. The use of voluntary availability and experience than in the civic engagement allows substantial sav- past, financial and health limitations will ings to be made compared to normal bus limit their interest in car use at least from operations - drivers’ wages and social se- a certain age onwards. curity fees typically account for 60-70% of operating costs. For volunteers, only fees 3. Bürgerbus - defining the concept for a special driving licence and medical There is no official, generally recognised examinations are necessary, and even this definition for the German term “Bürger- cost item depends on the local regula- bus”. Hence some services branded as tions. On the contrary, volunteers need to such do not meet the definition provided be recruited and kept, as discussed below, below; vice versa there are cases where based on their personal motivation, and the definition is adhered to under -a dif they are not as available as a paid driver ferent name. Considering this, and the would be. complexities of the different formal arrangements described below it is not easy Local resources and knowledge: The to give a precise figure for the number reliance on volunteers - usually recruited of implemented Bürgerbus schemes, but from the community in which the bus op- a reasonably good estimate is possible. erates - already links a Bürgerbus much Based on the far majority of applications closer to the local community than a train Germany, the following definition can be ditional public transport service, which is derived: managed by medium or large companies dealing with a large area and with driv- A Bürgerbus is a public transport serv- ers living somewhere else. In this way, the ice which uses unpaid volunteers for Bürgerbus drivers (and also other activists most or all tasks, in particular for driv- in the Bürgerbus associations) are close to ing the vehicles. A Bürgerbus makes their customers and are able to respond use of local resources and knowledge to specific local needs. Furthermore, the and close collaboration with other lo- Bürgerbus depends on local cooperation cal stakeholders. The vehicles used are and networking to secure funding and fulfil minibuses or large passenger cars. its role. Support from the local authorities, businesses and civil society organisation is This definition includes four key elements. therefore very important. Each of them has its own implications for the kind of service that can be offered: Vehicles: The exclusive use of small vehicles is linked to the fact that Bürgerbusse Public transport service: The Bürger- are complements to other public transport bus is part of the public transport system. services and operate in areas of low de- Its existence is published, it is accessible mand, where these vehicles are sufficient. to the general public, it carries different But the main reason is a practical one: passengers who do not (need to) know holders of a normal car driving license in each other in one vehicle, it charges the Germany1 are permitted to steer vehicles same fares to all passengers, and it oper- carrying up to 8 passengers. Beyond that, ates according to a pre-defined schedule. a full HGV/bus licence is required. To be Not all of these conditions are necessarily able to get enough volunteers, it is essen- adhered to in all cases, however. In par- tial to use vehicles that citizens with the ticular, services may operate as demand- normal driving license can drive. responsive, hence requiring pre-booking. Some services cater for specific groups and are thus not published widely. Nev- ertheless, the Bürgerbus is to be distin- 1 Licencse type B according to the current EU clas- guished from special, “closed-door” trans- sification, formerly type 3 in the national system. 36 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 4. The Bürgerbus story (ca. 15).2 But this is not only due to the Evolution idea spreading by communities following There are today more than 170 Bürgerbus their neighbours, it is also a result of po- services operating in Germany (figure 1). litical decisions: The state government of The idea of using volunteers in the provi- North Rhine-Westphalia in particular has sion of public transport services is report- supported Bürgerbus initiatives since the ed to have its origins in the UK already in 1990s through dedicated funding and sup- the 1930s. It was re-discovered in England port, which has evidently had success in in the late 1960s, exported to the Nether- bringing many initiatives to life. On a low- lands in 1977 and first used in Germany in er level, the state governments in Lower 1985. The first German bus in fact oper- Saxony and (more recently) Rhineland-Pa- ated in the region of Westphalia on a route latinate have also supported initiatives in close to, and in part crossing the Dutch their area. The other states offer no spe- border. Since then, the number of serv- cific support yet, although local authorities ices has grown steadily with only very few can in part compensate for this. closing down again for lack of users or volunteers. Service types Based on the characteristics outlined in section 3, Bürgerbusse fulfil a comple- mentary role in the public transport system and cater for situations of low demand. They can nevertheless be found in a variety of geographical settings and market segments. Two service concepts clearly dominate:

The “urban-rural link” connects a district centre (small or medium-sized town) with the surrounding villages at times or in areas where no other bus service operates (figure 2). The district centre is usually the main destination, but also the place where connections to other bus and train services are provided. About two thirds of the German services follow this model.

The “small city bus” operates within a city or town which is too small for a traditional city bus, but still too big to be served adequately by the regional services present (figure 3). These cities- of ten have housing estates far away from the main roads, shops, leisure establish- Figure 1: Distribution of Bürgerbus services ments and other facilities are scattered across Germany - Note: Numbers show situ-over the whole area and/or have moved ation in 2009, furthermore counting meth- to the periphery in recent years. They ods in the different sources are inconsistent tend to operate over shorter routes, but (source: ACE 2010) more frequently than the first type. The Even today, the geographical distribution bus service links the different parts of town can be said to reflect the spread of the idea with each other, with the centre and with from North-Western Europe towards the ongoing public transport services. About East: The German state of North Rhine- half of the Bürgerbus services in Germany Westphalia has by far the highest number follow this model (some combine both). of services (ca. 100), followed by Lower 2 As a comparison: North Rhine-Westphalia covers Saxony (ca. 17) and Rhineland-Palatinate c.25% of the German population and c.10% of the territory. 37 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 es has grown in the last years as more of the new foundations focus on older people as the main user group.

Most services operate on week- days during daytime hours, with the number of trips and temporal coverage depending on the type of demand, but also available manpower. The most common arrangement is a service in the morning between about 8am and 1pm. “Bigger” services run also in the afternoon, small- Figure 2: urban-rural service in Gransee (source: er only on certain days of the VBB 2005) week. Only about 10% of the German cases offer additional services in the morning, evening or weekend.

Senior citizens are in fact the by far dominating demographic group, with the share of children, commuters, housekeepers and tourists being more or less marginal. But this also depends on the service concept and the general framework conditions: commuters often cannot be carried due to late start of the service, and journeys to and from Figure 3: Town service in Wehye (source: Bürger- busverein Weyhe) school usually require larger capacities and are thus provided by tradi- Despite a predominance of schemes in ru- tional buses. ral settings, there are also some applications in medium and larger cities, where Beyond Bürgerbus the Bürgerbus usually provides a feeder As mentioned, the Bürgerbus is not a Ger- or inter-borough service in suburban loca- man invention. Even today, the basic idea tions. of volunteers’ engagement in public transport is found more often in the UK and the Further important variations lie in the Netherlands, if the number of schemes in service concept, service hours and target proportion to country size is considered. group. The far majority is run as a tradi- Furthermore, there are some examples in tional bus service with fixed stops, fixed Switzerland and Austria (less than 10 per timetables and accessible to everybody. country, as far as the author is aware) and In particular, all services in North-Rhine at least one in Sweden.3 Britain and the Westphalia are provided on this basis. A Netherlands are therefore the main areas minority offers instead an in part or com- where the concept is used. But in detail pletely demand-responsive service, where this happens in quite different ways: only service hours, corridors or areas of operation are pre-determined and users There are ca. 250 “buurtbus” (translated have to call and book the particular jour- “neighbourhood bus”) in the Netherlands. ney. These services may also offer to pick They provide traditional fixed-route bus up passengers at home and/or take them services and are managed by an associa- directly to the destination rather than a 3 The author welcomes any information on further fixed bus stop. The number of such servic- examples in these or other countries. 38 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 tion in partnership with the local authori- Licensing ties. In the UK, volunteer-based mobility To get a small bus and set up a small services are part of the range of “commu- transport service for the local community nity transport” schemes, of which there may seem a simple task - apart perhaps are at least ca. 1,700 across the country from the need to get funding for the ve- (cf. DfT 2011. But this comprises not only hicle, to be discussed in the next section. other concepts for rural transport, there is However, to do so in a regular way, for the also a greater variety of volunteer-based general public and on a permanent basis a schemes: There are community buses do- number of regulations come into play. The ing regular journeys according to fixed main areas of legislation are: timetables, partly or wholly flexible vari- • the type of service offered as such ations, but also a number of special serv- • the professional qualifications of ices for specific purposes (in particular the operator health-related trips) as well as ride-shar- • health and fitness of staff (drivers) ing and lift-giving schemes where private • insurance of drivers, vehicle and vehicles are used. A good collection of ex- operator amples is provided by Countryside Agency • status of operator regarding taxa- (no date). Apart from this greater variety, tion a key difference between British “community transport” and the “Bürgerbus” is that As a rule, a Bürgerbus service is part of the former uses also paid staff while the the normal transport system and has to latter is relying entirely on volunteer work find its position according to these frame- (cf. section 5, “recruiting”). works - the fact that it is run by motivated volunteers for altruistic reasons is of lit- 5. Issues and stakeholders in Bürger- tle relevance, and there are very few ex- bus development emptions for small-scale services. Due to Bürgerbusse are, as already mentioned, space limits, the following section focuses developed in partnership with other stake- on the first issue - the formal type of serv- holders, in particular on the local level, but ice chosen also has implications for the also with the other public transport stake- other areas of regulation. holders (mainly transport authorities and operators), usually organised on a provin- Public transport services in Germany are cial or regional level. There are many dif- regulated by the Passenger Transport Act ferences in detail, but three main players (Personenbeförderungsgesetz), which tra- are nearly always present: ditionally conceives this sector as a commercial activity - in spite of the fact that • the Bürgerbus association, usu- many services have for a long time been ally a registered association in which the loss-making (for a discussion see e.g. drivers and other volunteer supporters are Heinze/Kill 2008, Schiefelbusch 2009, members 2013). But the market is not deregulated • the transport provider (bus com- as in much of Britain, instead sub-divid- pany) who runs the other scheduled bus ed into different functional service types services in the region (or one of these if (such as scheduled public services, excur- there are more of them) sions, taxis, private hire) and, for sched- • the local authority (or authorities) uled services, geographic licenses (con- in which the service will operate cessions), which are usually route-based. Any public transport service, no matter The allocation of tasks between these how frequent, is based on such a licence stakeholders varies between locations, but granting the operator an exclusive right to some main types can be identified, which run scheduled public transport over that are presented at the end of this section af- route. This means that it is very difficult to ter the discussion of the main conceptual set up a new service, even when the ex- issues in the development of a Bürgerbus isting ones are very infrequent as is often service. the case in rural areas (where buses cater mainly for school journeys).

39 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 In this situation, the basic options for management, marketing, management Bürgerbus initiatives are: of the Bürgerbus association and the like. These costs typically amount to 4,000 - • to cooperate with the existing bus 8,000 EUR per year. operator and run services along its routes under the “roof” of the existing licences These figures are low compared to the • to find a “niche” in the network of costs - or subsidies - required for full-size licences - a route or area not served bus services. But as Bürgerbusse operate • to choose a different formal service in addition to “normal” public transport, type, such as a service only available for they do not have access to the same pos- older people, which may be given a licence sibilities for deficit compensation. Much of paralleling other “general public” routes the cost therefore has to be borne by the • to set up the service in a way that communities served, for which an expend- it does not fall under the Passenger Trans- iture of the size required can already be port Act requirements - essentially by run- difficult to manage. The popularity of the ning it only with a passenger car and not Bürgerbus concept in the state of North- charging fares Rhine Westphalia is clearly also linked to the fact that the state government pays Most of the existing Bürgerbusse follow for the vehicle as well as gives an an- the first model, which has advantages in nual management cost allowance to the that the know-how, status and resources Bürgerbus association. In other states, the of the main bus operator can be used to possibilities for such funding is much more deal with some of the other tasks such limited. Most schemes therefore have to as vehicle maintenance, revenue man- rely on: agement and customer information. On the other hand, this arrangement ties the • fares from passengers - these are Bürgerbus initiative to the current service in proportion evidently more important pattern and typology, which may not be than for normal bus services, although ideal for the community’s needs. A number many initiatives prefer to charge low fares of more recent foundation have therefore out of social equity considerations pursued other ways, and the fourth model • donations from passengers - as in particular has found more favour with part of the service’s links to the commu- them. It remains to be seen, however, if nity, many users are happy to make dona- this arrangement can work in the long run tions on top or instead of fares in particular regarding economic sustain- • sponsoring from local businesses - ability. this is often a significant source of income, depending on the local economy and the Funding association’s abilities in approaching po- As mentioned in section 3, the main eco- tential supporters nomic advantage of a Bürgerbus is the ab- • contributions from the local au- sence of drivers’ wages, bringing the serv- thority (which can also be in kind such as ice costs to a much lower level. But other integration of the vehicle in the fleet for costs remain: maintenance and insurance) • depending on the formal status of In terms of capital costs, the vehicle is the service, certain tax benefits available the main item - a new minibus (with some to scheduled public transport can also be minor modifications useful for public serv- used by Bürgerbus initiatives ices) costs at least 25,000 EUR. More substantial modifications such as full wheel- Experience shows that, after the start-up chair accessibility can raise this figure phase, it is possible to cover the major- significantly. The replacement of the bus ity of operating costs from the first three after a service life of usually 7-8 years also sources. Some initiatives are so successful needs to be considered. that they generate a surplus, which can be used to support social activities of the Operating costs include vehicle main- association, lower fares or help to buy the tenance, fuel, insurance, fees for driv- next vehicle. ers health tests and certificates, revenue 40 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Most “older” schemes operate only their the start-up phase before operations ac- scheduled service (which often employ the tually begin. The time needed to commu- vehicle on at least five days of the week) nicate, find support, fulfil the necessary and refrain from hiring their bus out or of- administrative tasks and get approval can fering excursions. The recent growth of be significant (2 years are quite normal). “smaller” schemes has, however, led to During this period, there is a real risk that a greater interest in vehicle sharing ar- people lose interest because “nothing hap- rangements, also as a means to share the pens” or procedures are perceived as too costs. The bus may therefore be used for slow. Experience shows that it is essential the public service on some working days, to identify persons willing to act as “care- by the local authority for deliveries on oth- takers” or “ambassadors” for the project. ers and by the church in the weekend. Two or three of them are sufficient, but they have to be convinced and dedicated, Recruiting accepted in the community, able to spend The chances of a Bürgerbus project evi- time on the project, find further support dently depend to a much higher degree and keep those interested on board. on local interest and engagement than Once operations have started, the Bürger- in many other mobility concepts. It is es- bus association has to ensure a reliable sential that enough people in the commu- service. Members have to take their obliga- nity identify themselves with the project tions seriously, hence a sufficient number and are willing to contribute actively. The of drivers has to be available to cover the possibilities to bring people together and timetable in a way that is not perceived as communicate through word-of-mouth, but a burden. A typical Monday to Friday half- also the chances to unite and share the day service should have a pool of about 20 idea are much better in small communities active drivers, so that each of them has to than in cities - probably a key reason for take a turn once or twice a month. the dominance of rural Bürgerbus applica- Beyond driving duties, the association’s tions. role as a social group is important. To the

Figure 4: Main reasons for involvement in Bürgerbus activities (source: author) Motivations to become involved in such outside world, members are the “face” of a project can be clustered into four main the project, in regular contact with the us- groups, as shown in figure 4. However, the ers as well as sponsors and politicians. In relative importance of these different rea- this way, they also get feedback and sug- sons varies from place to place, and it is gestions for service development. Within essential to find out the specific interests the group, the activists can share their of the people in the community to be suc- experiences and develop their own feeling cessful in getting support. Motivation can- of community. Social activities like the an- not be created by outside interventions, nual barbecue, funded from passengers’ and usually also not by a mayor’s or com- donations, an excursion or the annual munity council’s decision to support such Bürgerbus associations’ meeting are im- a project. portant and sometimes even a reason to get involved. But again each group has to To find enough volunteers and to keep be free to develop such activities as it fits them on board is a particular challenge in to its interests.

41 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Once the necessary number of people to tegrated system from the long-distance start the service has been reached, the train to the regional bus where the former volunteers’ motivation to stay on board set the framework for the “lower” levels is - and the chances to find new drivers to a powerful image and ideal. On the con- compensate loss of active members - trary, the local citizens and initiatives have seem not to have caused major problems specific local knowledge, which may not to continue the operation. On the contrary, be present in the professional circles. Both very few experiences were made in Ger- views are legitimate and can in principle many with mixing volunteers with normal complement each other, but to do this, paid workers or other formal types of staff mutual understanding and the right inter- (such as people recruited for socially nec- face have to be developed (cf. Heinze/Kill essary activities) in the day-to-day run- 2008:308). ning of a Bürgerbus service, and the experiences with such “melanges” were not 6. Discussion - strengths and limits necessarily positive (cf. Burmeister 2002). To conclude, some reflections on the cur- While the execution of certain “specialist” rent and potential role of the Bürgerbus tasks such as vehicle maintenance to an (and similar concepts elsewhere) shall be operator’s paid staff seems to work well, it provided, which also need to take account seems also necessary to leave the volun- of critique and limitations of the concept. teers an area of activity where everybody The main and most fundamental criticism shares the same motivation. of the Bürgerbus concept focuses on its core - the use of volunteers for tasks that Liaising are otherwise provided by professionals The previous remarks have already allud- who get properly paid. Three arguments ed to the need for communication and net- are put forward in this respect: working in the development of a Bürger- bus project. Many of the tasks mentioned • the public sector should not be al- can only be solved by getting in touch with lowed to get out of its obligations to pro- others, looking for the right persons to vide public transport by devolving this task give information and support, by develop- to civil society organisations ing a feeling for the specific circumstances • volunteer-based services are used of the situation and putting together the to save public expenditure - a Bürgerbus various bits and pieces. may just replace a more costly normal bus service In all these tasks, the local activist’s point • these services threaten existing of view is of key importance, as their mo- businesses and thus “normal” jobs, not tivation decides about the future of the only in scheduled public transport, but project. Community building and the sup- also among taxi drivers in the region port of “third sector” activities can there- • furthermore, it is feared that vol- fore help to develop the necessary com- unteers cannot provide the same standard petencies. But the ease with which such of service and maintain their involvement initiatives can be developed also depends over time in the required way on the interplay between the voluntary sector and the “world” of administration On a general level, these arguments may and “official” public transport planning, have some appeal, but there are so far few where the awareness for the citizens’ per- indications that these risks exist in prac- spective and way of thinking is not always tice. Some policy decisions and coordina- well developed. tion are nevertheless necessary to ensure that such problems can be avoided. This can be illustrated by the image of “top down” vs. “bottom up” planning in pub- Even when basic accessibility is main- lic transport. Although its base are indi- tained, public transport systems outside vidual travel patterns, professional plan- the big cities usually have times and areas ning is used to working with aggregate where services can be improved. Bürger- patterns of movement and hierarchical busse are normally used to close such systems of central places, infrastructures gaps. Considering the limited customer and services. In public transport, an in- base and the cost level of traditional pub- 42 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 lic transport, but also that of taxi-based tive, and these services make a meaning- demand-responsive solutions makes clos- ful contribution to mobility in the commu- ing these gaps by other means a very nities where they operate. But it is worth costly and therefore not realistic ambition noting that the variety of approaches (cf. Böhler et al 2009). The framework for in this field has grown, especially in the Bürgerbus development (cf. section 3), in more recent years and in the regions out- particular the limitations in vehicle size and side North-Rhine Westphalia: There is a number of volunteers, also would make it growing need for low-cost arrangements, very difficult to replace existing services. flexible services, carpooling with private The evolution of the services so far shows vehicles and resource-sharing with other that, through cooperation with operators organisations. It may also be necessary to and authorities and suitable training, vol- find new ways of linking “genuine” volun- unteers can fulfil the required tasks reli- teering with other kinds of involvement. ably. Only few schemes had to close due to Such concepts are not necessarily well lack of drivers (13 so far according to Bur- addressed with the instruments that have meister (2010), of which some also closed governed the Bürgerbus development in due to lack of customers). the past.

Already today, the deficits of rural public There is no doubt that in each of the four transport are compensated also by infor- areas discussed in section 5, measures mal lift-giving among neighbours, family can be taken to facilitate these processes. members and sometimes also on commu- The current administrative and regulato- nity level with a more or less formalised ry framework in particular is not too well organisation. This “hidden public trans- suited. The typology of services laid down port” is, however, of no use for those not in the Passenger Transport Act and the li- aware of it, requires high levels of coor- cense system are not flexible enough to dination and negotiation and is thus less develop the variety of concepts needed for efficient and effective than a more trans- rural settings and specific needs. Funding parent solution. In the future, aging and is too often tied to established solutions shrinking populations will put all kinds of and not enough certainty is given to new services under increasing financial and hu- approaches and intelligent use of resourc- man resource pressure. It will therefore be es (such as the shared use of vehicles). inevitable to use voluntary civic engage- Recruitment and liaising possibilities can ment where this is available, and to use it be supported especially through openness in the most productive way. and assistance on the local level. All in all, while Bürgerbus initiatives - by definition - 7. Summary emerge “from below”, there is much that Practical experience shows that some planning and policy can do to support such key requirements and caveats need to be development as one part of future mobil- borne in mind in the pursuit of a Bürgerbus ity. project. These are summed up in figure 5.

On the whole, the evolution of Bürgerbus schemes in Germany has so far been posi-

Figure 5: Essential lessons (source: author) 43 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Author details: Burmeister, J (2010): Ehrenamt der Dr. Martin Schiefelbusch MA MSc besonderen Art: Bürger fahren für Bürger, Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter in: Stadtverkehr 12/10 Projektleiter Mobilität nexus Countryside Agency (no date): Rural Institut für Kooperationsmanagement und Connections. Achieving social inclusion interdisziplinäre Forschung GmbH through transport schemes. Otto-Suhr-Allee 59 DfT / Department for transport (2011): D-10585 Berlin Community Transport: Guidance for Local Tel. +49 30 318054-72 Authorities. Fax +49 30 318054-60 Email: [email protected] EC (2005): Mitteilung der Kommission - www.nexusinstitut.de Grünbuch „Angesichts des demografischen Wandels - eine neue Solidarität zwischen Acknowledgements: den Generationen“ KOM (2005) 94 endg This paper is based on experiences made in a project funded by the State Depart- EC (2006): Mitteilung der Kommission - ment of Transport of Rhineland-Palatinate Die demografische Zukunft Europas – Von from 2009 to 2012. The author is grateful der Herausforderung zur Chance KOM to the many people providing information (2006) 571 endg and inspiration during this time in the local authorities, administrations and civil soci- EC (2009): A sustainable future for trans- ety initiatives he talked to as well as the port: Towards an integrated, technology- project team members Holger Jansen, An- led and user friendly system. COM (2009) dreas Kagermeier and Gesa Kobs as well 279 final as Eckart Schenk from TU Berlin. All comments and conclusions presented here re- Heinze, G W, H H Kill (2008): Finanzierung main the responsibility of the author. des ÖPNV in dünnbesiedelten, struktur- schwachen Regionen. Abschlussbericht FE References 70.0784/2006. Berlin (unpublished) ACE (2010): Bürgerbusse - ja wo laufen sie denn?, online: http://www.ace-online.de/ Schiefelbusch, M (2009): Germany, in: fileadmin/user_uploads/Der_Club/Dokumente/ Schiefelbusch, M, H-L Dienel: Public Trans- Presse/2010/B%C3%BCrgerbusse/3_B%C3%BCrge rbusse_Auflistung.pdf port and its Users: The Customer’s Per- spective in Planning and Customer Care. Blümel, H et al (2007): Zukunftsfähige Aldershot: Ashgate Mobilitätsangebote für schrumpfende Re- gionen. Der ÖPNV in der Demografiefalle. Schiefelbusch, M (2013): Past and Future Berlin: InnoZ Regulation of Interurban Coach Services in Germany, in: Jnl of Transport Economics Böhler et al (2009): Mobilitätskonzepte and Policy (in preparation) zur Sicherung der Daseinsvorsorge in nachfrageschwachen Räumen - Evalu- VBB (2005): BürgerBusse im Verkehrsver- ationsreport. Bonn: BBSR-Online-Publika- bund Berlin-Brandenburg. Handbuch für tion 10/2009 Betreiber, Fahrer und Fahrgäste. Berlin: VBB Bürgerbusverein Weyhe (no date): Der BürgerBus Weyhe - ein vorbildliches Pro- jekt zwischen Elbe, Weser und Ems, online: http://www.buergerbus-weyhe.de

Burmeister, J (2002): Bürgerbusse gewin- nen an Fahrt, in: Stadtverkehr 2/02

44 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 A Swedish Bicycle Plan shortages, they focus on feeding their local people, leading to problems in other Tomas Björnsson areas of our global world.

Introduction Oil prices are expected to go up. The IEA 5 Traditionally, a number of arguments are yearly reports reveal a huge deficit in fu- put forward for enlarging cycling infra- ture oil production, referred to as “fields structure considerably: to get more peo- yet to be found”. There has long been dis- ple cycling, to get them to abandon the agreement between the geological view car, to cycle more often, to go on cycling that oil resources are finite, and the eco- holidays, and more. nomic argument that all commodities are replaceable given a demand. A recent re- However, with the imminent climate threat port, “The future of Oil: Technology ver- and increasingly scarce resources in the sus Geology” tries to merge these views, world, the main argument may rather be concluding that oil supply will continue to that cycle tracks are an important part of increase by one per cent per year, but at the transition to a sustainable society. a rapidly increasing price. The prediction is “a near doubling of real oil prices over 6 The predicament the coming decade” . Although the IEA Globally we are now facing a very difficult World Energy Outlook 2012 has optimistic period. Temperatures are not likely to be views on oil production in the USA and in limited to the widely accepted “no more” Iraq, there is still a gap in the projected than two degrees and we have to accept demand. that1. We do not, however, have to accept that nothing can be done or should be done A considerably higher oil price together to maximise our efforts to reduce green- with climate change is likely to lead to dis- house gases and to stimulate changes in turbances, for example, in food supply. A 7 behaviour that will assist this reduction. report from FAO , gives three interpretations of the increase of food prices in re- Certainly climate change will affect infra- cent years: the short term interpretation structure planning. The world faces great is to be found in speculation and the use upheavals as a consequence of a changing of biofuels (ethanol); the middle term climate and the increasing scarcity of lim- says that agricultural investments have ited resources2. been low for a while and are due to increase when demand rises; the long term In September 2012 the Arctic ice cover is structural: the world food supply may reached a new record low3. The record be compared to mining in that we are ex- was not only broken, it was shattered, in tracting more from our biological system extent, area and volume. Such change has than it can supply. This view is supported an effect on the weather in the northern by analysis of the maximum global feeding hemisphere. The difference in tempera- capacity of sustainable farming. ture between the Arctic and the mid-latitudes has decreased and so the engine This may lead to more stringent targets driving our weather is changing, particu- for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions larly in late summer and a long way be- from the countries of the world, but so far, yond autumn. The weather systems can action seems to be too weak and too late. be expected to “get stuck”. Once a snowy 8 season or a rainy period starts, it will per- Emission targets need regular revision . sist longer4. Political leaders and other policymakers tend to use out-of -date figures, ignoring In Europe, we may be able to cope with the fact that world emissions are constant- such variations in weather, but the change ly rising. is global. In 2012, great parts of the US had a prolonged drought and other areas This denial of urgency matters. In only a of the world have been affected similarly few years, the world will be obliged to face with consequent lower crop yield and ris- the major problem that global warming ing food prices. When countries face food will not remain under two degrees. 45 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Transport authorities will have to accept This fact puts an uneven burden on the that vehicle emissions have to decrease municipalities. Dense cities obviously have substantially within a few decades in Eu- more financial muscle for the building of rope if this part of the world is going to cycle tracks, even outside the built-up take any lead in mitigating emissions. area. The less populated municipalities, The Swedish Transport Administration often covering a vast area, have high de- (Trafikverket) writes9: “To achieve emis- mands for a better cycle network, but dif- sion mitigations in the order of 80 per cent ficulties funding it. by 2030, more efficient vehicles, ships and aircraft, increased share of renewable en- Reasons for a bicycle plan ergy and electrifying road transport will The Swedish Society for Nature Conser- not be enough. An altered direction in the vation, SSNC, is a non-profit organisation development of society and infrastructure and the biggest environmental organisa- will also be needed.” Their conclusion is tion in the country, counting two per cent that alternatives cannot be implemented of Swedes as members. Biking is a popular fast enough to replace the existing fleet of topic. vehicles10. In the spring of 2012 the regional branch It remains an open question whether the of the Transport Administration, STA volume of traffic in Europe will decrease Skåne, asked the municipalities for a list significantly before 2030, but it seems like- of new cycle tracks they would prioritise. ly11, given the above drivers for change. A second request asked for cycle tracks important for recreational cycling. Since Even if traffic decreases substantially with- the STA is responsible for the state roads, in the next decade, few would argue that these questions mostly refer to rural it would mean less demand for a better roads. However, while bicycle tracks within infrastructure for cyclists. A considerably the built-up areas of the municipalities are improved cycle track network may rather generally extensive, there is a great need be of strategic importance at a point when for new cycle tracks along the roads lead- more than a minority will go out on their ing into these built-up areas. bikes for everything from everyday trips to recreational excursions. This is not the first attempt to make a regional bicycle plan. The first plan was The south of Sweden made in 2001 and a follow-up in 2006. STA Skåne is the southernmost region of Swe- Skåne has consulted the municipalities den. It consists of 33 local municipalities, and made a plan, though this plan tends including the cities of Malmö, Lund, Hels- to downplay the need for cycle tracks con- ingborg and Kristianstad. The municipali- necting municipalities. ties in Sweden have a planning monopoly which leads to competition, for example, The regional branch of SSNC has made its in attracting external shopping centres. own analysis of cycle tracks needed to give They are also responsible for local roads. the entire region a decent cycling network, Roads outside the municipalities are often making commuting easy, for children go- state roads, where the responsibility lies ing to school in minor built-up areas, and with the Swedish Transport Administration to fill in missing links in the regional net- (Trafikverket, STA). work of cycling routes12.

When cycle tracks are to be constructed outside the built-up areas, it may be ar- gued that the STA should take the full cost of such a project as for the case of a road for motorists. In most cases in the region though, the STA requires the local munici- pality to pay for half the cost of a new cycle track, arguing that cyclists are mostly local.

46 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 Everyday cycling by car was 155 km. Half of all long-dis- According to the national travel survey, tance journeys taken within Sweden were commuting time to work averages around for leisure purposes, often to visit friends 70 minutes per day13. In Sweden, 9.3 per or relatives.” cent of all journeys are made by bicycle every day. The average distance travelled In light of this, the emission reductions by bicycle on a single journey is 3 to 4 km. from recreational cycling are probably not negligible. The allocation of journeys by purpose according to the survey is (p 25): Traffic • 46 % Business, work or school-related The amount of traffic on a road is normally • 18 % Service (personal business) and measured as the number of vehicles per shopping day as an average over the year. • 30 % Leisure If people want to be able to bike along with It is reasonable to assume that the speed their children without being disturbed by for a cyclist is around 16 km/h averaged traffic, the SSNC argue that it is necessary over time and under different weather con- to use cycle-only tracks or roads with very ditions. Hence commuting by bike appears low traffic. Experience says that people a good alternative for distances up to 9 will tolerate 100 to 150 vehicles per day km, and in cities like Stockholm, neither in this case. That corresponds to roughly car nor public transport are faster modes. one vehicle every five minutes, but -traf In smaller built-up areas with surround- fic on such a road is often concentrated ing countryside, it is faster to take the car, to commuter hours and these roads are but the national travel survey shows that very calm in the middle of the day. Need- people are prepared to commute 4 km by less to say, the speed limit must not be too bicycle, that is fifteen minutes to get to high in order to make cyclists feel com- work, school or other everyday activities. fortable using the road. Most of the roads From this discussion, it seems reasonable discussed in the cycle plan have a 70 km/h to conclude that bicycle lanes and tracks speed limit. should be built along roads and extend at least four km from the built-up area. The report on recreational cycling men- A commuting cyclist needs a direct route tioned above agues in the same direction alongside roads, rather than through more and that an essentially car-free cycle route circuitous countryside paths. network should be built.

Recreation The Swedish Transport Administration The STA Skåne also has a project to de- has suggested a limit of 500 vehicles per fine classification criteria for longer cycle day to classify a road as having low traf- routes and has asked the municipalities to fic and as such suitable for cyclists. That provide cycle tracks that may be impor- corresponds to approximately one vehi- tant for recreational cycling. cle per minute, a level which prohibits an undisturbed cycling trip. Particularly, this The conditions for cycle tourism have been amount of traffic will be too much for a 14 covered in a report from Nutek stating person commuting during parts of the that parts of Skåne are among the most year when mornings and evenings are important destinations in the country. dark. Also it is definitely too much to let children cycle to school. In terms of reduced emissions, recreational cycling does not just substitute a car A sole cyclist going fast will probably con- trip for the distance travelled. The alterna- sider a road with up to 1500 vehicles per tive for a day on a bike is not taking the day as acceptable. In the middle of the car to drive the same route. If the car is day in summer there will not be intense used, the distance travelled is likely to be traffic on such a road, and in some cases it much further. The national travel survey can be signposted as part of a route where covers long distance journeys (p 33): “The alternatives are not available. median distance for long-distance travel 47 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 There is strong case for a general de- Results crease in vehicle kilometers of car travel The region of Skåne has around 1.25 at the same time as accessibility to com- million inhabitants in an area of approxi- monly used destinations increases and mately 1.1 million ha. In this region, 13.5 there is a modal shift towards walking, per cent of all trips are made by bicycle. cycling and public transport. The driv- In the city of Malmö, around 17 per cent ers for change are many and include the of all trips are made by bike, and in Lund need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and Helsingborg, 15 per cent (figures from and air pollution and to provide a degree SIKA RES0506. In the centre of Malmö of protection from future increases in the and Lund, the figures are around 25 per price of fossil fuels. This reduction in ve- cent). These cities, together with Kristian- hicle kms of car travel might remove the stad, have around half of the population. need for some new bicycle tracks as traffic In the rest of the region, 11.6 per cent of levels and speeds are more supportive of the trips are made by bike. In 2006 the bike use than is currently the case. Cur- average daily kilometres cycled per inhab- rently political and business priorities do itant in Sweden was 0.5 km. not support significant reductions in traffic levels and official government forecasts In its bicycle plan, the SSNC has sug- (as reported by OECD Transport Outlook) gested around 360 new cycle tracks or predict large increases over the next two improvements to existing roads. Figures decades and reject evidence that car use in parenthesis are measures to which the is declining. SSNC gives priority: • 530 (260) km of new cycle tracks to be Methodology built. This means cycle paths separat- Making a plan for new bicycle tracks re- ed from motor traffic by a barrier such quires not only intense study of maps, sat- as a curb as well as stand-alone paths. ellite pictures and older municipal plans, • 410 (150) km of smaller roads to have but needs to take into account a thorough a hard surface or to have a make-over. knowledge of the real world. In other This category covers abandoned rail words, it is essential to go out on a bike corridors and small roads used to con- and travel along most of the roads to be nect other parts of the cycle network. discussed. Maps do not indicate clearly • 20 (17) grade-separated crossings whether a road has sharp bends where (mostly tunnels) cars are hidden to the cyclist or if the road has many ups and downs. Rural cycle tracks built during the last year cost SEK (Swedish Crowns) 2000-3000 A draft of the SSNC plan was sent to the per meter. The lower figure is for a longer local branch of the society in each munici- cycle track (6 km), and the higher price is pality. They have taken the task very seri- for a shorter one (1 km) including lighting. ously and made corrections and additions This and other estimates are confirmed by to the projects suggested. After this first the STA of the region and from local mu- round, a second or even a third draft was nicipalities. presented to them for approval. Assuming a price of SEK 2500 / m for This process has indeed engaged the a new cycle track and SEK 400 / m for members of the SSNC. All branches of the a make-over and a hard surface and SEK organisation, representing all the munici- 5 m for a tunnel, the cost per inhabitant palities in Skåne, have answered the call could be estimated as (in October 2012, for an opinion. In many cases they have $1 = SEK 6.50): made important contributions by looking • SEK 1280 per capita for all suggestions at the questions from a local perspective. • SEK 640 per capita for the projects with priority

It is the view of the SSNC that the projects with priority are of such importance, that they should be realized within five years, which means before 2018. All of the sug- 48 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 gested projects should be accomplished Cycling in City Cycling17 says: within a decade that is before 2023. Transportation services and infrastructure often undergo comprehensive The resources spent on new and improved economic appraisals as a basis for in- state roads in Sweden are around SEK vestment decision making. However, 1210 per capita per year15. The cost for because many of the benefits of cy- implementing the complete cycle plan in cling are difficult to measure and are ten years would be around SEK 128 per distributed across several sectors, cy- capita per year. cling projects tend to be undervalued and consequently underfunded. In comparison, the true costs of car use have been estimated in a recent report16. Secondly, for children to use a bike to get It states that the uncovered costs of cars to school on their own, is very important are around SEK 7500 per person per year for their development18. in Sweden. As a third argument, the benefits of summer recreational cycling should not be Conclusion underestimated. As mentioned above, a Around ten per cent of the resources spent day’s cycling can be viewed as 150 km of on new and improved roads in the region car use saved. The author suggests that have to be redirected to complete an ex- psychosocial health of this kind of cycling tensive cycle track network that would should receive much more consideration. connect all municipalities in the region and give commuters a real alternative of using A fourth argument towards implementa- a bike instead of a car. tion of the entire cycle plan is a comparison with countries and regions where the Discussion number of trips made by bike is considera- To what extent the bicycle plan presented bly higher. Both the Netherlands and Den- can help to increase cycling in the region mark have an extensive bicycle track net- is difficult to estimate. Neither the munici- work and this seems to be a requirement palities nor the STA seems to make any to encourage the high level of cycling. measurements of the amount of cycling on a road before a separate cycle track is built Finally, but perhaps the most important and after. argument for implementing an extensive bicycle plan, is the need for municipalities Using data from the national travel survey, to be prepared for the transition to a sus- it would be reasonable to assume that cy- tainable society. cling could increase by a few per cent of all the trips made in rural Skåne. Building new cycle tracks or even con- structing an entirely new network does The carbon dioxide saved from building not guarantee an immediate increase in the cycle tracks in this plan is negligible cycling. Other measures are required as with this assumption as long as the com- well and these include widespread social parison only covers the average distance marketing, speed limitation, re-design of cycled, around 3 to 4 km. When the bike streets, improvements in the provision of is used as part of a longer journey in com- local facilities to reduce distances from bination with public transport, the sav- origins to destinations and secure bicycle ings are greater, but may still not be high parking. Bike parking is important and enough to motivate the building of new more is required at workplaces and shop- cycle tracks. ping centres but overall, system-wide reductions in car dependency and improve- To motivate implementation of the cycling ments in local facilities are more important plan, other positive factors have to be and will send strong psychological signals considered. First of all is health, which has that will increase bike use. been documented in a number of studies. Cycling leads to increased physical health Although a number of measures are need- and has a number of psychosocial health ed to promote cycling, the infrastructure benefits. The chapter Health Benefits of of an extensive cycle track network has to 49 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013 exist before the promotional tools can be 10 Hirsch, R. (2005). Peaking of World effective. It is not possible to sell a con- Oil Production: Impacts, Mitigation & Risk cept if it only exists as a plan on a map. Management. US DoE.

It is the view of the author that the ex- 11 Goodwin, P. (2012). Three Views on tensive cycle plan suggested is a very low Peak Car. World Transport Policy and Prac- cost infrastructure investment that has tice 17:4. great benefits for the future. 12 SSNC, Skåne. Cykelvägsplan för Skåne Author details (in swedish). http://skane.snf.se/?p=3397. Tomas Björnsson Email: [email protected] 13 SIKA 2007:19. RES 2005-2006 The Na- tional Travel Survey. http://www.trafa.se/Sta- References: tistik/Resvanor/ 1 UNEP (2011, 2012). Bridging the Emis- sions Gap. 14 Kågesson, P (2007) Förutsättningar för cykelturism i Sverige (in swedish), Nutek 2 IPCC, AR4, WG2 (2007). Also Smith et al. (2008). Reasons for concern. PNAS 15 Swedish Transport Administration. doi/10.1073/pnas.0812355106 Pocket Facts 2010, p 59.

3 National Snow and Ice Data Center. 16 Becker, U et al (2012), The True Costs http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/ of Automobility: External Costs of Cars. Overview on existing estimates in EU-27. 4 Francis, J. Vavrus, S. (2012). Evi- Technische Universität Dresden. dence linking Arctic amplification to - ex treme weather in mid-latitudes. Geo- 17 Pucher, J, Buehler, R (2012) City cycling physical Research Letters vol 39. Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press doi:10.1029/2012GL051000 A short lecture at: http://www.youtube.com/ 18 McDonald, N (2012) Children and Cy- watch?v=4spEuh8vswE cling in Pucher, J, Buehler, R (2012) City cycling Cambridge, Massachusetts, The 5 IEA World Energy Outlook 2010, 2012. MIT Press , 235-255

6 Research paper, IMF (2012). The Fu- ture of Oil: Geology versus Technology. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres. aspx?sk=25884

7 FAO, HLPE Report (2011). Price Volatility and Food Security.

8 van Vuuren, Detlef P. et al. (2011). RCP2.6: Exploring the possibility to keep global mean temperature increase below 2°C. Climatic Change DOI 10.1007/ s10584-011-0152-3

9 Swedish Transport Administration (2012). Efforts for improving energy efficiency and for climate mitigation. Unfortunately this summary does not include the full summary text of the Swedish original.

50 World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 19.1 Feb 2013