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Introduction to Phd Fakultet for naturvitenskap og teknologi Forskningsutvalget GODKJENNING FRA OPPNEVNT BEDØMMELSESKOMITE av avhandling for doktorgraden PERSONALOPPLYSNINGER Kandidat: Tomas Holmern Institutt: Institutt for biologi AVHANDLING Tittel på avhandlingen: Bushmeat hunting in the western Serengeti: Implications for community-based conservation BEDØMMELSESKOMITEENS VURDERING*) graden doctor scientiarum Avhandlingen er bedømt og godkjent for graden doktor ingeniør graden philosophiae doctor Trondheim, den navn, komitemedlem underskrift navn, komitemedlem underskrift navn, komitemedlem underskrift navn, komitemedlem underskrift navn, administrator underskrift Preface I first talked to Eivin Røskaft about possibilities of having my MSc. fieldwork in Africa many years ago. Eventually the opportunity of going to Tanzania and Serengeti materialised, and I was not hard to ask! Later I also got the chance at continuing through a PhD position. Eivin has been a source of advice, inspiration and encouragement throughout the period, for which I’m very grateful. Sigbjørn Stokke has also been instrumental in the process, through providing important advice and ideas – thanks! I would also like to thank the staff at the Department of Biology for always being available to help out, especially Lisbeth, Inger, Hans Jacob, Anne Beate, Tove and Ingunn. Kamil, Ivar, Snorre, Christophe and Bård offered invaluable advice in data analyses. Ivar also provided support whenever I got stuck with ArcView. During this period many friends have made sure that my mind got recharged, through discussions at coffee breaks, hiking and skiing trips, dinners and parties: Andreas, Snorre, Susanne, Brage, Åslaug, Line J, Sølvi, Åsa, Sindre, Bård, Johan, Henrik P, Karen, Irja, Anna, Rolf, Torgeir, Johannes, Jean-Pierre, Louise, Roger, Henrik J, Johanna, Maria, Anton, Rein, Craig, Trine, Christophe, Elisabet, Trond, Arne, Geir, Sigrun, Børge, Trond, Jens, Per Harald, Anna, Marina, Cyril, Line L, Thor Harald, Gunilla, Håkan, Vidar and Kari Mette - Thanks for all the fun! This study would probably not have come about if it had not been for the cooperation between Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI), Norwegian Institute of Nature Research (NINA) and Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) through the project “Biodiversity and the human wildlife interface in the western Serengeti”. In Tanzania numerous people helped out, especially I’m indebted to the staff at TAWIRI (Njiro hill and Seronera) for their hospitality and assistance. Especially I am grateful to the former director of TAWIRI, Charles Mlingwa, as well as the acting director Simon Mduma for facilitating the research. Julius Keyyu, the Tanzanian project leader, also provided crucial assistance and advice. Many thanks are also due to the Norwegian project leader Graciela Rusch, as well as Bjørn Kaltenborn and other co-workers at NINA and NTNU. I’m also thankful to the Tanzanian Commission of Science and Technology (COSTECH) and Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) for permission to conduct the research. 1 Whenever I’ve been in the “field” the staff of Serengeti Regional Conservation Project (SRCP) have welcomed me with open arms and provided housing during my stays in Fort Ikoma. Thanks to: Job Mbaruka and John Muya for enlightening discussions and laughs; Samson Mkama, Joseph Warioba, Lukas Malugu and Michael Mayengo for indispensable help and company while working in the villages; Greyson Mwakalebe, Richard Lyamuya, Wilfred Maleale, Onesmo Mwakabejela, Jushua Kabundo and Elias Kalumbwa for participating in the transects; Anne Kari Evjen Olsen and Christian Von Essen Pedersen, Harald Wiik, Eivin and Berit Røskaft, Ragnvald Larsen and Synne Rudsar, Jafari Ramadhani and Raskina Kideghesho generously gave me accommodation; Trine Hay Setsaas for excellent company during fieldwork and for many long hours in a dusty and tse-tse infested car; Kristelle Friis, Anne Borge Johannesen, Emmanuel Gereta, Johan Reinert Vikan, Craig Jackson, Julius Nyahongo, Shombe Hassan, Vedasto Ndibalema, Flora Magige, Jafari Ramadhani Kideghesho for discussions and comments; Grumeti Reserves Ltd. and Ikoma Bush Camp for cooperation during the study; and a special thanks to the Village Game Scouts who participated in the work and to all the villagers for borrowing us their time and sharing their experiences. Finally, many thanks go to my mother and father, as well as my brothers for their support, and to Claudia for her support, patience and love through a rather hectic period of my life. This work was financed through a PhD grant from the Department of Biology, as well as smaller grants that came from the Nordic Africa Council and Arnfinn and Lise Hejes Legat. 2 Table of contents Preface........................................................................................................................................ 1 Table of contents ........................................................................................................................ 3 List of papers:............................................................................................................................. 4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 5 Introduction ................................................................................................................................7 Protected areas ...................................................................................................................... 7 Effects of human activities on wildlife.................................................................................... 8 Local participation and benefit sharing............................................................................... 10 The return of “fortress conservation”? ............................................................................... 12 Aims for the thesis.................................................................................................................... 14 Methods.................................................................................................................................... 15 Study area............................................................................................................................. 15 Illegal hunting ...................................................................................................................... 17 Community-based conservation ........................................................................................... 18 Study species ........................................................................................................................ 18 Data collection ..................................................................................................................... 20 Main results.............................................................................................................................. 21 Human – wildlife conflicts (Paper I).................................................................................... 21 Bushmeat hunting in the western Serengeti and effects on wildlife (Paper II-IV)............... 22 Performance of community-based conservation (Paper V-VI)............................................ 23 Discussion ................................................................................................................................ 24 Costs of conservation ........................................................................................................... 24 Bushmeat hunting in the western Serengeti ......................................................................... 26 Performance of community-based conservation.................................................................. 27 Management recommendations................................................................................................ 30 Future prospects ....................................................................................................................... 31 References ................................................................................................................................ 32 3 This thesis is based on the following papers: I Holmern, T., Nyahongo, J., Røskaft, E., 2007. Livestock loss caused by predators outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Biological Conservation 135: 534-542. II Holmern, T., Mkama, S.Y., Muya, J., Røskaft, E., 2006. Intraspecific prey choice of bushmeat hunters outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: a preliminary analysis. African Zoology 41: 81-87. III Setsaas, T.H., Holmern, T., Mwakalebe, G., Stokke, S., Røskaft, E., 2007. How does human exploitation affect impala populations in protected and partially protected areas? – A case study from the Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania. Biological Conservation 136: 563-570. IV Holmern, T., Setsaas, T.H., Melis, C., Røskaft, E., (manuscript) Margins of safety and escape responses in Thomson’s gazelle. V Holmern, T., Røskaft, E., Mbaruka, J.Y., Mkama, S.Y., Muya, J., 2002. Uneconomical game cropping in a community-based conservation program outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Oryx 36: 364-372. VI Holmern, T., Muya, J., Røskaft, E., 2007. Local law enforcement and illegal bushmeat hunting outside the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Environmental Conservation 34: 55-63. Declaration of contribution ER contributed with ideas, planning of fieldwork,
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