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its origin to the curing industry. The early colonists in New England and the Maritime Provinces would not Curing and of have been able to survive without the and smoked they could Products: A History prepare, for soil was poor and the cli­ mate uncertain. While fish meant food to the early colonists, soon N. D. JARVIS became their capital resource and their stock in trade for the purchase of sup­ plies. Their most abundant fish, Atlan­ Introduction way. The smoked herring of England tic cod, could be manufactured into a was traded throughout central . durable protein food product, withstand­ Fish curing comprises all methods of Even in the sixteenth century, when ing the primitive shipping and storage preservation except refrigeration and can­ England was fighting , her trade conditions of the day, and was compar­ ning. It includes 1) the drying, smok­ in with Spain was continued. atively low in price. Other cured fish ing, , and of fish, 2) vari­ It has been reported that England gained such as smoked and herring, ous combinations of these methods, and more wealth from cured fish products pickled , and salt were 3) miscellaneous methods such as the in the sixteenth century than Spain ob­ soon being shipped abroad. Out of this use of vinegar and fermentation pro­ tained in gold from the Americas. grew the "triangular trade": Salt fish to cesses or ripening. Despite the importance of fish curing Europe, manufactured goods from The drying and of fish are since prehistoric times, information on Europe to the West Indies, and , ancient processes. Archaeologists and methods of the industry is scattered and rum, and molasses to New England. anthropologists tell us that drying and exact data are lacking. Great interest has The trade in salt fish stimulated other smoking were probably developed short­ been exhibited in fish curing, as it does industries and capital was gradually ac­ ly after the discovery of fire and before not require the equipnlent or capital cumulated so that the colonists could go man learned to make pictographs on needed for canning or freezing. An in­ into shipping. Later, other natural re­ rocks. The art of salting is also very old, dividual with a little capital may dry, sources such as tirrlber were exploited, going back to the Stone Age. The use salt, or smoke fish, using only home­ and the first attempts were made to of vinegar and goes back, at least, made equipment. Species of fish may be create other local manufactures. The to the Greeks and Romans (Radcliffe, utilized that are not suitable for canning. importance of fish curing in the develop­ 1921; Smidth, 1873). Localities not adaptable to the operation ment of trade and industry in early New Fish curing has been an important of canning or freezing plants may be England is discussed at some length by factor in the developnlent of all great used for fish curing. Dried and salt fish Ackerman (1941), who describes how maritime nations. From the Middle Ages are not only good sources of protein but various New England industries owe until well into the nineteenth century may be produced at a lower cost than their origin to the foreign trade in cured agricultural methods were poor. Live­ other animal protein foods. fish. stock were wintered with difficulty, and The fish curing industry continued to curing methods were so poor that Fish Curing Importance grow and prosper, dominating the eco­ there was little meat during the winter; in the History nomic life of the New England colonies also, other protein foods were scarce. of the United States in the late 17th and 18th centuries. The Canning and freezing had not yet been French government was also concerned. developed. The people needed a fairly Atlantic Coast It was attempting to expand the fisher­ low-priced protein food which would re­ The fish curing industry of the ies in the northwestern Atlantic in order main in good condition for some time. North Atlantic coast of North America to build up a large fish curing industry Dried, salted, and supplied dates back at least to the year 1500. in its colony in Canada. Both the British this need. There are authentic records of fish cur­ and French attempted to dominate as Before the beginning of the industrial ing activities as of that period, and much of the North American age, international commerce was largely legends of activities at much earlier grounds as possible, to secure the trade in natural products. The wine of Spain date. An extensive fish curing industry in salted and dried fish for themselves. was exchanged for the dried and salt fish along the North Atlantic coast of North Attempts were made to establish bound­ of England, the Netherlands, and Nor- America was carried on for more than aries, but they were poorly defined, so Norman D. Jarvis was Technologist, Division of 100 years before there was any perma­ that the fishing rights over a wide area Fishery Industries, Fish and Wildlife Service, Seat­ nent settlement. As early as the year were the cause of frequent bickering, tIe, Wash., and this article is excerpted from his 1580 more than 300 from Europe sometimes flaring up into undeclared FWS Research Reports 18 and 7 (1950 and 1943, respectively) on the curing and canning of fishery were salting cod in this area. Newfound­ warfare. Indeed, the series of wars be­ products. land, "the oldest British colony," owes tween France and England were in part

180 Marine Review due to disputes over fishing grounds and At the end of the War of 1812 the 1930's, Japan invaded fishing grounds fish curing locations. The fishermen and British claimed that the war abrogated off the coast of Alaska, and interferred fish curers of New England and Nova the treaty of 1783. The United States with our vessels which were catching Scotia played an important part in Eng­ claimed that this treaty was still valid. and salting cod. The cod fishermen land's conquest of Canada, for to them Seizures of American fishing vessels threatened to shoot any Japanese ob­ the fishing rights meant life or death. were made and it seemed for a time that structing their operations. Japanese fish­ The disputes did not end with the a new war might break out. Tension was ing was a matter of great concern to the ousting of France from Canada, but eased by the signing of a new fishery Pacific Coast , but little notice continued with the New England col­ convention in 1818. It was followed, was taken nationally until it was proved onists on the one hand, and the English however, by a whole series of disputes that the Japanese were catching salmon on the other. Parliament passed a bill in on interpretation, at times resulting in despite an undertaking to the contrary. 1775 which prohibited the New England severe diplomatic tension. The rights in­ The controversy was still unsettled when colonies from trading directly with for­ volved in our fish curing industry in the Japan went to war with the United eign countries and prevented New Eng­ northeastern Atlantic off the coasts of States. The fishery dispute may be re­ land vessels from fishing on the banks Canada and Newfoundland were prob­ garded as a contributory, though minor, of Newfoundland, in the Gulf of St. ably the most important single cause of cause leading to war with Japan. Lawrence, and on the coasts of Labra­ disagreement during most of the nine­ Cured fish of various types were the dor and Nova Scotia where they had teenth century between the United States first manufactured products prepared on been accustomed to go. This meant ruin on the one hand, and Great Britain, with the Pacific coast. The Indians had a con­ to the New England fish curing indus­ the Dominion of Canada, on the other. siderable dried-salmon industry at The try, and the edict was one of the lead­ Trouble occurred less frequently and Dalles, on the Columbia River, long ing causes of bringing the New England with less intensity in the last decades of before the coming of the white man. The colonies into the Revolutionary War. the 19th century, as refrigeration devel­ fish were traded to the plains tribes of The treaty of peace negotiated in 1783 oped and a wider market was created in the interior. According to Cobb (1930) was delayed by the insistence of the the United States for fresh fish, making the Russians operated a commercial salt American delegates on securing favor­ salting and drying of fish on the north­ salmon industry in Alaska at the begin­ able fishery rights. They regarded these eastern coast less important. It was also ning of the 19th century. Salt salmon so important that they refused to sign a possible to conduct all operations at sea was shipped as far as St. Petersburg. general treaty of peace, leaving the fish­ away from the coast. While the feeling Soon afterward the Northwest Fur Com­ ing rights for later adjudication. The was not so intense, the points of differ­ pany started a salmon salting business British proposed to exclude the New ence in interpretation of the Convention on the Columbia River. The Northwest England fish curing industry from of 1818 remained unsettled, and it was Company merged with the Hudson's grounds and areas where New England­ decided to submit the points at issue to Bay Company which shipped salt salm­ ers had fished and cured fish extensive­ arbitration under the Hague Conven­ on to Hawaii, Australia, China, Japan, ly as colonists. Finally, however, the tion. A decision was rendered in 1910. and the eastern United States. American American delegation was able to ob­ fishermen salted salmon in Alaska while tain a treaty article on fisheries which Pacific Coast it was still a Russian possession. A num­ granted favorable conditions to the The fisheries on the Pacific coast of ber of the large salmon canneries of the United States. North America did not affect U.S. inter­ 1940's were originally established as The New England fish curing indus­ national relations to the same extent as salmon salteries. try generally prospered under the new the fisheries of the Atlantic. This is be­ The presence of cod off the coast of Republic, taking salt cod markets in cause 1) their development was much Alaska was established in the 1860's, southern Europe and the Mediterranean more recent and 2) the development was and the possibility of building a pros­ from the British and Scandinavians. different in character. The second fac­ perous salt cod industry there was one Disputes arose with Great Britain over tor is possibly due to the fact that devel­ of the arguments advanced in Congress trade, the interpretation of fishery opment occurred at a period when can­ for the purchase of Alaska. More recent rights, and the impressment of Ameri­ ning and refrigeration were replacing but still inconlplete studies have estab­ can fishermen and seamen into the curing as the principal methods of pres­ lished that the Pacific banks are larger Royal Navy. Restrictions and embargoes ervation. Then, too, more of the fishing and of greater potential production than were imposed by both Great Britain and took place in more clearly defined ter­ the Grand Banks off the coast of New­ the United States, resulting in a decline ritorial waters. foundland. Yet, utilization in the 1940's in the salt fish industry after 1807. The There have been a number of disputes was less than it was 30 years before. War of 1812 almost ruined the industry. between Canada and the United States During World War II the Pacific coast The war was so unpopular among ­ over Pacific fishery problems but they fish curing industry was much more ad­ ping, commercial, and fish curing groups have been minor in character when versely affected than that on the Atlan­ that there was a move toward secession compared with those in the Atlantic, and tic coast. When the Alaska area became in some of the New England States. none concerned fish curing. In the a combat zone, almost all fishing and

50(4), 1988 181 fish curing activities were stopped. All pounds in 1908 while in 1940 it was of World War II. In 1936, Japanese data but one of the cod salting vessels was 829,000 pounds. The production of showed a production of 1,234,709,000 requisitioned by the Government. Her­ mild-cured salmon showed little change pounds of cured fishery products with ring salting in southeastern Alaska was since it equalled 8,483,000 pounds in a value of $49,609,000. The production almost impossible because of the great 1908 and 7,770,000 pounds in 1940. In­ of amounted to 223,899,000 increase in costs, the scarcity of labor, cidentally, 1940 was a war year, and for­ pounds, with a value of $20,318,000. It and the necessity of using commercial eign markets which usually absorbed an is understood that cured products were vessels for war purposes. These causes important share of the production had prepared largely for home consumption, also adversely affected the mild curing been eliminated. More than 1,200,000 and the greater portion of canned prod­ of salmon. The loss of foreign markets pounds of halibut were smoked in 1908, ucts was exported. was the and the effect of pricing regulations while only a few hundred pounds were most important single item, with a pro­ were other unfavorable factors. prepared in 1940. Production of smoked duction of 203,856,000 pounds. Seaweed herring was 13,311,000 pounds in 1908 prepared by several different methods Fish Curing Data but it totaled only 3,629,000 pounds in was also an important cured product in Complete statistical data on the pro­ 1940. On the other hand, no smoked Japan. The only method of curing not duction of cured fish in the United States kippered was prepared in 1908 greatly favored in Japan was smoking. between the 1880's and the 1940's, or while there was a production of 1,176,000 The total amount cured by this method any consecutive series of years within pounds in 1940. The production of dried was only 1,847,000 pounds. the period, are lacking. This is unfor­ is given as 342,000 pounds in The production of cured fishery prod­ tunate as both canning and refrigeration 1908 and 2,069,000 pounds in 1940. ucts in Canada was greater than in the industries were being developed during Herring pickled in vinegar and spiced United States but the value to the pro­ this period; in fact, many changes were herring were not reported in 1908, while ducer was less. The total of cured prod­ taking place in food habits and food production of these two itenls totaled ucts in 1938, the last year of normal pre­ products, with great effect on the fish­ 3,537,000 pounds in 1940. This is be­ war production, amounted to 125,451,000 ing industry. lieved to involve some duplication as pounds with a value of $4,250,000. The first production figures available herring pickled in vinegar is used in the Difference in value of production is on the fish curing industry were re­ production of spiced herring. Kippered believed due to the fact that items pro­ ported by Goode (1884), but the data do salmon is not reported in 1908 while duced in Canada are largely the standard not cover the entire United States and 2,543,000 pounds were produced in low-priced products, while the United are reasonably complete only for the 1940. Production of States prepared more high-priced cured New England states. The first complete amounted to 4,297,000 pounds in 1908 fish specialties. For instance, in Canada figures on manufactured fishery prod­ and it was 8,423,000 pounds in 1940. No the total production of smoked and kip­ ucts are for 1908. It is the first reason­ smoked buffalofish, butterfish, or pered salmon in 1938 was reported as ably complete and accurate statistical are listed in 1908, while production 26,000 pounds with a value of $3,000, record on the production of cured fish of these three items totaled 1,004,000 while the United States production of in the United States. In 1908 the total pounds in 1940. smoked and kippered salmon in 1940 production amounted to 187,299,000 In 1908, cured fishery products repre­ was 10,966,000 pounds with a value of pounds with a value to the producer of sented 42 percent of the manufactured $3,563,000. Canadian statistics did not $11,018,000. In 1940, production de­ fishery products while canned fish and show any production of such articles as creased to 97,439,000 pounds, but the sea foods amounted to 57 percent. In smoked sturgeon and spiced herring. value increased to $14,235,000. The de­ 1940 production of cured fishery prod­ cline in the production of salt ground­ ucts amounted to 97,439,000 pounds fish is even more startling if the New with a value to the primary producer of Canning Fishery Products England area, historically the most im­ $14,235,000 while production of canned While a number of individuals con­ portant, is considered separately. From products amounted to 708,930,000 tributed to the early developnlent of the 79,009,000 pounds in 1880 the produc­ pounds with a value of $94,182,000. canning industry, it is generally agreed tion fell to 4,742,000 pounds in 1919. Thus, in 1940, cured fish accounted for that the original inventor of the art of In 1908, dried and salted groundfish 9 percent of the quantity and 10 percent canning was Nicolas Appert, a French­ (cod, , cusk, hake, and ) of the value. man, and that the basic methods of the totaled 84,642,000 pounds while in 1940 The fish curing industry is much industry are the result of his work. it was 17,697,000 pounds. It is believed more important in other countries with In 1795 the revolutionary French Gov­ that a portion of the boneless salt cod large fishery industries than in the ernment was at war on land and sea with reported in 1940 was prepared from United States, and fish curing in those most of the other European governments green- imported from Canada countries does not show a decrease to in areas as widely separated as the West and is, therefore, not entirely a product the same extent as in the United States. and East Indies. Few ports were open of the U.S. fisheries. Pickled or hard­ Japan was the world's largest producer to the French, who therefore had to salt salmon amounted to 14,595,000 of cured fishery products at the outbreak 'depend largely on dried, smoked, and

182 Marine Fisheries Review pickled foods brought from France. culty than processing other types of among their neighbors. These products were subject to spoilage foods. Our most important fish canning in­ and their use resulted in widespread in­ Canning is said to have been intro­ dustry, namely salmon, had its begin­ cidence of deficiency diseases, such as duced into the United States by Ezra ning during this Civil War period. scurvy, which greatly weakened the Daggett and Thomas Kensett in 1819 Salmon is said to have been canned first military forces. The French Government when they packed and other in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1824 and it therefore offered a prize of 12,000 francs in New York (Cobb, 1919). is claimed that the first salmon canned to anyone who would develop a new William Underwood is credited with on the American continent was packed method of preserving food so that de­ establishing a plant in Boston in 1820, at St. Johns, N.B., in 1839, and in composition would be reduced and packing and fruit in glass. It is Maine shortly afterward. However, it more of the original characteristics of understood that these men learned the was never packed on an extensive scale fresh food retained. art in England before emigrating to this as were and oysters. At no time Nicolas Appert, a confectioner, brew­ country. The Underwood plant was later has the packing of salmon been of any er, distiller, and wholesale caterer was reorganized into the firm of Wm. Un­ importance on the U.S. Atlantic Coast. interested in this problem. Appert derwood's Sons and, still in existence The industry had its real beginning in worked until 1804 before he attained his in the 1940's, was the oldest in the California, first became important on first measure of success, and not until United States. the Columbia River, and reached full 1809 was his method finally developed. Thomas Kensett was the first to break development when salmon canning He was awarded the prize in that year away from home kitchen methods and spread to , Alaska, after a thorough investigation of his deserves credit for the development of northern Japan, and Siberia, in that method, and as required by the terms the first canned product to receive wide order. of the award his results were published distribution, namely, the . The George and William Hume with their in 1810 (Collins, 1924). pioneer development of the industry in friend A. S. Hapgood were the creators The house of Appert was still in op­ the Chesapeake Bay area, the first im­ of the Pacific salmon canning industry eration in the 1940's under the manage­ portant canning center, is due to his ef­ (Hume, 1904). The Hume brothers, ment of the fourth generation of the forts. Others are said to have engaged who had worked as fishermen at their family. Appert never became a great in the industry in the Baltimore area home in Maine, went to California as commercial success as he was interested before Kensett, and as stated above, it "Forty-niners." They noticed that saln1­ in improving his products and processes is believed that oysters were canned as on were plentiful in the Sacramento to the exclusion of almost everything early as 1819. The first systematic effort River and believed that money might be else, and devoted most of his time and at the large-scale development of a prod­ made canning the fish. They went back money to this end. uct was made by Kensett in 1844, when to Maine on a visit, induced A. S. Hap­ Peter Durand, an Englishman, in 1810 he began packing oysters in Baltimore. good, a lobster canner, to return west obtained a patent on a process for pre­ Collins (1924) reported: with them, and the first Pacific salmon serving "animal, vegetable and other "Oysters and were the first pack was made at Sacramento, Calif., perishable foods in vessels of glass, pot­ products that became popular. Inland in 1864. The pack was a failure the next tery, tin or any fit materials." This was cities could get fresh Baltimore oysters year, but conditions were reported to be the first mention of tin as a container packed in ice through the winter; but extremely favorable on the Columbia for sterilized foods, although tin con­ folks in smaller places seldom enjoyed River, so the Hume firm moved their tainers had been in use before 1800 for such a luxury-the countryman's great­ equipment to Eagle Cliff, Wash., about packing salt and kippered fish. Durand est treat when he went to town was 40 miles up the river from Astoria, is said to have obtained his patent an oyster . Baltimore and Boston Oreg., and made the first pack of Co­ through knowledge imparted by a for­ canned oysters so they would keep for lumbia River salmon in 1866. eigner who is believed to have been Ap­ months, and could be bought at any Canned salmon was introduced to pert. Durand's method came into exten­ country grocery store by people who England and Germany where the first sive use only after 1820 when Pierre had never eaten a fresh oyster." large market for this product was estab­ Antoine Angilbert invented a tin con­ Increase in production was gradual lished by ships loading wheat and lum­ tainer less subject to leakage, and which over a period of about 20 years begin­ ber for European ports. Canneries be­ could be made more rapidly. ning in 1844. The first big increase in came numerous along the Columbia Canning was first developed on an ex­ demand came with the Civil War. Pre­ River, and as the sale of canned salmon tensive commercial scale in the United served foods were needed for feeding steadily increased, the industry sought States, and most of our pioneer canners the troops, thus enormously increasing new and profitable locations, first at were primarily packers of fish and sea­ the demand and creating additional con­ New Westminster on the Fraser River foods, with fruits, vegetables, and pre­ sumers for canned seafoods. Men who in British Columbia in 1867; then at serves packed as secondary or inciden­ became acquainted with these products Mukilteo, on Puget Sound, Washington tal items. Strangely enough, the packing in the Army demanded canned foods on Territory, in 1877; and while Alaska was of fishery products presents more diffi­ their return home and introduced them the n10st important salmon canning area

50(4), 1988 183 in the 1940's, its first cannery was not which aided greatly in overcoming come discoloration was developed by built until 1878 at Klawak, on Prince of blackening. Shrimp packing soon be­ Fellers and Harris, and in 1938 Harris Wales Island. came, and remained in the 1940's, the packed the common or blue of the Salmon is said to have been canned principal fishery canning industry of the Atlantic coast commercially. The prin­ as early as 1877 in northern Japan, but Gulf coast. Shrimp were also canned on cipal obstacle to a greater development commercial operations date from 1890 the Atlantic Coast in Florida, Georgia, was believed to be the competition of­ in that area (Anonylll0us, N.d.). The and South Carolina, but the amount fered by imported . salmon canning industry was established packed on the Atlantic Coast was much Canned crab was in considerable de­ in Siberia in about 1906. The largest smaller than on the Gulf Coast. mand in the United States, but most of pack of canned salmon was made in While Baltimore, Md., was the center the supply originated in Japan. Indeed, 1936, when production amounted to a of the oyster canning industry for a long this country was the most important world total of 13,720,423 cases of 48 period, oysters were being packed there market for Japanese canned crab, which I-pound cans. in the 1940's only occasionally. The is a different species from the common were first packed at Nantes, catch of the Chesapeake Bay region had American varieties. France, in 1834, and by 1860 a fairly decreased great!y and the oysters of this While the crab canning process is said good market had been created for area were more profitably marketed in to have been developed in 1892, the French sardines in the United States. Ef­ the fresh state. The greater portion of Japanese industry was not established on forts were made to establish an Ameri­ the oyster pack was then prepared on the a commercial scale until 1908 (Anony­ can industry in 1871, utilizing young Gulf Coast, the industry centering mous, N.d.). Japanese canned crab be­ as raw material. In 1877 around Biloxi, Miss. Another develop­ gan to enter the United States markets Julius Wolff began canning small her­ ment in the oyster industry was the es­ in appreciable quantities during the ring at Eastport, Maine, and is credited tablishment of oyster canning on the World War I years, until in 1931 imports with starting the first really successful Pacific Coast. The introduction of the amounted to almost double the domes­ American cannery. In a few Japanese or "Pacific" oyster created a tic production of fresh and canned crab years a large number of sardine canners surplus, unmarketable in the raw con­ meat. were operating in northern Maine and dition. After several years of experi­ A domestic crab canning industry has nearby Canada. mental work, this oyster was canned been developed in the latter 1930's in Several efforts were made during the commercially in 1931. The pack in that Alaska, Oregon, and Washington. Pro­ 1890's to establish sardine canning on year was 7,930 cases, increasing to cessing and other technical difficulties Puget Sound or in Alaska where large 118,853 cases in 1936. were overcome and a market was devel­ quantities of herring were available, but Burnham and Morrill are credited oped in the Pacific Coast States. It was all of these operations were shortlived. with establishing the first cannery not believed in the early 1940's that the The first successful Pacific Coast sar­ in the United States in 1878 at Pine Pacific Coast crab canning industry dine cannery was established at San Point, Maine (Stevenson, 1899). The could be expanded sufficiently to supply Pedro, Calif., in 1896 (Bitting, 1937). pack of canned clam products was small the domestic demand for canned crab. The industry developed slowly until 1917 for some years as considerable difficulty The large supply of groundfish in the when the pack was suddenly increased was experienced with discoloration, but North Atlantic has been the basis of to a large amount by the demands of production slowly increased when this numerous attempts to develop a canning World War I. After the war, production difficulty was overcome. P. F. Halferty industry, which have not been particu­ was maintained and increased by exten­ developed a method for canning minced larly successful because of competition sive cultivation of the export trade. razor about 1900, building up a with other canned fishery products or When the depression of the 1930's de­ commercial clam canning industry in insufficient advertising. Cod and had­ stroyed the export market, a slump in Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. The dock products such as fish flakes, fish production occurred, but this was large­ inclusion of minced clams, broth, and cakes or balls, and have ly overcome by development of the clam in the list of clam prod­ not found a wide market outside the domestic market. The Pacific sardine ucts increased the value of canned clam New England area and are packed on industry was centered almost entirely in products until, in the early 1940's, they a limited scale. Fish cakes were first California in the 1940's where it origin­ ranked fifth in order of importance of packed in Boston in 1878. Finnan had­ ated, with a small pack canned on the the canned fishery products, thereby die (smoked haddock) was first packed Colulllbia River and in British Colum­ displacing oysters. about 1890, and a steady but not large bia. Crab was first canned in this country demand existed in the early 1940's. Fish Shrimp were first packed in the Gulf by James McMenamin of Norfolk, Va., flakes or "salad fish," the flaked meat of Mexico area. G. W. Dunbar of New in 1878. The canning of crab meat never of cod and haddock, are believed to have Orleans, canned shrimp as early as 1867 became important on the Atlantic Coast, been developed by Burnham and Mor­ but had difficulty with blackening and and the quality of the pack has been rill of Portland, Maine, in 1898. discoloration. He solved this problem variable. The greatest obstacle has been At the tum of the century, the industry in 1875 with the invention of a can lining discoloration. In 1936, a method to over­ 'was experimenting with a variety of

184 Marine Fisheries Review products. A number of articles were ducted under the direction of Mr. Lap­ United States. Fifteen are canned regu­ sold commercially that were not found , the president, with Wilbur F. larly on a large commercial scale while on the market in the 1940's, such as Woods and James McMann as the ac­ a number of others are packed occa­ pickled sturgeon, smoked lake , tive investigators. Their source of raw sionally or in quantities too small to carp, meat, menhaden, and a material was , which when merit separate record in statistical variety of specialty or delicatessen prod­ cooked, they all agreed, resembled reports. The record domestic pack of ucts. Some of these packs did not make chicken in taste and flavor. This char­ canned fishery products [up to the early a good product, others were not in suf­ acteristic flavor, no doubt, added im­ 1940's] was produced in 1936 and ficient demand, while in other instances petus to their experiments, but it was amounted to 794,707,014 pounds valued the cost of raw material became too not until 1907 that their efforts were at $94,564,254. Salnl0n is the most im­ great for profitable operation. About rewarded ...." portant canned fishery product, its value 1900, the annual pack of canned fish­ "The first successful pack was pro­ in 1938 amounting to 50.8 percent of the ery products was less than half of the duced in 1909 when 2,000 cases were total value of all canned fishery prod­ amount produced in the early 1940's and packed which were nlarketed by Sig­ ucts. Next in importance are and it was thought that production could not mund Seeman, Seeman Brothers, New tuna-like , sardines, shrimp, clam be increased greatly or even maintained. York." products, , and oysters, in the The lobster canning industry, once al­ Mackerel was canned in small quan­ order named. The seven varieties listed most exclusively confined to the United tities in New England as early as 1843. above account for 96 percent of the States, passed almost entirely over to The introduction of nlackerel into the value of the total pack. While canned Canada after 1896 (Cobb, 1919). While general canned food market occurred in sardines ranked second in value in 1929 these gloomy predictions were being 1927 when George Ogawa put up a pack and oysters fifth, these products had made, the canning industry of fishery of 10,725 cases of California mackerel dropped to third and seventh places, products was on the threshold of its "salmon style" which was sold at a respectively, in 1938. greatest development. Production of the price to conlpete with the cheaper vari­ standard varieties has been greatly in­ eties of salmon. Production of Pacific Literature Cited creased and new products have been nlackerel increased to 388,500 cases in Ackerman, E. A. 1941. New England's fishing developed on a considerable scale. 1928, and rapidly reached a peak of industry. Univ. Chic. Press, 303 p. Anonynl0us, N.d. Marine foods canning industry Canned tuna is one of the more re­ 1,795,700 cases of 48 I-pound cans in in Japan. Canned Foods Assoc. Jpn., Tokyo, cently developed canned fishery prod­ 1935. 103 p. ucts, first packed commercially in 1909. The most recently developed canned Bitting, A. W. 1937. Apertizing or the art of can­ ning. The Trade Pressroom, San Franc., 852 p. O.W. Lang (1935) stated: fishery product is not intended for Cobb, J. N. 1919. Canning of fishery products. ''According to those who are intimate­ human consumption, but is prepared for U.S. Bur. Fish., Seattle, Wash., 217 p. ly connected with California fisheries, feeding pets and fur animals and for use ___ . 1930. Pacific salmon fisheries. U.S. Dep. Commer., Bur. Fish., Doc. 1092,297 p. the packing of tuna had its inception in in fish hatcheries. In 1938, 413,434 cases Collins, J. H. 1924. The story of canned foods. the Southern California Fish Co...This of pet food made from fishery products N.Y., 251 p. company, between its date of incorpora­ Goode, G. B. 1884. Fisheries and fishery indus­ were packed. Production is divided be­ tries of the United States. U.S. Fish. Comnnss., tion in 1892 and until 1905, was in­ tween California, where mackerel or Wash., D.C. terested only in the production and is utilized as the basic in­ Hume, R. D., 1904. The first . Pac. Fish. 2(1):19-21. marketing of one-quarter and one-half gredient, and in New England where pet Lang, O. W. 1935. Thermal processes for canned pound square cans of sardines in oil and food is a by-product in the packing of marine products. Univ. Calif., Berkeley, Pub!. the one pound oval pack of the larger fish fillets. Public Health 2(1):1-182. Radcliffe, W. 1921. Fishing from the earliest sardines. Serious foreign competition, The total market value of all fish times. John Murray Pub!., Ltd., Lond., 478 p. principally from , encroached and fishery products to primary han­ Smidth, J. K. 1873. Historical observations on upon the business, and it was through dlers in 1938 was established at about the condition of the fisheries among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and on their mode of salt­ the resourcefulness and ingenuity of one $214,000,000. The fish canning industry ing fish. Rep. Commisso Fish Fish., Part III, of its officers that experiments were con­ accounted for $83,446,000 or 39 percent App. A, p. 1-20. Stevenson, C. H. 1899. The preservation of fish­ ducted during 1905, 1906, and 1907 on of this total. About 160 species of fish ery products for food. U.S. Fish Commisso the canning of tuna. The tests were con­ are utilized regularly for food in the Bull. 1898:335-563.

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