CENSUS PUBLICATIONS, CEYLON, 1921
VOLUME I.—PART II.
REPORT ON THE CENSUS OF CEYLON, 1921
BY
L. J. B. TURNER, M.A.
(of the Ceylon Civil Service),
Superintendent of Census and Director of Statistics, Ceylon, FelUnv of tlie Royal Statistical Society
\1 613
PRINTED BY H. ROSS COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, CEYLON
To be purchased at the GOVERNMENT RECORD OFFICE, COLOMBO, price Rs. 5
1924 ( iii )
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER I.—Sex.
Section 1.—Some General Considerations .. •• •• •• 6 2. Some of the Statistics
CHAPTER II.—Age. 15 Section 1.—The Inaccuracy of the Data .. 18 „ 2.—Some of the Results .. • • • • • • • 29 „ 3.—The Connected Theory
CHAPTER III.—Conjugal Condition. 31 Section 1.—The Basis of the Figures and Early Marriages .. 32 „ 2.—Distribution of Population by Conjugal Condition 38 „ 3.—Some Marriage Customs .. • •
CHAPTER IV.—Birthplace. 42 Section 1.—Population Ceylon-born and outside-born 46 „ 2.—Birthplaces of the Races 47 „ 3.—Sources of Supply of the District, Town, and Estate Populations...
CHAPTER V.—Religion. 52 Section 1.—General 52 „ 2.—Development of Main Religions .. 54 „ 3.—Distribution by Race and Religion 55 „ ' 4.—Religious Composition of Provinces and Districts 56 „ . 5.—Christian Sects .. 58 „ 6.—Race by Religion and Province
CHAPTER VI.—Literacy. 59 Section 1.—Some General Considerations 60 „ 2.—Progress of Literacy 63 ,, 3.—Literacy by Race and District .. 66 „ 4.—Literacy by Religion .. 69 „ 5.—Literacy in English 72 „ 6.—Tamil-speaking Sinhalese
CHAPTER VII.—Occupations. 72 Section 1.—The Collection of the Information 74 „ 2.—The Main features of the Statistics
78 A.—Production of Raw Materials 81 B.—Preparation and Supply of Material Substances 86 C.—Public Administration and Liberal Arts 88 •D.—Miscellaneous 89 Subsidiary Occupations
90 CHAPTER VIH.—Infirmities. 95 CHAPTER IX.—The Maldive Islands .. 108 CHAPTER X.—Administration ..
APPENDIX I.—Population (excluding the Military and Shipping) at the Censuses of 1021 and 1911 111 by Literacy, Religion, and Race APPENDIX II—Population of the Principal Estates in Ceylon at the Censuses of 1921 and 1911 by 115 Literacy, Religion, and Race APPENDIX III.—Population of the Principal Towns (excluding the Military and Shipping) at the 118 Censuses of 1921 and 1911 by Literacy, Religion, and Race 123 INDEX ...... ( iv )
LIST OP MAPS.
Facing Page CEYLON (24 miles to an inch) showing the Proportion of Males to 1,000 Persons of the Population in each District, 1921
CEYLON (24 miles to an inch) showing the Proportion for each District of Persons born and enumerated in that District, 1921 42 MAPS (64 miles to an inch) of the Island of Ceylon, showing the Proportion of the adherents of each of the Four Principal Religions to Total Population in each District, 1921 55 MAPS (64 miles to an inch) of the Island of Ceylon, showing the Proportion of Male and Female Literates to the Population of each Sex in each District, 1921 63 MAP OF THE MALDIVE ISLANDS 95
\ ( v )
LIST OF DIAGRAMS.
Facing No. Page 1 .. Sex Proportions in the Districts, 1921 ...... 6 2 .. Sex Proportions of the Races, 1921 .. .. 0 2A .. Sex Proportions in the Towns with Population of 6,000 and over, 1921 .. .. 8 3 .. Masculinity of All Races, Sinhalese, and Tamils by Decennial Age-groups, 1881 to 1921 .. 9 3A .. Masculinity of Moors, Malays, and Veddas by Decennial Age-groups, 1881 to 1921 .. 11 3B .. Masculinity of Europeans, Burghers and Eurasians, and Others by Decennial Age-groups, 1881 to 1921 .. .. 13 4 .. Enumerated Population at each Year of Age, All Races, Both Sexes, Ceylon, 1921 .. 15 6 .. Enumerated Population at each Year of Age, Indian Tamils, Both Sexes, Ceylon, 1921 .. 17 6 .. Enumerated Population at each Year of Age, Europeans, Both Sexes, Ceylon, 1921 . • 18 6A . . Percentage Distribution of the Triple Age-grouping of Population of each Race by Sex, Ceylon, 1921 ...... 19 7 .. Population below each Age, All Races, by Sex, Ceylon, 1921 .. 26 8 .. Population below each Age of Low-country Sinhalese, Kandyan Sinhalese, Ceylon Tamils, Indian Tamils, and Ceylon Moors, both Sexes, Ceylon, 1921 .. 26 9 ..' Population below each Age of Indian Moors, Burghers and Eurasians, and Others, both Sexes, Ceylon, 1921 ...... 28 10 .. Population below each Age of Europeans, Malays, and Veddas, both Sexes, Ceylon, 1921" .. 28 11 .'. Age Diagram, 1821-1921 ...... 30 12 .. Age Diagram, 1911-1921 ...... 30 13 .. Proportion of the Unmarried aged 15 and over of each Race by Sex, Ceylon, 1921 and 1911 32 14 Proportion of the Unmarried, Married, Widowed, or Divorced at each Quinquennial Age- group, Ceylon, 1921 ...... 35 15 .. Population of Districts by Birthplace, 1921 ... 49 16 .. Logarithmic Graphs of the Population of Ceylon by Religion, 1871-1921 .. .. 53 17 .. Population of Districts by Religion, 1921 ...... 56 18 .. Proportion of Literates and English Literates of each Race by Sex, Ceylon, 1921 .. 60 19 .. Proportion of Literates and English Literates of each of the Four Main Religions by Sex, Ceylon, 1921 ...... 60 20 .. Proportion of Literates and English Literates in the Districts by Sex, 1921 .. 66 20A .. Proportion of Literates and English Literates by Sex in the Principal Towns, Ceylon, 1921 70 21 .. Percentage of Earners to the Total Population of each Race by Sex, Ceylon, 1921 .. 73 21A .. Percentage Distribution of the Population of each Race by Principal Sub-classes of Occupation, Ceylon, 1921 ...... 75 21B .. Percentage Distribution of the Population of each District by Principal Sub-classes of Occupation, 1921 ...... • 77 22 .. Distribution by Age of a Thousand of the Total Blind, Deaf-mute, and Insane Population of each Sex, Ceylon, 1901-1921 ...... 93 23 .. Population of the Maldive Islands at each Age up to 4, and Average Population by Quinquennial groups thereafter .'. .. .. 99
b 23-22 ( vi )
ADDENDUM.
Page 40, footnote (f): Gate Mudaliyar Gunawardhana has drawn my attention to the following points:—
The words for cross-cousin (i.e., the child of a maternal uncle or a paternal aunt) in Sinhalese and Tamil are also those for brother-in-law ; similarly, the same words are used for cross-nephew and son-in- law ; while, a marriage of two cross-cousins as distinguished from one between persons not so related is called, from the ancient practice, evessa, meaning obligatory. These instances show that cross-cousin marriage was, in the past, a matter of course. It is also interesting to note that if a woman does not marry a cross-cousin, the latter'6 family is considered entitled to compensation. This takes the form of a present of a cloth from the bridegroom to the maternal uncle of the bride (i.e., the father of the male cross-cousin). Also the bride in such a case is not given away by her parents or brothers, but by her maternal uncle as representing the family of the cross-cousin whom she ought to have married. Among the Southern Indian tribes'a girl's father's sister's son who has the first right to the girl's hand in marriage must be paid eight annas or two janams before he will allow her to be married to a stranger. [C/. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Madras, 1909), Vol. VII., p. 60.] It may be argued that cross-cousin marriage is a Dravidian rather than an Aryan custom, on the ground that in Northern India marriage of all cousins is equally forbidden. [Gf. Sir J. G. Frazer's Folk-lore in the Old Testament (London, 1919), Vol. II., pp. 100-132 ; Manu, Code Bk. III., 5 ; Bk. XI., 171-2.] For information regarding cross-cousin marriage in Southern India, and its origin, reference may be made to Gait's Census of India, 1911, Vol. I., Part I., pp. 255-7, paragraphs 311 and 312.
/ REPORT ON THE CENSUS OF CEYLON, 1921.
CHAPTER I.—SEX.
SECTION T.—SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Accuracy.—As the possibility of the enumerators confusing males and females is somewhat remote, the errors in the totals of the two sexes should be of about the same order as those in the figures of the total population, that is probably between 2 per cent, and 2 per 1,000 for " all races," and some what higher for the separate races. The numbers of both males and females were probably understated, and it is possible that the understatement of females was somewhat greater than that of males, but the difference is not likely to be very great. The Totals.—The first point which is immediately noticeable is that in 1921, as at all previous Censuses of Ceylon, the males exceeded the females in number. The figures are given in the following table:— TABLE No. 1.—Males, Females, and Total Persons (excluding Military and Shipping).* Census Year. Males. Females. ' TotaL 1.2 3 4 1871 .. 1,280,129 .. 1,120,251.. .. 2,400,380 1881 A .. 1,469,553 .. 1,290,185 .. 2,759,738 1891 3 .. 1,593,376 .. 1,414,413 .. 3,007,789 1901 .t(= .. 1,896,212 .. 1,669,742 .. 3,565,954 1911 S .. 2,175,030 .. 1,931,320 .. 4,106,350 1921 j& .. 2,381,812 .. 2,116,793 .. 4,498,605 Masculinity.—The subject can be better examined by taking out the ratios of the sexes by any of the following three methods :f (1) by calculating the males per 1,000 females ; (2) by calculating the males per 1,000 of the total population ; (3) by calculating the excess of males per 1,000 of the total population. Any of these ratios gives what is called the " masculinity " of the population, while the " femininity " is obtained by obvious interchanges. The third method is probably the best, but, for convenience of comparison with the previous Ceylon Census Reports we may use (2). The other ratios are easily obtained from this. If we call the first u,,, the second u.a, the third ji, ,then (t, = 1,000 (*.., and n3 = 2 —1,000. 1,000—^a The Ceylon table for is the following :— TABLE No. 2.—Masculinity, Ceylon, 1&71 to 1921. Masculinity. Census Year, Census Year. Masculinity. Ceylon. Ceylon. 1 2 1 2. 1871 t 533 1901 532 1881 a 532 1911 530 1891 530 1921 529 It is possible that the fall in the masculinity may be due, to a small extent, to the better enumeration of females, but the differences at successive Censuses are almost negligible, a change of 5 units in the value of the masculinity ratio amounting to an excess or deficit of only 1 per cent, of the males. Masculinity of other Countries.—Some figures for some other countries are given in the following table:— TABLE No. 3.—Masculinity of Populations of various Countries. Country. Year. Masculinity. Country. Year. Masculinity: 1 2 3 1 2 3 Canada t 1911 530 - Hungary .. 1910 495 Ceylon •n a 1921 529 ^'Russia (European) 1914 495 Serbia 3 1910 516 Switzerland •") 1910 492 British India J <+ 1921 514 ' France 1911 491 India (Feudatory States) .. tj 1921 .. 513 - Italy 1911 491 New Zealand 1921 511 6 Sweden 2JX 1920 491 United States of America §.. Y 1920 510 Denmark .. 3-3 1921 487 Australia - G 1921 508 Spain 1910 486 Roumania 1919 504 Norway 1910 483 Greece 9 1907 503 18 - Scotland? .. 1921 481 Poland (Russian) 1914 502 . 2.7 1920 479 II Austria? Bulgaria§ 1920 501 Prussia? .. 1919 478 Japan 1920 501 i j - England and Wales? 2.r, 1921 476 Ireland .. • 1911 499 German Empire? q£ 1919 476 Netherlands , 1920 497 Portugal ... 1911 475 1919 3i Belgium? ta 495 * All the tables in this Chapter exclude the Military and the Shipping, t See Knibbs* Census of Australia, 1911, Vol. I., Appendix A, page 132. , j The ratios for some of the Provinces of India in 1921 were: Bengal, 517 ; Bombay, 521; Bihar and Orissa, 495 ; Burma, 511 ; Central Provinces, 500; Madras, 493 ; Punjab, 546; United Provinces, 523. Tho figures of the Maldive Islands are not included above aB their total population is only 72,000. But the masculinity is 542, highor than any of the ratios in the table. § The pre-war ratios wore: United States of America 515 in 1910 ; Bulgaria 509 in 1910 ; Belgium 496 in 1910 ; Scotland 485 in 1911 ; Austria 491 in 1910 ; Prussia 495 in 1910 ; England and Wales 484 in 1011; German Empire 608 in 1910 ; India 512 in 1911. 29-22-602 2 CHAPTER I.—SEX.
The wide range of values in this table is due to migration, or to the differential effect of the male and female birth-, and death-rates. It is to be supposed that the lower values of the masculinity are partly due to the emigration of males ; the higher figures may be caused by immigration ; while the relative values of the male and female birth and death-rates will also be determining factors, especially in the cases of non-migratory populations and of those engaged in the Great War. The table shows that an excess of males, though uncommon in Western Europe, is by no means unusual in other countries.* The proportion of males in Ceylon is nearly the highest in the world, their excess amounting to 5" 9 per cent, of the total population, while the 1,700,000 excess females in England and Wales in 1921 only amounted to 4/9 per.cent..of the total. It.also appears from Table No. 2 that the high masculinity in Ceylon is not an accident of any one Census, but that it has been characteristic of the population since 1871 atleast.f.
The Balancing Equations by Sex.—As the variation of the masculinity is determined by the proportion of the increments to the numbers of males and females in each intercensal period, and as these are dependent upon the births, deaths, and migration, it is clear that the balancing equations by sex are relevant to the discussion. These state that the increase of population is equal to the births less the deaths plus the immgration less the emigration. The annual births and deaths by sex are given in the following table, and the migration is obtained, at least approximately, by simple arithmetic. Births and Deaths by Sex for All Races.—The annual number of births and deaths by sex is shown in the following table :—
TABLE No. 4.—The Number of Intercensal Births and Deaths in Ceylon, by Sex, 1901-21.
Births. Deaths.
Year. Hales. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 January 1-March l,t 1901 .. i 12,244 11,895 9,168 8,894 March 1-December 31, 1901 . .1. 56,644 53,469 41,809 38,942 1902 ..2 72,928 68,965 50,901 48,779 1903 •• H 76,046 71,981 48,915 47.169 v- 1904 ••S 74,627 70,626 47,397 46,543 1905 •b 77,041 73,744 54,936 53,224 1906 • -1 72,639 69,208 69,808 66,463 1907 • • 8 66,812 63,591 61,826 57,551 1908 82,289 •°\ 78,424 59,968 58,014 1909 75,912 • -\o 72,979 62,661 60,308 1910. 80,536 77,018 .. n 56,052 54,143 19,365 18,813 13,136 12,743 +8 January 1-March 10,} 1911 754,839 718,818 567,409 543,879 Total March 10-Docember 31, 1911 60,317 57,903 57,744 59,757 1912 70,806 67,497 . 68,528 65,855 1913 83,112 79,715 . 60,773 59,235 1914 82,653 79,524 . 68,819 68,012 1915 82,591 78,359 . 55,793 54,025 1916 89,648 85,282 . 61,150 59,012 1917 93,784 90,191 . 57,812 55,577 1918 •is 93,399 89,985 . 73,921 75,486 1919 82,463 78,940 . S4.144 84,179 1920 83,556 80.162 . 68,277 64,678 21,785 21.163 . January 1-March 18, J 1921 18,729 18,170 844,114 808,721 675,690 663,986 Total
The chief point to note in this table is that the female deaths actually exceeded those of the males in 1911,1918, and 1919, although the number of females was considerably less than that of males. 1918 andl919were the years of theinfluenza epidemic and 1911 was a bad yearfor malaria, and it is suggested that the female death-rate is proportionately higher than the male rate in unhealthy seasons.
The Balancing Equations.—The balancing equations for all races by sex are :—
Population T>:^V,„ TW.I,„ Migration Difference. Blrths- Deaths- Difference. All Races.—Males— 1901-1911 .. 2,175.030 — 1,896,212 = 754,839 — 567,409 + 91,388 1911-1921 .. 2,381,812 — 2,175,030 = 844,114 — 675,690 + 38,358
AH Races.—Females— 1901-1911 .. 1,931,320 — 1,669,742 = 718,818 — 543,879 + 86,639 119H-192 Ol 1 _ 1 QO1l .. 2,116,79nil/? nr\n3 — 1,931,320 = 808,721 — 663,'986 + 40,738
* Western Europe has been held to be exceptional in this respect (Report on the Census of India, 1911, p. 209). t " This excessaccording to Davy, Ceylon (1816), page 106, " appears to be in a large proportion ; perhaps tho Census is not quite correct; perhaps tho disproportion of the sexes is above the truth ; yet from examining the particular returns, and from considering the manner in which they were made out, I cannot help thinking that the Census is not much below the truth, and that the number of males is greater than that of the females. The disproportion appears to be greatest in the poorest parts of the country, where the population is thinnest, and it is most difficult to support lifo ; and smallest where thoro is least want. Indeed, in some of the fishing villages, where there is abundance offood, tho number of females rather exceeds that of the males." Migration is a more likely explanation of the local variation of the masculinity, though it is also possible that tho higher female death-rate in " the poorest parts of the country " may contribute to the higher masculinity. J Census Dates. SECTION 1.—SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 3
approximately repreaoiiio mo wuc —», - . 1 «„n„«ri».« ™OOT, Knlanciner equations* :— figures, we get the following mean balancing equations .— Mean Percentage Bate, ' Of Increase Of Increase Of Decrease Of Migration of Population, by Births. by Deaths. Difference. All Races.—Males— 10.7 _ 27'9 + **6 -1901-1911 1911-1921
All Races.—Females 1901-1911 1911-1921 A V * • — These rates are subject to ceitain errors,* but it is likely that these are small for a large population, and it is probably safe to assume that the differences shown between the sexes in the percentage increase ' by births and decrease by deaths are really significant. It will be seen that female death-rate is higher than the ir.ale rate, and this unusual feature will be referred to again later. The higher migration difference for females than males is probablj- somewhat unexpected, but if it is significant, it may be explained by the fact that, while an excess of males Mas to be found among the immigrants, an even greater excess would appear among the emigrants. The Variation in the Masculinity.—It can be readily shown that the masculinity will increase or decrease in a given period according as the mean rate of increase for the males in the period is greater- or less than that for the females, while if the two mean rates are nearly equal the change in the masculinity will be slight. Thus, in Ceylon in 1911-1921, the mean rate of natural increase for females (7 -2) appears to have been slightly less than that for males (7*4), but this is partly counteracted by the excess of the mean rate of the female migration increase, and the consequent change in the masculinity is practically negligible. In 1901-1911, on the other hand, the mean rate of natural increase for females was 9*7, against 9'2 for males, and the female rate of migration increase was also greater than for the males, so that we would expect a fall of the masculinity and find that the figures show a drop from 532 to 530. A further point is-that in 1911-1921, owing to the larger number of males in the population, although the average female birth-rate (about 40 "0 per mille) was higher than the male rate (about 37'1) more males (844,114) were born than females (808,721). At the same time, the female death-rate (about32 • 8) was higher than the male (about 29 • 7), but owing to the larger number of males, the total number of male deaths (675,690) was higher than the total for the females (663,986). Investigation of the High Masculinity of Ceylon.—We have already seen that the masculinity of Oeylon is nearly the highest in the world, and a few of the causes which might be expected to produce this result may be briefly noted here. Enumeration of Females.—The first explanation of the high excess of males, which would occur to one, is that the Census of females contains a considerable error of understatement due to careless enumeration or to unwillingness of the indigenous races to have their women enumerated. But, in order to bring down the Ceylon masculinity to the figure in India (516), there would have to be an understate ment of about 120,000 females at the Census of Ceylon, and it cannot be admitted that an error of this magnitude occurred even for both sexes. Further, on the assumption of understatement of females, one would expect the proportion of males among the Muhammadans to have been very high, say higher than that for the Sinhalese, among whom the women are allowed more freedom. But this is not the case ; for the proportion of males among the Ceylon Moors in 1921 was 521 per 1,000 and among the Malays 520, while the Low-country Sinhalese showed a rate of 522 and the Kandyans 528. It may also be noted that the masculinity of India is less than that of Ceylon, though there is every reason to believe that the females are enumerated in Ceylon at least as correctly as in India. It is, of course, true that in Ceylon male children are more valued than females, but it does not appear that the high masculinity in Ceylon is, to any significant extent, due to faulty enumeration of females. Immigration.—The next explanation which may occur is that the high masculinity was due to immigration. The masculinity of the immigrant races was, of course, high—Europeans 571, Indian Tamils 554, Indian Moors 799, Others 822, but this explanation is seen to be partly illusory from the facts (1) that, in 1921, the immigrant population formed only about 15 per cent, of the total; (2) that the most numerous indigenous race, the Sinhalese, only affected by migration to a small extent, had the high masculinity of 522, while the Kandyans who are less migratory than the Low-country Sinhalese, showed the higher figure of 528. The masculinity of all the indigenous races taken together was 522, while that of the immigrant races was 575. But the relatively small number of the latter counteracts the high masculinity, and the presence of immigrants only raises the ratio from 522 to 529. The Differential Birth- and Death-rates.—It remains, therefore, to investigate the high masculinity of the indigenous races of Ceylon, and chiefly that of the Sinhalese, who are less affected by external migration than the others. When a race first immigrates into a locality, the number of females will generally be small, but they will tend to continue to gain by immigration, and when external migration ceases, the numbers of males and females will probably be more or less equal. Their later proportions will then be determined by the relative natural increase (excess of births over deaths) of males and females. The resultant masculinity will thus depend upon the masculinity at some previous date as altered by the ratio of the male to the female natural increase. The proportion existing at the time of the cessation of the immigration will be maintained, if the natural increase of the males bears, this proportion to the natural increase of the females ; it will rise if the ratio of the male to the female natural increase is greater than this proportion ; and it will fall if this ratio is less. It can also be shown that, in the case of non- migratory races, the masculinity will increase if the rate of male natural increase (or the differece between the male birth-rate and death-rate) is greater than this difference for the females, will remain the same
* See Part L, Appendix I., Notes 3 and 4. 4 CHAPTER I.—SEX.
if the rates of natural increase are equal, and will decrease if the female rate is greater than the male. The reported figures for Ceylon show that in the case of both the birth-rates and the death-rates, the female rates are generally higher than in the case of the males. But as the masculinity has only altered slightly, the rates of natural increase for males and females (together with the small migration rates) must have remained nearly equal. The high masculinity among the indigenous races of Ceylon is there fore due to the male and female birth- and death-rates being so adjusted as to maintain previous high proportions of males.* A prominent feature of this adjustment appears to be the fact that the female death-rate is higher than the male rate and, if this should cease to be the case, the masculinity would fall. The Sex Ratio at Birth.—As the combined action of the birth- and death-rate^ depends upon their ^ relative value, it is of interest to "note thafrthe excess of males atliirth, which appears to occur in practically every country in the world, is also found in Ceylon. But as the total males in Ceylon are so much in excess of the females, the female birth-rate is higher than the male rate. This appears to be unusual, and will not occur in countries where the ratio of males to females in the total population is less than the sex ratio at birth, or what is the same thing, where the proportion of males in the total population is less than the ratio of male births to total births. The proportion of male to total births for various races in Ceylon is given in the following table:—
TABLE No. 5„—The Proportion of Male Births to a 1,000 of the Total Births, by Race,
Ceylon, 1911-21. . Proportion Average Annual Number per Mille. of Total Births, Race. 1911-1921. 2 3 1 \ All Races 511 165,283 Sinhalese ,J- 510 113,377 Tamils .2 512 39,802 Moors • h- 513 9,833 Europeans 500 178 Burghers and Eurasians • k 613 933 Malays 524 591 26 Others • e 520 569
The variation of the sex ratio at birth in different countries is discussed by Jastrzebski in a monograph reprinted by the Census Commissioner for India. He concludes that the ratio is affected by race ; that the proportion of males born is greater in rural than in urban populations ; that the present evidence shows that this proportion was higher during the Great War than in the pre-war period, &c. As compared with the figures for other countries, the ratios for the Tamils and Sinhalese are somewhat low, while those for the Malays and Others are high. The Ceylon ratio for Europeans in 1911-1921 was abnormally low, but is subject to great fluctuation—from 520 in 1901-1911 to 500 in 1911-1921—owing mainly to the small number of the total births, which only amounted to an annual average of 178 in 1911-1921.
The Male and Female Death-rates.—We have already had occasion to note the somewhat exceptional point that in Ceylon the female death-rate is higher than the male death-rate and it is worth further notice, f For purposes of comparison with other countries in this respect, we may examine the ratio of the male to the female death-rate, which is shown for a few countries in the following statement:—
Ceylon . i\ (1911-1920).. • 905 England and Wales (1911-12) 1147 India, Total . .1; (1910-19) .. 1029 Australia.. (1920) 1-287 India, Bombay . .\•;.(1910-19) .. -963 New Zealand (1909-18) 1-329 India, Punjab . (1913-19) .. -879 South Africa (1913-19) 1-204
Further details are not available, but it is likely that countries showing a ratio less than unity would be greatly in the minority. A priori, one would have expected the ratio to be less in India than in Ceylon, as it is generally supposed that females are better treated in Ceylon than in India. But there are probably many factors in operation ; for example, the emigration of healthy adult males from a country would tend to make the male birth- and death-rates show higher figures than they would do in a non-migratory population, while immigration might have the opposite effect. Thus emigration may be one of the reasons for the •higher male death-rate in England and Wales, but it is more likely to be due to the greater risks run by males in industrial, than in agricultural, countries. It is interesting to note that Bombay and the Punjab show both a higher female than male death-rate and a high masculinity (Bombay—521, Punjab—546). The investigation of the subject, in the case of Ceylon, is inconclusive, but it may be of interest to indicate here some of the main points of it. Errors in the Rates probably inoperative.—The first explanation which suggests itself is that the statistics are at fault, but it may be noted that a higher female death-rate has been consistently shown in the Ceylon returns for many years, and though errors in the rates might affect the relative figures in the table they can haTdly be so large as to make the Ceylon ratio greater than unity.
The following ratios were grron by the early Censuses : 1814 (Maritime Provinces)—509 • 1821 (Kandyan Provinces)—534 ; 1827 (Ceylon)—533, (Maritime Provinces)—531, (Kandyan Provinces)—547. If these are correct a oar have been a viV? Wiu PP *° considerable increase of the masculinity after 1814 and a decrease between 1827 and 1871. These fluctuations have been partly due to migration, but were also probably caused by variations in the male and female rate of natural increase. . . * ^he d,eath-rate seema to be higher than the female rate in Jaffna and Batticaloa Districts, possibly owinc to the emigration of males reducing the denominator of the death-rate. V Of THE ISLAND of CEYLON SHOWING THE PROPORTION OF MALES IN 1000 PERSONS OF THE I UJ pumuaoimi POPULATION IN EACH DISTRICT, 1921 (Municipalities included in Dislricls). Scale of 24 Miles to an Inch GULF OF REFERENCE
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ga ll £ , 494 ^MATA^Ai-
/S TRICTr-'' 501 \ \01 STRICT) SECTION 1.—SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 5
The Specific Death-rates.—The next step is to examine the death-rates at the various ages The figures are given in the following tables:— TABLE No. 6.—The Ratio of the Male to the Female Death-rates by Age Groups for various Countries. England and New Zealand. South Africa. Age Group. Ceylon. Wales. 1908-1917. 1912. 1917. 1919. 1 2 3 4 5 1-•210 Infantile mortality* • • \ 1071 1-263 •247 1-•160 0- 6 ..X •9586 1-204 •2101 . -0201 5-10 ..3 •8732 " "1-033 •204 - . •992 10-15 ••H •8384 •9 •393 •268 15-20 •S 1-06 1- 037 •0296 . 129 061 20-25 • • fc •7597 1- •4102 . 108 25-35 •6716 1-•205 •1685 . •• 1 190 35-45 •9083 •341 ••i y 25 •328 45-65 1-198 313 •2178 , 173 65-65 .. D 317 148 -} 236 •217 - •228 65-75 • •7996 .-Ci 162 75-85 1786> 1165 .85 and over 083 1688/ TABLE No. 7.—The Ratio of the Male to the Female Death-rates by Age Groups for India. Age Group, Age Group. Bombay. Punjab. India. Bombay. Punjab. India. 1910-1917. 1910-1917. 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 Infantile mortality4) 1-084 . 1-003 . 1-064 20-30 .& -858 . -792 •853 1-5 .> 1-031 . •953 . 1118 30-40 -978 . -806 1-088 . -969 6-10 .3- •909 . •844 . 1-070 40-60 •> 1-243 1103 . -969 10-16 .. if 772 . •684 . •955 60-60 ..4 1-205 1-207 . -948 1-111 16-20 .. $ 784 . •749 . •856 60andover*ol-052 The figures for India and Ceylon are open to considerable doubt owing to heavy mis-statement of age, but it is probable that the ratios give an approximate representation of the facts. The main point is that for Ceylon, Bombay, and Punjab the female death-rate at several age groups is greater than the male rate, a feature seen rarely, or to a slight degree, elsewhere. Death at Parturition.—A further point is that the chief age periods in which the excess of the female death-rate is marked (namely, those in which the ratio is least) are, for Ceylon, 25-35 followed by 20-25, while similar figures are found at those ages in some of the other countries. The reason for this is the mortality from diseases of the puerperal state which increase the female death-rate at these ages in all countries, although the increase may not appear in the ratio in cases in which the male death- rate is also high owing to emigration or to increased risks run by males in industrial countries. Further- .more, the death-rate of women from these diseases is six times as high in Ceylon as it is in England, and this wou! • therefore, appear to be a reasonable explanation of the high female death-rate. We find, however, that if all the deaths in Ceylon from diseases of parturition (the maximum annual number in 1911-1920 being about 3,631) are deducted from the total female deaths (66,399 annually), the mean deatE-rate per 1,000 is reduced by less than 3 units so that it is still about as great as the male rate. It would, therefore, appear that the deaths from diseases of the puerperal state, as returned, account for the higher female rate to a less degree than might have been expected. It is, of course, possible that the deaths traceable to the perils of childbirth are registered under pyrexia or other heads which do not refer to the puerperal state, but the extent to which this occurs is difficult to estimate. In this connection, it may be noted that on the adoption by the Registrar-General in 1911 of the Bertillon system of classifi cation of causes of death, puerperal fever was transferred from septic diseases to diseases Of the puerperal state, and comparison with previous decades is somewhat difficult. The annual reported figures of the ratio of deaths of women at parturition to 1,000 births are the following:—1911, 23*2; 1912,23 '3 • 1913,20-3; 1914,249; 1815,233; 1916,23; 1917, 20 4 ; 1918, 21 9; 1919,227. The figure for England and Wales in 1911 was 3' 9. Female Death-rate high in unhealthy Years.—A detailed study of the immediately preceding tables would probably bring out several points of interest, but space only permits of the mention of one obvious one, namely, the somewhat remarkable break at 15-20 in the gradual fall of the Ceylon ratio with each age group. This may be due to mis-statement of age "or other causes, but it is interesting to note that during the pandemic years of 1918 and 1919, thefemale death-rate at 15-20, though ordinarily ' less than the male becomes considerably greater, the ratio in 1918 being • 778 and in 1919 "826, against a mean of 1 • 06. This marked effect of the pandemic on the female death-rate agrees with the suggestion already made, that in unhealthy years, generally, the ratio of the male to the female death-rate at all ages may show a lower rate than in the better years. The figures are:— * General Crude ( . u„i5„ General Crude Good Years. Ratio. v
1913 •913 Death-rato28-4 . I Ba191d Years1 . Ratio•869. j^.34-8 ^ 1915 •917 25-4 1912 •926 32-3 1916 . -921 27-4 1914 •900 • 32-0 1917 •926 25-5 1918 •869 33-4 1919 •887 37-5 The ratio tends to decrease in unhealthy years, and to increase when the crude death-rate is low,f and some indication is afforded that the mortality from disease in Ceylon is greater among females than among males. In India if?appears that, while women suffer less from famine than men, they are more' susceptible to plague and influenza, the reasons advanced being that they spend more time in their houses than the men; that they sweep the floors and handle the grain ; they nurse the smk and assemble to mourn for the dead. The Rep6rt on Census of India, 1911, page212, goes on : " Asimilar explanation
* Partly dependent on the sex-ratio at birth. £ 1912 is an exception. 6 CHAPTER I.—SEX. would account for a greater mortality of women from malaria, such as occurred in the epidemic of 1908 in the United Provinces." So far as is known, it does not appeal that the incidence of malaria in Ceylon is heavier on females than on males, but it is possible that the after effects may tell more severely on the females. If this were the case, malarial districts, or malarial years should show an excessive female death-rate, but the figures show numerous exceptions, and further investigation is required to show whether these are due to other causes or whether they invalidate the general statement. More General Causes.—The further question as to the causes determining the relative male and female rates and the initial value of the masculinity is a difficult one. In the Bombay Presidency there is evidence to show that the masculinity is a transmissible racial character, which is modified by climate, social customs, migration, famine, and differential death-rates. In Ceylon, the main thesis, that the masculinity is a racial character, cannot be safely asserted. The Low-country Sinhalese certainly do not show great differences in their masculinity in the different localities which they inhabit, but the figures for the Kandyans and the Ceylon Tamils show very considerable fluctuations. If it is the case that the sex ratio is a racial character, this fact appears to be obscured in Ceylon by some other causes, most probably the climatic factor affecting the masculinity through the differential death-rates. Migration, differences of food supply, social customs, errors in the figures, and other items, have also to be allowed for, but an attempt to isolate the various factors, which is now being made, does not promise to be very successful.
SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE STATISTICS. Masculinity in the Districts of Ceylon.—The actual figures by sex will be found in Appendix I., while the following table shows the proportions of males to 1,0< '0 of the total population in the Provinces and Districts of Ceylon, the races being shown in the two groups— indigenous to Ceylon and immigrant to Ceylon. The sex proportions in the Districts, and of the races in Ceylon, are shown in Diagrams T$os. 1 and 2 facing this page, whilst the former proportions are further illustrated in the map facing page 4. TABLE No. 8.—Proportion of Males by Race in a Thousand Persons of the Population of the Provinces and Districts of Ceylon, 1921.
Races Indigenous to. Ceylon. Races Immigrant to Ceylon. 0! '* a 03 2 §e $ << ^ Province and District. © Tota l
Coylo n !>> II,' O Kandya n
Eurasians . H Low-countr y Burgher s an d w M 0 1 * " Sinliolese . _ India n 0 Tamils .
Sinhalese . 13 Population . Tamils . 6 f 12 | t o Veddas . 8 493 799' 571 822 Ceylon L • 529 522 528 503 521 520 518 554 803 579 907 Western Province ~y • 535 513 563 584 520 488 529 670 521 722 520 713 Central Province 3 . 529 595 518 606 521 495 502 — 566 780 636 730 Southern Provinco u . 503 500 486 720 506 469 497 — 752 963 585 756 Northern Province £ . 499 837 561 492 528 482 580 640 772 942 645 670 Eastern Provinco £ • 507 864 558 506 486 498 475 516 673 930 628 806 North-Western Provinco -\ • 501 574 535 576 554 550 520 — 524 660 902 690 700 North-Central Province g . 569 727 534 652 594 570 505 514 763 574 661 Province of Uva a . 531 679 521 619 572 491 539 504 530 722 684 586 Province of Sabaragamuwa \q . 545 625 533 659 586 543 521 — 764 788 572 913 Colombo Municipality || • 613 543 595 607 542 486 530 657 9361 5701 Colombo District* )>• 515 507 552| 530 555 488t 5271 — 900t 554t 8041 6821 Kalutara District 53. 518 513 539t 674f 471 506f — 565 795t 857 442 830 Kandy Municipality —jt^ . 580 561 556 601 549 487 503 702 518 7031 664t Kandy District* \ \ • 523 589 515 592 511 511t 4861 — 5791 537 697 5991 808t Matale District .. I b . 537 594 524 613 538 506f 494f — lv 513 675t 4851 661t Nuwara Eliya District \~\ • 526 643 520 646t 541 482f 538f — 818 850t GaUe Municipality \ & • 499 490 490t 681t 499 465 . 523f 609f 759t 559 7391 6831 828f Galle District* .. \ e, . 494 491 454f 752f 506 589t 5111 — 539 7051 6071 821t Matara District .. . 501 501 466t 755t 475 425t 538| — 4841 6971 9581 769f 558 f Hambantota District ^ . 527 524 596f 702t 614 473f — 5671 7721 561f 740 Jaffna District .. • 489 7951 704f 485 520 4701 9741 9501 7501 lOOOt Mannar District % j . 580 895 679f 572 524 4631 10001 727 10001 10001 556t Mullaittivu District . 579 852 541 568 571 5481 6401 783 9611 6271 Batticaloa District "),<; . 499 8501 553 499 478 5041 4171 518 7641 810f 788 9081 674- Trincomalee District j. ^ 546 889 593 538 522 474" 514- 510 578f 634 9231 6001 Kurunegala District y\ 559 603 536 6481 573 552"! 5301 815t Puttalam District ^ 602 711 541 578 531 561- r 495 • — 726 940 1000 r 682t 782 9521 640- Chilaw District .. i ^ 550 536 493 532 554 538-1 525 \ — 858t \ 524"\ 660 9021 690 \ 700f Anuradhapura District Jo 569 727 534 652 594 570- \ 505" f 539 504 514 763 \ 574 f 501t Badulla District.. ^ 1 531 679 521 619 572 491 1 1
590 697 1 693 t 559t Ratnapura District *i> . 552 673 534 669 1 696 551 1 1 — 525 t 500 534 740 \ 677 Kegalla District.. 3^ . 540 584 1 532 649tl 551 537 1 — 1 642t * Exclusive of Municipality. Inclusive of Municipality— Colombo i;i:ttri
(THE DSTTED ^T^XBs) p.rl.OOOl pvrioni. f 200
4»
| AM 0 800 400 j Others /ndian Moors] £uropeans /ndian 7simil^ All Races \ Ksindy&ns Ceylon Moors Malays yeddas ! * it Ceylon Tamils Burghers SECTION. 2.—SOME OF THE STATISTICS. 7 This table shows that, as in the total population, the males in the districts in 1921 were generally in excess of the females, the masculinity being less than 500 (i.e., the females greater, in number than the males) in four districts only, Jan'na (489), Galle Municipality (499), Galle District (494), Batticaloa (499). In the cases of Jaffna and Gallo Districts, this appears to have been due to the emigration of the males in search of employment, the largest excess of females occurring at the ago period 20-30. The excess of females in Galle Municipality and Batticaloa District was very small, and was probably due to the same cause. The hi&uwit masculinity was found in Colombo town (613), where the figures for '* Others " (913). Indian Moovs (788), Indian Tamils (764), clearly indicate that the high masculinity in the town was largely due to the immigrants from India without whom the masculinity falls from 613 to 545. - But-it must also be iorne in mind that many of the immigrants to Colombo.are drawn from Ceylon Districts, the women being left in their homes and the men coming alone to Colombo to earn their living. It will be seen that only the Burghers showed an excess of females. The same observations apply in the case of Kandy town. Other high figures were to unci m iVlaunar (580) and Mullaittivu (579) Districts, where the excess of males was probably due not only to immigration but also to the high death-rate of females, particularly at parturition, owing to the unhealthiness of the climate, and general debility caused by chronic fever. In Puttalam (602), the high figure was due to the immigrants, the indigenous Kandyans and Ceylon Moors showing only 541 and 531. The high figure for the Low-country Sinhalese in Puttalam District, the males being about 2^ times the number of females, showed about the same.excess of males as at previous Censuses and was due to the large immigration of low-country men from other districts. The Indigenous Races.—It is to be expected that the race which is indigenous in a particular district will show low figures of masculinity than the immigrant races. This appears to have been so in 1921 in the case of the Low-couot;-y Sinhalese in Colombo (507), Kalutara (513), Galle (491), Matara (501), Hambantota (524), and in the case of the Kandyan Sinhalese in Kandy (515), Ma tale (524), Nuwara Eliya (520), Kurunegala (536), Anuradhapura (534), Badulla (521), Ratnapura (534), Kegalla (532). Similarly, the Ceylon Tamils showed the following masculinity: Jaffna 485, Batticaloa 499, Trincomalee 538, but Mannar and Mullaittivu had the high proportions of 572 and 568. In most of the other cases, the population was immigrant to the district either from India or from other parts of Ceylon, and the masculinity was generally found to be much higher. It will be noticed that some of the figures quoted for the indigenous races in the various districts exceeded the average (522) of the indigenous races in Ceylon, namely Low-country Sinhalese in Chilaw ; Kandyans in Matale, Anuradhapura, Kurunegala, Ratnapura, and Kegalla ; Ceylon Tamils in Mannar, Mullaittivu, and Trincomalee. The reasons for these higher figures cannot be given without records of births and deaths for several n-evious decades,* but it may be noted that in 1911-1921, the reported figures in all these cases show that both the mean percentage increase by births and the percentage decrease by deaths were greater for the females than the males ; in most of them, the female rate of natural increase was less than the male rate ; the effect of the migration varied ; but the differences between the masculinity in 1911 and 1921 were never very great. Jaffna, Galle, and Batticaloa are remarkable in that the masculinity of their indigenous races in 1921 was less than 500, owing mainly to the emigration of males. It is also noteworthy that the male birth-and death-rates in Jaffna District in 1911-1921 appear to have been higher than the female rates, and that this may also be an e3ect of the emigration. For, if the sex ratio at birth remains the same, the reduction, by emigration, of the total number of males will increase the male birth-rate, and as the emigrants will generally be healthy male adults, the emigration may tend to increase the male death-rate. The Sex Proportions of the " Natural " Population.—The effect of migration on the above figures may be partly eliminated by taking out the sex proportions for the total population born in each district, irrespective of the place of enumeration. The results aro shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 9.—The Ratio of Males per 1,000 Persons born in the Various Districts, for all Races and the Predominant indigenous Race in each District. Masculinity of the Masculinity of the Total Population main indigonous Raco District. born in the District in each District born and Enumerated in in the District and Ceylon. Enumerated in Ceylon. 1 2 3 Colombo Municipality ... .. 1 508 .. ."502 s Colombo (exclusive of the Municipality) .. v 621f .. 520t s • Kalutara ...... 3 526J .. 624f s Kandy Municipality .. .. y 543 .. 569f K Kandy (exclusive of the Municipality) .. c, 619 .. 519f K Matale ...... (, 530 .. 530f K Nuwara Eliya .. .. T 510 .. 514 K Galle Municipality .. .. J 505f .. 503t s Galle (exclusive of the Municipality) .. *) 524t .. 523f s Matara ...... to 52lj .. 521 j s Hambantota .. ..\\ 522 .. 522 s Jaffna .. 610t .. 510f T Mannar ...... 13 529 .. 530 T Mullaittivu .. . ,|y 541 .. 542 T Batticaloa ...... \^ 503t .. 505f T Trincomalee .. ..)$> 524 .. 532 T Kurunegala .. .. 536 .. 535 K Puttalam ...... (fc 540 .. 630 M Chilaw - .. .. i«j 524 .. 524 s Anuradhapura .. .. >6 631 .. 531 K Badulla ...... j., 519 .. 522f K Ratnapura ...... v<) 830 .. 532 K /.£ Kegalla ...... vo 529 631 K NOTE.—In column 3, 8 denotes Low-country Sinhalese; K, Kandyan Sinhalese ; T, Ceylon Tamils ; M, Ceylon Moors. * These are available, but are of doubtful accuracy. f See paragraph following. 8 CHAPTER I.—SEX. The items marked (t)in the table are those which are greater than the corresponding ratios in Table No. 8, aDd occur generally in cases in which emigration exceeds immigration. The table takes into account, as far as possible, the persons born in Ceylon and enumerated outside it, but the information on this point is incomplete, and this may affect the Jaffna District figures arid possibly others, though the differences should not be very great. Masculinity In the Towns.—In theaccompanying table a comparison is made of the masculinity of the Principal Towns in Ceylon, excepting the Municipalities for which figures have already been given. The towns are arranged in the order of the ratios for 1921. The actual figures by sex will be found in AppendixTH. .The sex proportions in towns having populations of 6,000 and over_are also represented grapMcallyinrDiagram NoT2aTfacing this page. : TABLE No. 9a.—The Masculinity of the Principal Towns in Ceylon, 1911 and 1921. Masculinity of the total Population enumerated in each Town. Town. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 .. 643 684 Hatton-Dikoya • • \ Bandarawela 646 661 Vavuniya 629 653 Anuradhapura 661 647 Kurunegala 620 634 Ratnapura .. b 640 629 Nawalapitiya 614 624 Lunugala .. g 627 610 Nuwara Eliya 599 597 ichilaw ... 10 564 595 Kalpitiya .. w 595 693 Minuwangoda .. w 580 586 Puttalam .. \ l 558 680 Matale .. w 576* 572 Kegalla .. is 561 565 o Badulla .. a 552 563 Gampola .. n 556 552f Mullaittivu .. '8 534 545 Mannar .. .*| 653 527 Trincomalee •• O.C3 506 518 o- Ambalangoda •• 5t 516 617 Negombo 509 512 Kalutara .. \1 503 512 Jaffna .. ^ 496 612 Batticaloa .. >S 529 512 Panadura •• lis 510 511 Hambantoto • • on 512 508 Kalmunai 517 .. 508 Tangalla .. 503 500 Matara .. %o 606$ .. 501 Moratuwa .. 3> 478 497 Weligama • •31 473 451 The chief points to be noted in this table are : (1) the excess of females in Moratuwa and Weligama towns at both Censuses, probably due to emigration of males in search of employment; and (2) the excess of females in Jaffna town in 1911, which in 1921 has been converted into an excess of males, probably as a result of a higher migration excess for females during 1901-1911, and a considerably higher migration excess for males during 1911-1921. As it is usual in towns for tho male population to be subject to sudden fluctuations, the high excess of males in most of the towns at both Censuses, and the marked increase of the ratios in some towns and the considerable fall in others at this Census, must be partly, if not wholly, attributed to migration. For, as the result of an attempt made to eliminate the effect of migration by considering, as far as possible, tho sex proportion of the total " natural " population in each town, it has been found that in 1921, in almost all cases, the excess of males was not so considerable as some of the above figures tend to indicate, the proportions thus obtained being 5G8 in only one town, and not exceeding 530 in any one of the others (see also comments on Table No. 32, page 25). * " 571 " on pago 78 of Vol. I., Part I., should read " 076." t " 553 " on page 71 of Vol. I., Part I., should read " 552." % " 501 " on pago 102 of Vol. I., Part I., should road " 60G." c < J3EX PROPORTIOMS inT°wms*witn F' ?PULAXl =W <=>F 6000^-°VER, 1921. (T-A* cfotle* c?y«.a/ proportions th« into sexes) Males P*r 1,000 Persons 200 440 600 600 Anuradhapura 64? JGurunegala 634 I Ratnapu-ra 629 Colombo MC 613 [ JVicwara £7zya S9? Chilaw S95 $80 Pu.ttala.-m, SSO Matale Sfg jBadulla S63 Gampola ssz Tjrzncom alee. 518 J3 Jaffna S12 j JVecjfom bo StZ JCalutara SfZ Panadttra $n Afatara SOI Calle S*TC 499 /VeIcy a ma •+SI 200 440 600 800 L_ I _J ._L_ Zill these are Aocal £ioard To**rts #ith ihe exception of ijhe f/iree Af^mcipalities anrf £f*e °f partadura and JVeZiyam*.. Photo- IMt Sarrf/Otfit, C'j//<>". 1 4 09 6S-OC 6V-0+' (8B-OC 62-08 61-01- 6-0 6S-OS 6C-OS 68-08 6-0 | 09+ Off* • /l, /fit Off , • 'A // i\ 7/ ft A. • / If ) / if 1 w I / 7 ' a / // 11 J s 1 ! / a < 1 o4f J w \ X 1 // • 1 1 I'h \i ii \ //' H \\ ji I 1 009 009 * MIn * ' --J / 1 OS9 Of9 S1IV 1 1 1 1 • SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE STATISTICS. 9 Masculinity by Race and Age.—The variation of the masculinity in Ceylon for the various races and age-groups from 1871 are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 10.—Number of Males in a Thousand Persons of each Race by Age-periods, for each Census, 1871-1921. All Census 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 ou ana Race. Year. Ages. over. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 <\ 2 3 -618 -. ,£87 -All Races -3 1871 . ..-633 526 511 .. — 614-.-.--558 . . -.545-, -. V 1881 . ., 532 .. 624 .. 605 .. 519 .. 573 . . 528 .. 624 . 610 1891 . .t 630 .. 623 .. 502 . 514 .. 670 . . 528 .. 602 . . 614 1901 . •{ 632 .. 619 .. 509 . 522 .. 674 . . 535 .. 608 . 601 1911 . .£530 .. 513 . 626 . 511 .. 566 . . 557 .. 636 . 568 1921 . .» 529 .. 510 . 527 . 511 .. 560 . . 559 .. 643 . 568 528 . 494 . 478 .. 531 . . 528 .. 619 . 586 Sinhalese .. 1871 . ./ * In 1871, Malays were classed among " Others." 29-22 10 CHAPTER I.—SEX. With regard to the section of this table for " All Races " it is to be noted that the males were in excess of the females at every age group ; that the lowest figure is found in the group 10-19 in 1S91, and the highest in the group 50-59 in 1881 (see also Diagram No. 3 facing page 9). Some of the reasons for the various differences are : inis-statement of age, inaccurate enumeration of females at the earlier Censuses, variations of the sex ratio at birth—probably to a slight extent only—the differential action of the death-rate on the two sexes at different ages, or migration ; but it is difficult, if not impossible, to isolate the effects of these different causes. It may, however, be mentioned that the higher infant mortality of males, the higher female mortality for all ages taken together, the higher female mortality - at-the reproductive ages, .the lower mean life time of females, and the immigration of males at the adult ages could probably all be traced by a more detailed investigation than is possible here, while some explanation might be found for the low figures in 1911 and 1921 for the age group 20-30. Some references to the figures for the various races will be made later. The Constancy of some of the Figures.—In addition to the fairly small variation of the masculinity of the total population at all ages since 1871, which is mainly due to the fairly constant figure for the Sinhalese—the small increase of which is chiefly counteracted by the decrease among the Tamils, especially on the estates—it will be observed that the ratios for the different ages for the total population in 1911 and 1921 are in somewhat unexpected agreement with each other, while they show marked differences, in many cases from the ratios obtained at previous Censuses. But it will be seen that the agreement is less close for the separate races, and that, in the case of the total population, it is, in part, the result of the balancing differences. The figures for Veddas and Others are subject to considerable errors, and those for Malays may be affected by the confusion of Malays, Malayali, and Moors referred to in section 7 of Chapter IV., in Part I., page 223. Masculinity of the Various Races: Low-country Sinhalese.—According to Table No. 8 on page 6 the Island rate for this race in 1921 was 522, which was somewhat higher than the figure in some of the main districts in which the race is predominant—Colombo (507), Kalutara (513), Galle (491), Matara (501). The females were in excess only in Galle town and district as a result of the emigration of the males. The highest figures were found in the districts in which fewest of the race were enumerated, Mannar (895), Mullaittivu (852), Trincoinalee (889), Batticaloa (850), Jaffna (795), owing to the immigration of males who had left their families in their native districts. Kandyan Sinhalese.—According to Table No. 8 on page 6 the Island figure for this race was 528, the figures for the Kandyan Districts being Kandy (515), Matale (524), Nuwara Eliya (520), Kurunc- gala (536), Anuradhapura (534), Badulla (521), Ratnapura (534), Kegalla (532). The higher figuies in the last five have been already referred to. An excess of Kandyan females was found in Galle District (454), Matara (466), and Chilaw (493). The first two figures were exceptional and were largely due to an increase of Kandyan female domestic servants ; the latter was probably due to intermarriages between Low-country Sinhalese and Kandyan women on the boundary of Kurunegala District. The highest proportions of males were found in the Tamil Districts, in which the total numbers of Kandyans were small, e.g., Jaffna (704), Mannar (679). The somewhat smaller figures in outside districts than in the case of the Low-country Sinhalese show that the Kandyans tako more of their women with them, while the small figures of Kandyans outside the Kandyan Districts mark them as a much less migratory race than the low-country men. The Sinhalese by Age Groups.—The figures for tho Sinhalese race, as already mentioned more than once, are of especial interest, as that race is very little affected by migration, so that, in this case, the consideration of one of the causes affecting the fluctuations of the masculinity may he^omitted. For this reason, the figures for the total Sinhalese may be taken as a standard. If we examine the ratios for the Sinhalese (see Table No. 10 on page 9, and Diagram No. 3 facing same page), we see at once that one of the chief features of the table is the excess of females at ages 10-19 and 20-29, except for the former group in 1911 and 1921 and the latter in 1901. This excess is hardly what one would expect as the increased female death-rate from diseases of parturition may be taken to commence at about age 15, and it must be assumed that this increase was accompanied by a corresponding increase of the male death-rate at those ages. The maximum value for the ratio at any one Census occurs, as in the case of all races, in one of the groups 50-59 or 60 and over. We also note in comparing the figures for the different Censuses, the small variation of the masculinity at all ages ; the fall at ages 0-9 ; the increase at 10-19, in which group the excess of females before 1911 is converted into an excess of males possibly as a result of either an increasing female death- rate or a decreasing male death-rate ; the excess of females at ages 20-29 at all Censuses, except in 1881 and 1901 ; the high values of the ratio at 30-39 possibly as the result of puerperal diseases ; the marked increase' of the ratios for ages 40—49 and the fall for 50-59 and 60 and over. The Low-country Sinhalese and Kandyans.—The chief distinction between the two sub-divisiona of the Sinhalese is that the masculinity of the Kandyans Was somewhat higher, probably on account of the female death-rate being relatively high. Otherwise their characteristics were generally similar to those of the total Sinhalese. The values for the sub-divisions are not available before 1901 as, before that date, they were included in the total Sinhalese without being discriminated. Balancing Equations by Sex for the Sinhalese.—Since it can be easily shown that the masculinity increases or decreases according as the mean rate of increase for males is greater or less than that for females, we may examine the latter, conveniently in the form of the balancing equations already frequently mentioned. These equations are the following :— Population Migration Deaths. Difforence. Births. Difference. Sinlialese.—Males:— 1901-1911 1,419.561 — 1,218,013 = 537.S29 — 3-19,307 + 13,026 1911-1921 1,580,596 — 1,419,561 = 578,208 — 411,884 5,289 Sinhalese.—Fomales: 1901-1911 1,295,859 — 1,112,794 = 511,969 — 348,209 + 19,305 1911-1921 1.435,558 — 1,295,859 = 555,565 — 413,176 2,690 SECTION 2.-SOME OF THE STATISTICS. U If these are divided throughout by the arithmetic mean of the opening and closing figures of population by sex we get the following mean balancing equations :— Mean Percentage Bate. ' 01 Increase Of Increaso Of Decrease Of Migration of Population. by Births. by Deaths. Difference. Sinhalese—Males :— 1901-1911 15-3 = 40-8 — 26-5 + 1-0 Sinhalese.—Females :— 1901-1911 •• 15-2 = 42-5 — 28-9 + 1-6 *??r!?ii -2 = 40-7 — 30-3 — -2 1911-1921 10 These figures are subject to certain errors, but it seems likely that they represent the facts fairly closely in most cases. Since the mean rate of increase for males both in 1901-1911 and 1911-21 was somewhat greater than that for females, we expect to fin d that the masculinity was on the increase between 1901 and 1911, and 1911 and 1921. The figures indicate that in 1901-1911, although the female birth rate exceeded the male rate, the female death-rate exceeded the male rate. It may be mentioned that the high figures for the migration differences for males and females were probably due to errors in the figures, the most likely error being an understatement of the births. In 1911-1921, the low figure of the migration difference showed an increased accuracy in the other details ; the female birth rate was still in excess of the male rate, but this Was more than counteracted by the higher female death-rate. We may take the opportunity of noting here that both the male and the female birth-rates appear to have fallen in 1911-1921^vhile the death-rates rose. The Ceylon Tamils, 1921.—According to Table No. 8 on page 6 the Island figure of the masculinity of the Ceylon Tamils in 1921 was 508, the Tamil Districts showing, Jaffna at 485, Mannar 572, Mullaittivu 568, Batticaloa 499, Trincomalee 538. The low figure for Jaffna was due to the emigration of males, and the high figures in Mannar and Mullaittivu were probably due partly to heavy mortality among females at the reproductive ages, and partly to the immigration of males.. The Indian Tamils, 1921.—The Indian Tamils in Ceylon showed the fairly high figure of 554, as one would expect from the fact of their being immigrants. But it will be seen that, in the old planting districts of Kandy (518), Nuwara Eliya (513), and Badulla (514), the ratio was less than it was for the indigenous Sinhalese, for the reason that, in these districts, the labour forces have become domiciled to a considerable extent, and although they may be still subject to considerable migration the percentage of males migrating Without their families has been steadily on the decrease. Comparatively low figures were also found in Ratnapura (525), Kegalla (534), and Matale (537)—all estate districts—and it would appear that the high Island figure of 554 was chiefly due to the high proportion of males among the non-estate Indian Tamils. But it is also possible that the Census, taken in the first quarter, shows a somewhat smaller masculinity on estates than is usual. The Tamils by Age Groups.—The distinction between Ceylon and Indian Tamils was not diawn till 1911 so that comparative figures for more than two Censuses are only available for the total Tamils. The Tamil section of Table No. 10 on page 9 shows a much higher masculinity at all ages among the Tamils than among the Sinhalese ; lower figures at ages 0-9 ; and very high figures for nearly all ages over 10 due partly to immigration and partly to high female death-rates. At the successive Cersuses, there has been a considerable fall in the ratio for all ages due mainly to a fall among the Indian Tamils. The fall at ages 0-9 has been continuous and the figures in 1921 actually showed an excess of females (see also Diagram No. 3 facing page 9). The Ceylon and Indian Tamils.—The two divisions of the Tamils show markedly different character istics as the result of the former being an indigenous, and in fact, emigrating race, while the latter is immigrant. The difference is most apparent at the older ages, at which thelndian Tamils showed high figures, owing to immigration, while the Ceylon Tamils showed low figures, and, at ages 20-29, quite a considerable excess of females, probably the result of emigration. The excess of females for the Indian Tamils at 0-9 is somewhat unusual. The Balancing Equations by Sex for the Tamils.—These equations are the following :— Population TV H. Migration Difference. Blrths- Deaths- Difference. Tamils.—Males.:— 1901-1911 .. 570,049 — 520,409 = 162,144 — 171,267 + 58,763 1911-1921 .. 597,131 — 670,049 = 203,697 — 208,000 + 31,385 Tamils.—Females :— 1901-1911 .. 488,958 — 431,331 = 155,141 — 154,986 + 57,472 1911-1921 .. 522,928 — 488,958 = 194,325 — 201,414 + 41,059 If these are divided throughout by the arithmetic mean of the opening and closing figures of population by sex, we get the following approximate mean balancing equations * :— Mean Percentage Bate. — — ^ ^ Of Increase Of Increase Of Docroase Of Migration of Population. by Births. by Deaths. Difference. Tamils.—Males :— 190i-1911 .. 9-1 = 29-7 — 31-4 -f 10-8 1911-1921 .. 4-6 = 34-9 — 35-7 + 5-4 Tamils.—Females :— 1901-1911 .. 12-5 = 33-7 — 33-7 + 12-5 1911-1921 .. 6-7 = 38-4 — 39-8 + 8-1 * See Part I., Appendix I., Notes 3 and 4. 12 CHAPTER I.—SEX. The rates in these equations are open to considerable doubt owing to possible error in the deter mination of the mean population. But an excess of the female rate of increase in. both decades is in agreement with the fall of the masculinity shown in Table No. 10 and it would seem from the equation that the higher female migration difference was the chief cause of this. This, again, appears to be due to smaller emigration of females. _ It has to be remembered that the above figures include both the indigenous Ceylon Tamils and the immigrant Indian Tamils. ;. Ceylon Moors*—According to Table No. 8 on page 6 the Island figure for this race in 1921 was 521, that for the chief Moor District (Batticaloa) being 478. The highest figure was found in Ratnapura (696), and the lowest hi Kalutara (471). The females weje_in_excess_in Batticaloa.-Kalutara, and Matara (475). Migration of the males may explain the figures in the last three cases, but the high female birth-rate of the Moors may be noted. Indian Moors.—The total Indian Moors in Ceylon for 1921 showed the high ratio of 799, owing to immigration. In the districts the lowest value of the ratio was 675 in NuWara Eliya, while several of the figures were over 900. The Indian Moors are mostly temporary immigrants for the purpose of trade, and are accompanied by their families in a few cases only. The Moors by Age Groups.—If the portion of Table No. 10 on page 9 is examined for the total Moors, the high figures at all ages are at once noted. The group 0-9 tends to show the lowest value at any one Census, while the highest occurs frequently in the group 50-59, and twice for 30-39 (see also Diagram No. 3a facing page 11). At successive Censuses there has been a fall of the ratio for all ages, and for 0-9, the latter being very considerable. The group 10-19 showed a somewhat unusual minimum in 1891 and 1901 and a considerable increase in 1911 and 1921. 30-39 shows only a small variation from Census to Census, but the figure of 527 for the group 40-49 in 1891 differs very greatly from the others. A considerable fall in the masculinity in 1911 and 1921 is to be found in the groups 50-59 and 60 and over. The Ceylon Moors by Ages.—The low figures for the indigenous CeyloD Moors are in marked contrast to those for the total Moors or the Indian Moors. In the case of group 20-29 in 1921, the females were slightly in excess, while the highest figure occurred at 30-39 in 1911, and at 60 and over in 1921. The Indian Moors by Ages.—The extremely high figures at adult ages are the result of immigration, the maxima being found at ages 20-29 and 30-39, and the minimum at 0-9. The Balancing Equations for Moors by Sex.—These equations are the following :— Population. Difference. Births. Deaths. Migration Moors,—Males :— Difference. 1901-1911 .. 148,386 — 126,798 = 46,472 — 38,499 + 13,615 1911-1921 .. 157,578 — 148,386 = 50,486 — 44,658 -f 3,264 Moors.—Females :— 1901-1911 .. 118,239 — 101,236 = 43,893 — 34,B«5 + 7,675 1911-1921 .. 127,386 — 118,239 = 47,847 — 41,215 + 2,515 Mean Percentage Bate. •» Of Increase Of Increase Of Decrease Of Migration of Population. by Births. by Deaths. Difference. Moors.—Males :— 1901-1911 .. 15-7 = 33-8 — 28-0 + 9-9 1911-1921 .. 6-0 = 33-0 — 29-1 + 2-1 Moors.—Females :— 1901-1911 .. 15-5 40-0 — 31-6 + 7-0 1911-1921 .. 7-4 - 39-0 — 33-6 -f- 2-0 From the mean rates of increase in these equations we deduce an increase of masculinity between 1901 and 1911 and a fall between 1911 and 1921, the chief reason for which appears to have been the relatively high migration rate for males in 1901-1911. The lower birth- and death-rates for males than for females may be partly due to the immigration of male Indian Moors. The figures include indigenous Ceylon Moors and immigrant Indian Moors, who, at the Census of 1921, showed the proportion of about 8 to 1. Europeans, 1921.—According to Table No. 8 on page 6 the Island value of the masculinity of the Europeans in Ceylon in 1921 was 571 per 1,000 of the total. In the districts, very high figures were found where the total number was small, but lower figures were shown by the districts where most of the Europeans were domiciled—Colombo Municipality (572), Kandy District (579), Kandy Municipality (442), Nuwara Eliya District (485). The excess of females in the last two cases was due to the Census being taken during the " hot weather "when many of the Europeans send their families to the hill stations. Europeans by Age Groups.—The part of Table No. 10 on page 9 which deals with Europeans shows a fairly steady decline in tbe ratio for all ages from 1871, the chief reason for which is the develop ment of the country and the improvement of the conditions of life as affecting European women. The fall from 637 in 1891 to 611 in 1901 is related to the expansion of the tea and rubber industries, whilo the heavy fall in 1921 is due to a decrease of 10 in. the number of males, and an increase of 636 in the number of females. But the distribution of the males had altered greatly, the unmarried having decreased by 357, while the married increased by 349. The chief decreases among the unmarried males * Regarding possible errors see Part I., Appendix I., Notes 3 and 4. iVUscuLmiTy SF£URSPEA/\S, BURGHERS ^OTHERS BY DECEMMIALHOBGRSUPS. ' 1 1 1 1 EUP MIS BUJE IGHE RS A - — — /\ \ \ / ' / \ / y /V" ^ / Js \\ / \\ / \ \ \ V ..\\ f\ ill \ i *> * k \ •• v \ /// » \ X \\ k,i/ \ , \\ // ^> "\ / It // \\ w \ / \£ /j \/ V. 6So i i '•A \ f A V. ' / 1 •A.S Jfi / \1 \ ^7 vll / V 30-39 » 50-59 0-9 40-49 ao-29 30-39 40-4© 5o-59 6o & o-9 •1019 20-«9 Ovlr. Statistical Depart merit SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE STATISTICS. 13 were 251 at ages 20-24 (153 on estates); and 227 at 25-29 (103 on estates); while the chief increase consisted of 135 at ages 0-4 (90 on estates). The only decrease in the married males occurred at 25-29, increases appearing in 1921, at all ages over 15, the chief being 121 at 45-49 ; 50 at 50-54 ; 45 at 40-44. Irrespective of conjugal condition, the chief gains of the European males in 1921 were 135 at ages 0-4, and 129 at 45-49 ; while the main losses were 246 at 20-24 and 238 at 25-29. The decrease of young maleadults was, therefore, very marked, and Was possibly due, mainly, to emigration on war service. The increase of the married males Would appear, from the age distribution, to be due to immigration of older adults rather than to increasing marriage among the younger men. The increase in the number _°f females wasjcnade up of an increase of 166 unmarried..(6.7_on estates),.325jnarried4184-on-estates)r 43 widowed, and 3 unspecified. The chief increases among the unmarried occurred at ages 0-4 (99) ; 45-49 (38); 50-54 (35); while the married showed increases of 70 at ages 35-39 ; 59 at 25-29 ; 54 at 40-44 ; 49 at 45-49. The increases at the older ages are thus largely the cause of the increased number of females, which, therefore, cannot be ascribed to an increase in the number of newly married. The table shows high figures in different adult age groups owing to the fluctuation of the population, while low figures occur at 0-9 or 10-19, many of them showing excess of females, probably as a result of boys being sent to Europe at earlier ages for their education or to girls returning from Europe somewhat earlier. The table shows that the fall in the masculinity at all ages is chiefly due to the fall at all the adult ages (see also Diagram No. 3b facing this page). The Balancing Equations for Europeans by Sex.—These equations are the following :— i°&t£Z. Births. Deaths. gg££ Europeans.—Males ; !, 1901-1911 .. 4,645 — 3,852 = 847 — 958 + 904 !:', 1911-1921 .. 4,635 — 4,645 = 888 — 701 — 197 Europeans.—Feinales :— 1901-1911 .. 2,947 — 2,448 = 780 — 311 + 30 V 1911-1921 .. 3,483 — 2,947 = 886 — 250 — 100 If these equations are divided throughout by the arithmetic mean of the opening and closing figures of population by sex, We get the following mean balancing equations :— Mean Percentage Rate. . A Of Increase Of Increase Of Decrease Of Migration • of Population. by Births. by Deaths. Difference. Europeans.—Males :— 1901-1911 .. 18-7 = 19-9 — 22-5 + 21-3 1911-1921 .. -2 = 191 — 15-1 — 4-2 Europeans.—Females :— 1901-1911 .. 18-5 = 28-9 — 11-5 + 1-1 1911-1921 .. 16-7 = 27-6 — 7-8 — 3 1 The greater mean rate for males between 1901 and 1911 corresponds with the increase of masculinity from 611 to 612; the male rate of increase was apparently due to the migration difference as the death-rate appears to have been higher than the birth-rate, but the figures are subject to considerable errors, possibly amounting to 25 per cent, or over, owing to the small size of the European population and to the high degree to which it is affected by migration. The female rate of increase in 1901-1911 appears to have been due chiefly to the excess of births over deaths. In 1911-1921, the great difference in the male and female rates of increase was reflected in the fall of the masculinity from 612 to 671; the decrease in the number of males was caused by the negative migration rate which is in strong contrast to that of 1901-1911 and was the result mainly of the emigration on war service. With due allowance for the possibility of high errors in the rates, it would seem that both the male and female death-rates fell in 1911-1921. It is difficult to say whether the female death-rate of 7' 8 is greatly understated, but, in any case, the rate must be very low. It is also noticeable that the Europeans are the only race which shows a marked excess death-rate among males, in 1901-1911. The Burghers and Eurasians, 1921.—According to Table No. 8 on page 6 this race is the only one in Ceylon which showed an excess of females (masculinity 493). The highest value of the ratio was found in Galle District (589) and the lowest in Matara (425). The figure for the Colombo Municipality, where about 50" 6 per cent, of this race is found, was 486. Burghers and Eurasians by Age Groups.—The part of Table No. 10 which deals with this race shows that "the excess of females is invariable at ages 10-19 and 20-29, while it also occurs very often for 60 and over (see also Diagram No. 36 facing this page). The'higher figures are found at the groups between 30 and 60. A comparison of the figures at the successive Censuses shows that, at all ages, the ratio is generally very nearly 500 though 1921 shows the lowest figure of 493, which is seen to be due to a fall at all the age groups. The excess of females at ages 10-19, 20-29, and 60 and over is noteworthy. Balancing Equations for Burghers and Eurasians by Sex.—These equations are the following :— . Burghers and Eurasians.—Males :— 1901-1911 .. 13,341 — 11,681 = 4,085 — 2,820 -f 396 1911-1921 .. 14,507 — 13,341 = 4,784 — 3,204 — 414 Burghers and Eurasians.—Females i— 1901-1911 .. 13,322 — 11,801 = 3,850 — 2,829 + 500 1911-1921 .. J14.932 — 13,322 = 4,549 — 3,032 -f 93 14 CHAPTER I.—SEX. Mean Percentage Rate. Of Increase Of Increase Of Decree Of Migration byBirtbS by DeatlM Burghers andA »Eurasians. • —Males :—^ - - DiSce 1901-1911 .. 13-3 = . 32-6 — 22-5 4- 1911-1921 .. 8.4 = « Ll _ HI + ll Burglars and Eurasians.—Females : -1901-1911 .: 12-1 "= 30- 0 — 22-5 + 4-0 1911-1921 .. 11-4 = 32-2 — 21-5 + -7 The higher male rate of increase in 1901-1911 is correlated with the increase of masculinity from 497 to 500, and appears to be chiefly due to a higher birth-rate among males than among females, a feature generally found only in the case of the Burghers. In 1911-1921, the higher rate of increase of females corresponds to a fall in the masculinity to 493, the decisive factor being the emigration excess of the males. Malays, 1921.—According to Table No. 8 on page 6 the Malays in Ceylon in 1921 showed a masculinity of 520 per 1,000 of the total. An excess of females was found in Kandy District (masculinity 486),Matale (494),Hambantota (484),Puttalam (495),Batticaloa(417-10 males and Ufemales). About 44 per cent, of tke Malays were foundin Colombo Municipality, and the figureo f 530 there, was possibly, in part, due to immigration of males from other districts. Malays by Age Groups.—Table No. 10 for Malays shows high figures at the age groups over 50, while the lowest appear at ages under 30 (see also Diagram No. 3a facing page 11). A comparison of the figures at successive Censuses shows a maximum masculinity for the whole race in 1901 followed by a considerable fall. Age group 0-9 showed a fairly general fall, while the excess of females at 10-19 is marked. The sudden increase in the ratio for the group 20-29 in 1901 from 485 to 556 may be due to immigration, confusion of Malays, Malayali, and Moors, or to mis-statement of age. The other age groups show somewhat irregular fluctuations with an upward tendency for 30-39 and 40-49, and a downward one for the two groups over 49. THE Balancing Equations for THE Malays, by SEX.—These equations are the following :— . Population Births. Deaths. Migration Difference.. Difference. Malays.—Males :—• 1901-1911 .. 6,813 — 6,418 = 2,139 — 1911-1921 .. 6,969 — 1,873 + 129 6,813 = 3,093 — 2,275 — 662 Malays.—Females :— 1901-1911 .. 6,177 — 5,484 = 1,984 — 1,851 1911-1921 .. 6,433 — -f 560 6,177 = 2,814 — 2,259 — 299 If these equations arc divided throughout oy tne arithmetic mean < figures of population by sex, we get the following mean balancing equations : Moon Porcentage Rate. Of Increase Of Increaso Of Decrease Of Migration of Population. by Births. By Deaths. Difference. Malays.—Males :— 1901-1911 .. 6-0 = 32-3 — 28-3 + 2/) 1911-1921 .. -2-3 = 44-9 — 33 0 — 9^6 Malays.—Females :— 1901-1911 .. 11-9 = 34-0 — 31-7 + 9-6 1911-1921 .. 4- 1 = 44-C — 35-8 — 4" A fall in the masculinity between 1901 and 1911 is to be expected from the higher rate of increase of females in the decade. But the high migration rate of females casts some doubt upon the figures and it is probable ^hat errors in the Census figureso r the registration of births and deaths have resulted in considerable mis-statement of the rates. In 1911-1921, the higher female rate of increase corresponds 1 to the further fall in masculinity to 520, but the high migration rates are, again, suspicious. The high birth-rates in 1911-1920 are in marked contrast to the rates in 1901-1910 and support the suggestion that the rates in 1901-1910 Were understated, though, at the same time, overstatement in 1911-1920 ia not impossible, though less likely. THE VEDDAS.—The Island figure for the masculinity of the Veddas in 1921 was 518. They are chiefly found in Batticaloa, Trincomalee, Amiradhapura, Mullaittivu, and Badulla, where the reported ratios Were 518,510,524,640, and 504 respectively. Table No. 10 shows the ratio for the various age groups, butcomparisons are rendered doubtful by the changing definition of the term " Vedda '' already referred to and by the possibility of considerable mis-statement of age. The figures therefore show several sudden variations Which may be due to accidental causes. But the high figures for ages over 30 are Worth noting (see also Diagram No. 3a facing page 11). Others.—This miscellaneous class is also subject to change of definition, but the figures in Table No. 8 on page 6 are probably fairly correct in representing them with a masculinity as high as 822. They Were mostly found in Colombo Municipality, where the high figure of 913 Was mainly due to their being immigrant traders and others unaccompanied by their families. The table by age groups on page 9 shows that the masculinity is highest for the adult ages, which cover most of this population. At ages 0-9 the low figure of 463 in 1911 differs greatly from the others ; at 10-19 the maximum figure occurs in 1921 ; while considerable increases are seen for ages 20-29, and, with some exceptions, for the higher ages (see also Diagram No. 3& facing page 13). THT TTTT •tttt "TTP" Mil TTTr TTTT EXhiweratbdI^pulati«=»mht each^VSear of Bob SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE STATISTICS. 15 Estates.—The different values of the masculinity of the various races among the estate population at each Census since 1881 are shown In the following table. The actual figures by sex will be found in Appendix II. TABLE No. 11.—The proportion of Males in a Thousand Persons of each Race of the Estate Population, 1881-1921. Race. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1881-1921. 2 3 4 5 6 7 All Races .. , 604 . . 593 .. 559 . 543 . 529 .. 566 Sinhalese ..V 801 .. 681 .. 617 . 651 . 614 673 ." 689 : 643 664 Low-country Sinhalese ••J — — 660 . Kandyan Sinhalese —— 530 . . 678 . 554 554 . Tamils 596 . 584 .. 555 . . 532 . 518 557 > — 519 . 670 .. 595 Ceylon Tamils • • b — — — . 533 . 518 525 Indian Tamils • *7 — Moors 655 '.' 628 .. 569 . 564 . 627 .. 589 Ceylon Moors • • Q — — . 668 . 518 .. 543 Indian Moors 7 — — . . 561 . 531 .. 546 • •»© — Europeans ..II 718 .. 695 .. 694 . . 691 . 626 .. 685 Burghers and Eurasians ..li- 592 591 .. 580 . 564 . 542 874 Malays . .>} 585 .. 556 .. 562 . . 534 . 508 549 \ Veddas — — 692 . — . — .. 692 \ Others 603 . 608 .. 636 . . 556 . . 593 .. 599 f The general fall in the proportions of males was probably mainly due to the increasing settlement on estates of females of all races. The low ratios for the Kandyan Sinhalese as compared with the Low-country Sinhalese are probably ascribable to the fact that the main planting districts lie in the Kandyan Provinces. The proportions of males per 1,000 in 1921 among the various races on the estates in the principal estate districts are given in the next table :— TABLE No. 12.—Proportion of Males of each Race in a Thousand Persons of the Estat^Population in the Principal Estate Districts of Ceylon, 1921. Baces Indigenous to Ceylon. Baces Immigrant to Ceylon. A & . S 6 CO s §8 c.3 el Cm §2 District. 8j§ O CO '•5 E p. >> <0 Otri s 3 3 o M.S pa W 2 3 7 10 11 12 Ceylon A 529 .. 643 . 554 ... 670 .. 518 .. 542 . . 508 .. 517 ..531 . .626 .. 593 Colombo District (exclu sive of Municipality).^- 566 .. 580 ..587 . . 671*. 673*.. 540 . 495 .. 555 .. 418*. . 750*.. 698* Kalutara District .4 662 .. 629 .. 602 . . 777 . 493*.. 571 . 488 ... 548 .. 577 . . 699 .. 690 Kandy District (exclu sive of Municipality)•tr 617 .. 663 .. 527 . 624 .. 483 .. 501 . . 487 .. 511 .. 509 . .591 .. 627 Matale District X 634 .. 623 .. 576 . 807 .. 481 .. 569 . . 475 628 .. 530 . . 618 .. 761* Nuwara Eliya District b 513 .. 676 .. 568 . 684 . 488 .. 485 . . 507 .. 507 .. 527 . . 559 .. 679 Galle District (exclusive of Municipality) .7 670 .. 609 . . 445*. 789*. 715*.. 671*. . 500*.. 542 .. 541*. . 693*.. 667* Matara District A 536 .. 591 .. 500*. . 824*. 529*.. 575*. . 316*.. 519 .. 500*. . 682*.. 886 Kurunegala District .1 605. . 652 .. 602 . . 767*. 643*.. 651*. . 549*.. 577 .. 715*. . 732*.. 800* Chilaw District l? 638 .. 623 .. 744*. . 667*. 533*.. 684*. * 649 .. 889*. .1000*.. 733* Badulla District <^ 512 .. 680 .. 525 . . 608 . 553 .. 508 . . 568 .. 506 .. 575 . . 624 .. 559 Ratnapura Districts l> 533 .. 694 .. 569 . . 720 . 516 .. 580 . . 581*.. 517 .. 565 . .731 .. 536 Kegalla District \ ii 532 .. 652 ..528 . . 665 . 494 .. 553 . . 503 .. 523 ..521 . . 691 .. 609 The Indian Tamils show the lowest ratios, or the largest proportions of females, as they form the greater part of the resident, domiciled, labour. Their ratios also tend to belowes t in the oldest planting districts, although this is not always the case. 9 CHAPTER II.—AGE. SECTION 1.—THE INACCURACY OF THE DATA. The Information asked for.—As at previous Censuses, enumerators and householders were asked to enter in the schedules the age last birthday of the persons enumerated, and the instructions emphasized that what was wanted was the number of years completed on the day of the Census. Thus, in what follows, the age group 5-9, for example, purports to include persons whose fifth birthday fell on the day of the Census, those whose tenth birthday fell on the day after the Census, and those of intermediate ages ; -in other words those just aged 5, those just not aged 10, and those of intermediate ages. Special emphasis was laid upon the importance of obtaining correct age returns, but it will be seen that these exhortations had little effect. All the tables in thisjChapter exclude the Military and Shipping. Accuracy.—It has long been a matter of common knowledge that the returns of the ages of the population of Ceylon are liable to very considerable errors. A very slight experience of the mis-statements of age made by witnesses in courts, or by servants and others, is sufficient to throw considerable doubt on the ability of many among the population of Ceylon to report their ages with any great degree of accuracy. These doubts are confirmed by a more extensive knowledge of the country; the ordinary * Baces so marked number less than 100 persona of both Bexes. \ 16 CHAPTER II.—AGE. villager has generally only a vague idea of his age, probably knowing the age of the cultivation on his land more accurately than his own, and sometimes estimating the latter from the former, while ignorance of age is prevalent even among the better educated classesin the towns, cases being common in which the date of birth is unknown, the number of completed years incorrectly returned, and so on. Tabulation by Single Ages.—It is, however, now for the first time possible to obtain some approxi mate estimate of the extent of the inaccuracy, as the ages at the Census of 1921 were tabulated by single years instead of in groups as hitherto. If all the persons enumerated in a fairly large population stated their ages with perfect accuracy, it would generally be found that, when the numbers at each age were plotted, they would tend to form a fairly smooth curve, and the devations of the actual observations from the most .suitable approximation to this curve would provide an estimate of the accuracy of the statements of age. We may examine three of the methods of making this estimate : (1) by diagrams, (2) by means of the " index of concentration," (3) by examination of the constitution of various age groups. (1) The Diagrams.—These are obtained by plotting the nuniblx of persons at each age against the age in years as the abscissa, and by adopting one of the methods for smoothing the date. Diagram No. 4 facing page 15 shows both the actual observations for the total population of Ceylon and the running decennial averages*, the former being indicated by the fainter zig-zag lines and the latter by the heavier lines. Similar particulars for the Indian Tamil and European populations in Ceylon, are repre sented in Diagrams Nos. 5 and 6 facing pages 17 and 18 respectively. More (refined methods of smoothing were also tried, but it was found that suitable agreement between the data and the smoothed curve could not be obtained with groups with ranges less than ten years, and, as the smoothing might then have resulted in the ehmination of characteristic features as well as of the mis-statements of age, it was decided not to go beyond the first approximation given by the running averages. Although these do not give a smooth result, they form some guide to the eye as to the approximate form of the graduation. A comparison of the Ceylon diagrams with that ior males in England in 1911 (see Diagram No. 6 facing page 18) gives some idea of the comparative accuracy of statement of age in England and Ceylon, and there can be no hesitation in saying that, compared with the English figures, the Ceylon returns show an exceptionally high degree of inaccuracy. It is hardly necessary to point out in detail that the recorded figure for age 30 is, for Ceylon males, nearly three times the approximate graduated item, that is, the error is nearly 200 per cent., whereas the maximum error in the English table is 17 *6 per cent, (for ages of 60 and over); or that the other Ceylon figures show the most violent fluctuations. (2) The Index of Concentration.—It will be seen from the diagrams that the erratic nature of the variations of the Ceylon figures is mainly due to concentration on ages which are multiples of 5, although the peaks at ages 8 and 12 and at other ages ending in 2 or 8 are noticeable. The measure of the error due to the preference for ages ending in 0 or 5, which was used by the United States Census Bureau, was called the " index of concentration," and was defined as the ratio per cent, of the numbers between 23 and 62 inclusive with ages ending in 0 or 5 to one-fifth of the total number between these agesf. In Ceylon, in 1921, the number of males with reported ages ending in 0 or 5 between the ages of 23 and 62 was 504,292, while the total number of males between these ages inclusive was 1,029,569, so that the index of concentration for Ceylon males was 245, that for the females being 287, and for the total population 264. The following table of values of the index of concentration is that given by Whipple with the addition of the Ceylon and Bombay figures :— TABLE No. 13.—Indices of Concentration for various Countries. . Country. Year. Index. Country. Year. Index. 1 2 3 1 2 3 Belgium 1900 . 100 Hungary .*? 1900 133 England and Wales 1901 100 Russian Empire .fl 1897 182 Sweden 2>. 1900 . 101 Bulgaria l-# 1905 245 German Empire 1900 . 102 Ceylon .1* 1921 264 France 1901 . 106 Bombay (Dharwar) .>>- 1921 . 314 Canada . lo188 1 . 110 Bombay (Surat) !'$ 1921 325 United States of America — 120 / The indices of concentration for the males and females of the principal races in Ceylon are compared with the percentage literacy in the following table :— TABLE No. 14.—Indices of Concentration and Literacy, excluding Children 0-4. Indices of Percentage of a Concentration. - Literates. A A \ f Race. 3 Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. 1 2 • 3 4 5 6 7 AU Races 264 245 .. 287 . . 39*9 ... 56-3 .. 212 v Ceylon Moors 299 275 . . 327 . . 27-5 .. 47-2 .. 61 Indian Moors 286 274 .. 344 . 53*3 .. 64-2 .. 55 Veddas :v. 282 280 . . 286 6-2 .. 105 .. 1-7 Indian Tamils X 273 265 . . 284 . 20-1 .. 306 .. 6-5 Kandyan Sinhalese V 271 251 296 . . 32-6 .. 53-7 .. 8-7 Low-country Sinhalese T • 261 235 . . 290 . . 49-5 .. 65-3 .. 32-2 .. 62 3 .. Ceylon Tamils c 247 235 . . 259 . 43-3 23-7 Malays 237 200 . . 284 . 53-6 .. 71-2 .. 342 Others 206 197 . 272 . 55-0 .. 60-1 27-8 Burghers and Eurasians 150 144 . 155 . 85-5 .. 86-2 .. 84-7 Europeans? 113 106 122 . 98-1 .. 98-8 .. 97-3 * Those are the averages of decennial groups plotted at the midpoint of the group. Thus, the number of personB aged 0-9 is divided by 10, and the result plotted at age 4J ; the total of those aged 1-10 is divided by 10, and plotted at 5J, and^so on.^ ^ index of concentration, Vital Statistics, pages 169, 170. If there is no concentration there is an equal chance of each of the ten digits 0-9 appearing, so that 0 or 5 will occur, on the average, in I of the total cases and the index will = 100. If all the returns ond in 0 or 5 (i.e.. maximum concentration) the index = 600. DIAGRAM Jf«- 5 t I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I M I I I I II I I | | I I 1 |I |I | l | | I | TTT I M I I ! I I I I I I I I I I I I | I | j | I I I I I I I I I I I I I I mi inn ill 50 Q ATE dP^UL-ATI®N AT E ACkVeAR »F j&GB r^s j>ian Tamils, Both Sexes 40 Oje-^i^w 1921 0 JSriiznierizted Population. H jRunstinct JO 0 H < 20 & ft 0 10 ft GES 0 10 15 20 25 40 45 50 55 60 55 M ?5 80 85 99 95 *0fl Statistical Xtepaurtment Photo Lihho Survey Deph C«y!o Table No. 13 indicates that, while the statement of age appears to be somewhat less inaccurate in Ceylon than in Bombay Presidency, the inaccuracy is greater than in the least advanced countries in Europe. The comparative error of statement for the various races in Ceylon given in Table No. 14 is, to some entent what might be expected ; the Europeans showing the smallest error, the Burghers and Eurasians next, the Moors and Veddas showing the highest. The indications that the Kandyan Sinhalese state their ages less accurately than the Low-country Sinhalese, and the Indian Tamils less accurately than the Ceylon Tamils, are probably correct. It will also be noted that the value of the index for females is greater in every case than that for males, and it is suggested that the index of concentration and the percentage literacy are relatedj-a comparisonof-the-comparable columns-in-the latter table showing that this is the case to some extent. The index of concentration is clearly not an exact measure of mis-statement of age, especially in the case of the races with small numbers, but it is interesting to note that its indications are not contradicted by general considerations. (3) Examination of Groups of Ages.—Normally, in the absence of heavy migration or great fluctuations in the numbers of births and deaths, the number of persons at each age should decrease, more or less, gradually as the age increases. Between 28 and 32 inclusive, for example, it is stated that the number of persons at age 30 should normally be about 20 per cent, of the total on the group, while those at each age below 30 should be progressively greater than 20 per cent, and those at each age over 30 progressively less.* But the figures for males and females in Ceylon are the following :— TABLE No. 15.—Percentage of Population at each Age in the Period 28-32 inclusive, to the Total Population in the Period. Age. Persons. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 28 .} .. 27*• 3 27-8 26* 29 ..•v .. 6-•6 7-3 6' 30 ..i 48- 1 44-7 52- 31 •8 6-5 3 32 ::S :: £•• 2 14-7 11 Similarly, in normal circumstances, the number of children generally decreases more or less steadily from age 0 upwards, and although the figures for England in 1911 show a departure from this norm, the variation in Ceylon is considerably greater. The English and Australian figures are the following:— TABLE No. 16.—Age Distribution, 0-4, England and Wales, and Australia, 1911. England and Wales. c— —>• , Australia, Age. Males. Females. Both Sexes 1 2 3 4 0 I 395,110 386,618 115,970 1 . .V 374,109 368,709 107,485 2 ••i 395,919 393,376 101,693 3 .. H- 388,669 388,682 102,342 c 4 ..{ 382,306 380,885 99,433 The Ceylon figures are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 17. -Age Distribution 0-4, Ceylon, 1921. Ceylon. Sinhalese. A Age. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 60,849 59,487 42,307 40,659 1 0- 54,866 53,011 39,126 37,382 2 3 70,368 68,582 49,880 48,000 3 T 73,955 70,271 62,899 49,615 4 Jf 68,449 63,643 49,576 45,726 In the case of Ceylon, however, the erratic variation of the numbers may not be altogether due to errors of statement of age, as it is likely that the combination of the low birth-rate in 1920 with the high death-rates in 1918 and 1919 would cause a deficit of children aged 0-1 and 1-2 (see pages 30 and 31 below). In general, there is a possibility that a population like that of Ceylon which shows considerable fluctuations in the birth- and death-rates would not give a smooth age distribution at young ages even if the ages were correctly reported. Further Details of the Error of Round Numbers.—It has been already noted that the main accumu lations occurred at the ages which are multiples of 5, and it is interesting to examine the extent to which these and other numbers are the favourites. The following table shows the percentage to the total population of persons whose returned ages ended in the various digits :— TABLE No 18.—Percentage to the Total Population of Persons whose Ages in 1921 ended in 0, 1,' 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Persons Percentage Persons Percentage with Ages to the Total with Ages tov the Total ending in Population. ending in Population. 1 1 2 0 \ 22' 5 16' 2 li 8 lt 10 0 f s' * See Knibbs' " Census of Australia, 1911," Vol. I., page 91. 18 CHAPTER II.—AGE. The digits in column 1 of this table are, therefore, in order of their popularity. The preference for 0 and 5 is found in many countries, and is probably traceable to'.the fact that the human race has five fingers on each hand. The reason for the popularity of the even numbers is less obvious. The high proportions for 2 and 8 are partly due to the marked preference for them shown in the statement of ages under 20, 2 and 12, or 8 and 18, occurring much more often even than 5 or 15. The high peak at 12 is noticeable, and may be related to the upper limit of the school-going age (12),* and to overstatement of younger ages in order to support a claim for exemption from attendance at school. The peak at 18 may be related to the lower limit of the road tax-paying age (18), all those who paid for the first time in 1921 probably being put down as 18 whether they were older or not. But the preference for the even numbers is not wholly explained by these special cases ; if is also partly due to the unpopularity of~land 9, the former being taken as 0 and the latter as 10, but it is difficult to imagine why 3 and 7 should be less frequent than 2 and 8 at adult ages. It is interesting to note that the order given in Table No. 18 is the same as that shown in the samples examined in India in 1911 and 1921 with the exception that 7 precedes I. The view that the preference in India for even numbers over odd numbers other than 5 was due to the rupee currency with its subdivisions into sixteenths has been held to be exaggerated, and does not now apply in Ceylon where the rupee is divided into cents, although it has to be remembered that this only superseded the sterling currency in 1869, and that popular usage, for example in making 4 fanams equal to 25 cents, still recognizes sixteenths of a rupee. Causes of Mis-statement of Age.—In Ceylon the chief sources of error likely to be operating in the case of age statement are ignorance (causing either overstatement or understatement), carelessness of enumerators, deliberate overstatement of the age of children attending school, misunderstanding of the Census requirements of age last birthday, deliberate understatement in the case of males about to pay poll tax (18 years), understatement in the case of the younger adults of both sexes, overstatement of the ages of the old, and other mis-statements for social, economic, or other reasons. But there is no doubt that in Ceylon ignorance is by far the most important factor, so much so that the jest hardly require consideration. The Effect of the Errors.—The most important use of the age distribution of a population lies in the preparation of specific death-rates for the various ages, and it is worth while examining the effect of the above conclusions on these rates. In the first place, it is to be noted that single age figures are not used for this purpose, the groups employed in Ceylon being 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19/20-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55 and over. In the Census tables by age-groups, the same groups are used up to 25/ after which quinquennial groups are continued up to 70. But it is clear at once that a group ending in 5 is unsuitable, as it is, in most cases, just as likely that the accumulations at multiples of 5 are drawn from above as from below, so that a large proportion of the age-group may have been drawn from adjoining groups. It seems clear that better results would be obtained by using such groups as 13-17, 18-22, &c, but, for Census purposes, the old grouping has been retained for comparison with previous returns, in the hope that the proportionate preference for the quinquennial ages will remain about the same at each Census. It is even difficult to say whether the 18-22 group would include all the accumulation at 20, as it is quite possible that the Ceylon ages may often be mis-stated by more than 5 years. Though it may be possible that the quinquennial group may cover most of the accumulation, perhaps a judiciously selected 10- or 15-year range might secure a smaller error, and, in dealing with specific death-rates, it might be advisable to stop at 10-year groups.f Errors in India.—The results of a comparison between the recorded figures in India in 1911 and those calculated by the Actuary are of interest^ It was concluded J (1) that there was a regular deficit at ages 0-5, coupled with an excess at ages 5-10, said to result from a slight tendency to omit infants from the Census, and a marked tendency to overstate the ages of children aged 3-4.; (2) that there was an excess of males in group 10-15, coupled with a deficit in group 15-20, resulting from^the return of persons aged 9 as 10 and 19 as 20 ; (3) that there was a marked deficit of females in both these groups specially in the latter probably owing to the overstatement of age ; (4) that there was a deficit of both sexes, but especially of males in the group 20-25 owing to overstatement of age; (5) that there was a second deficit of females in group 35-40 possibly owing to the excess in mortality of females ; (6) that there was a deficit in the groups commencing with 5, as against groups commencing with a 0 due to the concentration on ages which are multiples of 10 being greater than on those which end with a 5. Some of these features might be found in Ceylon, but the discussion must await the formation of a life table if it is found to be possible. J SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE RESULTS. Grouping Necessary.—Even if the single age tabulation were absolutely accurate, it would be clearly much too detailed for use in comparing the age distribution of the sections of the population at the same or at different times, and the question arises as to the most suitable grouping for purposes of comparison. As a first approximation, as few groups as possible maybe taken, a suitable triple grouping being that used by Sundbarg, namely, 0-14, 15-49, 50 and over. For finer work, the groups may be broken up into 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-49, 50 and over, or new groups may be made such as 0-1, 1-19, 20-39, 40-59, 60 and over, according to the point under investigation. In the 1911 Census Report the following decennial groups were used :—0-9, 10-19, 20-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, 60 and over, and a still finer division is that mentioned in a previous paragraph, namely, 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, 20-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55 and over, which is that used in the English " Standard Million," in the English Tables, and in the Vital Statistics of Ceylon. The grouping used in the Ceylon Census Tables in 1911 and 1921 is single age up to 4, then quinquennial up to 69, with a final group for 70 and over. In the 1921 Tables, some distributions by single ages are given as well. * Lately altered, see page 26. t The somewhat surprising agreement of the figures at different Censuses (see Tables Nos. 22, 23, 24, &c), points to r> certain constancy in the errors of statement of ago, but cannot be used to show that the errors are small. % See the Goneral Report on the Census of the Bombay Presidency, 1921, by L. J. Sedgwick, I.C.S., page 89. >F P°PU .6* PERCENTAGE 400 RACE SO Per Cemt o Males? females f*hf Males f Females^ of the SO a*** °"er- Affles f females of ihe Age .group J5~4Si Age-group o-'4 ; Statistical Deportment j DlAG»A>%.JToB ^ Tflll llljl llll lllFffll tlllTI^-f lllll [ llif^lllfl IirillllTIJ lir|l 111 I llllll 111 II^1Tf41^ll|14ITil 11 • I' I I 11 &GBSQ 5 15 20 25 50 8 40 45 5* 55 60 & ?0 15 80 & 90 & 100 (Statistical Department- 'VkvcfWAXr SCAMS IS ih IOOJWO'8. Phoio Litie Survey Dept,Ceylon 5-1-23. SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE RESULTS. 19 The Triple Grouping.—In the first instance, we may examine .some eases of the triple grouping, .and as bases for comparison we may note the following points*:—That the proportion of those aged 15-49 will tend to be about 50perocnt. of the total, except when it is increased by immigration, giving an " acccssivc "distribution, or decreased by emigration (" sccessivc "); that a non-migratory increasing population will tend to show a higher percentage under 15 than over 40; that a population with a high birth-rate and a high death-rate will show a high proportion at ages 0-14. The Case of Ceylon.—The proportionate figures of the triple grouping for both sexes of the population of Ceylon and some of its constituent parts are the following. The figures by sex are illustrated in Diagram No. 6a facing this page. TABLE No. 19.—Percentage Distribution of the Triple Age-grouping by Race, Ceylon, 1921. Race. AGEE. 1— • - 0-H. 15-49. 1 2 3 4 50 and Over. Ceylon 39 51 10 Low-country Sinhalese V 41 48 11 Kandyan Sinhalese .3 43 48 i) Ceylon Tamils •V- 37 52 11 Indian Tamils • y :!2 62 ti Ceylon Moors .b 12 4!) 0 Indian Moors t 22 67 ii Europeans .8 19 68 13 Burghers and Eurasians «* 3S 51 11 Malays • 10 42 49 9 Veddas 45 48 7 Othjors • 11 10 79 5 Ceylon Estates '« GO 5 England and Wales, 1911• 13 31 .53 16 This table shows that Sundbiirg's criterion of 50 per cent, of the population at ages 15-49 is approximately fulfilled by all the indigenous races, namely, Low-country Sinhalese, Kandyans, Ceylon Tamils, Ceylon Moors, Burghers and Eurasians, Malays, and Veddas, the percentages being in none of these cases lesslthan 4S or more than 52. The immigrant races, namely, the Indian Tamils, Indian Moors, Europeans, Others, and the estate population, arc, of course, "accessivc," and show percentages at 15-49 ranging from CO to 79. The variations at ages 50 and over arc due to the interaction of the birth- and death-rates and migration. The total numbers of each race, in 1921 are given in Appendix 1. The Triple Grouping in 1911.—The distribution according to the triple grouping shown by the 1911 Census figures is given in the following table :— TABLE No.i 20.—Percentage Distribution of the Triple Age-grouping by Race. Ceylon, 1911. Ages. i Uucc. A 1 0-14 15-49. 50 and | 1 3 4 Ceylon i 41 49 10 Low-country Sinhalese 4:t 40 11 Kandyan Sinhalese 44 40 This talile shows the same general characteristics as Table No. 19, but Sundbiirg's 50 per cent, is less closely approximated to by the indigenous races, the proportions at 15-49 in 1911 being in almost every case Icn^ than they were in 1921, and those at 0-14 being generally more. There may be many reasons for this, some possible causes being a decrease in the birfii-ra-t.es in 1911-1920 against 1901-1910, the increase of infant mortality, and of the death-rate of children, or the mis-statement of age. The Decennial Grouping.—Ten-yearly groups are convenient in that the error of the grouping is smaller than for 5-year groups, and that the group intervals arc practically equal to the intcrccnsal periods. 'The .decennial groups were used in some detail in the previous Census reports, and the same practice may be followed here. '___! ; i * According to Whipplo Vital Statistics, page 178, Sundhiirg stated on tlio basis of Swedish figures from 1750 to 1900 that a normal ago distribution shows alxiut Imlf t.lu. population bctweon 15 and 5(1 and classified such a popula tion into Hirer :| It.) progressive, in wl ich the proportion under 15 is 39 per cent, against 11 per cent, over 49 ; (ii.) stationary, in w-liicli tlie percentages are 33 and 17 : and (iii.) regressive, in which (lie poreenlago over 40 is grantor than that under, 15, tlie former amounting to 30 per rent., and the latter to 'JO. Hut the proportions for a stationary population calculated from n Swedish life table for 1901-1910 appear lev be 23'5, 47-S, and '-8-7. Certain American figures give 24-4, 50, and 24 • 0, while the lifo table fei India, 1901-1910. gives 37, 52- 1, 1(1-8. l"or an inten-sling dis cussion of tho Slindhargian criterion for ISombny Presidency, sch- the 1921 Census Kopoit thereon by b. J. Sedgwick, i.C.S., pago 91, which was published after most of tho above text hud been written. 20 CHAI'TIOI! ]]._Al!l-:. G b 92! ThC in 192n^L1 according T*to age anLd sex.^ *i - ^ the distribution of the various races TABLE No. 21.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Persons of each Race by Sex, Ceylon, 1921. Ae;o Period. '7 0-9. Hi -lil. 211 -29. 4( -4 9. 50-59. (1(1 mid Over l'"enia] :«. .Mules. Malts, l'cinalct •'cmales. Males. Females. .Mules. Kelnalcfl. ! •' "J 4 ' •'" •< 'cm:*!,* ..Mules, remain. /Mai,-.. I-Vmalcs. Males. Fciii J<,. li ; 7 s Ill 11 cey.cn ... - ...... ;; 7 ;• 11 f > 2 » » 2 6 28 21. . 222 .19 9 2 0 6 . 20 • 15 . 13 . 9 . 8 Sinhalegg .V 2 s . . 2S . . 22 22 . . 17 . . l'.l . Kandyan o| Sin . 1:1 . . 12 . . 9 s . (i halcso 3. 29 . . :| | 00 . . 17 . l'.l . 9 . . s . Coylon TamnVif 24 ••>•", o-i 22 0 . . 17 . . lil . it. .11. .11. . 1(1 . Indian Tamils sF 19 . 24 .'i In . 2200 .! !. 2'>.1 | .' . ^2( i ." •>! ' " ' !' " ' . . Ss .. 5 . . 4 . HI Indian Moors .7 S . . 26 .. 22 .. ]9 . .. 2277 . .. 2200 . .. 211 . . 1ir,5 . . 122 . . 9 . . 0 Europeans .? 14 .. 19 .. 5 .. S . . 20 . . 2(11 . . 2S . . 2(i . °" ' " Burghers and . 20 . . 15 . fi 2G .. 25 .. 2:S ....>.. i , .. i;i . . 1.1 .. 10 . . 9 .. 0 Eurasians HI . ..11 i-l . . l.i . 10 . . 9 . . 2 4 .17 . Malays (? 28 . . 32 . . 21 . . 21 . . 17 . . 1HI9 . ..11 I I . . ..11 1 1 . . . 1(1 1 . . 7 .. fi . . 4 .. 5 .. 4 22 . . 17 . Veddas .»/ 32 .. 32 .. 21 .. 22 .. 17 . . 2.'2f3 .. .• 1).'!3 . ..11 11 . .. 9 . .. G . . 4 .. 3 .. 4 .. 2 . 10 . . 41 . Others 6 . . 28 . . 14 . . 19 . . 41 . . 2U0 . . 255 . . 1i">5 . . 9 . . 7 .. 3 .. 3 .. 2 .. 2 . 22 .17 . Total Sinhatesd$28 . . 29 . . 22 . . 22 . . 17 . . 19 9 . . 1i:i3 . . 12 2 .. . 9 . .. 8 . . G .. G .. 5 .. 4 England and . 18 Wales, 1911/y 22 .. 20 .. 20 . . 17 . 18 . 15 . 15 . 11 . . 12 . This table contains many points of interest, which cannot, all be dealt with here. The most noticeable is the differing distribution of the indigenous and immigrant races, the former generally showing a decreased proportion at every advancing age group, while in the case of the latter an increase in the proportions is found at the younger adult ages owing to immigration. It will also be seen that the indigenous and immigrant races showed different proportions at ages 0-9, those for the former having a maximum of .32 and a minimum of 24, with the male and female rat ins nearly equal; while the immigrant races show lower proportions, and, in many cases, a verv much smaller ratio for the males, partly owing to the heavy excess of males in the immigrant populations. The figures for 10-19 are more uniform, though the low ratios for Europeans, owing to children being educated out of Ceylon, are very striking, and those for Others are low, as their children are left behind in 1 ndia and elsewhere. At the older ages the effect of immigration is at once seen in the high figures for t lie J ml inn Tamils, Indian Moors, Europeans, and Others, but the ratios for ages over 50 cease to show this difference, some of the immigrant races giving low ratios as the result of emigration (sec also Diagram N*os. 5 and 0 facing pages 17 and IS res pectively. The somewhat high figures for Europeans at ages 50-AO may be due. in part, to rc-im migration. Comparison with England.—The last line in the table shows the distribution in England and Wales, 1911. The very marked differences between the English and Sinhalese figures are due to the latter being tlie result of a- high birth-rate combined with a high death-rate, while, in England, the rates are low. It follows that the proportion at. young ages is much greater in Ceylon than in England, but that the numbers of the population arc more rapidly reduced in (.'ovhen. In other words both the mean age and the survival value of the population with high birth- and death-rates will be low. These differences arc, of course, due to interaction of the birth- and death-rates and the migration.t All Races, 1891-1921.—We next turn to an examination of the ratios at successive Censuses, the data appearing in the following table : — TABLE No. 22.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Persons of the Total Population by Sex, 1891 1921. Ap. Period. 0-'J. 10-19. 20-20. :t"-3'.' 10-19. 50-59. •SO and Ov 1 Persons : 3 4 5 n 7 ' 1S91 33 •3 . 20 G 2 19 1 1 . - 7'0 5' 1 1901 32 0 3'0 . 21 0 . 20 3 1 2 • 1 1911 3 .. 7'2 . . 4'7 2-7 28 •5 . . 20 S 19 1 Hi • it 1921 f-.. 27 1 o S'3 . 5' 3 1'3 - 21 5 19 13 s Males :— S'7 5'3 4'4 1891 i .. 32 9 19 5 IS 12 r, 7'0 1901 5-8 3' 5 v- .. 31 3 . 20 1 19 9 13 it 1 1911 27 G . 7'2 5'4 3 3 - • . 20 7 IS 4 14 fi S'7 5 4 4'6 1921 26 1 . 21 4 IS- Females : t •• :"' • 1 t (i 9'2 5 5 4'7 1891 i . . 33 7 . 21 8 . 1 9 • 9 10 l 7-0 4'4 1901 32 9 2-5 1 -. 22 0 . . 20- 7 1 1 0 1911 71 •'•0 29 G 2'3 7 • • . 21 (1 1 9 • 9 12 1921 2 7'8 5' 2 3-0 28 . 21 6 19- 9 9 12 S • 2 r>-2 •to Here, the most striking point is the fall of the proportions of both sexes at ages 0-0, which has been uninterrupted since 1K9I, but shows a greater drop between 1901 and 1911 than in any other interval, owing to the group before 191 I including age 10, while in 191 1 and 1921 age 10 is part of the group 10-19. The fall of the proporfions from 1911 to 1921 point either to a fall in the. birth-rate or * The. nn.il number.- of c;ich r;ico und sex are pivon in A|»]>ondi.\ 1. t A brief reference to Uie uoneral theory which relates the a".o distribution to the iiit cruel ion of llic liirth- nntl doutli-ratos and the migration "ill lie found on pac;o :t0. Sonic figures of mine and female birllw And dc.dbs l>\ race will bo found in (he preceding chapter on Sox. SECTION 2.—SOME OK TIIK RESULTS'. 21 .m increase in tlhe specific death-rates, the latter probably being predominant. The proportion of females at ages 0J-9 appears to have always been greater than that, of males, possibly owing to the higher female birth-rate. The proportions at ages J 0-1!) and 20-29 show both increases and decreases during 1891-1921, while the ratios at ages over 29 show increases on the whole. The increase in 1911 of the group 00 and over may be due to the different grouping before 1911, namely, 0-10, 11-20, 21-30, &c. On the whole, the proportions at the various decennial groups at different Censuses arc in fairly close agreement. It will be seen that the proportions of females at ages under :t0 were, at every Census since 1891, greater than the proportions of males. It. is clear from the. fact that the peculiarity is found in Table No. 23 that it is not due to migration. The Sinhalese.—The distribution by decennial groups of 100 Sinhalese is shown in the following table:— j TABLE No. 23.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Sinhalese of each Sex in Ceylon, 1891-1921. Period t— - A 0-9. 10-19. 20- > Males :— 1S91 .\. 35-2 . 191 . 17 0 11 5 0-8 . 6-5 . . 3 9 1901 V 34-4 . 18-9 . IS 4 . 11 8 . . 70 . 6-0 . . 3 5 1911 3' 30-5 . 202 Hi 7 . 13 4 ... 8-4 . 5-7 .. 51 1921 w 2S-2 . 21-8 . 17 2 . . 13 2 S"8 . 5-7 51 Females : 3 1891. | .1. 34 4 . 21 8 19 0 . 10 3 7' 2 4 7 . 2 6 1901 | % 34 5 . 21 4 19 0 . 10 4 . 7-3 . 4 3 . 2 5 1911 [ >. 31 4 . . 20 6 . . IS 6 11 9 . 70 . 5 7 4 2 1921 ( .*+ 29 4 . 21 0 . . 19 0 . 12 0 . S-0' . :*i 5 4 2 of the total population, the distribution in the last Table As the Sinhalese form 07 •() per cent. No. 23 is similar'to that in Table No. 22, though the proportions at young ages and at ages over 49 are somewhat higher than those for all races, The fall in 1 Wl 1 in t he ratios for ages 0-9, the sudden increase of group 00 and over in 1911, and some of the other features of Table No. 22 are present here. The Sinhalese in the Provinces.—The following table shows the age distribution of the Sinhalese in the various Provinces :— TABLE No. 24.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Sinhalese of each Sex in Eight of the Nine Provinces, 1911-1921. 0-9. 10-19. 20-29. 30-39. •iO-49. 50-59. .. . -A —A. Males, itlcti. Mulcts. Fount lea. Mules'. Females. Midi1 rVnutlrs. Mttlf N Females. Mules. Females. i S 12 3 9 10 11 Western Province 1911 29-3. . 30-5. 208. 212 ..171.. 1S• 2.. 13-4.. 119.. S4.. 76.. 57.. 60 1921 .^27-7.. 2 79. 2°' 3 22-0 ..lffS.. 1S-S.. 12-9.. 12 2.. S 8"3.. 5-9.. ft -ft Central- Province ••— 1011 Southern Province :— 1911 .fi35-4i. 31-0.. 19-0.. 195.. 133.. 176.. 114.. 11-8. 8-2. 64. . 6-5 1921 &31'3.. 28-7.. 213.. 2T2.. 14(i.. ISO.. 120.. 122. 8- 8-5. 60.. 61 Eastern Province :— 1911 7?; 23-8.. 311. 23 "2. 20-5. 20-4. 235. 14-7., 12-5.. 00. 49.. 38 1921 &T21-0.. 315. 22-5. 23-0. 23-0. 22-8. 16-7.. 12-5.. 5-7. 4-6.. 2-6 North- Western Province 1911 3 26-4.. 31-6. 20-8. 20-8. 20-6. 21-6. 154. . 120.. 7-0. 4 7. . 4-3 1921 ^25-2. 29-4. 21-9. 22' 9. 20-9. 21-8. 14-9. . 12-0.. 7-2. 4-8.. 4-0 Norih-Cenlral Proviiicc :- It 1911 24-8.. 28-2. 21 •5. 223.. 21-8. 22 0. 13-8. 12-0.. 7 • 5. 49.. 42 1921 .•S-,22-7. . 26-9. 20-0. 21-9.. 22 9. 24-0. 100. 12-0.. 80. 5-4. . 4-4 Province of Uva 1011 13-2' 1 - 33-2. 187. 19-2. 15-8. 10-4. 14 4. 12-0.. 7-3. 5 • 9 . . 58 1921 • .^,j30-0. 32' 2. 22-0. 20-4 . 15 1 . 19 • r>. 13-9. 110.. 7-8. f)-(i. . 5-2 i , Province of Sabaragamuwa :— 20-6. 17-4. 13-7. 12-0. . 7-4. •8. . 1011 'Jf.3. !30-T..W 1 . .. •>32*- 3> > 19 1. is-1. 7-6. •8. . 1921 > &. 29-0.. 33-1 19-7. 20-4. 17-9. 18-4. 138. 11-6.. 9 r 22 CHAPTER II.—AGE. This table shows that the decrease in the proportion at ages 0-9 between 1911 and 1921 which has been already mentioned appears in all the Provinces except for the females in the Eastern Province and Province of Sabaragamuwa. The low proportions in the Eastern Province for males at this age may be due to the fact that the Sinhalese are not indigenous here, but the same explanation will not apply to the North-Western and North-Central Provinces, where the low figures are probably associated with the high juvenile mortality. There are no very marked differences for ages 10-19, while the variations for the adult ages are, in many cases, due to migration, or to the changing incidence of the death-rate. The Tamils.—The distribution, in decennial groups, of 100 Ceylon and Indian Tamils are shown in the following table: — - - TABLE No. 25. -Age Distribution of a Hundred Persons of each Sex among the Ceylon and Indian Tamils, 1911-1921. Age Period. 0-9. 10-19. 20-29. 30-39. 40-49. 60-59. 60 and Over. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ceylon Tamils. Persons— 1911 I 28-2 212 17-6 13-6 9' 1921 24-4 22-5 17-8 13-9 10' Males— 'i. 1911 27-9 21-5 16-6 14' 9' 1921 2 24-2 22-8 16-8 14 10 Females— 1911 •S 28-4 21-0 18' 12-8 9-0 5-6 1921 4 24-6 22-2 18' 13-6 9-8 6-0 Indian Tamils :— Persons— 1911 16-9 22- 28-2 18-3 8*7 3-7 1-8 1921 21-5 19' 25-0 19-4 9-0 3-8 20 Males— 1911 .1 14-8 22-2 27" 19-9 9-6 4-2 21 1921 192 19-0 24' 20-9 10-1 4-2 2-3 Females— 1911 !'. 19-6 22-6 29-6 162 7-5 31 1-4 1921 l.t 24 4 19-6 25-8 17-6 75 33 1-8 The distinction between Ceylon and Indian Tamils was not shown before 1911, and the figures for total Tamils are not given now, as they combine an indigenous with an immigrant race. The chief points in the table are :—The considerable decrease in 1921 of tho proportions of Ceylon Tamils at ages 0-9 which may possibly be the result of an increased death-rate ; and the increased ratios of Indian Tamils at 0-9, showing an increasing settlement of the estate labour forces. The proportions of adults among the Ceylon Tamils have increased, while the proportion of the Indian Tamils aged 10-19 and 20-29 has decreased. In 1921 the Indian Tamils showed lower proportions than the Ceylon Tamils at ages 0-9 and 10-19 ; higher at 20-29 and 30-39 ; and lower at the older ages. The Moors.—Like the Tamils, the Moors havo an indigenous and an immigrant subdivision, for which the age distribution is shown separately in the following table :— TABLE No. 26.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Persons of each Sex among Ceylon and Indian Moors, 1911-1921. Age Period. r~ t- 0-9. 10-19. 20-29. 30-39. 40-49. 60-59. 60 and Over. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ceylon Moors:— Persons— 1911 1 32-4 . . 20-7 . . 18-0 . . 12-7 7-8 .. 4-2 .. 4-2 - 1921 29-5 . . 22-0 . . 18-5 . . 13-0 . 8-4 .. 4-4 .. 4-2 Males— 1911 £ .3 31-8 . - 20-3 . . 17-4 . . 13-7 . 81 .. 4-3 4-4 1921 Mr 28-8 . . 22-0 . . 17'6 . . 13-7 8-7 . 4*7 4-5 Females— 1911 33 0 . . 21-2 . . ' 18-6 . . 11-7 . 7-5 . 4-1 . . 3-9 1921 i 30 4 . . 22-1 . . 19-4 . . 12-1 . . 8-0 . 4-1 . . 3-9 Indian Moors :— Persons— 1911 i 11-2 . 22-4 . . 25-6 . . 18-9 . . 10*5 . 6-0 5-4 / 1921 ?. 11-5 . 21-0 . . 25-7 . . 19-8 . . 112 . 5-8 .. 5-0 Males— 1911 8-3 . 23-2 . . 26-8 . . 19-8 . . 10'6 . . 5-8 5-5 1921 ?® 7-8 . 21-5 . . 27 1 . 20-9 . . 11-7 6-0 . . 5-0 Females— 1911 • i 23-1 . 18-9 . . 20-8 . . 15-4 . . 10-1 . . 6-6 .. 5-1 1921 1*1 26-1 .. 18-7 . 20-3 . 15-4 . 9-4 . . 5-2 4-9 SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE RESULT: 23 The- chiof differences between tin; indigenous Ceylon Moors and the immigrant Indian Moors arc the low proportions of children agod 0-9 among the latter, and the higher ratios at the adult ages owing to immigration. An apparently exceptional feature is tin; low ratio of males aged 0-9 among the Indian Moors, but it is easily explained as the result of the immigration of adult males. As the males number about four times the number of females 7- 8 per cent, of the males is actually greater than 2G-1 per cont. of the. females: The Europeans.—The age distribution of the Europeans by decennial age groups is shown in the following table :— TABLE Np._27.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Europeans of each Sex in Ceylon, 7" 1881-1921. A'-c Period. r~ • 0-9. 10-19. 20- >9. 40-4'J. 60-59. 00 and C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Persons I 1881 22-2 9-5 . 34- 5 111-7 S' 4 3-4 2 3 1891 V 18-6 . 101 . 20 8 . . 23-5 . . 12-7 . 5-3 2 •9 1901 17 0 . 102 . . 29 (i . 21"S . . 12 5 . 5-0 2 •7 1911 I2M) . 7-5 . . 27 4 . -2(i-5 . . 14u . 0-9 4 2 1921 i r. - c . 64 . 20 0 . 27 1 . 17"S . . 8-2 4 •9 Males :— 1881 | 17-3 7-7 . 37" 7 . 2T8 . 9-5 40 2 0 1891 I 155 . . 88 . . 27- 8 . 24•9 . . 14:4 5-7 2 9 1901 14-8 . . 8-2 . . 30- 8 . . 230 .. . 14-4 60 2 7 1911 9-8 5-7 . . 30 1 . 27-0 . . 15 0 . . 7-6 4 •2 1921 135 . 5-4 . . 19" 7 . 2s-:s . . 197 . 8-8 4 5 Females :— 1881 i (t 31 5 . . 12!) . . 2S 5 15-7 . (*> 3 . 2 4 o 7 2 1891 i A 24 . 124 . 25 0 . 21-0 . 9 7 4 6 . 3 1 1901 22 0 . . 133 . . 27 8 19 • 9 9 4 4 9 . 2 7 1911 17 8 . . 10 'i . 23 .> 2 5' 7 12 7 5 9 . 4 3 1921 % IS 5 7-S . . 20 3 . 25-(i 15 1 7 3 . 5 4 The low| ligures at ages 0-9 aro characteristic of an immigrant, race, while the low ratios at 10—19 are due to children being sent to Europe for their education. The high ratios at adult ages aro due to immigration. The ratios at the various Censuses show considerable differences, the chief of which, at the Censuses of 1911 and 1921, are the increase for males aged 0-9 in 1921, the decrease for females aged 10-19, the decrease for males aged 20-29, the increase for both males and females 40-49 and 50-59. The decrease of the proportion of females aged 0-9 at each Census between 1SS1 and 1911 is very marked, and is due largely to the increase of adult females through immigration. The Burghers and Eurasians.—The age distribution by decennial groups is shown for the Burghers and Eurasians in the following table :— TABLE No. 28. -Age Distribution of a Hundred Burghers and Eurasians of each Sex in Ceylon, 1891-1921. Al'O Period. 0-9. 10-19. 20-29. :ui-3 1891 i .'. 33*3 . . 23-4 . . 162 . . 10-9 . 7 6 . 4-8 . 3-7 1901 ! h. 30-3 . . 24-2 . . 18-3 . . Ill 7 7 6-0 . 34 1911 £ 26-6 . . 23-1 . 19-3 . . 12-4 . S 6 . . 5-6 . 4-4 1921 1 !t 25-7 .. . 22-7 . i8i : . 13-3 . 9 5 . . 6-9 . 4-8 1 Males :—\ 1891 ] 33 9 . . 22 8 . . 15 2 . 11 6 . 7 5 . 5 1 3 9 1901 , Jt 30 6 . . 23 3 . . 17 7 . 11 8 . S 1 5 2 . 3 3 1911 | 1 27 0 . .. 23 0 . . 17 0 . . 12 9 . 9 o 5 9 . 4 4 1921 ; 20 o . 22 9 . . 16 7 . 13 5 9 9 . 6 1 . 4 7 Femalos :• 1891 .1 32 7 . . 24 0 . . 17 3 . . 10-2 7-7 4 4 . 3-6 1901 ,0 29 9 . . 25 2 . 19 0 . . 10-4 7-3 . 4 8 . 3-4 1911 2 '<{• 26 2 . . 23 . 21 0 . . 11-9 . S-ll . 5 3 . 4-4 1921 25 2 22 0 . . 19 4 . . 13-2 . 9-0 . 5 7 . 4-9 ihe decrease of the proportions at each ago group at any one Census is common to the indigenous races. In comparing the figures for the different Censuses, we have to bear in mind the change of grouping in 1911 which-may account for some of the changes between 1901 and 1911. for example, the increased proportions for group 60 and over. In 1921 the chief points are the fall of the proportions at a<'e groups under 30 and the increase of those for the older a»'«s. ° 24 CHAI'TKi; II.— AOK The Malays.—Tim age distribution .,f the Malays, by the decennial .'roups, is niven j„ the folbwiij" table :— -10 c- TABLE No. 29.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Malays of each Sex in Ceylon, 1891-1921. Ace Per od. a O-'.l. 10-111. 20-29. :l(l-.l;i. 40-4 The high proportions at ages 0-!) are probably associated with a high birth-rate, while the distribution is otherwise fairly typical of an indigenous race. The ratios for 1011 and 1921 are in fairly genoral agreement, the chief difference being the fall of the proportion of females aged 0-9. The Veddas and Others.—-The figures for the Veddas and "Others'" are liable to considerable variation owing to change of definition, and compared in the following table only f°r tlie Censuses of li' LI and 1921 :— TABLE No. 30.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Veddas and " Others " of each Sex in Ceylon, 1911-1921. Ape Periotl. 0-9- '"-19. 20-29. 30-39. 40-49. 50-59. 00 and Over. 1 2 :; ., r, 0 7 Vcddris :— orsons- 1911 .'. 32-8 .. 21 r, .. 19-3 12-0 .. 72 .. 3 • 5 ,. 31 1921 ?? 32-3 .. 21-7 19 0 12"1 7-7 .. 3'G .. 3'0 Males— • 1911 ?. 321 ... 21-8 .. Ifi-fi .. 13-9 .. 8-2 .. 3'8 .. 3'C. 1921 ft 32-4 .. 21 0 10 5 .. 13-1 .. 91 4 1 .. 3 8 Females—• 1911 33 (i .. 21-3 .. 22-2 .. 109 .. fi-2 .. 32 .. 2 • fi 1921 k 32-2 . 22 1 . 22 -9 110 0-2 .. 31 .. 22 Others .-— Persons— 1911 .7. 12-2 ... IS- I .. 19 4 ST. .. 3-0 .. 3-1 1921 .«. 10-2 ... 148 .. ::s-2 .. 231 S-l .. 3-1 .. 2-2 Males— 1911 1 7-0 .. 171 ... 3S-4 .. 211 .. SS .. 3"fi 3-4 1921 04 .. 139 .. 10-s .. 21 7 8 9 .. 3-2 .. 2-1 Females— 1911 J.1 25-4 .. 20-8 .. 25 0 14'fi 7-fi .. 3G .. 2:4 1921 «V 27 • r. .. IS-9 .. 20-4 .. 15 3 .. Of. .. 29 .. 2*4 ^ <~f It is somewhat surprising, in view of tli<• dilliculties of definition of Veddas and " Others," and "f the possibility'of considerabl<: mis-statement of AGE by the former, that the agreement between the distributions in 1011 and 1021 is fairly close. Urban and Rural Population.—A comparison of the ;vn\ distribution of the urban and rural population in 1021 is given in the following table :— TABLE No. 31.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Persons of each Sex in the Urban and Rural Population, 1921. Urban. Rural. Urban. Rural. Ago Poriod. M 1* SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE RESULTS. 25 The corresponding figures in 1911 were the following :— TABLE No. 32.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Persons of each Sex in the Urban and Rural Population, 1911. Rural. Urban. Rural. Urban. > i Males. Females. Males. Females. Age Period. Males. Females. Females. Age Period, Males. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 8-8 7-8 0- 9 18-6 25-8 28-4 . 29-8 40-49 .f 8-4 8-3 .. 5--4_ 6l2 10-19 —23-6- 22-3 20-4 . 20-9- -50-59 6 60- - 4-6 .. 3-9 20-29 24-2 20 -5 18-0 . 19-9 60 and over? 4 • 6 45 .. 30-39 ' 15-8 12-6 14-4 . 12-5 A priori, it is to be expected that the rural population will show the characteristics of an indigenous race, and that the figures for the towns will show traces of immigration. A comparison of Tables Nos. 31 and 32 with those for the various races shows that this is the case for the males, but the higher percentage of females at ages 20-29 which is found among the Indian Tamils, who are the most numerous immigrant race, is not shown in the urban figures. This difference indicates that the immigration into the towns consists largely of males, as we know already from the higher figures of urban masculinity referred to in the preceding chapter (see page 8). Incidentally, it may be noted that the urban and rural proportions for 1911 and 1921 are in much closer agreement than might be expected. Quinquennial Groups and Single Ages.—In the preceding pages, we have been using the decennial grouping as the most convenient. The returns by single ages are in too great detail for reference here, but they will be found in the tables in Volume IV. in which the detailed figures are given. The quin quennial grouping for the total population and for the Sinhalese and the Indian Tamils, as representing respectively an indigenous and immigrant race, are given in the next table. Details for the various races by districts will be found in Volume IV. TABLE No. 33.—Age Distribution of a Hundred Persons of the Total Population, Sinhalese, and Indian Tamils by Sex and Quinquennial Groups, 1911 and 1921. Age Period. A 5-9. 10-14. 15-19. 20-24. 25-29. 30-34. 35-39. 40-44. 45-49. 50-54. •55-59. 60 and 0-4. Over. 10 11 12 13 5 (> r 8 Total Population. —Persons. 36 33 1911 14- .137 .12-4 9-5 .. 9-7 .. 7 4 .. 62 V 32 1921 .128 .12-3 9-8 .. 9-4 .. 7 2 .. 66 3-9 Males. 2-4 4-6 1911 3.14-4 ..13-3 .12 5 8-2 8-9 9-5 .. 7-6 6-9 39 30 25 4-7 1921 fr.13-8 ..123 .124 9-0 9-3 9-2 .. 7-3 73 43 3-0 Females. 16 39 1911 i.15-3 ..143 .12-2 8-7 .10- 9-8 .. 7-2 53 3-2 .. 36 1-7 4-0 1921 *-.14-9 ..133 .122 9-4 .10' 9-5 .. 71 5-8 4-7 35 .. 35 Sinhalese.- -Persons. 2-2 4-7 1911 1.16-0 .150 ..127 7-7 8-8 .. 8-8 6-9 .. 5-8 45 35 . 35 2-2 4-7 1921 8%15*1 .137 ..127 9-1 9-6 .. 8-5 . 65 .. 61 4-6 38 .. 33 Males. 2-6 5Vl 1911 S.15-8 .14-7 .12-9 7-3 31 8-6 .. 6-9 6-4 4-5 39 31 30 2-7 51 1921 ' Females. 40 1-7 43 1911 "..161 ..15-3 .12-4 8-2 .. 9-4 91 .. 68 50 4-6 1-7 4-2 192KV.15-4 ..140 .124 9-5 ..103 8-7 .. 6-5 5-5 4-6 37 Indian Tamils.—Persons. 1-3 1-8 1911 U 9-6 7-2 .111 .11-3 ..134 ..14-7 ..102 .. 8-2 6-3 34 2-4 2-4 1-4 2-1 1921! £12-4 91 .10-4 . 8-9 ..111 ..13-9 ..105 .. 8-9 5-2 37 Males. 2-1 1911 1$ 8-4 64 .10-3 .11-9 .12-6 .14-5 ..10-6 . 93 5-8 39 2-6 2-3 1921 »Srll-0 8-1 . 9-7 . 9-3 .10-9 .13-4 ..107 .10-2 5-8 4-3 26 Females. •9 1911 '7.11-3 .. 8-3 ..121 ..10-5 ..14-5 ..15-1 .. 9'5V. 67 .. 47 .. 2"9 .. 2-2 1-2 1921 1&714-0 .10-4 ..11-3 .. 83 ..11-3 ..14-5 ..10 4 .. 72 .. 4-5 .. 3-0 1. 2-2 Witjhregard to the total population, the decrease at the Census of 1921 of the proportion at ages 0-9 has alreadybeen noted. From the above table, it will be seen that a decrease occurred both at ages 0-4 and 5-9 for both males and females. Decreases also occurred at ages 10-14 (males), 25-29 and 30-34 (both sexes). On the whole, the differenced are less than might have been expected, and it is possible that the quinquennial groups give results which are sufficiently accurate for practical purposes, although, as already mentioned, the errors on the ten-yearly groups are likely to be proportionately less. The variations are due to the interaction of the birth- and death-rates, to the flow of migration, or to mis-statements of age. 29-22 26 CHAPTER II.—AGE. The figures for the Sinhalese bear a general resemblance to those for the total population, as was to bo expected'from the fact that they form two-thirds of the population. They are little affected by migration, so that the variations are due to tlie fluctuation of the birth- and death-rates, or to varying errors in the statement of ago. With regard to the Indian Tamils, considerable increases occurred at ages under 10, partly owing to increasing settlement of the labour forces on estates. The decreases between ages 10 and 20 may be due to migration, but, as already mentioned, it is a matter of great difficulty, if not impossible, to sift out the actual causes in operation. If we consider the figures for either Census, the Sinhalese, like other indigenous races, show a decrease at each group with the important exception of the increase of females 20=24-and -50-54 -at both - Censuses, and minor increases of males at 20-24 at both Censuses, at 25-29 in 1911 and at 35-39 in 1921. The comparatively low proportions at ages 15-19 are noticeable and might be partly explained in the case of females by the onset of puerperal diseases. But the fall in the case of males cannot be so explained, and the fact requires further investigation. At both Censuses, the Indian Tamils, like other immigrant races, showed high proportions at the younger adult ages. School-going Age.—In Ceylon the school-going age now generally extends from 6 to 14 for males and 6 to 12 for females. But in the cases of Tamil or Muhammadan girls, or the children (boys and girls) of labourers employed on the estates the school-going age is 6 to 10. The numbers at these : in Ceylon and among the'various races are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 34.—Number of Children of School-going Age* of each Sex, by Race, 1921. Total Ceylon. Estates, Ceylon. , V- Race. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 All Races 503,311 .. 376,062 . . 471,409 343,709 31,902 32,353 Low-country Sinhalese 233,181 .. 181,254 . 229,604 178,785 Kandyan Sinhalese 3,577 2,469 135,720 . . 105,505 . 133,702 103,963 Ceylon Tamils 2,018 1,542 59,050 .. 33,485 . . 58,948 33,395 Indian Tamils £ 102 90 33,201 .. 30,589 . 7,876 3,273 Ceylon Moors 25,325 27,316 31.931 .. 19,456 . 31.774 V 19,287 157 169 Indian Mod's 3,444 -> .. 928 . 3,232 690 212 238 Europeans 265 . . 266 . 217 193 48 73 Burgh?.rs and Eurasians ¥ 3,273 2.540 . 3,104 2,422 169 Malays 127 1,540 . . 984 . 1,462 862 78 Veddas iV 122 592 . . 496 . 592 496 Others i.i 1,114 .. 550 . 898 343 216 207 The distribution of the figures by districts is shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 35.—Number of Children of School-going Age* by Districts 1921. Total. JJon-Estatos. Estates. District. Males. Females. Jlales. Fomalos. Moles. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ceylon 7 .'• 503,311 376,062 471,409 343,709 31,902 32,353. Coiomoo Municipality 25,326 15,182 25,326 15,162 Colombo District (excluding Municipality) •?. 81,885 66,632 80,926 65,716 Kalutara ... ^ £ 959 916 37,037 28,682 34,924 Kandy Municipality ^1 26,681 2,113 2,001 4,206 2,476 4,170 2,443 Kandy District (excluding 36 33 Municipality) P. 40,936 33,296 32,343 24,272 Matale .. .2 8,593 9,024 11,701 9,465 9,859 7,482 Nuwara Eliya \ 1,842 1,983 13,063 11,285 7,284 5,245 Galle Municipality 3. 5,779 6,040 5,088 3,482 5,088 3,482 Galle (excluding Municipality//? 33,283 26,384 32,432 25,715 Matara 851 669 :30,330 22,852 30,006 22,574 ii 324 278 Hambantota . 14,552 10,432 14,547 10,429 ii 5 3 Jaffna 37,247 21,041 37,243 21,038 it 4 3 Mannar 2,741 1,514 2,741 )i" 1,514 Mullaittivu 1,982 1,150 1,974 1,149 }b 8 1 Batticaloa 19,990 13,011 19,938 12,974 52 37 Trincomalee . J 7 3,804 2,165 3,799 2,160 5 5 Kurunegala . 41,426 31,065 40,382 30,176 1,044 Puttalam >$ 3,840 2,409 3,805 2,381 35 Chilaw 12,441 9,461 12,175 9,262 28 266 Anuradhapura 10,511 7,614 10,463 7,579 199 48 Badulla i> 23,740 17,926 19,182 13,117 35 4,558 Ratnapura 19,834 15,673 17,399 13,267 4,809 2,435 Kegalla' 28,294 22,877 25,349 19,883 2 t06 - 2,945 Miscellaneous j 54 8 54 8 2,994 TO InfancJS an?!?1 ChMM^ i^T °f f "fS^ ^ deflnflB the "natural ^ groups » to be imancy ana i), umidnood (2 to 13 inclusive , Adolescence (14 to 20 inclusive) Earlv adult lite ,21 tn 44 inclusive), Mature age (45 to 64 inclusive), Old age (65 and over). In t.a^^&i^^O^, See text for the ago limits for tho various races. t Persons enumerated iu Trains and in tho Basses \ DIAGRAM 55 5-5 22 22 PoputATKH BEL°W EACH HOB| P°PULATI°« BBLP^EACHHSB 50 eo — HLL RACES1 5-0 20 CBV1,«>?T, 1921. 0 5W45 8O 85 8O354O4550SS6O 65 90 75 8O8SM9540O 400* 0 5 « « CO 85 30 35 40 45 30 35 60 65 70 75 SO 85 90 95 *0 -W0 A> Over Over it ho Swavev D#frG»yloa Stab'ttzcal Department. /Vote :— r/te smaZZ horezontaZ offsets from the curves mark the C6 a • 19 approximate position of the median and cfctariiles. SECTION 2.—SOME OF THE RESULTS. 27 some of these groups should be somewhat reduced in view of the earlier maturity of both males and females, and the age distribution for a suggested grouping by natural age groups is given for the males and females of the total population and for each of the more important races in the following table :— TABLE No. 36.—Distribution by Natural Ages of a Hundred Persons of the Population of each Sex by Race in Ceylon, 1921. Under 1. 1-12. 13-18. 19-29. 30-50. 51 and Over, A A A A f " v Race. Males. Females. Males. Females, Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 . 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 AU Races 26 2- 8 ..32 1 . .34- 1 Y1V5" 7.-20^^5-6 .:23^7" 4" Low-country Sin halese . V 2-7 2 *8 . .34" 0 ..34- 5 .11-2 .11-8 ..18-6 ..19-8 ..23-8 . .23-4 . 9 7 .. 7-6 Kandyan Sinha lese 3 2-7 o • 9 . .35 7 ..37 4 .11-3 .120 ..18-7 . .20 '3 ..23-3 . .21-7 . 8 3 .. 6-6 Ceylon Tamils .i 23 2 3 ..30 7 ..30 8 .12-8 ..12-5 ..181 -.19-9 ..267 ..259 . 9 4 .. 8-6 Indian Tamils .X 2 3 1 . .23 4 ..29 2 .11-4 .107 ..25 4 ..26-8 . .32-9 -.26-8 . 4 6 .. 34 Ceylon Moors 2 2" 9 . .35 4 ..36 0 .11-4 .12-6 ..18-8 ..20-4 ..24-2 ..22-5 . 7 4 .. 5-6 Indian Moors 7> 2 8 . .13 3 ..30 9 .138 .103 ..285 ..211 . .351 ..28-1 . 8 5 .. 6-8 Europeans &. 2 2 7 . .13 0 ..18 1 . 2-7 . 46 ..210 ..211 ..49-4 ..42-0 .11- 9" . .11-4 Burghers and Eurasians A 3" 1 ..31 2 ..29 5 .129 ..132 ..18-6 ..21-5 ..24-6 ..23-4 . 9 7 .. 9-3 Malays .'0 3 9 ..32 9 ..35 2 .10-8 ..14-8 ..188 ..20-4 ..252 ..19-8 . 9 1 .. 69 Veddas !'. 2 9 . .40 0 ..38 5 . .10-0 ..11-7 . .176 ..24-4 ..24-0 ..192 . 6 0 .. 3-2 Others >.V 4 5 .. 8 4 ..29 8 .. 94 ..109 . .42-4 ..27-6 ..34-7 ..23-2 . 4 2 .. 3 9 Child-bearing Age.—Of the various other possible classifications by age, the only other which may be mentioned is that of the child-bearing age of females. In European countries, the limits of this period are usually put at 15-45, but there seems to be little doubt that these limits are too high for Ceylon, a range of 15-39 being probably about the most suitable. The proportions were given in Table No. 30 in Part I. which is reproduced here for ease of reference. TABLE No. 37.—The Proportion of Females Aged 15-39 to 1,000 of the Total Population by Race since 1901. Race. 1901. 1911. 1921. , • 1 2 3 4 5 194 199 ; i* All Races 206 Low-country Sinhalese 199 184 194 Kandyan Sinhalese 206 185 190 f207" Ceylon Tamils . . 221 222 220 Indian Tamils ran I 231 Ceylon Moors f200< 191 179 187 Indian Moors ra 1 88 Europeans 213 211 215' Burghers and Eurasians 213 221 220 Malays 187 185 200 Veddas 202 209 212 34 Others 117 128 90 Road Tax.—The following table is of interest from the light it throws upon the Census figures and the collection of road tax :— TABLE No. 38.—Males 18-54 (inclusive) exclusive of Estate Labourers. Estate Males Total Males Number of Males (18-54) (18-54) (18-64) exclusive Persons paying District. exclusive of exclusive of of Indian Direct Tax Estates. Indian Labourers according to Labourers. on Estates. Blue Book, 1921. 2 3 4 5 Ceylon .' 991~,635 . 21,575 .. 1,013,210 965,401 Colombo (excluding Municipality) > 154,768 . 1,596 156,364 . 155,449 Colombo Municipality .» 92,399 . 92,399 . 94,513 Kalutara . <» 63,440 . 2,01—8 65,458 . 63,496 . *• 56,125 . 3,769 59,894 . Kandy (excluding Municipality) 71,169 Kandy Municipality . t> 9,439 . 63 9,502 . Matale . 1 21,813 . 795 22,608 . 19,138 Nuwara Eliya . £ 16,213 . 2,230 18,443 18,194 . % 50,679 . 1,470 52,149 Galle (excluding Municipality) 61,690 Galle Municipality.. . >o 7,938 . 7,938 Matara . it 47,517 . 351 47,868 50,848 Hambantota . >i 30,008 . 74 30,082 27,814 Jaffna . i/s 75,240 . 6 75,246 72,342 Mannar . "> 8,950 . — 8,950 7,512 Mullaittivu . M- 6,160 . 1 6,161 6,006 Batticaloa . ,4 35,935 ~. 7 35,942 35,148 Trincomaleo . 17 9,604 . 49 9.653 9,400 Kurunegala . ,{. 101,162 . 2,566 103,728 90,770 Puttalam . ,e 12,647 . 272 12,919 10,739 Chilaw . ie> 27,565 . 718 28,283 27,292 Anuradhapura . j, 31,041 . 475 31.516 26,864 Badulla .. 22 37,239 1,443 • 38,682 33.365 Ratnapura .. ,j 41,880 2,006 43,886 33,027 Kegalla iif 53,349 1,666 55,015 50,625 /0O Miscellaneous* .. 5 i 524 — 524 — Note.—The differences are very considerable in many cases and are due to mis-statement of age, exceptions on the ground of sickness, &c. * IVisons enumerated in Trains and in the Busses. 28 CHAPTER II.—AGE. Population below each Age.—It is sometimes convenient to know the number of persons below each age, and the information is shown for the Island population and for each race in Table No. 39 and in Diagrams Nos. 7 and 8 facing page 26 and Nos. 9 and 10 facing this page. TABLE No. 39.—Population below each Quinquennial Age, by Race, 1921 (exclusive of the Military and Shipping). Low- Burghers Age Kandyan Ceylon Indian Ceylon Indian Euro and All Races. country Others. Period. Sinhalese. Tamils. Tamils. Moors. Moors. peans. Eura Malays. Veddas. Sinhalese. sians. 7t 10 -42- 13 ! X ' 0- 4 643,481 280,228 174,942 65,305 74,446 38,071 1,763 792 3,910 2,010 719 1,283 0- 9 1,218,325 540,278 327,384 126,424 129,506 74,440 3,785] 1,269] 7,500 3,979 1,458 2,236 0- 14 1,771,380 781,583 467,730 193,023 192,154 105,924 7;.l79] 1,503 11,138} 5,577 2,028 3,547 0- 19 2.185,153 950,919 568,329 242,747 245,624| 129,903! 10,708 1,792 14,249] 6,965 2,437 6,480 0- 24 2,020,720 1,142,642 672,757 289,213 312,352 154,721 14,858] 2,396 17,143 8,258 2,882 9,504 0- 29 3,047,380 1,304,033 767,208 334,618 396,324 170,405 19,201 3,413 19,509] 9,355 3,320 13,880 0- 34 3,372,075 1,432,464| 835,092 371,315 459,786 193,837 22,688 4,595 21,023 10,217 3,624 16,834 0- 39 3,069,310 1,550,281 901,306! 406,643 513,279 209,090 25,748 5,615 23,498 11,042 3,864 18,944 0- 44 3,880,189 1,641,094 949,327 435,070 644,745' 221,0X1 27,874 6,419 24,92S| 11,591 4,055| 20,072 0- 49 'A 4,002,843 1,715,943 990,118 459,403 567,290 230,171 29,450 7,057 26,281 12,123 4,211 20,796 0- 54 4,207,728 1,783,130 1,023,901 478,381 581,816 237,098 30,616 7,464 27,248 12,535 4,325] 21,208 0- 69 »i| 4,302,581 1,827,569 1,046,552 490,996| 690,377 241,335 31,370 7,722! 28,016 12,786 4,374] 21,485 0- 64 l£ 4,390,601 1,870,880 1,066,408! 502,570 597,031 245,978 32,074 7,897! 28,594 13,040 4,433 21,690 0- 69»*| 4,430,845 1,891,327 1,074,440! 508,592 699,658 247,997 32,425 8,005] 28,958 13,187 4,460 21,790 1 32,682 . 0- 74 fe 4,463,508 1,908,437 1,081,8211 512,786 601,230! 249.748 8,063 29,203 13,277 4,474 21,847 32,833 0-79 «R 4,479,973 1,917,740 1,084,623! 515,021 601,958 250,070 8,093 29,352 13,323] 4,486 21,874 32,956 \^ 0- 84 H 4,491,905 1,923,814 l,087,504j 516,522 602,453 251,441 8,107 29,411 13,307 4,498 21,892 32,996 21,900 c\ 0- 89 !$. 4,495,514 1,925,549 l,088,286i 517,029] 602,607 251,714 8,113] 29,431 13,386 4,503 33,0181 4,508| 21,904 'N. 0- 94 lf!> 4,497,601 1,920,570 1,088,837; 517,262 602,685 251,884 8,114! 29,434| 13,395 33,024 4,509 21,904 0- 99*1? 4,498,318 1,926,926 1,089,036 517,314 602,725 251,926 8,115' 29,439 13,400 0-100 and Up wards*^. 4,498,541 1,927,055 1,089,095 517,324 602.731J 251,938] 33,020 8,115! 29,439 13,402 4,610 21,906 The Mean Age.—The mean age is the total of the ages of all the members of the population divided by the number of persons. It is shown for males, females, and total persons for Ceylon and each of the races in the following table—the unsmoothed figures being used for the determination :— <>v ? TABLE No. 40.—Mean Age for each Race, by Sex, 1911 and 1921. 191 1. 1921. A A Race. f Males. Females. t ~ Males. Females. Persons. Persons. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 All Races i 23 4 . • 24 0 .. 22 8 .. 23 8 . • 24 4 .. 23 1 Low-country Sinhalese X 23 4 . 23 8 .. 23 0 . 23 9 . . 24 3 .. 23 •5 Kandyan Sinhalese 3 22 6 . . 23 1 .. 21 9 . 22 6 . . 23 3 .. 21 •8 Ceylon Tamils.. ?. 23 9 . . 24 1 . . 23 7 . 25 1 . . 25 3 .. 24 •9 !> Indian Tamils. . v * 24 7 . . 25 7 . . 23 2 . 24 3 . . 25 5 .. 22 •9 Ceylon Moors .. b 22 2 . . 22 6 .. 21 6 . 22 8 . . 23 3 . . 22 •2 Indian Moors .. .7 28 4 . 29 1 .. 25 9 . 28 6 . . 29 6 .. 24 •7 Europeans 8 30 6 . 32 2 .. 29 0 . 31 9 . . 32 9 .. 30 •5 Burghers and Eurasians 23 7 . . 23 9 .. 23 5 . 24 5 . . 24 5 .. 24 •5 16 Malays 22 7 . . 24- 3 . . 20 9 . 23 0 . . 24 4 . . 21 •4 n Veddas 21 2 . 22- 0 .. 20 4 . 21 3 . . 22 2 .. 20 •3 Others 26 7 . 28 0 .. 22 7 . 27 1 . 28 2 .. 22 •0 The Median Ago.—The median age is that age which is so situated that there are as many persons above that age as below it. The "lower quartile" is such that one-quarter of the population is below it, and three-quarters above ; and the " upper quartile " is such that three-quarters of the population is below it, and one-quarter above. The determination of these ages was made graphically from the diagrams of the population below each age facing page 26 and this page, and the results are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 41.—Median Age, and Lower and Upper Quartiles, by Race, Ceylon, 1921. Lower Median, Upper Race. Quartile. Quartile. 1 2 3 4 All Races— Males 8-6 . . 20 4 .. 35-2 Females v 7-8 . . 19 1 32-7 Total 8-2 . . 19 7 .. 34-0 Low-country Sinhalese 7-9 .. 19 2 . . 34-6 Kandyan Sinhalese ? 7-2 17 8 . . 327 Ceylon Tamils I. 92 . . 20 7 . . 36-4 Indian Tamils *\ 107 .. 23 2 . . 33 4 Ceylon Moors 6 7-4 18 2 . . 32-6 Indian Moors 155 .. 25 9 . . 37-4 Europeans 210 .. 31 7 41-9 Burghers and Eurasians' |) 8-7 .. 20 8 .. 35-2 Malays . ( ^ 7-4 .. 18 0 . . 330 Veddas 6-8 .. JL 16 8 .. 30-0 Others 190 .. 25 7 .. 334 i * Excluding the persons of unspecified agos, viz: 2 Low-country Sinhalese, 2 Kandyan Sinlialoso, 4 Indian Tamils, ' Europeans, and 63 Others. SECTION 3.—THE CONNECTED THEORY. 29 For comparison it may be noted that the lower quartile, median, and upper quartile for England in 1911 were 12, 25 -8, and 42 ; for France in 1906, 14 -3, 30, 48 -8 ; for Germany in 1910, 10 -8, 23 -5, 40 -8. Comparedj with these, the figures in the above table are low for the indigenous races, which are younger than the European races owing to the birth- and death-rates being higher. The immigrant races in the above table show higher figures owing to the immigration of adults. Unspecified Ages.—The total number of persons whose ages were unspecified amounted to 64 (57 males and 7 females). These have been omitted from the preceding tables. Centenarians.—223 persons—110 males and 113 females—were returned at the Census of 1921 as aged 100 or oyer. In 1911 the number of centenarians was 248—128 males and 120 females. "In iif'Zl the centeMrianswere distributedas follows:— TABLE No. 42. -The Number of Centenarians by Districts, 1921. Females. District. Males Females. District. Males. 3 1 2 3 1 2 9 Ceylon .». 110 .. 113 Matara District .. .. 11 4 Hambantota District ..' * 6 6 4 Colombo Municipality . ?• Jaffna District .. ..'33 Colombo District (excluding Muni Mannar District .. . .>u — cipality) .;. 26 .. 28 | Mullaittivu District . .ii —- Kalutara District .*t 10 .. 15. I Batticaloa District 2 Kandy Municipality . if 1 .. 2 I Trineomalee District . . IJ — Kaady District (excluding Munici Kurunegala District . . '8 10 pality) - .'. . t> 12 .. r> Puttalam District 2 Matale District J. . .7 2 .. 1 Chilaw District .. .. 7 e 3 3 4 Nuwara Eliya District .. 8 — . . 1 Anuradhapura District .. >f 1 Galle Municipality .. <^ — .. 3 Badulla District ..>.2 4 l Galle District (excluding Munici Ratnapura District . 4 13 7 pality) .JO 5 .. 0 Kegalla District .. • • 2 I TABLE No. 43.—The Number of Centenarians by Race, 1921. Females. ! Bace. Persons. Males. ! i 2 3 4 All Races 1 223 110 113 77 Low-country Sinhalese > 129 52 Kandyan Sinhalese a 59 37 .. 22 Ceylon Tamils .. • * These diagrams and the basis of the above summary are taken, with the kind permission of Mr. James W. Glover, from the " United States Life Tables, 1800, 1901, 1910, and 1901-1910," published by the Bureau of the Census, Washington, 1921, which gives a verv full account of the theory of age distribution and of the compilation of life tables. Knibbs' " Census of Australia, 191l"," gives a different diagram (Vol. I., Appendix A, page 157), while others can be made by varying the data selected for the axes. 30 CHAPTER II.—AGE. The Representation of the collected Statistics.—The number of births registered in any period, say, 1881-1890, when corrected to allow for the differences between the dates of the events and the dates of their registration, are represented by the number of life lines which start from ZY in Diagram No. 11. The Census returns show the number of the living at a given date, that is, the number of life lines which reach any diagonal, such as BC, which would be the position of the wave front of the population, as it were, on January 1, 1921. It is clear from Diagram No. 11 that in a non-migratory population the number of persons aged 30-39 on January 1, 1921 (that is, the number of life lines starting from ZY which reach DE) is equal to the number of births in 1881-1890 less the deaths among these individuals which took place between January 1,1881, and Janaury 1,1921. The proportion to the total population on January 1, 1921, of those living at ages 30-39, therefore, depends upon the ratio of the births in 1881- 1890 and of the number of deaths just mentioned to_the^±otal4)opulationin4921-rand-this-againTlcpends " on thebirth-rate prevailing in 1881-1890, the rate of growth of the total population, and on the survival ratio* of the 1881-1890 generation. Similarly, from Diagram No. 12, it is clear that the number of the population aged less than 1 year on January 1, 1915, if there is no migration, is equal to the number of life lines which started from CD less the number which stopped in the area CGD, that is, equal to the births in 1914 less the deaths in 1914 of children born in that year. The Practical Difficulty.—A relation would thus appear to be established between the birth and death registration and the Census returns, but there is the difficulty in practice that the deaths in such areas as CGD in Diagram No. 12 are not recorded, the registration giving the deaths, say, of persons aged less than 1 in 1914, which is the number of life lines ending in CDGH, whereas what is wanted is the number ending in CGD. Similarly, the number of lines ending in ZYDE in Diagram No. 11 is not available from the death registration which gives the number ending in the diagonal areas. The difficulty could be overcome if we could calculate the proportion of the deaths in area CHG (Diagram No. 12) to those in CGD for ages less than 5 and assume that this is unity for older ages, and if we knew the deaths by single years of age. Space and time only permit a brief reference to one important instance, namely, the ages under 5 in Ceylon. The High Figures in Ceylon at Ages 2 to 4.—It is generally supposed that a normal popul ation should show decreasing numbers at each age group in ascending order, but it can be easily seen that this is only the case when the variations of the annual numbers of births and deaths do not exceed certain limits. But in Ceylon, as can be seen from Table No. 12 in Part I., page 12, the numbers of births and deaths show considerable variations from year to year, even in years other than those of the influenza epidemic, apparently depending to some extent on the prevalence of malaria ; and a comparison with the figures for the chief European countries shows that the fluctuations there are considerably less. Without going into the details of corrections necessary for an exact statement, it is clear, from the age diagram, that the population aged 1-2 in 1921, drawn from the births in the adjusted yearf of 1919-1920, would be lowered by the low birth-rate in 1919-1920J. On the other hand, the population aged 2-3 was derived from a large number of births, which might have counteracted the result of one year's additional risk and the very high death-rate and infant mortality of 1918-1919. The population aged 3-4 was drawn from the adjusted year which showed the maximum birth-rate (1917-1918), and, though liable to two years' additional risk, was subject to a much lower infant mortality, and would suffer less from the high death-rates of 1918 and 1919. Conditions similar to those in some respects occurred at the end of the decade 1901-1910, and a priori, we might, therefore, expect that the regular decrease of the numbers at each age might be interrupted by the Ceylon conditions. The anomaly may, of course, be due, to a considerable extent, to mis-statement of ages, and we may look into the figures, in more detail,- for the indications of this. The Calculations.—Some considerable assumptions are necessary before any progress can be made. The chief of these are that 80 per cent, of the deaths under one year which occur in any year are those of children born in the year ; that 60 per cent, of deaths between 1 and 2 years of age which occur in any year are those of children born in the previous year ; that 55 per cent, of the deaths between 2 and 3 which occur in any year are those of children born in the last year but one; that the corresponding proportions for children 3-4 and 4-5 a re 53 per cent., and for other ages 50. Some allowance has also to be made for mis-statement of age, both in the Census returns and in the registration of deaths. If this is done for adjoining ages only, and arbitrary values are assigned to some of the errors, the balancing equations obtained from the age diagram give the following as one set of calculated figures for Sinhalese females.§ TABLE No. 44.—Actual and Calculated Figures of the Sinhalese Female Population Aged 0-5 in 1921. Ago * Actual Calculated Group. Figures. Figures. Total . . 0-5 . . > . . 221,382 . . 221,392 0-1 ..V .. 40,659 48,457 1-2 •••}> - • 37,382 . . 40,356 2-3 ..H 48,000 . . 44,316 3-4 . . r 49,615 . . 47,104 4-5 ..^ .. 45.726 .. 41.159 * The term " survival ratio " may be used conveniently for the expression 1—k, where k is the ratio, to the number of those born in a certain epoch, of the deaths among these individuals in o certein time. For a non-migratory race, the formula for the proportion to the total population in 1921 of survivors at ages 30-39 is ^i_»o (/-/.-Bi_»oJ/£aiX where B is the number of births and P the population, the suffixes denoting the years referred to. t That is, the 12 months following MarchlS, 1919, the Census having been taken on March 18, 1921. In the calculations, April 1 of one year to Marcli 31 of the yoar following was taken as the " adjusted year," as the error will bo small, and it was convenient to calculate by quarters. t Some of tho Total Figures for Ceylon are givon below :— Adjusted Total Total Deaths of Infants Year. «... i- tfmlm. Deaths. Under One Year. 32,731 30,355 19MM920 181,210 1I7'792 40,289 1920 1Q2? 160,422 • 151'273 31,534 1KAI-I9.21 167 24(i rn 4f"i SO. 965 § They wero selected as being least subject to migration. ' ' Aoe in Years Time axis Sfatisttca.1 JHsp&rtment CHAP. III.-KJONJ. CONDITION. SEC. 1—THE BASIS OF THE FIGURES, &o. 31 * From thisiit would appear, as was suggested in the last paragraph, that the high figures at 2-3 and 3-4 were not caused altogether by mis-statement of age, but were partly due to the fluctuations of the birth- and! death-rates. If the calculated figures are nearer the facts than the recorded data, it would seem that yhere was a considerable understatement of infants aged 0-1, probably resulting from children nearly 1 year of age being returned as 1. If the difference were wrongly returned as 1-2, some children aged 1-2 may have been returned as 2-3, and so on. It will be seen that the calculated total for ages 0-5 differs little from the recorded figures, so that it is not necessary in this set of calculations to suppose that considerable numbers of children were omitted altogether from the Census. As such omissions appear to occur in England and other countries, it is to be presumed that they occur in Ceylon to a "gfeateirestent thW~is~indicated in Table No r~44. But it is to be noted that the enumeration of the indigenous races in Ceylon is carried out by village headmen and others who combine an intimate knowledge of the population in their charge with a special training in the requirements of the Census, and it is not impossible that the omission of children of young ages is smaller than it is in England, although the mis-statement of ages may be greater. The study of the errors of age statement can be greatly extended on the above and other lines, and is worthy of further attention. Time has not permitted of full investigation of the possibility of the construction of reasonably reliable life tables for Ceylon, but they form an important part of the subject. A certain amount of work was done in this connection during the preparation of this Report, and it is hoped that it will be carried farther at a later date. ; '; CHAPTER III.—CONJUGAL CONDITION. SECTION 1.—THE BASIS OF THE FIGURES AND EARLY MARRIAGES. Definition.—The term " conjugal condition " denotes the condition of being unmarried, married, widowed, or divorced. General Importance of the Statistics.—The importance of the statistics of conjugal condition hardly requires to be emphasized. The proportion of married persons in a population has clearly a direct bearing on the'birth-rate, and, consequently, on the rate of increase of the population. The estab lishment of the family has an important sociological significance, while the marriage-rate in many countries still responds readily] to fluctuations of prices and other changes in the social and economic conditions. Understatement of the Ceylon Figures.—Before using the statistics given'for conjugal condition, it is essential to realize that the conditions in a tropical country differ very greatly from those in most European countries. I Statistically, the chief point is that a much larger number of marriages are un registered in Ceylon than, say, in England. As the Census enumerators tend to enter the parties to unregistered marriages as " unmarried," the result is that the number of married persons in Ceylon is probably considerably understated. It is difficult to estimate the amount of the understatement, but there seems to be reason to suppose that, at least in the case of the females of the Eastern races, the proportion of the married to the total is much higher than that shown in the returns. The maximum value of the ratio of married, widowed, and divorced females to the total females over 15 years of age is 100 per cent, (universal marriage), and the minimum is that given by the tables 46, 48, and 49 (76 *2 per cent.). The correct figure probably lies nearer to the former than to the latter, but it is not possible. to estimate the difference with any accuracy. All that we know is that the unmarried or childless woman is regarded as an anomaly by most of the Eastern races in Ceylon, and is often debarred from taking part in social functions, such as weddings ; while it appears to be a fairly general custom that marriage should take place at an early age. " Old bachelors and old maids " according to Davy's state ment * " are rarely to be seen amongst the Sinhalese (that is Kandyans); almost every man marries, and marries young." On the whole, it would appear to be likely that an estimate of universal marriage' among females of the Eastern races over 15 years of age is not further from the facts than the reported figures. It is probable that the married males are also understated though to a less extent, but this error is of less consequence than in the case of females, as the birth-rate is directly dependent upon the latter. In what follows " unmarried " means " reported as unmarried," &c. The Reported Figures.—The first step in the examination of the reported figures is the elimination of the effect on the figures of the varying numbers of children, which cause fluctuations in the proportions of the unmarried unrehvted to the real question under discussion; and we must first examine the pro-' portions of married among persons under, say, 15 years of age.' This age is that given in most countries as the lower limit of the child-bearing period, but it is possibly somewhat too high for the Eastern races in Ceylon, and certainly! too low for the Europeans. But there is no decisive evidence on the point, and, in general, the figures will probably not be affected to a significant extent by a small increase or decrease in the limit suggested. Conjugal Condition for Young Ages,—The following tablet shows the number of married, and of widowed or divorced among children aged under 10 and under 15 :— TABLE No. 45.—Conjugal Condition of Persons Aged 0-14 in Ceylon, 1911 and 1921. Persons. Males?' Females. —* \ r— V 1911. 1921 1911. 1921. 1911. x 1921 Conjugal Under Under Undor- —Under Under Under Condition. , t— s/, \ 10 15, 10 15 10 16 10 15 10 15 10 16 1 .> 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 \ Married 110 5,402 . .121 3,777 3 187 .. 12 98 . 107 5,215 . . 109 3,679 Widowed or Divorced .1 18 227 . . 12 156 . '. — 17 .. — 5 . . 18 * 210 12 151 Total - 128 5.629 133 3,933 3 204 12 103 125 6,425 121 3,830 * •• Interior of Co/ioii "j(lbiii), pa«o zm. The statement is still applicable in the main, especially among the lower classes. ! t Tiiis and all other tables in this Chapter oxclude the Military and Shipping. 32 CHAPTER III.—CONJUGAL CONDITION. From this table we see at once that the proportion of the married, widowed, or divorced, at the ages given is practically negligible, and that, in the discussion of conjugal condition, ages under 15 can be omitted without causing an error of as much as 2 per 1,000, while, at the same time, in excluding the immature part of the population, we are eliminating a disturbing factor in the investigation. Some Incidental Remarks regarding the Young Ages.—Before proceeding, we may note, some what incidentally, that child marriages are much less common in Ceylon than they are in India. There, in 1911, 22 males in every 1,000 under 10 and 156 in every 1,000 under 15 were married, and 7 in every 1,000 between 10-15 were widowed ; the Ceylon figures in 1921 for the married were 2 and 10 in every 100,000 under 10 and under 15, respectivelj', while 2 in every 100,000 between 10 and 15 were widowed. Of-the females, inlndia,. 58 .in. every 1,000 under jo were married and 3 widowed, the Ceylon figures being 2 in 10,000 married and 2 in 100,000 widowed. For"ages 10-15,"~423 females~nrevery 1^)00 were married in the case of India, and 18 widowed, the Ceylon figures for 1921 being 14 in every 1,000 for the married and 5 in every 10,000 for the widowed. Although the figures for Ceylon may be somewhat understated, it seems that child-marriage in Ceylon is negligible as compared with that in India. It will be seen that the number of males in Ceylon married under the age of 10 shows an increase from 3 in 1911 to 12 in 1921. All these 12 were Ceylon Moors under 10 returned from Batticaloa District. Of the 109 females under 10 returned as married, 92 were Ceylon Moors and 13 Ceylon Tamils, all in Batticaloa District, while the remaining 4 included 3 Indian Tamils in Kalutara District and 1 Ceylon Tamil in Ratnapura District. Most of the cases of marriage under 15 thus occur in Batticaloa District, but it is reported that it cannot now be said, as formerly, that child-marriage is the rule in this District, while the old view, that it was a reproach if daughters were unmarried at 10 years of age, is said to have disappeared. SECTION 2.—DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY CONJUGAL CONDITION. The Conjugal Condition of Adults.—Turning how to case of persons aged 15 and over, we find that the proportions for the various races as reported are those shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 46.—Proportion of the Unmarried, the Married, and the Widowed or Divorced of each Race and Sex to a Thousand Persons of that Race and Sex, Ceylon, 1911 and 1921, (excluding Persons under 15.) 1911. Widowed or Divorced. Unmarried. Married. f. i — Females. Females. Males. Females. Males. Males. Race. 7 3 4 5 6 1 2 602 54 176 412 222 534 All Races 49 16S 288 501 544 Low-country Sinhalese 450 66 179 214 537 607 397 68 214 Kandyan Sinhalese 145 606 642 326 46 134 Ceylon Tamils 165 529 701 425 45 243 Indian Tamils 80 624 676 331 33 224 Ceylon Moors 117 610 659 358 23 69 Indian Moors 417 386 514 591 54 134 Europeans 392 493 474 453 52 198 Burghers and Eurasians 125 565 677 383 46 122 Malays 173 598 705 356 29 164 Veddas 194 642 553 418 Others 11- 1921. A 12 13 9 10 11 58 179 238 516 583 427 166 All Races 476 528 51 474 306 177 Low-country Sinhalese 495 570 72 433 252 226 Kandyan Sinhalese 629 75 334 145 591 158 Ceylon Tamils 704 53 390 138 558 239 Indian Tamils 670 48 346 90 606 213 Ceylon Moors 701 29 355 86 616 74 652 24 Indian Moors .. 484 375 492 134 475 52 Europeans 448 391 499 179 662 54 Burghers and Eurasians 378 150 569 148 53 Malays 310 157 638 696 143 22 Veddas li 512 142 466 715 Others These figures are subject to very considerable errors on account of the understatement of the married which has been referred to already, but it is impossible to determine the extent of the error involved, and we can only make a somewhat vague allowance for the fact in any inferences we may attempt to draw from the data. , .„ The Proportions of the Unmarried by Races.—If, for simplicity, we confine our attention to the proportions of the unmarried, we find from Table No. 46 that " Others," Europeans, Low-country Sinhalese, Burghers and Eurasians, and Kandyans all show over 40 per cent, of unmarried males in 1921 (sec also Diagram No. 13 facing this page). The high figure of 51 per cent, for " Others " may be due either to overstatement of the unmarried, or to the immigrant character of the races which fall under this head. The European figure of 48 per cent, is probably nearly correct; the Burgher and Eurasian 45 may be somewhat high, while the Sinhalese figures are possibly considerably overstated, especially in the case of the Kandyans. The Indian Tamil figure might be expected to' be somewhat higher than some of the others owing to the immigration, but it is likely.that the indigenous races should all show fairly low proportions. With regard to the proportions of unmarried females, which clearly have an inverse relation to the birth-rate, we find that, in 1921, the Burghers and Eurasians, and the Europeans, 5><«> JR&ces I3Rspsr-tisja IPer *T?*axTSAMr> 600 All 12 aces Alters licrojoe&jis l*ngA*ryjfJ5aanas£&r*s Cancfrr&jn Sinhalese "ladiaja H&unils \falatfs ?ee/£ora -Tamils teddas iZZ J?ac*s Serr&AersjfEZirasians *Sexropeans Outdpsun Sinhalese tfa/aps teddas - \eyZon SStmi/s Vhers 7hdi goo SOO SOO 600 y • io • *». SECTION 2.—DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY CONJUGAL CONDITION. 33 show the highest figures. 39 per cent, in the case of the former is perhaps an overstatement, but the European 37 per cent, should be nearly correct. These high percentages, as compared with the other races, constitute one reason for their lower birth-rates. The Low-country Sinhalese figure of 31 per cent, is probably overstated, while the Kandyan figure of 25 per cent, is probably much too high, and the Malay birth-rate would indicate that the proportion of 16 per cent, was somewhat overstated. The Tamil proportions may also be somewhat high, and it is possible that all the Eastern races should all show proportions nearer the Moorish 9 per cent., though even that may be over-rated. The relative errors of overstatement cannot be assumed to be the same for each race, and it is not possible definitely, to rank _the figures in what might be their proper order, though it is certain that the proportion of unmarried among the European females is much greliteYT;h^~among the Eastern l^ces7 and is "probably "higher" than that for the Burghers and Eurasians. Fertility Ratios.—The fertility ratio may be defined as the ratio of the number of births to 1,000 married females of reproductive age, unregistered marriages being included. We have already seen that the Census of Ceylon understates the denominator of this ratio, but all we know is that its value is greater than the Census figures and less than the total number of females at the reproductive ages, say 15-39. If we take the mean of the Census figures in 1911 and 1921, we get the following values of the fertility ratio for the various races, in the order of the approximate mean crude birth-rates, the minimum value being that given by dividing the number of births (1911-1920) by the mean number of females aged 15-39, and the maximum value being obtained by dividing by the mean number of married females aged 15-39, as returned at the Census. TABLE No. 47.—Fertility Ratio for various Races in Ceylon. Approximate Mean Crude Fertility Ratio. Race. Birth-rate, , ^ 1911-1920. Maximum. Minimum. 1 2 3 4 308-4 .. 230-2 Malays •• ( 433 . Sinhalese . . "V- 39 6 . 354-6 .. 209-1 Moors .. i 35-8 . 248-6 .. 1939 33-4 . 223-3 .. 164-8 Tamils •• Y Burghers and Eurasians .. i* 33 3 . 318-5 .. 150-1 144-8 Veddas* • •b 30-5 . 191-8 .. Europeans .. 22-5 . 1900 .. 104-7 Estates .. 8 38-9t . 214-4 .. 158 4 The wide range of values of the fertility ratio makes it difficult to draw any conclusions. The European maximum figure is likely to be the least erroneous, but the age group has to be corrected to, say, 20-44, the fertility ratio then being 163, which is probably not very inaccurate. Proportions of the Unmarried for different Censuses.—The proportions of unmarried males and females for the various races at successive Censuses are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 48.—Proportion of the Unmarried Aged 15 and over to 1,000 of the Total Population of those Ages by Race, 1901-1921. Males. Females. .A. i— r Race. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 All Races , s 393 . 412 .- 427 .. 213 . 222 .. 238 Low-country Sinhalese 443 . 450 .. 474 .. 285 . 288 .. 306 Kandyan Sinhalese % 374 . . 397 .. 433 .. 210 . 214 .. 252 Tamils 364 . 384 .. 367 .. 136 . 155 .. 142 Ceylon Tamils — 326 .. 334 .. — 145 .. 145 Indian Tamils — . 425 .. 390 . — 165 .. 138 Moors 292 . 337 .. 348 .. 64 . 83 .. 90 Ceylon Moors .. « — . . 331 346 .. — 80 .. 90 Indian Moors .. — 358 .. 355 .. — 117 .. 86 Europeans 586 . . 591 .. 484 .. 410 . . 417 .. 375 Burghers and Eurasians 441 . 453 .. 448 .. 358 . . 392 .. 391 Malays 331 . 383 .. 378 .. 80 . .125 .. 159 Veddas 401 . 356 .. 310 .. 296 . 173 .. 157 Others 455 . . 553 .. 512 . 116 . 194 .. 142 The total population shows an increase in the proportions of unmarried at each Census, but it is not possible to say whether this is due to a change of definition, or is really indicative of some restriction of marriage. The same feature is present in the cases of the Sinhalese, the Ceylon Tamils, and the Ceylon Moors, but is not found among the other races. The fall in the case of European males was due to a decrease of the unmarried, especially at ages 20-29, and an increase of the married chiefly at ages 40-49 (see page 12, paragraph headed " Europeans by Age Groups "). * 1914-1920. t Probably overstated. 29-22 34 CHAPTER III.—CONJUGAL CONDITION. Conjugal Condition by Age Groups.—The following table shows the proportions of unmarried, &c.. at the decennial age groups. The proportions at the quinquennial age groups are illustrated in Diagram No. 14 facing next page. TABLE No. 49.—Conjugal Condition of every Thousand Persons of each Race by Age and Sex in Ceylon, 1921. Unmarried. Marriod. Widowed or Divorced. _A — Males. Females. Ages. Males. Females. 3 4 1 2 > All Races. •1 All Ages (15 and over) ..) 426-7 237-7 515 •5 583 3 57-8 .179 0 0-14 ..-x 999-9 995-5 1 4-3 •01 2 15-19 ..i 985-3 720-9 14 •3 271-2 •4 7 9 20-29 . 646-1 237-7 341 •6 717-5 12-3 44 8 30-39 .A 223-8 107-1 733 •8 754-4 42-4 138 4 40-49 ..b 1260 81-8 790 •5 610-6 83-5 307 6 50-59 99-3 68-5 762 •7 448-9 1380 482 6 60 and over .. R 93-4 614 654 • 2 215-4 252-4 723. 2 Low-country Sinhalese. All Ages (15 and over) 473- 7 .. 3062 .. 475-7 .. 527-6 .. 50-6 .. 1662 0-14 ,000- 0 . . 999-4 .. • 005.. •5 .. — 01 15-19 995- 3 . . 864-3 .. 4-5 .. 132-4 .. • 1 33 20-29 748- 7 . . 334-3 .. 244-2 .. 634-3 .. 7-1 31-4 30-39 . 286- 7 . . 148-4 .. 682-2 .. 741-1 .. 311 110-5 40-49 775-9 .. 6330 .. 634 253-8 • -t 160- 7 . . 1132 .. 50-59 122- 6 . . 94-5 .. 766-1 .. 473-6 .. 111-3 431-9 • -1 60 and over 111- 6 .. 82-4 660-3 .. 223-0 .. 228-1 .. 694-6 •s Kandyan Sinhalese. All Ages (15 and 433- 1 2525 .. 494-5 .. 570-2 . . 72-4 .. 177-3 over) .'., 999- 98 .. 998-0 .. •02 .. 1-9 • 1 0-14 •x — 984- 6 .. 689-6 .. 14-8 .. 302-5 .. •6 7-9- 15-19 •I 598- 9 . . 2549 .. 383-8 .. 694-2 .. 17-3 50-9 20-29 •*+ 249- 4 . . 134-8 .. 695-8 716-7 .. 54-S .. 148-5 30-39 • r 163- 6 . . 89-6 726-0 .. 598-6 .. 1104 3I1-S 40-49 • b 123- 8 . . 61-2 702-2 452-5 .. 1740 .. 486-3 50-59 111- 2 .. 51 0 .. 602 -5 214-1 28G-3 .. 734-9 60 and over Ceylon Tamils All Ages (15 and over) 333- 7 145-0 590 9 .. 629-1 75-4 .. 225-9 4 0-14 • • i 999 9 . . 992-6 • 1 7-2 . . — - 2 15-19 • •% 981 7 . . 613 7 17-9 .. 376-2 .. •4 101 20-29 •-•J 544 1 112-7 . 440-3 .. 832-0 .. 15f> 55-3 30-39 • -t 105 3 . . 32-6 . 8463 .. 799-9 .. 48-4 .. 167-4 40-49 ••< 46 1 29-6 853-3 .. 6059 .. 100-6 .. 364 4 50-59 • -b 36 8 . . 26-3 . 793-7 .. 421-5 .. 1695 .. 552-2 60 and over • ") 33 4 .. 26-4 . 647-5 197-8 .. 3191 775-8 Indian Tamils • •£ All Ages (15 and 52-6 .. over) • -i 389-9 .. 138-5 . 557-5 .. 703-6 .. 157-9 0-14 • -v 999 •4 . . 992 0 . •57 .. 7-7 •03 .. •3 15-19 •1 968 •0 .. 559-3 313 .. 431-5 .. •7 92 15-9 .. 51-8 20-29 • -4 576 1 1136 . 408-0 .. 834-6 .. 777-2 .. 795:4 .. 52-3 .. 153-1 30-39 •C 170 •5 . 51-5 . 40-49 77 •o . 367 . 824-1 .. 590-2 *.. 98-9 . 373-1 50-59 • •<, 56 •3 . 23-9 . 784-8 .. 382-4 .. 158-9 . 593-7 •••> 62 •7 31-6 . . 681-1 248-6 .. 256-2 . 719-8 60 and over •? Ceylon Moors. HiL All Ages (15 and over) 346 •4 . 90-4 . 606 0 . 670-1 47-6 . 239-5 0-14 999 •49 . 967-9 . •47 . 30-7 .. •04 . 1-4 15-19 972 •4 . 351-5 . 26 6 . 615-9 .. 10 . 32-6 20-29 536 •6 . 60-7 . 448-6 860-9 . 14-8 . 78-4 30-39 :.i 107 •0 . 19-0 . 856-7 . 768-0 . 36-3 . 212-9 40-49 :':% 40 •6 . 13-6 . 898-6 . 535-3 . 60-8 . 451-1 50-59 •• l 27 •5 . 10:0 . 866-3 . 368-2 . 106-1 621-8 214-5 . 60 and over • • s 30 •4 . 14-5 . 755-1 . 153 6 . 831-9 Indian Moors. All Ages (15 and over) • 1 355 0 . 85-9 . 616 0 . 701-3 .. 29 0 . 212 8 102 .. 7 0-14 • T- 999 6 . 989-8 . 4 . — — 15-19 • 3 973 0 . 394-.3 . 27 0 . 598-1 . — 7 6 20-29 • f 541 4 . 66-8 . 450 2 870-1 . 8 4 63 1 30-39 . X 118 4 . 312 . 861 1 817-4 . 20 5 . 151 4 40-49 •t 45 8 . 33-5 . 913 5 . 610-2 . 40 6 . 356 2 50-59 • 1 36 1 17-5 . 887 8 . 393-6 . 76 1 . 58S 9 301-5 . 157 0 . 686 o 60 and over •§ 33 8 . 12-3 . 809 2 . DlAQR AAX. JT°-I4• PhoP°HTI°« «="K UNMARRIED, A^ARRIED, ~VKd°WED or DlV«BCED IM <000 °F THE T°TAL i\£ ALES °R FEMALES AT EACH G$TJIM<3"QE71MIAL rlGE-GR°UP, CEyLPA, d9Cl. UNMARRIED, /A.ARHIEJD, WiD«wKD °r Divrced. FEMALES 4000 4-00 600 800 4000 5ll Hoes O-4 3-9 JO-S4 23-29 30-34 35-3$ 45-49 3o-34 55-33 Phota Lit*ho Survey OepK* Ceylon »••«•»» I SECTION 2. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY CONJUGAL CONDITION. 35 Table No. 49—continued. Unmarried. Married. Widowed or Divorced. , A . Males. Females. Ages. Males. Females. Males. Females, 3 4 5 6 7 1 <3' Europeans. Op All Ages (15 and I over) 484-2 374 6 491-9 551-6 23-8 73-8 0=14 — ^ -1,000-0- -1,000M>- 15-19 986 2 916-7 138 83-3 ••3 3*3 99 20-29 808-5 418-7 188-2 571-4 •if 13-8 269 30-39 438-9 301i-6 647-3 671-5 •f 320-7 691-8 603 4 26-2 759 40-49 - 282-0 • b 66-1 184 3 50-59 253-7 396 • 1 690-2 4196 438-5 60 and over 339 8 262-0 640-6 299-6 119-6 Burghers and Eurasians.. All Ages (15 and OPf I 1 448-3 3915 . 499-4 . 474*7 . 62-3 . 133 8 over_\) .• I At 0-14 \ 1000-0 999-5 . — •5 . — — 15-19 993 3 911-2 . 60 . 85-1 . •7 . 37 20-29 704 3 455 2 . 286-6 . 622-1 . 91 . 22-7 30-39 240-4 214-6 . 723-4 . 709-6 . 36-2 . 75-8 40-49 134-4 167-9 . 794-9 . 624-7 . 70-7 . 207 4 50-59 78-2 163-1 . 811-8 . 495 3 . 1100 . 341-6 60 and over 94-3 138-8 . 656-0 . 221-8 . 249-7 . 639-4 Malays. All Ages (If over) it 377-6 . 159-2 . 568-7 . 661-5 . 53-7 . 179 3 '0 0-14 -a-1000-0 . 992-5 . — 6-4 . — 1 1 15-19 3 975-8 . 578-9 . 24-2 . 401-6 . — 19 5 20-29 V 627-2 . 93-4 . 360-9 . 858-2 . 21-8 . 48 4 30-39 164-6 . 16-8 . 803-6 . 855-9 . 31-9 . 127 3 40-49 • 6. 67-9 . 7-2 . 870-3 . 660-3 . 618 . . 332 5 50-59 . 1 45-8 . 18-5 . 837 2 . 433-3 . 1170 . 548 1 60 and over .Si 32-8 . — 743-2 . 208-0 . 224-0 . 792 0 Veddas. All Ages (15 and over) 309-6 156-7 . 637-9 . 695-7 . 52-5 .. 147 6 1000-0 981-4 . 18-6 . 0-14 v — — .. — 15-19 V 941-5 371-0 . 58-5 . 624-4 . — . . 4 5 20-29 399-0 148-9 . 585-5 . 792-8 . 15-6 .. 58 3 30-39 104-9 67-0 . 859-0 . 803-3 . 36-1 .. 129 7 40-49 80-2 66-7 . 830-2 . 577-8 . 89-6 .. 355 5 50-59 83-3 44-8 . 812-5 . . 432-8 . 1042 .. 522 4 60 and over 78-7 106-4 . 685-4 . 170-2 . 235-9 .. 723 4 The errors in this table are likely to be greater than those in Tables Nos. 46 and 48, as a further element of uncertainty has been introduced by the age grouping, owing to the possible mis-statement of ages. But the use of decennial groups for ages over 19 should minimize this error, and it is possible that the additional error may not be large. But the figures cannot be used with any great degree of confidence, though they may possibly bring out some of the salient features of the distributions correctly enough. The table is given for general reference only, and it is not proposed to examine here all the points in it, though it may be noted that, in the case of the males, the Europeans show the highest proportions of unmarried at nearly all ages ; that the Ceylon Tamils, Moors, and Malays show low proportions of unmarried at ages 50 and over, and that, in almost every case, female marriage appears to be earlier and more universal than in the case of the males. The comparative proportions of unmarried females may be examined in more detail. Proportions of Unmarried Females at various Ages.—The figures are given for 1921 and 1911 in the following two tables :—• TABLE No. 50. -Proportion of Unmarried Females per 1,000 of Total Females at the various Age Groups, 1921. Ages. f All Ages 60 and Race. 15 and over. 15-19. 20-29. 30-39. 40-49. 50-59. over. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 All Races 238 721 . 238 . 107 . 82 .. 68 61 Low-country Sinhalese 306 .. 864 . 334 . 148 . 113 .. 95 82 Kandyan Sinhalese ?> 253 .. 690 . 255 . 135 . 90 .. 61 51 Ceylon Tamils .. 145 . . 614 . 113 . 33 . 30 .. 26 26 Indian Tamils 138 .. 559 . 114 . 51 . 37 .. 24 32 Ceylon Moors 90 .. 351 . 61 . 19 . 14 .. 10 15 Indian Moors 9? 86 .. 394 . 67 . 31 . 34 .. 17 12 Europeans 375 .. 917 . 419 . 302 . 321 .. 396 262 Burghers and Eurasians 391 .. 911 . . 455 215 . 168 .. 163 139 Malays 159 .. 579 . 93 . 17 . 7 .. 19 — Veddas .'( 157 .. 371 . 149 . 67 . 67 .. 45 106 36 CHAPTER III.—CONJUGAL CONDITION. TABLE No. 51.—Proportion of Unmarried Females per 1,000 of Total Females at the various Age Groups, 1911. Ages. 00 and All Ages 50-59. 15-19. 20-29. 30-39. 40-49. over. Race. 15 and over. 8 3 4 5 0 7 1 • ! 2 214 .. 113 . 92 .. 80 74 All Races 1 t>\.. 222 .. 666 . 164 . 138 . . 116 104 Low-country Sinhalese ^ ox.. 288 . . 809 .. 300 86 . . 65 58 214 . . 640 .. 212 117 . Kandyan Sinhalese ...^ OJ .. 34 . . 25 26 145 --588 _ _ 11.7_ 39 - Ceylon-Tamils:. .. v (pif .. 63 ". 47 34 — .. - 40 165 '.- 544 : 136 Indian Tamils aC - • 18 . . 18 17 80 .. 296 . 52 29 . Ceylon Moors .. ot • • 51— . . 16 18 117 . . 343 . 177 29 . Indian Moors .. o? .. 273 258 417 . . 963 . 504 310 . 363 S. Europeans .. &lr .. 132 120 392 . . 914 . 436 195 . . i 159 .. Burghers and Eurasians ay .. 16 36 125 .. 462 . 72 28 . Malays .. to • • 140 54 . 51 110 45 173 4S5 7 VeddasS . .. /. /i . . * . „ . . According to the figures the Ceylon and. Indian Moors in 1921 show the nearest approach to universal marriage, chiefly on account of the large proportion married under 30. The Burghers and Eurasians, and the Europeans, are at the other end of the scale for all ages as a result of the postponement of marriage. The Malay figures are remarkable in that they show universal marriage at ages 60 and over, while the Tamil proportions at the older ages show that marriage is very extensive. The Sinhalese figures, especially those for the Kandyans, are probably considerably overstated. If we compare the 1911 and 1921 figures, we find that the Eastern races, with the exception of the Indian Tamils and Indian Moors, show a general tendency towards an increase in the proportions of unmarried females in 1921, while the Europeans show a marked fall, and the Burghers and Eurasians aslight^Tecrease. The smaller differences may be due to errors of description, but the European fall is certainly significant, being due largely to increases in the number of married females * aged 35-39, 25-29, 40-44, and 45-49, and to increasing immigration of European women (see page 13). The fall in the case of Indian Tamils is also probably significant, and indicates increasing settlement of Tamil women on the estates. A similar explanation may apply to Indian Moors. It is not certain whether the increased proportions of Low-country Sinhalese and Kandyans are significant, but, if they are, some support would be given to the indication of a falling Sinhalese birth-rate (see Part I., page 198). The Malay birth-rate does not show a fall in sympathy with the increase of unmarried females, and it is not known whether the increase in the case of the Ceylon Moors is significant or not. In 1911 all the Malay women aged 40-49 were reported as married, and, as they would not marry after that age, all the women aged 50-59 in 1921 should have been married. But the returns show that 18-5 per 1,000 were unmarried, and that all a.L ages CO and over were married. There has thus been either mis-statement of age or of conjugal condition of the Malay women in 1911 or 1921. Comparison with India.—For purposes of comparison with Table No. 49 a statement of proportions of married, &c., at the decennial age groups for India in 1911, is shown below :— TABLE No. 52.—Conjugal Condition of a Thousand Persons of each Sex at each Age Group in India in 1911 Males. Fomalcs. - -A . .__ Widowed. Unmarried. Widowed. Age Group. Unmarried. Married. Married. 4 6 7 1 2 3 6 54 344 173 All Ages. 490 456 483 985 . 14 1 0- 5 02 . 993 7 1 891 . 105 4 5-10 OJ 962 37 129 5 554 431 15 10-15 OH- 866 13 800 37 15-20 of 665 322 687 37 33 885 82 20-30 O'D 276 857 64 16 784 200 30-40 '"1 79 110 12 572 416 40-50 47 843 181 11 351 638 50-60 39 780 660 302 12 158 830 60 and over 10 38 A comparison of the age groups 15-19, ZU-za, «o., in huh vauic »»«; ^ °<*"» g^-i- - —— No 49 indicates that marriage in India is both earlier and much more universal than it is in Ceylon, but it is doubtful to what extent the understatement of the Ceylon figures will affect any comparison made. The larger proportion of widows in India is probably significant, being ascribable to the prohibition of widow re-marriage there. Comparison with England.—The same particulars for England in 1911 are given in the following table TABLE No 53.—Conjugal Condition of a Thousand Persons of each Sex at each Age Group in England and Wales, 1911. Males. Females. Widowed. Unmarried. Married. Widowed. Age Group. Unmarried. Married. 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 506 .. 104 All Ages 15 and over.?! 403 545 . 52 .. 390 \. 12 .. 15-20 ,9V 998 . 2 . 988 .. 242 —1 20-25 .91 857 . 142 . 1 ' . . 757", 13 25-35 . In spite of differences in the age grouping, these figures show great differences from the tables for India and Ceylon especially as regards the late and restricted marriage of females. The Widowed and Divorced.—All the Ceylon figures show a much larger proportion of widowed and divorced among females than among the males, the main reasons being that the women generally marry at earlier ages than the men, and are thus not only more likely to be widowed, but may have a small chance of re-marriage. In 1921, 10*7 per cent, of the total female population was returned as widowed or divorced as compared with 10*3 in 1911, while the figures for males are 3*6 and 3*2. The numbers of widowed and divorced show an increase for both sexes of all races, except the Indian Moors, European and Burgher males, and Malay females,. __The proportions in India in 1911-of-widowed- and divorcetTfemales was 18 per cent., while the figure for England and Wales was 7 per cent. The Widowed.—The separate figures for the widowed and divorced are not shown in Table No. IX. in Volume IV., but the numbers of the divorced were taken out, and, if these are deducted from the total of widowed and divorced, the following figures are obtained :— TABLE No. 54.—Proportion of the Widowed in 1,000 Males and 1,000 Females of the various Races, 1921 (Ages under 15 excluded). Race. Males. Females. 2 3 All Races 566 1769 Low-country Sinhalese .°.5- 50-2 165-6 Kandyan Sinhalese 70-3 174-8 Ceylon Tamils 74-8 225 0 Indian Tamils 50-7 1541 Ceylon Moors 44-5 229- 7 Indian Moors 284 2111 Europeans 22-0 730 Burghers and Eurasians 51-5 1335 Malays .10 523 176-6 Veddas \y 50-9 Others 146-8 22*3 142-3 The practice of early marriage would tend to produce a high proportion of widowed especially among females, and, in Ceylon, the proportion of widowed males over 14 to 1,000 males is 57, the figure for females being 177. In England, in 1911, the figures were 52 for males and 104 for females, while, »in 1911, in India, where the practice of infant marriage is more common than in Ceylon, and the prohi bition of re-marriage of widows is more strict, the proportions were 88 and 276. With regard to the various races, the highest proportion of widows was found among the Ceylon Moors, the next in order^ being the Ceylon Tamils, then the Indian Moors, Malays, Kandyan Sinhalese, Low-country Sinhalese, Indian Tamils, Veddas, " Others," Burghers and Eurasians, and Europeans ; the order being somewhat similar to the probable rank of the races in respect of early marriage. The Divorced.—The proportion of persons over 15 returned as divorced to the total married over that age is shown for the various races and the two sexes in the following table:— TABLE No. 55.—Proportion of Divorced Aged 15 and over in a 1,000 Married Persons of those Ages among each Sex and Race, 1921. Proportion per 1,000. 1 •—• Race. *- s Males. Females. 1 2 3 All Races 2-3 35 Low-country Sinhalese . OA •9 Kandyan Sinhalese.. 1-2 • o? 4-2 Ceylon Tamils 4-4 10 Indian Tamils • °v 1-4 . os; 3-4 Ceylon Moors 54 1 . ofc 51 Indian Moors .. 14-5 •8 Europeans . 07 2-4 • Q£ 3-6 Burghers and Eurasians 1-3 - O Cj 16 Malays •4 • • a> 2-5 Veddas 4-2 • IV 2-5 1-2 Others - • ,v * * But Magar or compensation lias to be paid to the wife by the husband (see Registrar-General's Report on Vital Statistics, Ceylon, 1915, page L 5, and Census of Ceylon, 1901, Vol. I., page 111., paragraphs 14 and 15). 38 CHAPTER III.-€ONJUGAL CONDITION. The Provinces and Districts.—Space does not permit of any extensive examination of the variations of the proportions in the various revenue divisions. The distribution of males and females aged 15 and over in the Provinces is shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 56.—Proportions of the Unmarried, Married, Widowed, or Divorced, Aged 15 and over in a 1,000 Persons of those Ages, of each Sex in Ceylon and its Provinces, 1921. Unmarried. Married. Widowed or Divorced. r i Province. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ceylon .. u 427 . 238 .. 515 . . 583 . . 58 . 179 Western . >- 461 . 282 .. 492 .. 555 .. 47 . 163 Central .3 401 194 .. 644 .. 640 .. 55 . 166 Southern .> 456 . 326 .. 492 .. 498 .. 52 . 176 Northern ST 305 . 147 .. 609 .. 629 .. 86 . 224 Eastern ..V 332 . 97 .. 622 .. 626 .. 46 . . 277 North-Western • •T 440 219 .. 481 592 .. 79 . 189 North-Central .& 410 . . 174 .. 516 .. 635 .. 74 . 191 Uva • •7 419 . . 217 .. 536 .. 619 .. 45 . 164 Sabaragamuwa .f0 457 . 236 .. 483 .. 607 .. 60 . 157 fee As an example of the effect of immigration on the statistics of conjugal conditions a table for Colombo Municipality is given below :— TABLE No. 57.—Proportions of the Unmarried, Married, and Widowed, or Divorced, Aged 15 and over in 1,000 Persons of those Ages, of each Sex and Race, 1921, in the Colombo Municipality. Unmarried. Married. Widowed or Divorced. -K t ^ t •\ A \ Race. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AH Races Pi 480-5 259-4 .. 485-1 568-0 . 34-4 172-6 Low-country Sinhalese ©. 547-0 321-7 414-1 499-1 38-9 179-2 Kandyan Sinhalese 610-5 389-6 .. 362-0 468 0 . 27-5 142-4 Ceylon Tamils Race. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 All Races ..i .. 426-61 176-5 383-07 14551 Indian Tamils .h .. 410-67 167-42 356 17 134-58 Europeans .i .. 682-03 362-22 544-51 252-30 The fall of the figures in 1921 was very considerable, and it will be seen, by comparison with columns 2 and 8 of Table No. 46, that the proportion of unmarried among the males of the estate population was greater than the Island figure in 1911, but less in 1921; a comparison of the columns 3 and 9 shows that the proportion of the unmarried among the estate females was less than the Island figure at both Censuses, being due to their increasing settlement. The fall of the proportions of unmarried Europeans is very marked. Mean Age at Marriage.—According to the Registrar-General's returns, the average mean age at marriage among Kandyan males in the decade 1901-1910 was 26 -7 years, and in 1911-1920, 26 -6 years. For Kandyan females the figures for the two decades were 20-1 and 19-7. For males, other than Kandyans and Muhammadans, the figures for the two decades were 27 "3 and 27- 2, and for females 20 "9 and 20 "6. These figures apply to the registered marriages only, and probably overstate the mean age of all marriages. SECTION 3.—SOME MARRIAGE CUSTOMS.* In connection with the above statistics, brief mention may be made of some of the characteristic features of a few of the marriage laws and customs of the various races. With regard to the law, it may be noted that there are three distinct systems of marriage law in Ceylon, viz.. (1) the Kandyan Law (Ordinance No. 13 of 1859) which cmbodie*s, in a considerable degree, the ancient marriage laws and customs of the Sinhalese, and is now codified in Ordinance No. 3 of 1870 ; (2) the Muhammadan Law (Ordinance No. 8 of 1886) ; and (3) the " General Law " (Ordinance No. 19 of 1907). * 1 am obligod to my Head Clerk, Mr. M. It. Peiris, for investigating this subject, and to Gate Mudaliyar, W. F. Oimjvuardliana for information regarding it. SECTION 3.—SOME MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. 39 The Kandyan Law.—Prior to 1859 the Kandyans had no written laws, and marriage was contracted according to customary rites. Ordinance No. 13 of 1859 made registration essential to the validity of a marriage, and the practices of polyandry and polygamy, which were prevalent at the time, were declared illegal and punishable. But many of the Kandyans are still indifferent to registration, and often do not continue the formalities beyond the giving of notice of marriage to the Registrar. Under the pressure of the Government Agents, there is occasionally a rise in the number of registered marriages, which is often followed, when the pressure is relaxed, by the normal state of indifference. Thus, the returns of the numbers of Kandyan marriages may give little indication of the true marriage rates. There-ase-two-kinds-of-marriages-among-Kandyans,- viz:,- (1) diga,~hy which uprl" becomes a member of her husband's family, thereby losing all claim upon her ancestral property, except for maintenance, if she becomes destitute; (2) bina, where the husband enters the wife's family and is dependent on her and her parents. He is liable to be turned out of the house at short notice, and the wife may take another husband more agreeable to her or to the rest of the family. Hence the Kandyan saying that a bina husband should not remove any property to his wife's house except a torch and a walking-stick, as with these he may at any time find his way elsewhere. The Muhammadan Law.—Ordinance No. 8 of 1886 is only partially codified, and provides for the registration of marriages of persons professing the Muhammadan faith in the Island. As registration is not essential to the validity of Muhammadan marriages, many of them are- contracted according to religion or custom and escape registration. Thus, the returns of the Muhammadan marriages are not a reliable index of the true marriage rate. The General Marriage Law.—This is the statutory and customary law applicable to Low-country Sinhalese, Tamils, Burghers, Eurasians, Europeans, and all races and communities other than the Kandyans and Muhammadans. Registration is not indispensable to the validity of a marriage, but is taken advantage of by the better classes of the Sinhalese and Tamils and by the Europeans and Burghers. The solemnization of Christian marriages is usually performed by a minister in church upon a Registrar's certificate that all preliminary conditions required by law have been complied with. Non-Christian marriages are solemnized by the Registrar himself, excepting that in the case of the Hindus, who regard marriage as a religious and sacred rite, the marriage ceremony must be performed by a Brahamin priest, irrespective of civil registration. There are probably many omissions to register marriages especially among the Tamils. Polyandry.—The practice of a woman having several husbands is a survival from a primitive state of society, of which traces have been found in many countries.* It appears to have prevailed to a great extent among the Sinhalese from very early times. The custom was not confined to any caste or class, the Sinhalese chronicles making mention of cases of polyandry even in the royal family. Thus, for instance, Raja Sinha and Vijaya Bahu, two " uterine " brothers, are said to have " cohabited with the same woman " and to have" had three princes born to them " (circa 1500 A.C, Rdjavaliya, Sinhalese text, p. 52). At what precise period the custom came into vogue, it is difficult to say. But the facts (1) that polyandry as prevalent in Ceylon is not of the " Nayar," but of the " Tibetan " fcyPe! t (2) that it prevailed not merely among the Kandyans, but also among the Low-country Sinhalese during the times of the Portuguese,! the Dutch, and the British,§ and (3) that the savage Veddas of Ceylon are strictly monogamous, seem to point to the conclusion that it was brought by the Sinhalese from their original home in India.|| The custom is now undoubtedly dying out. Various more or less fanciful explanations of the custom in Ceylon have been given from time to time, such as (1) the paucity of females, (2) the undesirability of the division of property, (3) the communal system of agriculture, (4) the exigencies of the King's service (Rajakariya), (5) the necessary absence of men to watch cultivated fields and chenas for long periods, &c, but it is possible to say little more than that it was a probable "survival of a primitive state of society."^ Polygamy.—A plurality of wives is not opposed to either Buddhism or Hinduism, and is not iUegal,in India. Among the Buddhists and Hindus in Ceylon, though not commonly prevalent at any time, it existed during early days.** A very common reason for polygamous marriages was the failure * See Census of Ceylon, 1901, Vol. I., p. 108, paragraph 7, and cf. Hayloy's Laws and Customs of the Sinhalese, p. 170, &c. t The " Nayar " type is the matriarchal kind where the husbands need not be related to each other ; the "Tibetan'' is the fraternal kind where the husbands are all brothers or possibly cousins on the father's side—the latter kind being a transitional stage from the former to monandry. J"The prevalence of polyandry in Portuguese times is shown by an episode narrated by Fernao de Queyroz in his Conquista de Ceylad, p. 70, viz.,' The Ouvidor (Magistrate) Bento da Silva has left recorded that there appeared before him a Sinhalese woman who had seven husbands (all brothers).' This was between 1598 and 1612a.d."—(Revdfc Fr. S. G. Perera, S.J., Galle.) * |" In the early days of the British occupation of the Kandyan territory, Sirr mentions a case (see Ceylon and the Cingalese, Vol. II., p. 162) where a Kandyan matron was the joint wife of eight husbands, the full contingent of brothers in the family."—(Gate Mudaliyar Gunawardhana.) || From the well-known allusion in the Mahabharata to the Pandava brothers and their common wife Draupadi it is clear that the custom was prevalent among the Northern tribes in India. " At the present day it is extremely rare in Northern India ; and it exists naked and unshamed only in the Himalayan border land. Amongst the Tibetans and Bhotias, when the eldest of several brothers marries a woman he takes her to live in the family house, and she is regarded as the common wife of them all ; "—(E. A. Gait, I.C.S., Census of India 1911, Vol. I., Parti., p. 239, paragraph 291.) It is also possible that the custom may have been adopted from that prevalent among the early Dravjdians. " In Southern India polyandry is still a recognized institution amongst the Todas and Kurumbas of the Nilgiris and a few low castes, chiefly on the Malabar Coast. At the present time the polyandry of the Todas is usually of the fraternal type ; " [Gait op. cit. p. 241, paragraph 294. Cf. also Sturrock's South Canara (Madras District Manual), Madras Government Press, 1894, Vol. I., p. 55.] " The system of polyandry among the Todas of tho Nilgiris may in its essential features be regarded as the same as that among the Sinhalese, tho two differing only in slight local variations [cf. Primitive Folk (International Scionce Series) pp. 194-198.1"—(Gate Mudaliyar Gunawardhana.) i| Havloy, loe. cit. ••"Diodorus Siculus, who wrote about the beginning of the Christian era, relates in his " Account of the Inhabitants of Ceylon," that the inhabitants of this Island had a community of wives; that they regarded their children as a common stock without any feelings of parental preference ; and that tlie children wero interchanged in their infancy, 80 that even their mothers could not recognize their own."—Frank H. Modder, Papers on the Customs of Polyandry a/> practiced in Ceylon (1899), p. 15. 40 CHAPTER III.—CONJUGAL CONDITION. of the first wife to bear a son, or her affliction with some incurable disease or infirmity. In such cases the first wife might often solicit her husband to take a second wife or in any case freely accord him permission to do so, in order to prevent the extinction of the family. It is possible that in many cases inability to dower a girl adequately, or the difficulty of finding a suitable husband within the caste, may have led to polygamous marriages. Another cause may have been the desire to prevent a sub division of property, one man marrying all the sisters in the family. Polygamy, however, has disappeared as a social institution in Ceylon, except among the Muhammadans, whose religion and law allow a man four wives at a time, though in practice the number is usually less. Both among the educated and the less wealthy Muhammadans monogamy may be said to be very general. The custom of fraternal polyandry (i.e., several brothers having the same wife) and the corresponding form of polygamy (several sisters being the wives to the same man) may have given rise to the existing terms of relationship in the social system of the Sinhalese. These terms have a very much wider application than those in the European social system. Thus, whereas in European kinship of the present day the term " father," denotes one's male parent alone, in the Sinhalese system of relationship the corresponding term with suitable epithets is used for the male parent, the male parent's brothers, &c. Similarly, the terms " mother," " brother," " sister," " son," " daughter," are applied to very much wider classes of persons among the Sinhalese than among the.Europeans. Whatever conflict there may be among sociologists regarding the origin of the system of kinship, and the connection between its nomenclature and the practices of polyandry and polygamy, it cannot be denied that the system itself is a guide to the early history of social institutions in general and to early forms of marriage in particular. For instance, in the case of two brothers who were associated husbands, the children of the joint alliance, who were considered the progeny of both the brothers, individually and collectively, called the elder brother " big father " (<§ The figures show that divorce is very common amongst the Kandyans, and that there has been an increase in the proportion, due, no doubt, to the facilities for divorce afforded by the Kandyan Marriage Ordinance, while there has been a decrease of about 2,500 in the number of registered Kandyan marriages as compared with the previous decade. This decrease is ascribed to the fact that the number of marriages registered among the Kandyans fluctuates in proportion to the pressure brought to bear by those in authority. Thus, as many as 10,801 Kandyan marriages were registered in 1895, nearly 16,000 in 1899, and 11,274 in 1900. In these cases registration had been secured of the marriages of a large number of couples who had been living as husbands and wives according to Kandyan custom. * For further details sco article by J. P. Lewis, " On the terms of Relationship in Sinhalese and Tamil," published in the Orientalist, Vol. I., pp. 217-223 ; Vol. II., pp. 04-09. f See Addendum facing page 1. SECTION 3.—SOME MARRIAGE CUSTOMS. . 41 '''But the rise in 1915 has a different significance ; according to the Registrar-General,* it was due to the fact that an extraordinarily large number of unions had been hurriedly contracted, in consequence of a rumour current in most of the villages that all unmarried men would be impressed for service in the Great European War. While the annual average percentage of Kandyan divorces has risen by only 1 '3 in the present decade, it is interesting to note that the annual average percentage of divorces under the " General Law " has nearly doubled itself. Though the procedure is simpler in the case of Muhammadans than Kandyans, divorce, just as polygamy, is opposed to the sentiment and practice of the majority of Muhammadans, but it is prevalent to a high degree among certain classes in the Batticaloa District. Amongst "Hindus~divorce is against the principles of tlieir^elig^ohTth^ug^ and the remarriage of divorced women (and widows), regarded as it is with much disfavour in social circles, is still not unusual, even among the better classes. It is indeed surprising that, despite social and religious disapprobation, the Jaffna District, where the majority of Hindus are found, should lead with the largest number of divorces in the Island among those under the " General Law." In 1919, out of 79 divorces granted by the District Courts there were as many as 40 in the Jaffna District. In 1920 there were 30 out of 72, and in 1921, 27 out of 67. It is reported that the proportion was nearly aslarge in previous years. " An explanation of this seeming indifference to the sanctity of the marriage tie," reports the Registrar-General, " is, perhaps, to be found in the fact that, in the case of a goodly number of marriages in this district, civil registration, which is effected at the instance of the parents (the contracting parties being still minors), only marks the betrothal, while the religious ceremony which seals the union is put off indefinitely. As a result, some of these marriages are dissolved before they are consummated."f In the vast majority of the cases in Jaffna, the divorce is reported to have been granted on the general plea of malicious desertion. Endogamy.—Society in Ceylon, among Sinhalese and Tamils, is based on caste and its ramifica tions, and endogamy or marriage within one's caste, is the essence of the caste system. The prohibitions of marriage outside the caste, even outside the numerous sub-castes, though less strict and detailed than in India, are still of considerable social importance in Ceylon, marriage with a person of lower caste being always regarded as a public slight to the family. In the Sinhalese period, the penalties incurred by a high caste woman marrying a low caste man were extremely severe. Even the levelling influences of modern life have not been able to obliterate caste distinctions, and, where marriage is concerned, caste is often a strong barrier. In spite, however, of the rigidity of caste, inter-caste marriages occasionally take place. Exogamy.—While endogamy or marrying within one's caste is the general rule in Ceylon, the exogamous family group system, so characteristic of Indian marital relationship, is not to be found in Ceylon with any clearness, due undoubtedly to the absence of well defined gotras or families claiming descent from an eponymous ancestor. It cannot he said with any certainty whether the Sinhalese Varige is the same as the Aryan golra, but among the Tamils at any rate (and perhaps among some Sinhalese also) no such counterpart exists, while a form of gentile or clan system appears to exist still among the Veddas. Among the Sinhalese there is a complete system of relationship which is traceable to an original gentile organization with its accompanying rule of exogamy, but with the progress of civilization the gentile system disappeared long ago, and exogamy, so far as the family group is concerned, may be said to have ceased to be a living force, though in the system of cross-cousin marriage the children of a brother or sister may be said to belong to different gentes.% The prohibited degrees of marriage among the Sinhalese and Ceylon Tamils are practically the same ; for instance, marriage with one's cousin by one's mother's sister>or father's brother is incestuous and strictly prohibited as mentioned before. This restriction obtains also among the Veddas. The prevalence, therefore, of marriages within a family but not between the children of two brothers or two sisters furnishes an illustrative example of exogamy though in a limited sense. Among the Muhammadans, however, no such prohibitions exist, and among the Indian Tamils it is customary for a man to marry his sister's daughter. Inter-racial Marriages.—The following figures indicate the extent to which inter-racial marriages are prevalent in Ceylon:— ° Marriages contracted between < = * Europeans. Europeans. Europeans. Burghers. Burghers. Sinhalese. Year. and and and and and and Burghers. Sinhalese. Tamils. Sinhalese. Tamils. Tamils 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1901-1910 (Total)* 91 22 10 ..315 66 .. 653 1911 ... 10 3 1 .. 44 11 .. 76 *»W 8 3 1 47 16 77 1*13 .15 3 — 44 6 78 1914 2 1 1 .. 47 9 .. 76 1915 9 1 — .. 51 7 63 1916 10 1 — 50 11 68 1817 2 1 1 64 13 .. 74 1918 .7 4 1 63 7 .. 76 1919 5 5 — .. 44 15 66 1920 .. 7 2 — .. 65 14 81 1911-1920 (Total).v 75 .. 24 5 509 109 ..735 It will be seen that intermarriage is most common among the Sinhalese and Tamils and the Burghers and Sinhalese ; that it is occasional between the Europeans and Sinhalese and rare between the Europeans and Tamils. Hypergamy.—The desire to rise in social status may be said to be universal; and within the hide-bound limits of caste the same tendency can be witnessed. Accordingly hyptergamy or marriage into a higher section is the aim of many. It is undoubtedly facilitated by the diffusion of education and the alteration in the distribution of wealth. * Report on Vital Statistics, 1915, p. L 4, paragraph 11. t Report on Vital Statistics, 1919, p. L 6, paragraph 17. t Cf. Hayley,_TAeJLauw and Customs of the Sinhalese, pp 161-2. 29-23^^ 42 CHAPTER IV.—BIRTHPLACE. SECTION 1.—POPULATION CEYLON-BOBN AND OUTSIDE-BORN. The Use of the Birthplace Statistics.—•Before proceeding to state the main results of the Census of birthplaces, we will find it convenient to examine briefly the use to which the results can be put. It is very generally stated, or assumed, that the statistics of birthplaces furnish a measure of the extent of the migration between one locality and another, but it appears to be a more correct view that the birthplace statistics merely record the number of survivors in a particular area of those born there or elsewhere, and gives as little information regarding the various streams of migration as theannual balance in a cash book gives regarding the transactions in the year. It will be seen later that the relation between the migratton4)etween-fe\yOTioea4tties and the various-data-avariable from the birthplaee-fcablesis a com plicated one, not of any use for practical purposes, and even if it is simplified as much as possible by considering one locality as oneunitandall localities outside it as the other, the resulting equation is not of much value. It can then be stated that increase of outside-bornin thelocality is equal to the immigration of outside-born less the deaths of outside-born in the locality less the emigration of outside-born. But the deaths in question are unknown, and may be large in number, so that any calculation of the migration from the birthplace data is impossible. Only some general conclusions can be drawn, thus, if there is an increase of the outside-born, then their immigration must have been greater than their deaths and emigration ; but it does not follow that if there is no increase of the outside-born, or no outside-born at all, in the locality, that there hasbeen no immigration, for this may have been balanced, or exceeded by the sum of the deaths and emigration. Apart from the subject of migration, to which the relevance of the birthplace statistics often appears to be overstated, the latter are chiefly informative as to the source of supply of the existing population. The Schedule.—Column 8 of the schedule was headed " birth-district or town," and the enumerators or householders were asked to state the name of the district in the case of persons born in Ceylon outside a town or in India, the name of the town in the case of persons born in a Ceylon Town, the name of the country in the case of persons not born in Ceylon or India. Accuracy.—As there was no check available by which the enumerators could verify the statements made by the persons enumerated, and as the latter might, in many cases, give the wrong information through ignorance or carelessness, it is likely that the accuracy of the statement of birthplace is lower than in the case of the races. In many cases, the village of birth was given instead of the district, or the district instead of the country, and difficulties were often experienced in correcting the entry, while the large number of birthplaces in the classified list may have led to errors in sorting. Throughout the following, " born in Ceylon " means " returned as born in Ceylon," &c. All the tables in this Chapter exclude the military and shipping. The Number of Birthplaces.—As the Ceylon birthplaces were classified by districts and towns, the number of Ceylon birthplaces was 55*. The number of Indian districts from which immigrants were returned was 27, while 76 countries other than Ceylon or India appear in the tables. The Island Population by Birthplace.—The following table shows the distribution of the Island population by birthplaces with the relevant percentages :— TABLE No. 59.—The Population of Ceylon, 1921, by Birthplace in and out of Ceylon, (excluding Military and Shipping.) Persons Enumerated in Ceylon. Percentage. r" \ t Birthplace. Males. Males. Females. Persons. Females. Persons.» 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 All Birthplaces 1 4,498,605 , . 2,381,812 . . 2,116,793 . . 100-0 100- 0 100-0 Ceylon 4,030,680 . . 2,099,137 . . 1,931,543 . 89-60 .. 88-13 .. 91-24 India .. '.i 461,623 . 278,840 . 182,783 . 10-26 .. 11-71 .. 8-64 Asia (exclusive of < and India) n 833 . 550 . 283 . •02 .. •02 .. •02 Europe 'A 4,958 . 3,058 . 1,900 . •11 .. • 13 •09 Other Countries 610 . 227 . 283 . •01 .. •01 .. •01 At Sea ..1 1 — 1 . — — — The percentages sinjee 1891 are given in the following table :— TABLE No. 60.—The Percentage of the Population of Ceylon since 1891, by Birthplace in and out of Ceylon. Birthplace. Ceylon. India. of Ceylon and Europe. Other Cov India). 1 2 3 4 5 6 1891 :— Persons 91- 09 . 8-79 •02 .. •09 •01 Males . .~> sg- 08 . 10- 75 •02 .. 13 •01 Females . .3 34 . 6- 59 •01 .. 06 •01 1901 :— Persons • •«> 87- 62 . 12- 24 •03 .. •10 •01 Males • •% 85- 71 . 14- 11 • 04 13 01 Females 89 79 . lO- 12 01 .. 07 01 1911 :— Persons . 88- 39 . ll- 46 •02. .. • 12 01 Males 86- 90 . 12- 92 • 02 .. • 15 •01 Females ... Cj 90- 07 . 9- 82 •01 .. 09 •01 1921 :— 89- 60 . 26 • 02 . . • 11 •01 Persons • io 88- 13 . 71 • 02 .. • 13 •01 Males • n to Females 91- 24 . s' 64 02 .. •09 •01 * Only the 20 districts and 3 Municipalities appear in most of the tables. MAP Of THE ISLAND of CEYLON SHOWING KAHATtVU THE PROPORTION FOR EACH DISTRICT OF PERSONS BORN AND ENUMERATED | MdUMTiruQ Qf IN THAT DISTRICT, 1921. )DELFT (MUNICIPALITIES INCLUDED IN DISTRICTS). Scald of 24 Miles to an Inch REFERENCE GULF ff/rtfW* 60 per ctnf U A H N A ft 60pf **"t' & vnofer 70 ptr ctmf ! MULlAlTTIVU \MA\NNAR 711 74-1 0I.STRICT ^'DISTR,CT\t \trincoualie) \ 8(i5 ANURADHAPURA / DISTRICT 771 D I S T R I C T \PUTTALAU *>v jil 65-9 I ! 'i! \DISTRICT KURVNEGALA \. MAT ALE 74Q \ 673 \ DISTRICT (STRICT \75-i /X/ K A N D Y f \ O 1ST//r\/ c t y /kega lla } •' v—-v BAD UI LA } 73-3 t rNuWARA-EUYA / COLOMBO [DISTRICTJ \ 48-7 /' 'Is! ,t —* | joismicry DISTRICT iK kalutara\ Rat n a pur a I 33-6 * 700 DISTRICT \ ® ^ STRICT f vJ \ \/HAMBANTOTA GALLE -...Y 89-2 84-0 '^"^ DISTRICT /STRICT.-'' 95-5 \ SECTION 1—POPULATION CEYLON-BORN AND OUTSIDE-BORN. 43 The proportion-of locally born is less than the figure of 96-5 per cent, in England and Wales in 1911, owing to the number of immigrants from India, chiefly to the Ceylon estates. India-born in Ceylon.—Further details of the India-born in Ceylon are given in the following table :— TABLE No. 61.—India-born Persons Enumerated in Ceylon at the Censuses of 1911 and 1921. 1911. 1921. A r~ < _ Indian-Birthpla FflmMes. Total. Males. Females. .Total. 1 . ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 . 182,783 . Total India 281,086 . 189,565 . . 470,651 . 278,840 . 461,623 7. Ajmer-Merwara — — .. 1 .. — 1 Andamans and Nicobars i. ; • — — — — — Assam .t — — 4 3 . 7 Baluchistan .. 169 .. 1 . 170 99 6 . 105 Baroda \k . • — . • — 3 — 3 Bengal n 407 155 . 562 253 38 . 291 V Bihar and Orissa 10 — 10 '4 Bombay 2,195 569 . 2,764 1,240 .. 184 . 1,424 Burma '.'? 84 29 . 113 66 16 . 82 Central India Agency 1 3 . 4 Central Provinces and Berar it 15 8 23 33 29 . 62 Cochin 'll 2,514 372 . 2,886 4,200 217 . 4,417 Coorg 3 — 3 1 1 . 2 Delhi ... !>' _— 17 4 . 21 Gwalior .'. (6 — — 2 — 2 Hyderabad !T — 169 37 . 206 Jammu and Kashmir >A 14 10 . 24 8 2 . 10 Madras- 265,243 . . 182,343 . . 447,586 . . 267,475 . . 180,258 . . 447,733 Ganjam 106 . 48 . 154 . 11 . 14 . 25 Vizagapatam 3 391 . 303 . 694 . 117 . 123 . 240 Godavari .. 559 . 347 . 906 . 115 . 57 . 172 Kistna .f 1,141 . 430 . 1,571 . 48 . 27 . 75 Guntur • .'. 6 _ — 239 . 218 . 457 Nellore j 623 . '. 278 . 901 . 208 . 166 . 374 Cuddapah .. .9. 438 . 271 . 709 . 107 . 99 . 206 Kurnool A 80 . 228 308 . 83 . 85 . 168 Banganapalle to. '. 151 . '. 372 ! 63 ' '. «6 '. 129 Bellary tl 221 '. Sandur a- — — — — — . Anantapur a 71 . 83 . 154 . 11 . 7 . 18 Madras 7,061 . 3,637 . . 10,698 . 4,301 . 2,611 . 6,912 Chingleput .. 3,648 . 2,955 . 6,603 . 5,307 . 5,261 . . 10,568 Chittoor j i, — — 3,403 3,058 . 6,461 North Arcot 'n 9,627 . 7,694 . . 17,321 5,187 . 5,220 . 10,407 Salem 22,114 . . 17,136 . 39,250 . 18,618 . . 16,244 . . 34,862 Coimbatore . '.A1 5,463 3,810 . 9,273 3,209 . 2,351 . 6,560 South Arcot ?p 7,432 5,666 . 13,098 . 10,876 . 9,307 . 20,183 Tan j ore !U 35,139 . . 24,980 . . 60,119 . 33,589 . 24,626 . . 68,215 Trichinopoly 55,611 . . 46,706 . . 102,317 . 65,264 . 52,934 . . 118,198 Pudukkottai 9,918 . . ' 7,978 . . 17,896 . 11,678 . 10,426 . . 22,104 Madura 47,749 . 34,356 . 82,105 . . 21,856 . 18,0 S6 . . 39,942 Ramnad vs — — — 18,433 . 9,644 . 28,077 Tinnevelly .. 47,781 . . 22,612 . . 70,393 . 50,464 . 17,555 . 68,019 Nilgiris 172 . 137 . 309 . 33 '. 26 . 59 Malabar ii 9,514 . 2,220 . . 11,734 . 14,131 . 1,990 . . 16,121 Anjengo V) — — — — — — South Kanara JO 366 . 313 . 679 . 54 . 24 . 78 Unspecified ii 18 . 4 . 22 . 70 . 33 . 103 Mysore 5,092 . 3,097 . 8,189 . 1,097 . 1,029 . 2,126 North-West Frontier Provincei-* 283 135 . 418 . 21 . 1 . 22 Punjab .\3Y 592 . 391 . 983 . 122 . 53 . 175 Rajputana .$5 - — — 10 . 3 . 13 SikMm it> — . . — — — . • • — Travancore '. .3,n 4,420 . 2,448 . 6,868 . 3,562 . 702 4,264 United Provinces of Agra and Oudh a* 10 . — 10 . 34 . 17 . 51 French Possessions — — 388 . 175 . 563 Portuguese Possessions v^e* 37 . 7 . 44 . 11 . 5 . 16 Unspecified .. — 8 • 13 . • 13 The chief source ygf supply is clearly the Madras-Presidency, from which came 97 per cent, of the Indian immigrants enumerated in Ceylon in 1921. The Districts of the Madras Presidency are shown in map facing page 186 of Part I. of this Report. 44 CHAPTER IV.—BIRTHPLACE. India-born on Ceylon Estates.—The numbers of India-born enumerated on estates in Ceylon are shown in the following table:— TABLE No. 62.—India-born Persons Enumerated on Estates in Ceylon at the Censuses of 1911 and 1921. 1911. 1921. A. Indian Birthplace. Hales. Females. Total. t Females. Total. Males. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I Total India 191,653 . . 166,387 . . 358,040 . . 173,924 . . 156,535 . . 330,459 X Aj mer-Mer wara _ Andamans and Nicobars 'i — Assam 1 . 1 Baluchistan .. r 4 . 6 . 6 Baroda '.it — —- —— Bengal j\ 145 . 120 . 265 '. 60 '. 5 . '. 65 Bihar and Orissa V — 1 . 1 Bombay f\ 829 . 347 . 1,176 '. 40 . '. 9 . 49 Burma 1 0 38 . 24 . 62 . 13 . 10 . 23 Central India Agency A — — Central Provinces and Berar (i- 13 . 8 . 21 .' 7 '. '. 24 '. 31 Cochin Jl 263 . 163 . 426 . 148 . 45 . 193 Coorg '.'N 3 . — 3 . 1 . 1 Delhi r — — 1 . 1 2 Gwalior '. 'i'.t Hyderabad !h — — — 22 . 8 . 30 Jammu and Kashmir ."} * 12 . 7 . 19 . — Madras .. . J 183,233 .. 160,310 .. 343,543 .. 172,243 .. 155,880 .. 328,123 Ganjam 37 . 36 . 73 . 4 . 6 . 10 Vizagapatam .5 327 . 280 . 607 . 98 . 119 . 217 Godavari .. \ jf 430 . 324 . 754 . 79 . 51 . 130 Kistna .. . r 993 . 389 . 1,382 . 19 . 17 . 36 Guntur '. [b — — — 239 . 218 . 457 Nellore 422 . 259 . 681 . 126 ". 131 . 257 _ $ Cuddapah .. 314 . 251 . 665 . 99 . 92 . 191 Kurnool '. s 59 . 216 . 275 . 70 . 82 . 152 Banganapaile . /a — — — — Bellary . .11 184 . 145 . 329 . 47 . 59 '. 106 Sandur • -.'1 — — — — Anantapur .. 58 . 79 . 137 . 8 '. 5 '. 13 Madras 3,700 . 2,594 . 6,294 . 1,285 . 1,343 . 2,628 Chingleput .. 3,346 . 2,872 . 6,218 . 4,828 . 5,017 . 9,845 Chittoor. — — — 3,228 . 3,120 . 6,348 North Arcot 8,378 . 7,314 . 15,692 . 4,651 . 4,989 . 9,640 Salem 18,865 . 16,102 . 34,967 . 16,446 . . 15,222 . 31,668 Coimbatore 4,683 . 3,673 . 8,256 . 2,614 . 2,098 . 4,612 South Arcot 6,620 . 5,347 . . 11,867 . 9,747 . 8,783 . . 18,530 Tanjore 25,962 . 22,275 . . 48,237 . . 23,792 . 21,719 . . 45,511 Trichinopoly 48,790 . . 44,139 . . 92,929 . 66,109 . . 49,122 . . 105,231 Pudukkottai i\ 8,374 . 7,497 . 15,871 . 10,019 . 9,765 . 19,784 Madura 32,082 . 30,269 . 62,351 . 16,385 . . 15,491 . . 31,876 Kamnad — — — 9,915 . 8,651 . 18,666 Tinnevelly .. 17,333 . 14,161 . 31,484 . 10,729 . 8,845 . . 19,674 Nilgiris .17 155 . 128 . 283 . 18 . 16 . 34 Malabar 'it 1,978 . 1,658 . 3,636 . 1,745 . 891 . 2,636 Anjengo .? NOTE.—Districts in the Madras Presidency from which Indian labour is principally recruited are shown in map facing page 186 of Part L of this Report. SECTION I.—POPULATION CEYLON-BORN AND OUTSIDE-BORN. 45 Ceylon-born in India.-The number of Ceylon-born persons in India in 1911 and 1921 is shown bv Provinces in the following table:— TABLE No. 63.-Ceylon.born Persons Enumerated in each Province or State of India 1911. 1921. > Females. Total. Males. Females. Province, State, or Agency. Total. Males. 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 1 .. 8 .. 7 . 1 Ajmer-Merwara ..' 5 _ 4 — ~AndainanaHd~Nicobare~ 4—•-» — 14 .. • 9 . 6 Baluchistan .. . .* — • • — 55 .. 26 . 30 Bihar and Orissa . .7 — • • — 64 .. 793 .. 698 . 95 Bombay .. . S 230 .. 166 94 .. 1,191 .. 1,065 . 126 Burma .. . .<£ 846 .. 752 11 .. 67 .. 44 . 23 Central Provinces and Berar .. t 22 .. 11 1 .. 7 .. 3 . 4 Coorg .. ..9 5 .. 4 8 .. 4 . 4 Delhi .. ..<> — — 71 .. 9 .. 5 . 4 Eastern Bengal and Assam ..iC 167 .. 96 1,925 .. 3,992 .. 2,217 . 1,776 Madras .. .. // 4,342 .. 2,417 Punjab and North-West 20 .. 34 .. 31 . 3 Frontier Province .. it- 60 .. 30 United Provinces of Agra and 35 .. — .. — . — Oudh ..'i 106 .. 71 6,178 4,108 2,070 Total (Provinces) .. 6,777 3,655 2,222 3 .. — . 3 Baroda State . • ,. Central India Agency 3 .. — 3 .. — — 2 .. 9 .. 6 . 3 Cochin State 11 .. 13 .. 8 . 5 Hyderabad State ..'"» 20 .. 9 183 .. 95 . 88 Mysore State .. ..'8 140 .. 72 68 .. 6 .. 8 .. 2 . 6 Rajputana Agency .15 .. 9 1,169 .. 631 538 Travancore State . 206 .. 127 79 .. 742 643 Total .. 397 228 169 1,386 Total Ceylon-born enumerated 2,391 .. 7,563 . 4,850 2,713 in India .. .. 6,174 .. 3,783 52" 8 per cent, of the Ceylon-born in India were enumerated in Madras, and were probably mostly Tamil coolies born on the estates. The figures for Burma indicate a certain amount of intercourse with Ceylon, probably due, in part, to Buddhism being the predominant religion in both countries. It will be seen that the number of India-born in Ceylon is very much greater than the number of Ceylon-bom in India. This shows greater migration from India to Ceylon than from Ceylon to India during the whole period from the commencement of the migration, but the difference between the figures will give no indication of the amount of migration, unless the unknown difference between the deaths of India-born in Ceylon and those of Ceylon-born in India during the whole period can be ascertained and taken into account. For the intercensal period 1911-1921, the migration records 6how a nett gain to Ceylon of about 85,000, but this figure shows no relation to the intercensal loss of 9,028 India-born in Ceylon less the intercensal gain of 1,389 Ceylon-born in India, because the above-mentioned deaths in the intercensal period have not been taken into account. European Birthplaces.—In 1921 the majority of the 4,958 persons returned as born in Europe came from England, namely, 2,011 males and 1,244 females, forming in all 65 7 per cent, of the total borninEurope. 528 males and 241 females were born in Scotland, 133 males and 200 females in Ireland, and 32 males and 9 females in Wales ; 137 males and 58 females were born in France ; 42 males and 45 females in Belgium ; 27 males and 17 females in Italy; 25 males and 10 females in Switzerland ; 15 males and 5 females in Greece ; 15 malesandllfemalesinRussia ; 4malesandl9femalesin Germany. Particulars for Ceylon-born enumerated in Europe were not available. Other Countries.—Of the other countries, the figures for the Straits Settlements and Malaya are of interest on account of the considerable migration between Jaffna District and these countries. The number enumerated in Ceylon in 1921 and born in the Straits was 146 males and 125 females, chiefly Ceylon Tamils who had returned to Ceylon from their settlements abroad; while the figures for Malaya born were 90 males and 82 females. The numbers of Ceylon-born in the Straits and Malaya, kindly furnished by the Census Commissioner there, are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 64.—The Ceylon-born in British Malaya, 1921. Straits Federated Unfoderated British Malaya. Settlements. Malay States. Malay States. A \ _^ ^ t~ — N \ i ° Males. Males. Females. Race. Persons. Males. Females. Males. Females. Females. 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 „. , i„„„ 1 OIK 1,541 544 . 6711 . 4711 ... Vit12 4 .... au90o8 . .. 015108 . . 165 .. 29 6,591 . . 1,804 . 5SS iB J:: tffi:8,437 .: . M2,27S7 . 1,055.1,055 .. 259259 ... . ^ .. .. ^ .. m 146 . 100 .: : 38 24 .. 90 . 62 . Europeans •> 246 .. 146 .. 100 .. 38 .. 24 .. 90 .. 62 .. 18 .. 14 132 . 91 . 10 Burghers and Eura-^ ^23 7 . m18 2 . g86 6 g8l 1 .. m „ „ V- 811 " 57 *.'. 24 '.. 18 .. 7 .... 31 . . 13 . . 8 .. 4 Malays • •* 57 . 24 . 18 Total .. 13,675 10,421 3,254 1,688 495 7,752 2,488 1,001 271 * All probably Ceylon Tamils from Jaffna District. 46 CHAPTER IV.—BIRTHPLACE. The following are extracts from Mr. J. E. Nathan's " Census of British Malaya, 1921," page 91, paragraph 340, and page 99, paragraph 364, respectively.—(1)" The only other race exceeding 1,000 in number are the Sinhalese, who have increased by 60'7 per cent, from 1,378 to 2,215 in 1921. In the towns many of the Sinhalese are jewellers, carpenters, and barbers, while in the country districts they are chiefly employed on estates." (2) " Indians * born in Ceylon totalled 10,714, of whom 8,395 were enumerated in the Federated Malay States, 1,314 in the Straits Settlements, and 1,005 in the Unfederated Malay States. In the Federated Malay States they numbered 6,003 in 1911. The chief increase is in Selangor, where there are now 4,110 Ceylon-born Indians,* as compared with 2,824 in 1911. A large proportion of the Ceylon-born Indians* in British Malaya are clerks, overseers, or in similar occupations, and almost all of them come from the Jaffna District." 161 persons enumerated in Ceylon in 1921 were born in America and 202 in Australia. The -Tiumbers of Ceylon-boTnTn A.mwica"an^l^AustraUa in lyzl are not known. In Hong Kong, in 1921, 26 persons (23 males and 3 females) were returned as born in Ceylon, all Muhammadans, the males being jewellers or dealers in gems. In South Africa, two males, a laundryman and a cook were returned as Ceylon-born, and two males in Seychelles. SECTION 2.—BIRTHPLACES OF THE RACES. The Races.—The Statistics of the birthplaces of the various races are interesting, but their interpre tation requires considerable caution, even in the simplest case, namely, that in which a locality is taken as one unit and all localities outside it as the other. If a race in a certain locality is unaffected by migration, that is, if it does not emigrate, and is not added to by immigration, it is obvious that the members of this race will all be locally born. But the converse, that a high proportion of locally born shows a race little affected by migration does not follow. For the high proportion may have arisen— (1) owing to the deaths or emigration of all the outside-born as well as from (2) the absence of immigration, while it is clear (3) that if no immigration has taken place emigration may go on to any extent without reducing the percentage of locally born. If the number or proportion of outside-born is considerable, the immigration of outside-born, reckoned from its commencement, f must have been greater than the emigration of outside-born plus the deaths of outside-born in the locality in question. But the last item is not known, and cannot be estimated to a reasonable degree of accuracy. If the migration in a recent period, say the last decade, is under consideration, then it is the increase in the number of outside- born which is relevant, but the unknown item of the deaths of the outside-born comes in here also. The increase of the proportion of outside-born in a locality is no better index of the. migration, and is, in fact, only easily expressible in terms of the migration if the total population has changed little in the period under consideration. The Figures by Raees.—The proportions of Ceylon-born to 1,000 of the various races in 1911 and 1921 are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 65.—Proportion of the Ceylon-born to a Thousand Persons of each Race. 1911. , 1921. Race- Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 All Races ..'884 .869 .. 901 ..896 ..881 .. 913 Low-country Sinhalese 999-94 .. 999-92 .. 999-97 .. 999-94 .. 999-93 .. 999-95 Kandyan Sinhalese } 999-99 .. 999-99 .. 999-99 .. 999-98 .. 999-98 999-99 Ceylon Tamils .*»• 995- .. 994- .. 997- .. 998- .. 998- Indian Tamils > 189- .. 175- .. 206- .. 309- .. 282- . Ceylon Moors k 997- .. 996- .. 998- .. 999- .. 999- .. 999- Indian Moors /> 188- .. 146- .. 357- .. 196- .. 131- .. 452- Europeans .8 275- .. 223- .. 358- .. 329- .. 296- .. 372- Burghers and Eurasians 989- .. 987- .. 992- .. 986- .. 984- .. 989- Malays rt> 995- . . 993- .. 998- .. 995- .. 994- .. 996- Veddas ."1000- .. 1000- .. 1000- .. 1000- .. 1000- -.. 1000- Others ^ 201- .. 152- .. 343- .. 199- .. 148- .. 431- 1 X The indigenous races are the Low-country and Kandyan Sinhalese, the Ceylon Tamils and Moors, the Burghers and Eurasians, the Malays, and Veddas. As these races are little affected by external migration, we find that the proportion of Ceylon-born is high in all these cases, while the lower proportions for the Indian Tamils and Moors, the Europeans, and Others show that these are immigrant races, as we know, of course, otherwise. The indigenous races show little change,J but the immigrant races generally show considerable increases of the proportions of Ceylon-born. Of the 1,927,057 Low-country Sinhalese in 1921, only 113 were born outside Ceylon, namely, 52 born in India (43 males and 9 females); 36 in Straits Settlements (17 males and 19 females); 7 in Federated Malay States (3 males and. 4 females); 3 females in East Indies ; 1 male in Japan; and 5 in Siam (4 males and 1 female) ; 7 in England (2 males and 5 females); 1 male in Germany; and 1 female in Australia. In 1911, 95 out of 1,716,859 Low-country Sinhalese were born outside Ceylon. Of the 1,089,097 Kandyan Sinhalese in 1921, only 17 were born outside Ceylon. Of these, 10 males and 2 females were born in India ; 2 females in Federated Malay States ; and 3 females in Europe— 2 in Germany and the other in Scotland. In 1911, 3 out of 998,561 Kandyan Sinhalese were born outside Ceylon. Of the 517,324 Ceylon Tamils in 1921, 441 males and 205 females were born in India ; 65 males and 67 females in Straits Settlements ; 48 males and 33 females in Federated Malay States ; 1 male and 2 females in England ; 1 female in France ; 2 females in Natal; 1 male in Jamaica ; and 1 female in Australia. In 1911, 2,183§ out of 510,5C1§ Ceylon Tamils were born outside Ceylon. * Coylon Tamils are, apparently, referred to. Though Indian by descent, thoy lmvo boon domiciled in Ceylon or centuries, and aro better described as Coylonese than as Indians. (See Part I. of this Report, page 202.) t That is, from the time at which tho numbor of outside-born was zero. Otherwise, the increase in tho number of outside-born and not the number at any one timo has to be taken. % Tho increase for the CeylonTamilsis probably duo to several IndianTamils being takenasCoylonTamils in 1911. § As adjusted, see footnote (f), page 205 of Part I. of this Report. SECTION 2.—BIRTHPLACES OF THE RACE^ 47 Of the 602,735 Indian Tamils in 1921, 416,419 (239,884 males and 176,535 females) were born in India ; 32 (18 males and 14 females) in Straits Settlements ; 21 (10 males and 11 females) in Federated Malay States ; 66 males in Afghanistan ; 1 male in Arabia and China, respectively ; and 39 (16 males and 23 females) in Africa. In 1911, 431,180* out of 548,446* Indian Tamils were born outside Ceyloni Of the 251,938 Ceylon Moors in 1921, 192 males and 69 females were born in India ; 1 male in Afghanistan; 1 male and 1 female in Hong Kong. In 1911, 646 out of 233,901 Ceylon Moors were born outside Ceylon. Of the 33,026 Indian Moors in 1921, 26,556 (22,916 males and 3,640 females) were born in India ; 2 males in Straits Settlements ; 1 male in Federated Malay States ; 5 (4 males and 1 female) in Afghanis tan ; 2 malesjn_Arabia and Maldives, respectively_; and 1 female in South Africa. In 1911, 26,577 out of 32,724 Indian Moors were born outside Ceylon. Of the 8,118 Europeans in 1921, 5,451 were born outside Ceylon. Of these, 3,217 (1,986 males and 1,231 females) were born in England ; 740 (500 males and 240 females) in Scotland ; 332 (133 males and 199 females) in Ireland ; 41 (32 males and 9 females) in Wales ; 192 (134 males and 58 females) in France ; 87 (42 males and 45 females) in Belgium ; 44 (27 males and 17 females) in Italy ; 30 (21 males and 9 females) in Switzerland ; 24 (14 males and 10 females) in Russia; 22 (16 males and 6 females) in Austria ; 20 (15 males and 5 females) in Greece ; 18 (2 males and 16 females) in Germany ; 18 (11 males and 7 females) in Denmark; 15 (9 males and 6 females) in Spain; and less than 15 in any one of various other countries in Europe. 141 males and 84 females were born in India ; 34 males and 29 females in Africa; 30 males and 60 females in America ; and 37 males and 107 females in Australia. The birth places of the Europeans include nearly all parts of the world, Aden, Asia Minor, Borneo, China, Cyprus, East Indies, Hong Kong, Japan, Java, Malay States, Persia, Siam, Smyrna, Straits Settlements, and Turkey in Asia. Of the Europeans born in Ceylon, 152 were enumerated in Federated Malay States, 62 in Straits Settlements, and 32 in Unfederated Malay States. In 1911, 5,504 out of 7,592 Europeans were born outside Ceylon. Of the 29,439 Burghers and Eurasians in 1921, 181 males and 102 females were born in India, 12 males and 19 females in Straits Settlements, 9 males and 21 females in Federated Malay States, 1 male in Borneo, 1 female in Java, 3 females in Persia, 15 males and 11 females in Siam. Of the 18 born in Europe, 7 males and 4 females in England, 1 male in France, Germany, Holland, and Scotland, respectively, and 1 female in Ireland, Roumania, and Switzerland, respectively; 2 males and 2 females in Africa ; 3 males in America; and 1 female in Australia. In 1911, 282 out of 26,663 Burghers and Eurasians were born outside Ceylon, 12 females i Federated Malay , - — , 1 male in Africa and Australia, respectively. In 1911, 62 out of 12,990 Malays were born outside Ceylon. , The birthplaces of the " Other " races were scattered all over the world. The largest number of persons—15,016 males and 2,125 females—were reported as born in India. The other birthplaces include Aden, Afghanistan, Africa, America, Arabia, Australia, Cambodia, China, England, Federated Malay States, France, Germany, Japan, Java, Laccadives, Maldives, Palestine, Persia, Philippines, Russia, Scotland, Siam, Straits Settlements, Switzerland, Turkey in Asia, and 1 female born at sea. In 1911,10,163 out of 12,721 Others were born outside Ceylon. SECTION 3.—SOURCES OF SOTFLY OF THE DISTRICT, TOWN, AND ESTATE POPULATIONS. Birthplaces by Districts.—The next subject for consideration is the sources of supply of the population enumerated in the various districts of Ceylon, and the first point for inquiry is the extent to which the supply comes from outside the respective districts. The following table shows the percentage in each district of the locally-born:— TABLE No. 66.—Percentage in each District of those born in the District, 1911-21. Percentage of those born T.. . . . , Percentage of those born Districts and fiietrict ^ the Districts and in the District to the jn thfl Municipalities- District Population. Municipalities. District Population. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 2 3 2 3 Jaffna I 99-1 98-5 Kegalla 686 73-3 Batticaloa 97-8 87-2 Mullaittivu 73-2 71-1 Matara 96-0 95-5 Ratnapura 71-9 70-0 Galle t 95-3 94-8 Galle Municipality 60-5 69-8 Colombo t . • • -sr 92-5 92-3 Kandyf .. 64-6 69-0 Hambantota 91-6 89-2 Badulla .. 68-9 68-8 Kalutara .. 83-8 83-6 Matale 63-9 67-3 65-4 65-9 Trincomalee .. % 80-7 80- Puttalam .. Anuradhapura 84-6 77- Nuwara Eliya . .VI 40-1 48-7 Chilaw 79-8 75- Colombo Municipality 45-0 44-1 Kurunegala •. II 80-8 74- Kandy Municipality •VI 38-3 36-8 Mannar i 7, 76-6 74- In this table the Districts are arranged in the order of the percentages of locally-born in 1921, which is the same thing as the inverse order of the proportion of outside-born. As might have been expected, the towns and estate districts are found at the foot of the table, the high proportions of outside- born indicating the presence of immigrants in considerable numbers. The high figures of locally-born may frequently be due to little immigration, but may, in some cases, be the result of the high death- rate of immigrants or their emigration, while emigration of locally-born may have been going on to a considerable extent. As we have seen, the variation of the numbers or proportions of locally-born or outside-born in 1911 and 1921 cannot be used to calculate the migration. The figures in column 3 are illustrated in map facing page 42. * As adjusted, see footnote (|), page 205 of Part I. of this Report. t Exclusive of Municipality. Inclusive of Municipality, Colombo District—83-9, Kandy—09-1, and Galle— 94-0 in 1921, as shown in map referred to below. 48 • CHAPTER IV.—BIRTHPLACE. Birthplaces by Race and District—The following table shows the percentage of locally-born in each district according to race. TABLE No. 67.—Percentage of the Number of Persons Born in each District, to the Total Population of each Race enumerated in the District, 1921. CO 0 to E 0 1 g -5 0 District. & CD oS Malays . 1 | Ceylo n j India n ; India n ; Burgher s i Kandya n O Europeans . Lojw-countr y 0 a a w S 1 an d j Moors . j Tamils . 11 j Tamils . * • Sinhalese . 12 1 2 Sinhalese . 7 [ Eurasians . 13 10-0 Colombo Municipality .'. 44-1 50-5 13-7 51-7 114 79-3 17-7 109 ..70-5 75-0 100-0 8-8 Colombo(excluding Municipality^ - 92-3 900 0-2 75-5 14-9 86-3 4-1 18-2 45-3 31-2 11-0 Kalutara 83-6 92-6 4-3 32-9 18-2 960 10-0 11-5 39-0 20-3 22-0 Kandy Municipality . ^ 36-8 35-2 38-4 46-0 9-6 637 8-4 10-8 333 53-0 f 69-6 59-3 97-2 68-6 310 96-8 28-6 32-8 54-2 71-3 24-3 Kandy (excluding Municipality^ 21-2 Matale 67-3 47-8 92-4 46-4 26-8 88-0 30-6 9-2 42-9 52-3 33-9 30-9 18-4 Nuwara Eliya -i 48-7 50-2 92-0 40-7 28-8 61-9 19-4 14-2 51-3 36-4 20-7 Galle Municipality .| 69-8 07-3 4-G 39-5 109 88-0 16-0 11-8 337 20-7 0-9 Galle (excluding Municipality) /? 94-8 97-4 1-4 25-6 19-6 95-1 13-0 15-9 f 52-5 20-9 46-3 Matara • • --. 95-5 97-4 21-7 321 20-4 96-8 9-8 4-5 f 44-5 92-9 87-4 Hambantota 89-2 90-5 4-3 36-2 1-2 75-7 2-0 11-4 64-2 22-7 5-1 Jaffna „-"/•? 98-5 1-8 2-8 99-6 50 96-1 u 74-1 4-5 76-6 •2 97-1 1-2 25-0 22-4 60-7 Mannar \\ « 78-8 82-0 06-7 Mullaittivu >-U' 71-1 0-6 03-2 75-5 •9 83-0 32-8 91-7 16-7 98-0 21-4 Batticaloa • • 97-2 25-4 89-4 98-6 6-7 99-8 2-7 5-4 163 64-2 82-9 97-0 43-8 Trincomalee 'fe 80-5 9-9 59-2 76-6 951 12-7 83-3 5-8 32-8 33-9 56-2 12-0 Kurunegala .. '•">• 74-8 22-8 95-2 44-1 310 4-9 915 1-5 12-5 393 79-0 79-8 4k Puttalam ll- 65-9 85-3 71-4 82-5 0-6 74-9 8-1 84-4 5 3 36-0 28-4 05-2 15-5 ^ Chilaw • 75-7 77-1 11-5 92-1 437 4-6 768 33 1-7 14-0 32-7 94-9 33 Anuradhapura J-P. 68-8 44-1 98-3 593 29-1 833 20-5 135 34-4 70-3 100-0 12-8 Badulla • • 70-0 20-1 98-2 41-2 19-7 40-9 17-7 10-0 36-0 22-2 19-9 Ratnapura .. i>. 73-3 35-2 90-3 349 20 1 85-9 15-0 15-6 27-9 25-7 11-3 Kegalla . - 33- • If a race is little affected by migration, we expect to find a considerable number born and enumerated in the district, a small number born in the district and enumerated outside. The Distribution of those born in each District.—It is also of some interest to examine the distribution of persons born in each district, and the following table shows the percentage of those born in each district who were enumerated in it, outside it, in contiguous districts, and in other parts of the Island. TABLE No. 68.—Percentage of Natives of each District enumerated in that District, elsewhere in the Island, in Contiguous Districts, and in Other Parts of the Island. Percentage of Natives of District enumerated. / Elsewhere * In other Parts In tho in the In Contiguous of the UXDvl Ivli District. Island. Districts. Island. 1 2 3 4 5 Mullaittivu 1 96- 51 . . 3- 49 . . 2-92 .. •57 Anuradhapura 96- 33 .. 3- 67 . . 2-78 .. •89 Hambantota 96- 24 .. 3- 76 . . 2-61 .. 1-15 Mannar «f 95- 78 . . 4- 22 . . 2-95 .. 1-27 Kurunegala / 95- 76 .. 4- 24 . . 3-56 .. •68 Batticaloa s> 95- 66 . . 4- 34 .. 3-11 .. 1-23 Puttalam . -7 94- 89 .. 6- 11 . . 3-31 .. 1-80 Badulla • 5 94- 15 . . 5- 85 . . 3-66 .. 2-19 Trincomalee A 93- 85 . . 6- 15 .. 2-36 .. 3-79 Kegalla • 1 a 93- 13 . . 6- 87 . . 5-51 .. 1-36 Ratnapura . \i 93- 12 . . 6- 88 . . 5-40 .. 1-48 Jaffna • )1 92 76 . . 7- 24 . . 1-72 .. 5-52 Matale • 89 05 . . 10 95 .. 6-67 .. 4-28 Colombo Municipality >H 87 68 .. 12 32 .. 5-33 .. 6-99 Kalutara . If 87 67 . . 12 33 . . 4-90 .. 7-43 Chilaw . »t» 85 96 . . 14 04 . . 12-76 .. 1-28 Matara . n 85 80 . . 14 20 . . 6-36 .. 7-84 Kandy . if. 85 24 . . 14 76 . 8-23 .. 6-53 Nuwara Eliya • 1°) 83 •65 16 35 . 11-63 .. 4- 72 Galle • 3e> 82 •95 . 17 •05 . 4-53 .. 12-52 10-90 .. 7-20 Colombo • 3-1 81 •90 . 18 •10 . Galle Municipality • V* 79 •72 . 20 •28 . 1-23 .. 19-05 <\ 1 Kandy Municipality . . 2.3 66 •76 . 33 •24 . 2-66 .. 30-58 As in Table No. 66, we note the high percentage of those born in a district who were enumerated in it, as well as the generally higher percentage in contiguous districts than elsewhere. The latter is most likely to be due to higher emigration into contiguous districts than into those more distant. It will be seen that the three Municipalities' and the districts of Trincomalee, Jaffna, Kalutara, Matara, and Galle are exceptions, in that they show a higher percentage of natives in non-contiguous parts of the Island. Further details are shown in the following table which gives the number of those born in each district according to the district of enumeration. E«U«EBATSD F>oj?UX«A.TI<>« in TA°USA^DS. D V IGBAJRL yPty' goo soo 4QO goo goo yoo Coiohtbo Kali 'tara. Colombo M.C AfataU A/u.»>ara JFtixf* ATantfp M.C POPULATI^ GalLe Matara By /farnbanioia DISTRICTS BIRTX 3P:L,AOISS Galla M C i Ja/fria Mannar AfullaHiivu Persons Lorn m. tA«. Disincf. ' i JSatticaloa j » «. oulside Cej/fcn. i TriricomaZee i KururtegraZa. J^czltaZam Cfiilair Anx*ra eZfaa/ourA JZadtzlla i Kecpalla •Statistical JDepswtment. € llstricts according to Birthplace and placo of Enumeration. TABLE Ko. 69.—Number of Persons In the various Born in Colombo Municipality Colombo District Kolutarn District [Candy Municipality (Candy District .Matale District .Vuwara Eliya District Qalle Municipality Galle District .Matara District Harabantota District Jaffna District Mannar District Mullniltivu District B.tUic&loa District rrincomaloo District ICurunogtvla District1*1 Puttalam District Clulow District ^ , iVnuradhapurn DistriccJ n.idulla District ' Ratnapura District Kogrvlla District Coylon (otherwise specified) (Born in Ceylon] Total -l OutsideCeylorj ] In and Out^ii (_ Ceylon 50 CHAPTER IV.—BIRTHPLACE. The prevalence of high figures in the diagonal will be noted, those being the persons born and enumerated in the same district, of whom the proportions are given in Table No. 66. The high figures of those born outside Ceylon will be noted in the case of the planting districts, and it will be seen that, in many cases, the outside born population is drawn more from outside Ceylon (mainly from India) than from the other parts of the Island. (See also Diagram No. 15 facing page 49). A vertical reading of the columns of the foregoing table gives for each district, the districts which supplied the immigrants to it, e.g., the largest number of persons enumerated in the Colombo District, but born elsewhere, came from the Kalutara District, Colombo Municipality, and the Galle District; similarly, the largest number of immigrants to the Anuradhapura District were the natives of Kandy, Jaffna, Batticaloa, Matale, Kurunegala, Colombo, and GaUc Disjricta^ _Again; aihorizontalTeading" giveslihe district of bi^ have migrated, e.g., the largest number of persons born in tho Colombo District, but enumerated elsewhere are found in the Kurunegala District, Colombo Municipality, and in the Districts of Kegalla, Chilaw, and Kalutara; similarly, the natives of the Galle District have migrated largely to Colombo Municipality, Kalutara District, Galle Municipality, and the Districts of Colombo, Matara, Ratnapura, and Kandy. Birthplaces by Sex.—The following table shows the percentage of males to 1,000 of the total among the locally-born and the outside-born in each district,:— TABLE No. 70.—Proportion of Males to 1,000 Persons among those (a) Born and enumerated in each District, (6) Born outside and enumerated In each District. Proportion of Males_per 1.000 Persons. (a) Among (4) Among District. Locally- " ' • • (o) Among (b) Among Outside- District. Locally- (o) Among (6) Among born. born. »—••- Outiidc- District. Locally - • • - born. born. Outsldc- 1 2 born". born. 1 2 3 Colombo Municipality 504 1 2 3 698 Galle District 3 491 540 Colombo District ,3" 504 Kurunegala District .0 536 628 647 Matara District 500 543 Kalutara District ?. 608 Puttalam District .'J 639 722 573 Hambantota District' 519 592 Kandy Municipality ."1 518 616 Chilaw District /? 617 654 Jaffna District /> 485 726 £, Kandy District A 513 Anuradhapura District? 628 708 546 Mannar District ' i 623 744 Matale District A 526 560 Badulla District ?/ 517 563 1 Mullaittivu District/''538 680 Nuwara Eliya District" 505 Ratnapura District 631 601 546 Batticaloa District 's 491 758 Galle Municipality .. 476 Kegalla District 531 564 550 Trincomalee District^518 659 The high masculinity of the outside-born might in theory be due to a heavy death-rate among female immigrants or to their re-emigration, but is more likely to have been caused by greater immigra tion * of males than females. The excess of females among the locally-born in Galle Municipality, Galle, Jaffna, and Batticaloa Districts may similarly be due to several causes, but the most obvious is the emigration of locally-bom males. (See page 7.) Towns.—The proportions of locally-born and outsidc-born in the towns of Ceylon are given in the following table :— TABLE No. 71.—Percentages of Locally-born and Outside-born in the Towns of Ceylon, 1921. Percentage born Outside the Town. Town. Percentage born In Other Towns in theji'wvn. In Other Parts in Ceylon. of Ceylon. Males. OutsideCeylon. Females. Males Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. Colombo Municipality 363 564 5-7 59 . 25-6 27-4 . 32-5 Negombo Local Board 64 5 72-2 4-9 10 3 4-7 .. 22-9 21-7 . 7-7 Minuwangoda Local Board 8-7 184 3-4 1 4 24 . 64-0 75-7 . 23-9 5 Moratuwa Local Board 737 78-6 3-9 3 3-9 . . 17-5 16-8 . 4-9 •6 Kalutara Local Board 61-2 64-9 5-6 5-7 . . 26-3 28-4 . 69 •9 Panadura Sanitary Board 48-6 52-9 6 9 63 .. 38-8 40-1 . 57 •7 Kandy Municipality 32-8 42-2 9 Gampola Local Board 100 . . 41-7 41-2 . 16-2 6-6 398 51-4 7 0 Nawalapitiya Local Board 8-9 .. 34 1 34-5 . 19-1 5-2 .? 29-7 44-8 12-6 Hatton-Dikoya Local Board 14-1 .. 382 29-6 . 19-5 II- (° 11-3 25-7 13-0 Matale Local Board 23-8 .. 49-2 43-•1 26-6 7- 32-8 42-2 . 7-9 Nuwara Eliya Board of Im 8-7 . . 42-5 43- 16-8 5- pro vement.. . J - 12 • 5 18-4 . - 10 9-7 473 44-1 29-8 27- 8 Jaffna Local Board . .'3 69 0 74-5 . 1 •8 25-8 23-8 3-9 9 Mannar Sanitary Board . /f 65 * 2 78-7 . 5 43 183 14-2 111 8 Mullaittivu Sanitary Board . 46'7 54-4 . 3' ,( 4 1 . 48-5 41-4 Vavuniyat . . > 19" 1 35-4 . 1-2 1 9' 5 . . 2 8 . 61-5 56-6 Galle Municipality :. H 66 • 6 72-9 . 9 8 2 3- 22 27-6 24-5 Ambalangoda Sanitary Board < S 84 • 6 93-9 . 2 5 •6 9-8 6-3 6 0 2 Matara Local Board .'.1 64-9 69-5 . 29-8 2-9 2-5 27-5 2 5 Weligama Sanitary Board . J- * 93 • 6 93-7 . 56 Hambantota Sanitary Board. ? 1 65' 7 80-7 . 6 0 2 9 5-2 22-7 <- •• - J -V .5^69-2 76-3 . 13-8 2 6 3 3 2-6 265 Tangalla Sanitary Board 68-0 . 20-9 1 0 2 . i-3 59-0 3 3-5 32-5 Batticaloa Local Board 97-2 . 27-4 5-2 1 .3f 87-8 1 •6 8-3 1 ' Kalmunaif 61-6 . 2 0 2-7 •2 .?V 54-4 3 9 3-7 36-8 Trincomalee Local Board 33-6 . 33-0 4-9 16 .U 19-9 8 10-8 511 Kurunegala Local Board 72-9 . 49-0 20-7 6-6 .n 53-7 5 0 5-2 27-7 Puttalam Local Board 70-4 . 17-2 130 4-7 .J-e 55-4 8-5 9-5 14-7 Kalpitiya Sanitary Board 012 . 166 21 3-5 • W 45-1 11-5 12-8 29-7 1-4 Chilaw Local Board . . , 22-1 . 22-5 13 34 4 114 56-7 13-4 50-5 19 14-0 BadullAnuradhapura Locala BoarLocadl Board . •}••3° '35-12*89 45-1 . 7-1 44-9 1 5-0 44-8 12-1 5- 1 Bandarawela Local Board .1 2-4 14-6 65-2 . 33 . 20-7 68-1 17-8 7-9 Lunugala Sanitary Board . J 3 37 • 7 6-2 30-9 , 00-5 . 9-3 11-7 25-2 18-5 Ratnapura Local Board .;H 31 • 6 12-0 46-2 . 47-3 . 109 37-7 102 4-1 Kegalla Local Board .3* 40 6 6-9 39- 60-7 . 8 36 13-1 4-2 Ti d { of tho mig^ttionfigUroS "r° C°nSUS °"'7' llT° r° ° ° ^m^gration must beckoned "from th^i^g T Area proolaimod for tho registration of births <\nd deaths. 'A SECTION 3.—SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF DISTRICT, TOWN, & ESTATE POPULATIONS. 51 The Estate Population.—Although considerable numbers of the estate population are now domiciled in Ceylon, and many are born here, this population is an essentially immigrant one, as is shown by its comparatively low proportion of Ceylon-born, namely, 41 *6 per cent. The percentage of Ceylon-born and outside-born among the estate population is shown for 1911 and 1921 for the various estate races in the following table :— TABLE No. 72.—Percentage on Estates of those Born in Ceylon and in India by Race, 1911 and 1921. Percentage of Those Born in Those Born in Race. Ceylon. India. _A ^ , *- 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 All Races 299 416 69-7 581 Low-country Sinhalese i. 100-0 .. 100-0 •02 .. •04 Kandyan Sinhalese i 100-0 .. 100-0 — •03 Ceylon Tamils 98-3 99-8 1-6 •1 Indian Tamils s 20-3 34-4 . 79-7 65-6 Ceylon Moors I 98-6 98-5 1-4 .. 1-5 Indian Moors i 24-9 360 75-1 64-0 Europeans ,. i 239 35-3 3-8 .. 2-4 Burghers and Eurasians ?> 95-8 98-0 3-9 1-8 Malays \* 98-5 .. 99-3 1-3 .. •4 Veddas ] i .. 100-0 — — Others HI 20-4 84-4 78-5 The members of the indigenous races were practically all born in Ceylon, while the immigrants show increases in the proportions of Ceylon-born. The Estate Districts.—The percentage of locally-born and outside-born for some of the chief estate districts in 1911 and 1921 is shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 73.—Percentage to the Total Estate Population of each District, of Locally- born, Other Ceylon-born, and India-born among the Estate Population in each District in 1911 and 1921. All Races. Indian Tamils. Percentage of Percentage of A Born in other Born in other Born in Born in Locally-born. Parts of Locally-born. Parts of India. India. District. Ceylon. Ceylon. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 o 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Colombo .20-2 ..42-4 . 6-G .15-7 .72-9 .41-5 . . 6-4 ..24-9 . . 1-5 . 8-0 ..92-1 . . 670 Kalutara .16-9 ..23-3 .14-8 .12-8 .68-0 .63-5 .10-6 ..19-3 . 4-2 . 5-5 ..85-2 . . 76-2 Kandy 4, .25-4 ..34-7 . 6-9 . 8-4 .67-3 .50-6 .20-0 ..31-5 . 4-1 . 6-5 ..75-9 . . 62-0 Matale .. .13-2 ..27-4 .12-0 .14-7 .74-4 .57-5 .11-5 ..26-8 . 8-5 .10-9 ..80-0 . . 62-3 Nuwara Eliya .18-6 ..300 . 7-8 . 9-4 .732 .60-2 .15-1 ..29-1 . 3-8 . 6 4' ..81-1 . 64-5 Galle .. .41-7 ..43-2 .151 .12-8 .42-9 .43-7 .13-6 -.20-8 3-9 . 7-3 ..82-5 . 71-9 Matara .18-5 ..31-8 .16-7 .12-7 .64-6 .55-3 .10-2 ..22-2 . 5-3 . 6-7 ..84-5 . 711 Kurunegala .16-0 ..185 .311 .41-3 .52-6 .39-9 . 9-2 ..18-3 . 4-9 .12-7 ..85-9 . 69 0 Badulla .25-3 ..313 . 5-7 .. 6-5 ..68-7 .61-8 .22-1 ..30-1 . 3-5 .. 4-7 ..74-3 . 65-2 Ratnapura .15-0 ..21-5 . 9-0 .14-0 ..75-7 .64-2 .10-8 ..20-4 . 3-2 . 8-1 ..86-0 . 71-6 Kegalla .11-8 ..21-5 .12-1 .17-2 .75-8 .60-9 . 9-3 ..20-8 . 6-4 .12-4 ..84-3 . 66-7 Balancing Equations by Birthplaces.—The following propositions, which correspond to the balancing equations for the districts, are fundamental:— (I.) The increase of the A-born in any interval in a locality A is equal to— . (1) The births in A in the interval. Plus (2) the migration of A-born from B to A. Plus (3) the migration of A-born from outside A and B to A. Less (4) the deaths of A-born in A. Less (5) the migration of A-born from A to B. Less (6) the migration of A-born from A to outside A and B. Similarly, (II.) The increase of B-born in any interval in A is equal to— (7) The migration of B-born from B to A. / Plus (8) the migration of B-born from outside A and B to A. cr- ,4^1 n Less (9) the deaths of B-born in A. -J* ^ - / 0 •L*ss (10) fch® migration of B-born from A to B. ^ I Less (11) the migration of B-born from A to outside A and B. A similar equation for the increase of A-born in B is obtained by interchanging A and B in the second equation, while equations for the increase of those born outside A and B and enumerated in A or.B can also be given. The total migration from B to A is in any interval equal to the migration from B to A of (1) A-born, (2) B-born, (3) those born outside A and B. The expression for the migration from B to A in terms of such items as those stated above is thus very complicated and is of no practical use, owing to the impossibility of determining some of the items, for example, the deaths of B-born in A. Even in the fairly simple case of the migration between India andGeylon, a trial shows that no conclusions with regard to the migration can be drawn from the birthplace statistics, which must, therefore, be considered as conveying information regarding the sources of supply of the population at some given time, and r\pt as forming any basis for the calculation of migration. 52 CHAPTER V.—RELIGION. CHAPTER V.—RELIGION. SECTION 1.—GENERAL. The Information asked for.—Column 3 of the Census schedule was entitled "Religion," and the enumerators and householders were asked to enter Buddhist, Hindu, Muhammadan, or other religion as stated by the person enumerated. In the case of Christians, the sect was to be entered, but this information was not collected for any of the other religions. For persons with no religion, the entry was to be " none," " freethinker," " agnostic," &c. Definition.—Reference has been made, in some of the preceding chapters, to various sources of error in the statistics, but, in the case of religion, we appear to find a new factor—the vagueness of the concepts represented by" the- terms~used. ~ Ah unexceptiohahie definition of the word"" religlolP'itself is not easy ; while the connotation of the names given to the various religions is often doubtful. The chief religions in Ceylon are Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Muhammadanism. But Hinduism, for example, includes numerous varieties of religious belief, some of the Buddhists or Hindus might be better classed as Animists ; while many returned as Christians may be so in name only. Buddhism and Hinduism are "considerably intermingled in Ceylon, and the general intelligence of certain sections of the population might be unequal to an appreciation of the difference or even of the essential features of the religion to which they profess adherence.* In Practice.—The enumerators would not, of course, trouble themselves over fine metaphysical distinctions, and it is probable that the most usual criterion was the place of. worship, attendance at a vihare denoting a Buddhist; at a kovil, a Hindu ; at a church, a Christian ; and at a mosque, a Muham madan. The correlation in Ceylon between race and religion would probably also be relied upon by some of the enumerators. Most of the Sinhalese, for example, are Buddhists, the remainder being nearly all Christians ; the Tamils are chiefly Hindus, most of the remainder being Christians ; the Moors and Malays are practically entirely Muhammadans ; while the Europeans and the Burghers and Eurasians are mainly Christians. The cases in which other combinations occurred were very rare, and, when the race had been determined by inspection, as generally can be done, the religion would probably be a selection of one out of two. It is possible enough that there might be a tendency to assume that Sinhalese were Buddhists rather than Christians, for example, and thus to understate the number of Christians, but it seems unlikely that this error was significant. The figures of the Christian sects are probably subject to a greater error, as the differentiation between the numerous Christian denominations is not always easy. Special arrangements were made to minimize this source of error by asking the ministers of the various churches to instruct their adherents to see that the denomination was correctly entered, and it is probable that the proportionate error was not very large. But enough has been said as a caution against supposing that the statistics give an exact presentation of the facts. At the same time, it will birseen later that the proportions of adherents of the various religions at the different Censuses show smaller fluctuations than might be expected, and it is possible that the criteria applied by the enumerators may have remained in a more or less constant relation to the facts. But in all that follows, " Buddhists " means " returned as Buddhist," and so on. SECTION 2.—DEVELOPMENT OF MAIN RELIGIONS. The Total Figures since 1871.—The four main religions in Ceylon, in the order of the respective numbers of adherents, are Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Muhammadanism. f The following four tables show the totals since 1871, the rates of increase, and the proportions to the total population :— TABLE No. 74.—The Buddhist Population in Ceylon, since 1871 (excluding Military and Shipping).! Intercensal Percentage of Total Number Intercensal Census Percentage the Total of Buddhists. Increase. Year. Increase. Population. 1 4 5 - \ 1871 177,495 1. . 11-7 i.. 63-3 : 61-5 ? 1881 78,973 0, . . 10-5 0 . 62-4 "\ 1891 264,361 u. . 14-1 60-1 w 1901 332,766 . 60"3S. 1911 295,635 b . 2,769,805 61-6 o> 1921 TABLE No. 75—The Hindu Population in Ceylon, since 1871 (excluding Military and Shipping). Intercensal Percentage of Intercensal Census Total Number Percentage the Total Increase. Year. of Hindus. Increase. Population. 1 o 3 4 , 5 1871 . .1 465,944 , 1 19-4 C 127,686^. . 27-4 ' :. 1881 2_ 593,630 21-5 1 •} 22,302 \ . 3- 8 . 1891 i 615,932 20-5 ) 34-2 '". . H 210,894 W, . 1901 826,826 • 23- 2 ^ 111,434 . 13-5 \. 1911 s 938,260. 22-8 ^ i 43,813 *?. 4-7 1921 982,073 21-8 ^ * For miscellaneous points of interest regarding tho dogmas of tho various religions, their history, &c, sco Donham's " Ceylon at the Census oj 1911," pages 255-273. t The " Standard order" followed in tho sorting procossos and in most of tho tables is Buddhists, Hindus, Muhammadans, Christians, and Others. J All tho tables in this Chapter exclude the military and shipping. k 0 DIAGRAM J*'^- LOQARITAAIC GBAPAS «F P"PULATI°K «»y CEVI,' By RjELIGI»M. i /,0OO 0 //£nc£**S \&6 0 H V2 4S& 4QCX •1911 4921 &titistzc<3l -Department. SECTION 2.—DEVELOPMENT OF MAIN RELIGIONS. 53 TABLE No. 76.—The Christian Population in Ceylon, since 1871 (excluding Military and Shipping). Intercensal Percentage of Census Total Number Intercensal Percentage the Total Increase. Year. of Christians. Increase. Population. .5 1 240,051 I i 10-0 1871 2-27,926 2 11-6 .. 267,977 o 9-6 1881 i._ _ •_• _o 34,160 1891 .. " ~3b"£l27 * r 10-0 L. 47,112 15-6 9-8 1901 .7 349,239 £ 59,929 The proportions in this table show a remarkable uniformity since 1881, but even if any religion did show any marked increase in the proportionate number of its adherents, one could not argue that the religion in question was spreading in the sense that it was making: converts. The decrease in the percentage of Hindus between 1911 and 1921, for example, is almost certainly mainly attributable to the low rate of increase of both the Ceylon and Indian Tamils, who constitute practically the whole of the Hindu population. The slight decrease in the percentage of Christians in 1921 may just as probably be due to a reduced immigration of Christians—owing to the war or other causes—as to any diminution in the activities of the missionary societies. The increase in the percentage of Buddhists may be due to a high birth-rate or low death-rate during the decade among Buddhists as compared with other religionists. The fact that the proportion of Low-country Sinhalese, who form the majority of the Buddhists, "to the total poplflaTionTi^-increased"fTOm"'41"'81~pW~cehir._in_I9II'"to—42 j>er cent, in 1921 makes it appear natural that the Buddhist community should show a greater natural rate of increase during the decade than other religionists. SECTION 3.—DISTRIBUTION BY RACE AND RELIGION. Race and Religion.—The following table, showing religion by race, makes it clear that any com paratively Mgh rate of increase among the Low-country Sinhalese is almost certain to be reflected in an increase of the proportion of Buddhists in the total population :— TABLE No. 80,—Distribution of a Hundred Persons of each Religion by Race, 1911 and 1921. Buddhists. Hindus. Christians. Muhammadans. Others. A A A A Race. 1911. 1921. • 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Low-country Sin- _ I halese 59-70. . 6003.. 01. •04.. 58-54.. 59-49.. 05. •02.. 4-73.. 8-18 Kandyan Sinhalese" 40'09. . 3903.. •02. •02. 1-56.. 1-75.. •03. •01.. 2-05.. 1-26 Ceylon Tamils .3 •12. •22.. 46-77. . 43-73. 21-04.. 18-42.. •05. 03.. 4-10.. 17-99 Indian Tamils •01. •58.. 52-12. . 54-63.. 10-06.. 11-16.. •18. •12.. 517.. 26-92 Ceylon Moors — . . — .. — . . — .. •01.. — 82-44. 83-26.. •09.. — Indian Moors I — . — . — .. — 11-53. 10-91.. •09.. — i Europeans — . . — — . 1-83.. 1-81.. — . — .. 9-90.. 8-05 Burghers and Eurasians lr •01. 01.. 6-47.. 6-56.. _ _ 3-48.. 4-40 Malays — . . — — . . — •01.. — .. 4-56.. 4-42.. — ... •25 Veddas J? •07. •04. •32. •34. •02. . — .. — . — .. 52-90.. — Others .7 01. . -08.. •75. . 1-23. •47. •79.. 1-15. . 1-24.. 17-48.. 32-96 The Hindus are mostly Tamils, and among Buddhists the percentage, who are not Sinhalese, is practically negligible, although that faith appears to have attracted a small number of Tamils. But the figure for the Buddhist Tamils is probably unreliable. There is no Tamil word for " Hindu " in general use, and an ignorant Tamil when asked at the Census to give his religion would probably be uncertain what to say. Enumerators were instructed if any Tamil said he was a Buddhist, to inquire whether he went to a " kovil " or a " pansala," and to enter " Hindu " or " Buddhist " accordingly, but even so errors might easily occur, and the large increase of Tamils in 1921 under the head " Other " religions (see column 11) may probably be explained by the difficulty experienced by the enumerators in ascertaining correctly the religion of the Tamils of the ignorant classes. A Hindu might often go to a pansala if he had no kovil to go to ; the Hindu Tamil, unlike the Moor or Muhammadan of any nationality, is singularly tolerant in the matter of religion; to him all creeds are much the same and held in almost equal respect. There is, in all probability a certain number of genuine Buddhists among the Tamils, but it is uncertain to what extent this is correctly shown in the returns. The following table gives the races by religion :— TABLE No. 81.—Distribution of a Hundred Persons of each Race, by Religion, 1911 and 1921. Buddhists. Hindus. Christians. Muhammadans. Others. A A, \_ A A Religion. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 8 9 10 11 Low-country Sinha lese . 86-03.. 86-28. •02.. 13-95.. 13-69. •01.. Kandyan Sinhalese^ 99-33.. 99-26. •02. •02.. •64.. •71. -01.. — . . — — Ceylon Tamils '-55.. 1-15. 83-11.. 8301.. 16-30.. 15-79. •03.. •02.. 01. . 03 Indian Tamils y •05.. .2-68. . 9209.. 89-01.. 7-75. . 8-21. •10. . •06. . 01. . •04 Ceylon Moors r •01.. •01. •01.. •006 •01. . •006 99-97.. 99-98.. — — Indian Moors _ i •01.. 01. •08. •04. . •02.. •02. 99-89.. 99-92.. — — Europeans .7 13.. •22. •01. — .. 98-39.. 98-99. . — .. — 1-46.. •79 Burghers and Eurasians •58.. 1-06. 03. •05. 99-22.. 98-76. .. -03.- •01. . -15.. • 12 Malays _ ) •08.. •13. . — . •01. •28. . •04. . 99-64.. 99-80. — .. 01 Veddas Id 30-44.. 26-43. . 56-77. . 73-10. 1-67.. •44. . — •02. . 11-12.. — Others 1» 2-28.. 10-54. . 55-22. . 55-21. 15-22.. 16-03. .25-74 .. 17-04. 1-55.. 1-19 ISLAND OF CEYLON SHOWING I THE PROPORTION OF THE ADHERENTS OF EACH OF THE FOUR PRINCIPAL RELIGIONS TO TOTAL POPULATION IN EACH DISTRICT 1921,{MUNICIPALITIES INCLUDED IN DISTRICTS) Scale of64 Miles to an Inch REFERENCE. Under 5 per cent. -...5percent tunder tSpercent. ,...*....„ 30...,,....,,... ft...... 50.. .„..„.... 4 BUDDHISTS HINDUS. Mm .«y. .-.-.-.r.-.-y. -_--..-<; urV? l|l;J« •J 'ill!! V ----- \ N# «T _v _ J I \ ' . 1. »•, \-- • 5 tS^;-'HUW*»A- \'l ill "Hj. \ / _> i '*~J- SECTION 4.—RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION OF PROVINCES AND DISTRICTS. 55 It indicates the extent to which the various races are influenced by Christianity : 15 '79 per cent, of the Ceylon Tamils and 13.69 per cent, of the Low-country Sinhalese are Christians, and the figure for the Indian Tamils is 8'21. The percentage of Christians among other races, excepting of course Europeans, and Burghers and Eurasians, is negligible. Kandy is an important centre of Buddhism, and the Kandyans were late in coming under the direct European influence, so that it is not surprising to find that the proportion of Christians or converts to any religion other than Buddhism among them is small. Muhammadans are of course always very tenacious of their religion, and one sees that, as might be expected, the proportion of non-Muhammadans among the Moors and Malays is quite indgnificant. ThesetWdtables show" that as a rough generalization one can say that " Buddhist " and " Sinhalese " are convertible terms, with the exception of a certain number of Christians among the Low-country Sinhalese ; that the same is true of the terms " Tamil " and " Hindu," with the exception of a small number of converts to Christianity; and that Muhammadanism has an almost universal hold on the Moors and Malays, though it makes practically no converts in other races. SECTION 4.—RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION OF PROVINCES AND DISTRICTS. Provinces and Districts by Religion.—The following table shows the distribution of 100 persons of the population according to religion in the Provinces and districts in 1911 and 1921, and the four maps facing this page show the relative strength of each of the four principal religions in each district:— TABLE No. 82.- -Distribution of 100 Persons in each Province and District according to Religion, 1911 and 1921. Province and District. Buddhists. Hindus. Christians. Muhammadans. A , A . 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ceylon A. 60-25 61-57 . 22-85 21-83 9-96 . 9-86 6-91 . 6-73 Western Province 66-54 . 68-33 . 7-67 703 18-95 18-35 6-81 . 6-26 Central Province A 49-24 . 51-13 . 38-97 . 37-13 5-64 5-57 6-14 . 617 Southern Province 94-10 . 93-71 . 1-22 1-83 116 115 3-62 . 3-30 Northern Province I. •60 •85 . 82-05 81-68 13-83 13-94 3-52 . 3-63 Eastern Province A 3-71 . 4-21 . 51-98 50-65 3-59 5-64 38-72 .39-46 North-Western Province* 71-06 , 71-53 . 5-19 5-42 16-92 16-31 6-83 . 6-71 North-Central Province 77-06 . 76-12 . 9-18 9-96 203 1-82 11-65 . 12-10 Province of Uva .1 6111 58-57 . 32-48 34-81 2-51 3-04 3-62 . 3-66 Province of Sabaragamuwa 73-15 . 73-74 . 20-61 19-87 3-00 3-07 3-24 . 3-29 Miscellaneous Population f '.«'/ — Colombo Municipality .'•"30-89 36-35 . 19-07 17-05 28-31 26-81 Colombo District (exclusive of 21-66 .. 19-69 the Municipality) 73-53 74-73 3-08 2-35 21-44 21-20 1-95 1-71 Kalutara District !f 78-10 79 03 913 9-29 6-40 6-00 s 6-37 5-69 Kandy Municipality I . 46-54 51-12 11-67 9-75 20-52 19-89 2118 19-18 Kandy District (exclusive of the Municipality) 52-83 55-18 35-81 33-48 4-67 4-62 6-69 6-81 Ma tale District .0 61-30 61-29 28-50 28-55 3-89 3-86 6-31 6-29 Nuwara Eliya District '.h 32-58 34-29 59-15 57-22 6-43 6-48 1-84 2-00 Galle Municipality .fi 70-20 70-79 1-44 119 6-47 617 21-89 21-83 Galle District (exclusive of the Municipality) H> 96-41 95-57 1-51 2-39 •87 •91 1-21 13 Matara District ""—-•M 94-81 94-16 118 1-84 •88 •99 , 313 01 Hambantota District .»- 96-04 96-01 •69 •77 •47 •37 . 2-90 81 Jaffna District ?4 -09 •26 87-76 87-24 1104 11-33 , 111 17 Mannar District Hf -78 1-29 17-79 19-71 49-78 . 47-67 . 31-64 31-34 Mullaittivu District }-? 10-08 10-64 69-35 . 68-18 13-32 . 13-95 . 7-25 7-23 Batticaloa District W 3-79 4-36 51-91 50-87 4-85 4-92 . 39-45 39-81 Trincomalee District XI 3-31 3-49 52-38 49-62 . 9-41 . 9 03 . 34-90 37-85 Kurunegala District M 86-87 85-48 , 3-96 . 4-48 4-61 , < 5-38 . 4-66 4-64 Puttalam District % ?2 21 01 25-16 9-97 . 10-77 . 38-83 . 28-97 . 30-19 Chilaw District 1°. 38-35 34-94 39-42 . 7-34 . 6-83 . 50-10 . 49-71 . 4-21 Anuradhapura District V. 77-06 4-04 76-12 . 9-18 . 9-96 . 03 1-82 . 11-65 Badulla District hh 61-11 12-10 58-57 . 32-48 . 34-81 . 51 3 04 . 3-62 Ratnapura District ?A 78-81 3-66 73-84 . 16-69 . 2116 . 65 2-93 . 1-95 Kegalla District •lH 69-28 . 73-67 . 2-04 23-29 . 18-90 . 30 318 . 4-13 . 4-24 The Provinces.—This table Bhows that in six Provinces, out of nine, more than two-thirds of the population belong to the same religion. In the Central Province and in Uva the presence of a large estate population, consisting mostly of Hindu Tamils, accounts for some approximation between the numbers of Buddhists and Hindus. In the Eastern Province the Moors are not far behind the Tamils in numbers, and, as one might expect from that, the proportion of Muhammadans in the population is not far behind the proportion of Hindus. Of the other six Provinces, five being Sinhalese are predomi nantly Buddhist, and, in the Northern Province which is predominantly Tamil, the Hindus form about 82 per cent, of the population. * If the St. Anna's pilgrims who were not born in the North-Western Province aro excluded, the proportions for 1911 are: 71-92 Buddhists, 6-25 Hindus, 6-91 Muhammadans, and 15-92 Christians. t The Miscellaneous population is comprised of 751 persons enumerated in Trains and the Basses in 1921 Thev were 159 Buddhists, 307 Hindus, 126 Muhammadans, 156 Christians, and 3 Others, and are included in the figures shown for the Island. The proportions are not worked out for the Miscellaneous population separately as it is small. J If the St. Anna's pilgrims who were not born in tho Puttalam District are excluded, the proportions for 1911 aro: 35-99 Mulvmmadans, 27-08 Christians. 25-05 Buddhists, nnd 11 •«« THr^w 56 CHAPTER V.—RELIGION. The Districts.—When we turn to the districts, the distribution of the various religions is shown in greater detail. Galle, Matara, Hambantota, and Kurunegala show high proportions of Buddhists, while Jaffna District includes the largest proportion of Hindus, owing to the fact that in each of tho other Tamil districts—Mannar, Mullaittivu, Batticaloa, and Trincomalee—there is an appreciable number of Moormen, who almost without exception would be Muhammadans, and would, therefore, reduce the proportion of Hindus. In Mannar and Mullaittivu there is also a considerable number of Christians. These facts are graphically represented in Diagram No. 17 facing this page. In the Municipalities of Colombo and Kandy there is a comparatively even distribution of the religions.—Christianity-is most-prevalent in-the-districts^iVfannaTpPuttalaTm, and~CnTlaw, and also in Colombo District, whether the Municipality is included or not.* Religion by Districts.—A table showing the inverse distribution of religion by districts is some times useful, and is given below:— TABLE No. 83—Distribution in the Districts of a Hundred Adherents of each Religion in Ceylon, 1921. District. Buddhists. Hindus. Christians. Muhammadans. Others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ceylon 100- 0 100 0 100- 0 .. 100- 0 . 100- 0 Colombo Municipality .*r 3-20 4-24 14-77 15-89 .. 31-69 Colombo District (exclusive of the Municipality) .A 18-32 1-62 32-48 3-85 .. 5-56 Kalutara .. X 9-24 306 4-38 6-09 .. 1-64 Kandy Municipality A •60 •32 1-47 2-07 .. . 2-02 Kandy District (exclusive of the Municipality) A 8-00 13-69 409 9 04 .. 3-54 Matale .. .1. 2-58 3-39 1-02 2-42 .. •76 Nuwara Eliya i. 2-07 9-74 2-44 Ill .. 1-64 Galle Municipality A 100 05 •54 2-82 .. Galle District (exclusive of the •76 Municipality .'? 9-46 •67 •56 02 •88 Matara .. 8-11 •45 •53 37 •25 Hambantota .. .' ?- 4-15 •09 •10 111 6-31 Jaffna .. 03 29-37 8-45 1-28 1-52 Mannar .. /.'J •01 •51 2-75 2-65 Mullaittivu .'S •07 1-30 •59 •48 Batticaloa .. •25 8-22 1 • 76 20-90 8-08 Trincomalee .. . •04 1-72 •69 4-27 •13 Kurunegala .. . 10-95 1-62 4-30 5-44 7-95 Puttalam .. .'A •32 •39 2-33 411 7-45 Chilaw .. • .:° 46 •71 11-48 37 •76 Anuradhapura . ?' 65 •98 •40 86 •51 Badulla . . . ?! 95 8-29 1-60 75 7-45 Ratnapura . 41 4-37 1-34 37 7-56 Kegalla . .*"* 11 5-18 1-93 77 3-54 !2~o From this it will be seen that the majority of Buddhists are found in the Colombo District, and that high proportions occur in Kurunegala, Galle, Kalutara, Matara, and Kandy Districts. Most of the Hindus belong to Jaffna, while large proportions are found in Kandy, Nuwara Eliya, Badulla, and other planting districts owing to the presence of Indian Tamils. Muhammadans occur mostly in Batticaloa and Colombo Municipality, while most of the Christians are found in Colombo District, Colombo Municipality, and Chilaw District owing to the large number of Roman Catholics there SECTION 5.—CHBISTIAN SECTS. The Christian Sects.—The RQman Catholics far outnumber all the rest of the Christians in the Island put together. At the Census of "1921'they amounted to 368,499 persons, whereas the next most numerous sect—the Church of England—only had 44,730 adherents. The Roman Catholics in 1921 comprised 83*11 per cent, of the total Christians, against 82*92 per cent, in 1911. The following table shows the percentage of adherents of each Christian Sect to the total Christian population, by Provinces and districts, in 1911 and 1921. J * It is interesting to examine tho figures for the proportion of Christians in tho districts, to see if any explanation can be found for tho decrease in tho proportion of Christians in the Island. In considering tho 1911 figures for Christians, it should bo borne in mind that not only was the figure for Puttalam District increased by the inolusion of the pilgrims to St. Anna's, but also that the absence from their native districts of the pilgrims would cause an appreci able diminution in the figures for these districts, and probably more especially for the neighbouring districts of Mannar, Anuradhapura, Chilaw, and Kurunegala. It seems, therefore, that tho figures for the Christians normally resident in these districts in 1911 would be appreciably higher than tho Census figures, and even on the Census figures, each of these districts except the last-named shows a decrease since 1911 in tho proportion of Christians. The true decrease according to the reasoning above would bo even greater, while the apparent increase in Kurunegala may mask an actual decrease. Similarly, in other districts whoro there ha-, boen an apparent increase in tho proportion of Christians, it is probable that this increase—in most cases a very slight ono—also masks an actual decrease. As to Puttalam District the true figure for the proportion of Christians normally resident there in 1911 must cloarly bo less than the figure— 3,883 per 10,000—including the pilgrims. It would probably bo more than the figure—2,708 per 10,000—excluding the pilgrims. It is possible, therefore, that there has been a decrease in the proportion of Christians in every district including Puttalam. It might appear from this that Christianity has lost some ground in Ceylon, but no roliablo conclusions can bo formed as to this. •(• The total Christian population by Provinces and districts is #iven in Appendix I. For Christian Population in each District, by Sects. 1021, reference mnv he rwule to Tni.V- Tjn VTV-V>*~TV.T TT— -„•»-,!,. n...- •>• DIAGRAM ]f> 17 P5PUIAT19M 9F DISTRICTS Bf REUQI9N , 1921 DISTRICT T Hj&U SANDS <>r PCRS M S 100 200 300 60O TOO | I I I I | I I I I | I I I I | I I I I | I I I I | I I I I | I I I I | I I I \ | I I I I | I I II | I ) I I | I I I I | I I I I | I I I I I I I I | I I Ootombo Kalutara Colombo Municipality Kandy Matale Afutvara Eliya Kandy Municipality Galle Matara JSuddhtsts. . Hambantota . Galle Municipality ffinddS. \ Muhammadans. Jaffna Mannar • Christians. Mullaittivu Sxitticaloa Trincomalee Kurunegala Puttalctm Chilaw . Anuradhapura. Badulla /Zatnapura Kegalla '' i i I i i i i i i i i I i' i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i i i i I i t i i I i i i i I I M I I I I I I I M I I I too 200 SOO 400 SOO 00© 70 I0 THOUSANDS °T PERSONS Statistical Department. SECTION 5.—CHRISTIAN SECTS. 57 TABLE No. 84.—Percentage of Adherents of each Christian Sect to the Total Christian Population, 1911 and 1921, by Provinces and Districts. Roman Church of 7 Congrego Salva tion- Other Wcsleyans. Presbyterians. tionalists. ist 8. Christians. Catholics. England. Baptists. 1 1921. Province and District. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921./ 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 13 14 16 16 17 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 U 'i 12 •79 •73 •40 •25 •26 14 •64 Ceylon 82-92 83-11 10 04 10 09 4-23 3-91 •87 •80 •81 1 •03 •16 •16 •14 •32 Western Province 81-93 82-47 10-46 10-20 5-00 4-68 1-21 116 1-06 •99 •04 •19 •27 •39 •82 Colombo Municipality }. 72-08 72-58 18-28 17-45 3-88 3-93 3-62 3-42 1-66 1-47 •09 •06 Colombo District (exclu •13 •03 08 85-86 86-49 7-21 7-23 5-53 4-97 •30 •24 •90 •86 •01 •16 •02 •16 •02 02 •14 •35 Kalutara District 85-90 85-91 8-32 7-82 4-87 612 •19 •38 •53 •30 1-30 •21 •12 •19 •14 •57 •62 Central Province h 70-51 70 07 22-84 23-89 3 07 2-92 1-27 •94 1-35 •15 •61 •14 •18 •25 Kandy Municipality .1 57-11 57-97 31-07 31-20 6-78 6-70 2-68 1 -96 1 -51 1-78' Kandy District (exclu sive of the Munici •17 •16 •35 •45 pality) A 72-91 71-25 21-97 24 06 2-55 2-39 1-03 •84 •86 •85 •17 •14 •29 2-61 1-91 Matale District ~. 73-42 71-85 16-36 17-36 2-35 2:31 •80 •71 5-25 4-55 •07 1-02 •04 •33 •59 Uuwara Eliya District'.* 73-14 74-60 22-55 21-93 203 1-81 109 •59 •47 •42 •37 •03 •01 •34 •23 •07 •05 •11 •62 Southern Province 44-99 49-47 30-94 31 12 18-77 15-12 3-81 2-80 •98 •57 •08 •12 •76 Galle Municipality 55-19 59-89 20-37 21-24 16-78 13-23 611 411 1-19 •58 •27 •08 Galle District (exclusive •22 •04 48-92 41-49 35-45 17-98 1319 •32 108 1-42 •72 •18 •60 •05 of the Municipality) !JL 38-34 •04 •15 106 40-06 31-39 35-81 24-13 18-82 619 3-65 •35 •51 •50 •04 •10 Matara District >*# 38-19 •90 Hambantota District l£ 48-25 45-96 37-65 35-65 11-48 16-59 1-76 •90 •19 •78 * 305 •04 •11 •01 2-27 Northern Province It. 88-38 88-70 3-62 3-27 2-56 2-49 -09 •10 •03 •01 5-36 7-50 *316 •07 •15 •01 *4-26 Jaffna District O. 84-97 85-32 4-52 417 2-77 2-81 •12 •11 •04 01 •17 Mannar District 'J. 97-14 97-81 •4l •30 2-23 1-85 •05 .04 •47 •11 Mullaittivu District r$. 93-33 94-67 6-11 4-18 108 •88 11 •04 •01 •17 •01 •12 80-26 4-77 4-59 1717 14-73 •27 •10 — 01 •04 01 Eastern Province %o 77-73 •01 •24 •08 75-29 6-46 5-42 21-31 18-88 •28 06 •01 •04 •01 Batticaloa District 72-89 •04 •23 Trincomalee Distriot 1.V 90-64 92-86 2-92 2-60 611 4-22 •25 19 •04 •04 •36 •33 •01 •34 •28 •01 •05 North-Westem Provincef' 95-64 95-42 3-14 301 •55 •86 •05 •37 •31 •01 — 1-55 •94 01 •14 Kurunegala District fr 86-55 88-97 9-91 7-95 1-40 1-51 •19 •18 •04 03 •02 •03 •01 •01 •09 Puttalam Districtf 98-32 98-82 1-32 •63 •21 •43 •05 •44 .40 •02 •08 •01 Chilaw District 97-79 97-15 1-38 1-64 •36 •71 01 •004 •97 •63 •57 •23 — •05 •40 North-Central Province V. 82-32 81-71 14-36 14-93 2-06 1-42 •35 — •57 •23 •05 •40 Anuradhapura Districts 82-32 81-71 14-36 14-93 206 1-42 •35 •97 •63 •45 •14 •01 •82 6-30 63-86 60-23 26-75 24-40 6-45 5-82 1-34 •94 •33 2-17 Province of Uva •94 •33 2171 •45 •14 •01 — •82 §6 «30 Badulla District 63-86 60-23 26-76 24-40 6-45 5-82 1-34 1-72 •IP •or 303 3-08 •0£ 103 i 73-68 72-63 1709 19 03 3-85 1-78 •45 •68 1-70 • 1-71 •54 •92 118 1-65 •OS •07 •02 •03 •14 1-46 Ratnapura District 76-17 74 02 19-95 20-24 1-89 1-84 •40 •50 207 1-85 •24 •04 4-62 6-18 — •74 Kegalla District 1 72-2C 71-66 15-58 18-18 4-88 ! Ml This table shows that there has been no great change in the constitution by denominations of the Christian population since 1911. In 1921 the Roman Catholics predominated to a very noticeable degree in the Western, Northern, and North-Western Provinces, and to a less extent in all the other Provinces, the Southern Province being the only one where they did not form a majority of the total f Christian population. The next most numerous sect after the Church of England Was the Wesleyans, but in no Province or district did they form as much as 20 per cent, of the total Christian population. They were chiefly to be found in the Western Province, but in the Southern Province and the Batticaloa District, owing to the smaller total number of Christians there, they formed a larger proportion of the- Christian community than in the Western Province or elsewhere. The next most numerous sect was the Presbyterians, the majority of whom were also to be found in the Western Province. They have almost Toeenovertaken in point of numbers by the Baptists, who, at the Census, numbered 3,511, against 3,536 Presbyterians. There has been a considerable decrease in the number of Congregationalists, the explanation of which will be found on the next page. This has apparently occurred^ almost solely in the Northern Province, where in both 1911 and 1921 the majority of them were to be found. In 1921 they were not much more numerous than the Salvationists, nearly half of whom were found in the Province of Sabaragamuwa, most of the remainder'of them being registered in the Western and North western Provinces. * See next page. f 1911 figures are exclusive of the pilgrims at St. Anne's. J Number in 1911 was 18, and in 1921, 154—increase due to 148 on estates, mostly immigrant Telugus (vide Vol. III., Table VIII.). § Increase in 1921 was due to a large number of Lutherans. CHAPTER V.—RELIGION. 5S Some of the principal sects of " Other " Christians and their numbers are the following :— Friends' Mission 116 (71 in Matale District). Greek Church 23 (20 in Colombo Municipality). Jndopendent Catholic 51 (42 in Colombo Municipality). Lutheran* 443 (386 in Badulla District and 45 in Colombo Municipality Plymouth Brethren 19 (all in Colombo Municipality). Seventh Day Adventist 28 (17 irk Matara District). South India United Churcht. 1,172 (1,168 in Jaffna District). Undenominational ist 68 (51 in Colombo Municipality). The bulk of the work of the Friends' Mission in Ceylon was handed over to the Baptist Missionary Society in 1922.— Thp.J'riftnHaJifl.vft retairifcd work at Clodagh MountLajujjj,attota in Matale District, but their numbers will probably show a decline at the next Census, as some of those who returned themselves as Friends at the 1921 Census will, in future, probably reckon themselves as Baptists. The total number of " Other " Christians in 1921 (2,861) showed a considerable increase over the 1911 figure (578), chiefly due to the large increase in the Northern Province, where it would seem that many of those who entered themselves as Congregationalists in 1911 were described as belonging to the South IndranJJnited Church in 1921. This Church is the outcome of a Union Movement among several of the Protestant Missions working in South India- It has nine Church Councils, one of which is at Jaffna, where the Churches of the American Mission have joined the movement. Probably the majority of those who registered themselves as Congregationalists at the 1921 Census should be grouped under the head of the South India United Church. 158 males and 84 females entered themselves as Freethinkers, 100 males and 63 females as Zoroas- trians, 18 males and 4 females as Agnostics,! 17 males and 1 female as Atheists, 3 males and 2 females as Jews, 4 males as Unitarians, 1 male each as a Rationalist, Shintpist, Theosophist, and 150 males and 129 females as of " No Religion." In the case of 53 males and 6 females the religion was unspecified. Regarding the number of churches, chapels, &c, of the various Christian denominations and the places where they are situated, reference may be made to Section " L " of the Ceylon Blue Book, 1922. SECTION 6.—RACE BY RELIGION AND PROVINCE. Race by Religion and Province.!—None of the preceding tables gives any indication of the distribu tion of the races by religion in the various Provinces. This is given in the following two tables for Sinhalese including both Low-country and Kandyan, and Tamils, including Ceylon and Indian, and for further details reference may be made to Vol. IV. of the Census publications :— TABLE No. 85.—Percentage of Christian and Buddhist Sinhalese, to Total Sinhalese of each Sex, 1881-1921. Sinhalese Christians. Sinhalese Buddhists. Province- 1921. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1921. 5 6 11 1 2 3 4 Ceylon. 91 0 8-9 90 9- 1 9 0 91 2 91 -1 9101 90-9 Males and Females 18-8 MALES. 87 8 9 88 91 3 91-2 91-2 91-1 91- 2 Ceylon 8-6 87 16-5 79 6 81-2 82-2 830 83-4 : 20-3 18-7 17-9 17-0 Western Province .. L^p 96-9 97-2 97-3 3-3 ; 33 3-02 2-8 2-7 96-6 96-6 Central Province . . j 99-3 99-3 99- 3 •7 •6 '. -7 •7 • 7 99-2 99-3 Southern Province . . i >. 76-9 72-6 77-8 30-6 39-5 230 27-1 219 69-0 60-3 Northern Province . . j '?. 91-8 | 90-2 86-8 3-4 5-4 8-07 9-9 11-6 96-4 94-1 Eastern Province . . ' ?. 84-OTi 82-6 83- 1 11-6 139 15-8 17-4 16-9 88-3 86-0 North-Wostern Province A 99-0 1 98-6 98-6 •2 •7 •98J 1-4 1-4 99-7 99-2 North-Central Province /\ 1-3 98-6 98-2 9^-6 i 98-7 98-7 l 1-3 1-6 1-4 1-3 Province of Uva .. ." 98-1 i 98-2 1-7 1-8 1-9 1-8 98-5 98-2 98-1 Province of Sabaragamuwa ..V 1-4 Miscellaneous Population (enume 17-3 82-7 rated in Trains and Basses) FEMALES. 90-7 90-8 88 9 0 91 93 91-01| 90 9 90-8 Ceylon .. ,\ 81-6 77-9 79-4 80-09! 81- 22-05 205 19-9 190 97-4 Western Province . . 2-4 97-4 97-4 97-4 97- 2-4 | 2-5 2-6 99- 3 Central Province . . A. •7 99-3 99-3 99-3 99 •6 I •7 92-0 Southern Province . . .*) 16-2 97-6 88-8 93-9 83 1-9 I 6-9 94-9 Northern Province .. , 2-2 30 98-6 97-4 97 • 5 96-9 1-2 83-5' Eastern Province .. * 15- 1 16-7 88-9 86-7 84-7 83- 10-9 99-2 North-Western Province .1 •4 •7 99-9 99-6 99-6 99- •06 98-9 North-Central Province •9 •9 99-4 99-2 99 08 99- •5 98-5 Province of Uva .. .> 1-3 1-5 99-0 98-8 98-6 98' Province of Sabaragamuwa to •9 Miscollaneous Population (enume 36-4 63- li rated in Trains and Basses) \v • Number in 1911 was 142 (all Europeans). Of the 386 in Badulla District as many as 300 wore on estate mostly immigrant Telugus (vide Vol. 111., Table VIII.). •f See paragraph below. SECTION 6.—RACE BY RELIGION AND PROVINCE. 59 TABLE No. 86.—Percentage of Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu Tamils, to Total Tamils of each Sex, 1881-1921. TAMILS. Province. Christians. Buddhists. Hindus. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 L Ceylon. Males and Females t 12-0 1304 11 -5 12 02 11 •7 1 •9 2-2 1 •9 •3 2 -0 | 85 9 84-7 86 4 87 6 86-2 MAXES. V Ceylon 11-6 12-8 11-4 12 1 12 0 2 •2 2-5 2 •3 •4 2 •4 85-8 84-5 86 08 87 5 85-5 3 320 35-6 24-9 23 5 22 3 13 •2 16-5 12 9 8 Western Province •96 8 / 53 8 47-6 61 3 75 2 68-6 Central Province V 6-3 7-6 6-9 7 9 8-0 2 •3 1-9 1 4 •3 1 8 ' 90 8 90-3 91 6 91 8 90-1 Southern Province X 15-3 13-6 101 11 8 11 9 11 • 7 8-3 6 3 2 •3 4 7 66 7 77-2 82 5 85 6 83-2 Northern Province X 13-1 13-8 13-7 14 0 14 2 01 — 001 005 01 86 8 86-1 86 2 86 02 85-7 Eastern Province . . .7 7-09 7-6 7-6 8 1 8 4 005 — 02 •02 1 92 8 92-2 92 3 91 9 91-4 North-Western Province i 28-8 33-3 27-0 26 5 22 9 4 4 8-5 7 7 1 •7 7 4 66 0 57-7 63 2 71 8 69-4 North-Central Province "> 7-6 7-5. 8-8 9 7 6 2 o 5 4-8 3 5 1 •4 7 •9 89 6 86-8 87 5 88 2 85-8 Province of Uva '.0. 40 4-5 3-8 4 04 4 6 1 7 4-4 2 3 •3 1 6 93 6 90-8 93 8 95 5 93-8 Province of Sabaragamuwa 6.2 71 6-3 6 7 7 1 4 4 3-2 1 6 •4 3 0 88 3 89-3 91 8 92 8 89-8 / FEMAX.ES. Ceylon 12-4 3-3 11-6 11 9 11 4 1 4 1-7 1 4 •2 1 4 85 9 84-8 86 8 87 8 87-1 Western Province 41-4 45-6. 32-0 28 7 25 4 11 3 146 11 08 1 •1 7 4 4f> 4 39-4 56 5 70 0 67 0 Central Province 6-5 7-9 71 7 6 7 4 o o 1-7 1 07 •2 1 3 90 9 90-2 91 7 92 1 91-3 Southern Province ' 20-7 17-4 10-02 10 7 10 8 11 1 70 4 5 1 •9 2 7 CO 8 74-8 85 05 87 4 '86-5 Northern Province IV. 13-5 140 13-8 14 1 14 2 006 — •003 005 &6 4 85-9 86 1 85 9 85-8 Eastern Province o. 7-2 7-5 7-3 8 2 8 2 005 — 002 •02 1 92 7 92-4 92 6 91 8 91-6 North-Western Province l "V 33-1 37 0 30-9 31 2 24 9 3 5 8-4 6 8 1 -7 6 3 62 8 54-2 59 1 67 0 68-7 North-Central Province 10-8 9-5 11-2 10 6 6 3 1 8 5-6 2 9 1 •6 8 5 87 2 84-3 85 8 86 5 85-2 Province ofUva Oft 4«1 4-3 3-6 3 6 4 0 1 2 3-2 1 9 . 2 1 0 94-0 92-2 94 4 96 1 94-9 Province of Sabaragamuwa 5-2 70 6-3 6 4 6 5 3 6 2-5 1 09 •3 2 0 89 9 90-2 92 4 93 2 91-3 at . From Table No. 85 we find that, at this Census, the Buddhists among the Sinhalese males have increased or maintained their position in every Province except the Eastern, while the Christians show a considerable decrease in the Northern Province. The same remarks appear to be generally true in regard to the Sinhalese females also. The total Sinhalese only represent 1 • 1 and 4 - 5 per cent, of the total population in the Northern and Eastern Provinces respectively and—with the exception of the Sinhalese in Vavuniya South (Sinhalese Division) of the Mullaittivu District, Bintenna pattu of the Batticaloa District, and Kattukkulam pattu of the Trincomalce District, who are almost all Buddhists— are practically temporary residents engaged in various occupations, as fishermen, traders, railway employees, and domestic servants, and composed mainly of Low-country Sinhalese. It is; therefore, probable that the change in the percentages of Christians and Buddhists in these two Provinces is due to migration of the Low-country Sinhalese. From the same table it is clear that 1*6 per cent, of the Sinhalese male population and 2*2 per cent, of the Sinhalese female population of the Eastern Province were neither Christians nor Buddhists. The former represents 86 Hindus (4 being Kandyan), 2 Muhammadans, and the latter 69 Hindus (9 being Kandyan). Table also shows that in only two Sinhalese Provinces, the Western and North-Western, are more than 15 per cent, of the Sinhalese population Christians. In Table No. 86, the Tamil Buddhists show a considerable increase at this Census, while the Hindus show a corresponding decrease. The difficulty of correctly ascertaining the religion of immigrant Tamils has already been referred to and this probably accounts to a large extent for the apparent increase among Tamil Buddhists. It may be noted that increases in the percentage of Tamil Buddhists in the Western, North-Western, and North-Central Provinces appear to be reflected on the Christian percentages. CHAPTER VI.—LITERACY. SECTION I.—SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. The Information asked for.—As in 1911, the enumerators were required to enter the mother tongue for each person who could read and write it. In the case of persons who. could read and write another language, but not their mother tongue, that other language was to be entered ; but if any one could read and write a language in addition to the mother tongue, the latter alone was to be entered. The entry of " none " was to be made in the case of persons unable to read and write any language. Columns were also provided for entries regarding ability to read and write and to speak English, " yes " or^" no " bejng entered according to the circumstances. CO CHARTER VI—LITERACY. Difficulties of Definition.—A common example of literacy given to the enumerators was that of ability to read and write a short letter, but it is doubtful to what extent the enumerators adhered to some such standard, or used it to test claims to literacy on the part of the persons enumerated. The enumerators were definitely instructed not to reckon as literates persons who could only sign their names, but it is probable that untested statements were often accepted, and it is clear that the definition of literacy might tend to vary with the mentality of the enumerator. The possibility of this variation must, therefore, be borne in mind when the figures of literacy are being utilized, but no estimate can be made of the amount of the error, though it may be presumed that the literacy figures would tend to be somewhat overstated. It is possible that the proportionate error may remain about the same from Census to Census, and it will appear from what follows that a comparison of the 1911 and 1921 figures does not show any glaring discrepancies which have to be assigned to careless work by the enumerators. Other Reservations.—Even if the returns of literacy were made with perfect accuracy, it has to be borne in mind that variations in the figures may arise from causes other than the change of the standard of education. One race may, for example, show a lower percentage of literacy than another, as the former may contain a larger percentage of females (whose literacy is considerably lower in the east than that of males) or a higher percentage of children whose education has not begun ; English literacy may be high in a district on account of the presence of a proportionately large number of Europeans ; or the increasing literacy of an immigrant race may be due to spread of education in the country of origin. These and other extraneous factors must be allowed for in drawing conclusions from the literacy statistics regarding the variation of the standard of education in the country under consideration. In all that follows, " literate " means " returned as literate," &c. All the tables in this Chapter exclude the military and shipping. The use of the Statistics.—Any discussion of the utility of the literacy figures need not detain us long, as it is universally recognized that some measurement of a people's educational advancement is essential for the intelligent handling of administrative problems, for gauging the success of a particular educational policy, and for other purposes. There are measures besides the literacy of the Census— such as the number of schools and scholars—and, although none of them is unexceptionable, the importance of the subject requires the careful investigation of such evidence as is available. SECTION 2.—PROGRESS OF LITERACY. The Races by Sex.—The following table shows the percentage of literates among the males and females of the various races in Ceylon. The percentages for 1921 are further illustrated in Diagram No. 18 facing this page. Children under 5 years of age have been omitted as they are generally illiterate :— TABLE No. 87.- -The Percentage of Literates of each Sex and Race since 1881 (excluding Children 0-4). Maloa. Race. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 6 6 All Races 298 . 36-1 420 47- 2 . 56-3 Low-country Sinhalese 50 5 .. 56- 9 .. 65-3 Kandyan Sinhalese 310 .. 37-9 38-2 .. 43- 3 . . 53-7 Ceylon Tamils r 53- 7 . . 62-3 24-8 .. 29-7 32-3 .. Indian Tamils -)'• 3 .. 30-6 t 22 6 . . Ceylon Moors 37 47-2 32-2 .. 45-4 403 f ' Indian Moors :.)\ ^ 53 6 . . 64-'2 Europeans • • 8 97-3 .. 98-8 99 0 .. 98- 7 98-8 Burghers and Eurasians °1 72-9 .. 78-3 84-7 .. 81- 1 86-2 Malays . . 16 49-1 .. 55-8 64-7 62- 5 . . 71-2 Veddas 3-7 30 4-4 9- 5 . . 10-5 Others . . . /> (V-27- 5 .. 35-6 47-9 44- 0 . . 60-1 Females. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1921. All Races 3 1 5-3 8 5 12 5 . . 21-2 Low-country Sinhalese 13 8 20 7 . . 32-2 2 7 . . 5-2 r Kandyan Sinhalese 2 0 3 3 .. 8-7 Ceylon Tamils 12 8 . . 23-7 r 2 4 4-1 4 8 Indian Tamils 1 7 6-5 Ceylon Moors 3 1 6-1 r 1 8 . . 1-9 3 2 Indian Moors • i 2 2 . . 5-5 Europeans 95 0 . . 98-7 98 6 96 0 . . 97-3 Burghers anil Eurasians CO 9 . . 69-8 78 7 77 7 . . 84-7 Malays \0 4 2 . . 7-3 20 4 17 1 34-2 Veddas u 4 — 2 8 .: 1-7 Othors 3 7 7-5 20 0 14 2 . . , 27-8 LITERATES AJ«. PfiR Races S65 2/2 JZttrope&nS 1988 apj ^l£S£&sZe*& 662 84P 342 \jZoM*-CO£irttr& 6S3 \32£ 642 SS =F I 2Stk Outers 6oi \l&£lridcf<5M ^dnZiAZese S3? 8? <*?2 3D 6f *5 Jteddas «>5 DlAGRA-M. -«9- PRoP^JWTew «F J_ ITERATES §rE^GUB>i Lj-TVELRATKS AM&2\Gr A Tj*eUiSA«I> MALES I^EiWAI.ES eF^ACJt *ooo eoo 600 +00 aoo aoo too goo eoo -tooo \66o\ JBxddhlsAS 1*4 S3 job 1 1 S/ote.- The rectangles to left and rigrkt of the zero lines indicate ike proportion of J-titer&les among Zfre m&Zes andfewsZes respectively; and the thick tines AfiZhin £he reciar*grZes shew similar raZes for <£*7pZ£sJ2 JCitertstcif. (Children 0--4- fisiise been excluded dn JOist^rSf** JifajQ Aid £ relucted in JXcujrrxj* JF° J& (vide footnote on /oczgret/j. Phoh) Lil ba Survey OeptC«r(on own. SECTION 2.—PROGRESS OF LITERACY. 61 There are several points in this table which are obvious at once. The continuing increase since 1881 in the percentage literacy for both males and females in most* cases is the first which will be noticed, and furnishes some indication of the spread of education. It will also be seen that the increases in the proportions in 1921 were, in most cases, the largest occurring in any intercensal period, the literacy totals showing that this increase was mainly due to the increase among the indigenous races. If the death-rate of illiterates has not been very much higher than that of literates, it would appear that there has been in the last decade marked progress in the education of the people of Ceylon. This is, of course, what one might expect from other considerations. The demand for education, and more especially fdFan'Engliah education^ whichwas so noticeableafeatuifeof the decade preceding"1911,hasi)een^ven more strongly marked since then; the amount spent yearly by the Education Department is now nearly double what it was ten years ago f; the number of Government schools increased from 759 in 1910 to 919 in 1920 ; and the activities both of the Education Department and of unofficial bodies have been con siderably extended. The opening of the Ceylon University College in 1920 with provision for full courses in arts and science for the intermediate and final examinations for the B.A. and B. Sc. degrees of London University may be taken to indicate a rise in the standard of education in addition to the increase in the extent of its application. The Sexes.—The difference between the percentage literacy of the males and the females in Ceylon appears to be representative of an actually smaller extent of education among the latter. The discrepancy has been characteristic of the Ceylon figures since the first Census in 1871, and is even more strongly marked in India than it is in Ceylon. The percentage of literate females was below 10 in the case of the Kandyan Sinhalese, Indian Tamils, Moors, and Veddas. The Races.—It will be seen that the proportion of literates increased in a very satisfactory manner among many of the races, the figures for females being perhaps the more striking. The proportion < of literate females in 1921 among the Kandyans was more than double, and, among the Indian Tamils, . was nearly four times what it was in 1911; among the Ceylon Tamils it was nearly double; among the Low-country Sinhalese it increased from 20" 7 per cent, in 1911 to 32*2 per cent, in 1921 ; among thef Ceylon Moors it had also very nearly doubled during the decade, while among the Indian Moors it! increased from 2-2 per cent, to 5-6; among the Malays the proportion in 1921 was very high for a ! Muhammadan community, and was about double the 1911 figure, though it is possible that these pro portions were overstated. Very little importance can be attached to the increase in literacy among the Indian Moors, as it may have been due to a fortuitous rise in the proportion of literate immigrants or illiterate emigrants. The increase in the literacy of the Indian Tamils may either be regarded as evidence of the spread of education in India, or, more probably, may be attributed to the large number of Ceylon- born Indian Tamils, principally on estates, who have received and are receiving education in Ceylon. The Provinces.—The following table shows the percentage of persons able to read and write in each Province at the 1911 and 1921 Censuses, the order being that of the percentage literacy of persons in 1921 :— TABLE No. 88—Percentage of Literates to Total Population by Sex in each Province, 1911 and 1921 (excluding Children aged 0-4.) Persons. Males. Females. _A. 1 4 ^ 1 I -•>• » Province. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Ceylon 31-0 39-9 . 472 56-3 12-5 21-2 Western 42-0 61-8 . 56-6 64-7 .. 24-9 36-8 North-Western 333 43-1 . 515 61-8 .. 100 18-5 Northern 33-6 43 0 . 54-9 62-4 .. 12-2 23-8 Southern S 29-1 38-7 . 46-8 56-9 .. 11-4 20-5 North-Central 'fa 27-9 33-8 . 48-0 65-2 .. 2-4 4-5 Sahara gamuwa 1 24-1 32-8 . 39-9 507 .. 4-2 10-6 Central 22-8 30 0 . 37-4 46-3 .. 6-9 11-5 Eastern . ,s 21-3 27-5 . 36-2 45-7 .. 5-6 8-8 Uva . .10 17-8 23-1 . 30-9 37-3 .. 2-7 6-8 It will be seen that in 1921 the Provinces remained in nearly the same order as regards literacy as in 1911. The spread of female education in the Western, Northern, and Southern Provinces was very marked. The rise in the female literacy of the North-Western Province occurred chiefly in the Chilaw District (see Table No. 91) which is not Kandyan. Of the other Kandyan Provinces, Sabaragamuwa showed the largest increase of literacy, both male and female, chiefly owing to the spread of education among Kandyans in the Kegalla District (vide Table No. 93). The Central Province was ahead of Sabaragamuwa in female literacy, and not far behind it in the increase of literacy during the decade. * It is curious that Europeans, Burghers and Eurasians, Malays, and Others all showed decreases in the propor tions of literates in 1911. probably owing to some change of definition. t The criterion of publio expenditure on education has to be carefully used if fallacy is to be avoided. In com- : paring figures for the same country at different times," allowance has to be made for increase of salaries to existing teachers, : for the development of previous educational enterprise, &c. In comparing data for different countries even greater : care is necessary, for the ratio, which the amount spent on education by the State bears to the total revenue, may be \ no criterion either of literacy or of progress towards literacy. For example, one might find a country where the people were for the most part willing to educate their children at their own expense in private institutions, and where it would ; be superfluous for the Government to spend much or anything on education. The whole adult population might be j literate, and yet the proportion of the State revenue which was devoted to education would perhaps be much less than ' that in a country where only ten per cent, of the population were literate and where all education was in the hands of the State. Even in two countries where the degree of responsibility for education assumed by the State are about equal, it is obvious that nothing is shown by the fact that one State spends larger proportion of its revenue on education than tho other. One of them may have railways, &o., the expenditure on and revenue from which make its budget a very • different thing from the budget of a country where there are no State railways or similar undertakings. 62 CHAPTER VI. —LITERACY. The large increase of literacy since 1911 in the Northern Province was probably largely due to the introduction ,of compulsory vernacular education in the Jaffna District in 1916. The increase occurred chiefly among the females, as it did also in the Western Province, where the increase of literacy was even greater than in the Northern Province. In the North-Western Province, on the other hand, where the increase of literacy was equal to the increase in the Western Province, the males progressed at a greater rate than the females. This is due to the fact that a considerable proportion of the Province is inhabited by Kandyans, among whom female education is slow in spreading. It is satisfactory to note that in six out of the nine Provinces more than half the males were literate, andin-no-Province-was^the-proportion-of-maleliterates-lessthan 37~peT~cent: In every~Province"the percentage of both male and female literates showed a considerable increase since 1911. Uva was some way behind the other Provinces in literacy ; the distance between schools is greater there than in most parts of the Island, and the proportion of children under instruction to the total population was less than in any other Province, being only as 1 to 34 in 1920, against an average for the whole Island of 1 to 11. Schools and Scholars.—The number of schools and scholars in Ceylon by Provinces in 1910-1911 and 1920-1921 is also shown in Tables Nos. 89 and 90, respectively. P TABLE No. 89.—Number of Schools and Scholars in Ceylon, by Provinces, 1910-11.* > English. Anglo -vernacular. Vernacular. Total. , —-A. A A \ Province. fNumbe r Number tNumbe r Number rNumbe —r Number Number Number of of of of of of of of Schools. Scholars. Schools. Scholars. Schools. Scholars. Schools. Scholars. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 u r\-5 ^Ceylo n i 228 31,717 . 97 . 11,682 .. 3,895 .. 292,975 . . 4,220 . . 336,374 x Western 95 . . 14,509 . 28 . 3,405 894 .. 110,331 . . 1,017 . . 128,245 Central * 38 3,716 . 19 . 1,717 552 33,381 . 609 . . 38,814 Southern Y 28 3,976 . 14 . 2,797 499 .. 49,694 . 541 . . 56,467 Northern i 38 6,793 . 19 . 2,374 483 .. 36,761 . 540 . 45,928 Eastern b 10 1,085 . 3 . 151 248 12,360 . 261 . 13,596 North-Western 1 10 650 . 6 . 471 580 .. 26,942 . 596 . 28,063 North-Central v 1 105 . —• . — 178 3,829 . 179 . 3,934 Uva 5 577 . 2 . 128 250 4,242 . 257 . 4,947 Sahara gamuwa it 3 306 . 6 . 639 211 15,435 . 220 . 16,380 TABLE No. 90.—Number of Schools and Scholars in Ceylon, by Provinces, 1920-21.* English. Anglo-vernacular. Vernacular. Total. >- i \ Province. t t Number i Number r Number Number Number Number Number Number of of of of of of of of Schools. Scholars. Schools. Scholars. Schools. Scholars. Schools. Scholars. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ceylon • - r 275 42,629 . 84 . 12,250 . . 4,012 . . 354,325 . . 4,371 . 409,204 Western 119 . . 21,035 . 27 . 4,393 . 919 . . 130,801 . . 1,065 . 156,229 Central •••3 36 4,114 . 18 . 1,879 . 530 . . 40,565 . 584 46,558 Southern • • t 30 4,666 . 19 . 3,652 . 537 . . 55,046 . 586 63,364 Northern • • s 48 8,902 . 8 . 822 . 427 . 36,794 . 483 46,518 Eastern • • b 11 1,403 . . . 4 . 326 . 222 13,688' . 237 15,417 North-Western • • 1 15 1,051 . 3 . 223 . 679 . 40,061 . 697 41,335 Xorth-Central • • ? 2 189 . — . .— . 186 . 4,118 . 188 4,307 Uva • • *> 6 605 . 1 . 79 . 233 . 6,150 . 240 6,834 Sabaragamuwa . . [0 8 664 . 4 . 876 . 279 . 27,102 . 291 28,642 These figures show an increase in the number of English schools in every Province except the Central, but even there, as in all the other Provinces, the number of pupils in such schools increased. The increase in the Western Province, as regards the number of schools and even more as regards the number of scholars, is very striking. The number of Anglo-vernacular schools decreased in all the Provinces except the Southern and Eastern Provinces, but though the total number of such schools in the Island decreased, the total number of scholars increased. There was, however, a very striking decrease in the number of scholars in Anglo-vernacular schools in the Northern Province. From the figures given here it would appear that in that Province the scholars had deserted the Anglo-vernacular schools for the English schools. In the Central, Northern, and Eastern Provinces and in Uva the number of vernacular schools slightly declined, but in every Province the number of pupils at vernacular schools increased, especially in Sabaragamuwa and the North-Western Province. It is worth pointing out that the number of scholars increased by over 20 per cent, since 1911, whereas the population increased by less than 10 per cent. The number of pupils in English schools increased by 34 per cent., in Anglo-vernacular schools by 5 per cent., and in vernacular schools by 21 per cent. The proportion of scholars in English schools to those in vernacular rose from 10'4 per cent, in 1911 to 11-6 per cent, in 1921. Approximate only. MAPS OFTHE ISLAND OF CEYLON SHOWING The Percentage of Male and Female literates 1 to .the population of each. Sex in . each "District, 1921 (Municipalities included in Districts). Seal.. ,f64 Mitt hmmhcA ; —;«£F£S£N££— tSjxrctnl t under 30ptr cent 3d... » 40...... 40...if 50.... tf.... so ...... so...... 60... ..Oysr. Male Literates Female Literates Male En glishjliterates Female English literates SECTION 3.—LITERACY BY RACE, AND DISTRICT. 63 jL^T^SS^TS? Table No. 91 shows the percentage of Utewtes-.of all races in each S19,11 an r'.mthe order of the Percenta«e literacy of persons in 1921 (see also Part I. p. 34) The fourmapsifacingthis page exhibit the wntoionof general Utera^y, as also of Exmliahliteracv according to sex, in 1921, whilstDiagram No. 20 facing page 66 representsaimUarMomatioh graphically TABLE No. 91.—Percentage of Persons able to Read and Write in each District - at-the-191i-and-1924-^3ensus«s-(ex SECTION 3.—LITERACY BY RACE, AND DISTRICT. The Low-country Sinhalese.—Table No. 92 gives the percentage of literates among the Low- country Sinhalese in the.Low-country districts in 1911 and 1921, the order being that of the percentage literacy of males in 1921 :— TABLE No. 92.—The Percentage of the Low-country Sinhalese "Population able to Read and Write, 1911 and 1921 (excluding Children aged 0-4.) Males. EWioi~. : f—— —— . A A District. 1911. 192L . 1911. \ 1 1921. 2 3 4 Chilaw 6 • • \ • 65-9 73-1 .. 30-7 Colombo (including the Municipality) 460 61-0 68-7 .. 27-2 Puttalam . > 40-2 .'.1 61-8 66-4 .. 31-9 Kalutara .. 32-7 58-4 65-1 22-5 Galle (including the Municipality) ... 34-3 52-7 60-4 .. 16-8 Matara 27-2 45-2 66-2 .. 8-3 liamba ntota ... .. b 17-9 .. n 36-8 52-2 .. 2-6 6-8 The proportion of male literates and of female literates was greatest in the Chilaw District, where the proportion of females who could read and write was as high as 46. In Puttalam the proportion of males was also high, but the figure for females was considerably lower. . As might be expected from the order of the districts in Table No. 91, the districts of the Southern Province were some way behind those of the Western Province or the Low-country districts of the North-Western Province. Hambantota was especially backward, although .considerable progress in education was made there during the decade, and the rise in the porcontaen of litor.atc males was greater than in anv other district inrhiHo/l in 64 CHAPTER VI.—LITERACY. TABLE „, ^J^MJ. j^-J-J. jpjjj * ,„ M Males. Females. District. 1911. 1921. 1 1911. 1921. 2 3 4 5 Kurunegala • _46.U8_ Anuradliapura _2J_ —A--.0 00 1 58-1 "Puttalam "2-8 3 508 57-9 Kegalla 4-5 43-3 50-fi 9-5 Matale s 46-6 Kandy (including the Municipality) 66-3 5-4 (, 42-9 Nuwara Eliya 53-2 12-5 7 41-7 Ratnapura 51-9 9-6 & 42-3 Badulla 50-7 8-9 31-6 1 37-2 3-4 This table, read in conjunction with tho preceding one, shows, as Table No. 87 did, tiie backward ness of the Kandyans in education when compared with the Low-country Sinhalese In five Low- country districts out of seven more than 60 per cent, of the Low-country Sinhalese males were literate, and tho lowest percentage of male literates—in the Hambantota district;—was 52 • 2 ; in none of the Kandyan Districts were 60 per cent, of the male Kandyans literate, and in Badulla District, the male literates only totalled 37-2 per cent, of the Kandyan population, and the females only 3-4 per cent. If these figures are compared with the figures for all races combined in the district—vide Table No. 91 above—it will be seen that in Badulla Kandyan males were no more literate than the males of other races in the Province, and that the Kandyans were behind the other races in female literacy, being in tliis respect even behind the Indian Tamils on estates—vide Table No. 95 below. It is curious to note that in Anuradhapura District (that is, in the North-Central Province), while the percentage of Kandyan male Literates was the second highest recorded in the Kandyan districts, the percentage of female Kandyan literates was lower than in any other district, including even Badulla. In Table No. 88 it is shown that 4-5 per cent, of the females in the North-Central Province were literate, and from Table No. 93 we see that only 2-8 per cent, of the Kandyan females were literate, which indicates a greater degree of female literacy among the other races in the Province than among the Kandyans. The greatest increase in literacy of the Kandyan males during the decade occurred in the Kegalla District, while Kandy District showed the greatest increase for the females. The Ceylon Tamils.—Table No. 94 shows the percentage of literates among the Ceylon Tamils in the principal Tamil districts in 1911 and 1921. TABLE No. 94.-The Percentage olI the Ceyhon Tamil Population able to Read and write, 1911 and 1921 (excluding children aged 0-4.) Males. Females. District. *• 1911. 1921. 1 1911. 1921. 2 3 4 Trincomalee G 57-7 Mannar 66-7 14-8 28-8 v 64-6 Mullaittivu . . 66-2 21-3 30-7 54-0 Jaffna 63-1 91 18-1 54-6 Batticaloa .. 62-8 12-2 24-5 44-6 52-4 7-7 11-fi tO In this table Mannar has the highest proportion of literate females, which can perhaps be accounted for b}' the prevalence of Christianity in that district, female education being much more widespread in the Christian community than among those of other religions. It is rather surprising to find that the Tamils in Trincomalee District were more literate than the Jaffna Tamils, and that education appears to be spreading faster among the former than among the latter. Batticaloa shows the lowest percentage of literates of either sex, and evidently there is a marked difference between the characteristics of the population in the two districts of the Eastern Province. But it is possible that in Trincomalee District a different definition of literacy was accepted from that accepted in Jaffna or Batticaloa, and that many persons were entered as literate who would not have been so entered elsewhere. The Indian Tamils in the Planting Districts.—Table No. 95 shows tho percentage of Literates among the. Indian Tamils in the principal planting districts in 1911 and 1921. TABLE No. 95.—-The PercontacA «f TM**-*». - 1921 (excluding children aged 0-4.) Malos. A Females. District. / *• 1911. ^ \ 1 11121. 1911. 1921. 2 3 4 Kurunegala .. ( 5 20-1 Kandy (including tho Munici|Hility) 30 2 .. 2-8 8G. 22-9 Kalutara . . • • "i 30 0 .. 1-5 . . 60 10- 1 Budullu . . . . ^ 28-3 .. 2-0 . . 6-8 19-3 Matnlo . . ... 28-2 .. 10 7-8 22-0 27-1 .. Nuwara Eliya . . v 2-7 .. 4-3 20-8 Kegalla .. -> 26-4 .. 1-0 .. 6-1 1C-2 Ratnapura .. i 20-3 .. 1-2 .. 5-2 14-4 24-2 .. 1-3 .. 8-6 SECTION 3.—LITERACY BY RACE, AND DISTRICT. 65 In 1911 Mr. Denham attributed the low percentage of male literates in Ratnapura and Kegalla Districts to the fact that the districts had only recently been opened up and had no settled labour force. The percentage of literates among the classes in India from which labour is recruited is much lower than among the Indian coolies in Ceylon, and the rubber districts in 1911, with newly recruited labour forces, would naturally show a lower percentage of literates than other planting districts where a larger propor tion of the labour force would be Ceylon-born and might have received education in Ceylon. The literacy ' * of the estate population probably depends upon the extent to which the labour force is settled. It is rather surprising, therefore, to find that in Kurunegala District the percentage of male literates among f the Indian-Tanuis^afi-higher-than^^me-of-the^lder^lanting-distriotSi-and-that the-percentage of •— female literates was the highest. But the statistics of the movements of the estate coolies are too meagre and unreliable for one to be able to ascertain the districts in which the labour force is most settled and to determine whether those are the districts in which it is most literate. A comparison of the figures for 1921 with those for 1911 will show that there was an appreciable increase of literacy among the estate population during the decade; and this is, at any rate, partly ascribable to estate schools which have been established in considerable numbers. The percentage of female literates was still low, but in all the districts except one it was more than double what it was in 1911. The Moors.—Table No. 96 shows the percentage of literates in the Ceylon Moor population in the districts in which they are most numerous, at the Censuses of 1911 and 1921. TABLE No. 96.—The Percentage of the Ceylon Moor Population able to Read and Write, 1911 and 1921 (excluding Children 0-4). Males. Females. District. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 " 2 JJ 4 5 Colombo District (exclusive of the Munici pality) 56-0 .. 63- 8 .. 7-8 .. 90 Kegalla .. 3. 45-9 .. 57- 8 .. 11 .. 5-6 Mannar .. ... J 47-2 .. 54 0 .. •6 •6 Galle District (inclusive of the Municipality).. 1 47-3 .. 51- 7 .. 9-7 13-5 Colombo Municipality 42-2 .. 51 3 .. 7-7 .. 17-6 Kalutara t, 49-4 .. 50 9 .. 4-4 .. 3-4 Kandy District (inclusiveof the Municipality) l 40-0 .. 50- 8 .. 3-5 .. 7-6 Kurunegala I 38-7 .. 48 7 .. •9 .. 3-4 Puttalam .. "l 40-1 .. 46 3 .. 20 .. 1-7 Trincomalee 10 29-9 .. 37 2 .. •5 .. 1-5 Anuradhapura t> 33-5 .. 37 1 .. 2-7 .'. •6 Batticaloa .. ( 1-17-7 .. 32 3 .. •2 .. •6 ft In Colombo District the Ceylon Moors outside the Municipality showed a greater degree of male literacy than those living in the town, but were considerably behind them in female literacy. The presence in Colombo Town of large numbers of Moors of the lower classes engaged as coolies and general labourers would reduce the figure for literacy there for both sexes, and the high figure for female literacy shows that a very large proportion of the Ceylon Moorish women of the upper classes were literate in Colombo when compared with other places. The figures for literacy among the Ceylon Moors were lower—at any rate for males—in the agricultural districts of Trincomalee, Anuradhapura, and Batticaloa than they were elsewhere. The following table shows the percentage of literates in the Indian Moor population in districts where they are predominant:— TABLE No. 97.—The Percentage of the Indian Moor Population able to Read and Write, 1911 and 1921 (excluding children 0-4.) Males. Females. —* \ A. District. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 Kurunegala \ 76-0 80-5 .. 1-0 4-3 Colombo District (exclusive of the Munici o pality) I 65-8 78-0 .. 6-4 6-6 Kandy District (inclusive of the Municipality) 3 62-1 70-3 .. 3-8 4-8 Kegalla T 54-3 68-9 .'. 11 6-5 Badulla 55-0 68-3 .. 2-3 3-4 Matale b 55-6 65-8 .. •9 1-0 Nuwara Eliya 60-9 64-8 .. 1-9 8-1 Colombo Municipality t 42-4 55-5 .. 1-4 61 Ratnapura .. 43-0 54-8 .. 1 — 10-5 The Indian Moormen in Kurunegala District—mostly traders—show a considerably higher proportion of literacy than elsewhere and higher than the indigenous Ceylon Moors in any district where these are predominant. The proportions of female literacy are as low as those of the Ceylon Moors— a reason being that the immigrant females form a small proportion of the population ; but the figure 10 '5 in Ratnapura District is unaccounted for. 66 • CHAPTER VI.—LITERACY. Colombo Municipality.—The following table shows the percentage of literates in Colombo -Municipality by Race and Sex in 1911 and 1921. TABLE No. 98.—The Percentage of Literates in Colombo Municipality by Race and Sex, 1911 and 1921 (excluding Children aged 0-4.) Males. Fomales. (— Race. ^ t —* N . .1911. —1021.- 1911. — 19217- 1 2 3 4 5 All Races t . • 52-7 63-3 .. 285 39-9 Europeans .. J- . 98-3 98-2 .. 96-3 Burghers and Eurasians 97-3 J .. 79-4 86-2 .. Ceylon Tamils 76-8 85-2 t • • 64-6 78-1 .. Malays 32-3 51-2 s • • 62-9 70-3 .. 16-6 Low-country Sinhalese 31-0 4 • . 60-5 69-5 .. 30-4 Kandyan Sinhalese 42-6 7 • • 61-0 66-7 .. 21-1 Others 33-4 8 • • 49-8 63-2 .. 27-9 Indian Moors 44-6 - 42-4 55-5 .. 1-4 Ceylon Moors 7 ' 61 to • • 42-2 51-3 .. 7-7 Indian Tamils 17-6 ir • 36-6 47-6 .. 7-5 14-6 Little importance, if any, need be attached to the slight decline in the proportion of European male literates;es.. All the other races showed an increase in the literacy of both sexes, in the case of the Ceylon Tamils a very considerable increase, raising them some way above any of the other Eastern races. Many of the Ceylon Tamils in Colombo are traders or clerks in the service of mercantile firms or Government, and it is essential that they should be able to read and write. If this table is compared with Table No. 87 it will be seen that the proportion of literates of each sex was greater for every race in Colombo than in Ceylon as a whole, with a few unimportant exceptions. This is what might be expected, since education is bound to be more widespread in a large town than in the country as a whole. The smaller proportion of literate males among the Indian Moors in Colombo is due to the fact that a large number of them are employed in Colombo as boatmen and dockyard labourers or else keep small eating-houses. The Indian Moor community in the Island as a whole chiefly consists of traders, from whom a greater degree of literacy might be expected than from the section of their community living in Colombo and consisting to a great extent of the lower classes. In 1911 the proportion of literate Burghers and Eurasians was less in Colombo than in the whole Island, and this was attributed to the fact that the lowest classes of Eurasians are to be found in Colombo rather than elsewhere. It is rather surprising, therefore, to find that in 1921 the proportion of literates of this community is greater in Colombo than in the whole Island, but the difference is very small, and probably no importance can be attached to it. It is remarkable that, though the Kandyan Sinhalese as a race were considerably less literate than the Low-country Sinhalese, in Colombo they showed approximately the same proportion of male literates. This is partly due to the number of Kandyans who at any given time are receiving their education in Colombo, and partly to the reluctance of the uneducated Kandyan to leave his native district in the hopes of earning a livelihood elsewhere. Migration among the Kandyans is very small and practically limited to the educated classes ; and very few of them migrate out of the Island. No conclusions of any value can be made from the considerable increase of literacy in Colombo, other than those which might have been made from earlier tables in this chapter. A town population is always to some extent migratory, and one cannot measure the increase of literacy among that part of the population which is native to and permanently settled in Colombo. One might ascertain the increase of literacy among those born in Colombo ; but in many such cases the birthplace might be accidental. The rise of the degree of literacy among practically all races in the city can only be taken as further evidence of the spread of education in the Island generally during the decade. SECTION 4.—LITERACY BY RELIGION. Literates of each Religion.—The following table shows the percentage of literates of each religion and sex at the five Censuses which have been held since 1881 inclusive.* TABLE No. 99.—Number of Literates in a Hundred Persons of each Religion and Sex at the Five Censuses, 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911, and 1921. Males. Fomales. 1 A * 1891. A RoUgion. 1881. * 1891. 1901. 1911. 1921192~.T 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1901. 1881. 1891. 1921. 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 41-5 Christians .'. 415 ... 550-0 00 . .. 555-5 2 ... 60-60-33 ... 6666 00 .... 113-3 66 . .. 2121-77 .. 30"0 .. 388 .. 50-1 Buddhists >. 23-2355 ... 28-8 . .. 34'34-99 ... 441-1 8 ... 50-4 .... 1-4 .. .. 22- 6.6 . 5-2 .. 9 1.. 16 8 Muhammadans 3. 226-6 99 . .. 330-0 55 . .. 34-34-44 ... 336-6 2 ... 44-8 .. . 1-5 . .. 11-55 .. 33 .. 32 .. 63 Hindus 19-8 . .. 2323-33 . .. 25-25-99 . .. 229-9 6 ... 36-9 .... 1 00 . .. 11- 8 .. 2-5 .. 4 0 .. 10 2 Every religion showed an increase in the percentage of literates of both sexes, the greatest increase being among the Christian females, although perhaps it is more remarkable that the percentage of literates among the Hindu females should have more than doubled, among the Muhammadans nearly doubled, during the decade. There has been a very considerable increase of literacy among the Buddhist males since 1901, and the percentage of literates among them in 1921 was more than double what it was in 1881. " Buddhist " and " Sinhalese " are not quite convertible terms in Ceylon, though they arc * At the Census of 1911 the details were not extracted which would enable mo to oxcludo children (0-4) from this table or any other tablo in which the oloment of religion enters. In tho following tables, thoreforo, except Tables 105, 106, and 107, and part of Tablo 104. children under 5 have not been oxchulml. females- 4000 •joooaiairs Males. Chi law \699\ 39Z Colombo \6V6\ 39* 598 Colombo MC 3S3 £4S | Jaffna 49 *2f tfurunegalA 899 jcaiutara tsa Mullaittivu 16a/ 853 389 /Sff Mannar £t>3\ /SS\ Afatara sss\ /» JRuitalam SS3\ •4S Anurapthapu*Lss a yif 7rirtcorrxsde«. t>6 /temb&nioia *<>4-\ /iegalla PS Matate User #»9 | Rainapttra \-*sa\ •ff* KancUf Vt Batticaloa sa /tuH&m JSityAim- 63 Sadulla 600 eoo SOOO -food—sob 6oo *oo zoo £00 -400 Statistical jvej°ari*n*ni. . «ofe.- The ^tansies &> 4* ofthe ^Z^e ,^^e^ portion of Litres *He m.les ^/^"T"*"^' artcitHe thick line *** reclames shox Similar ™te*S>r JZ,2gl£shI*ileracjf. SECTION 4.—LITERACY BY RELIGION. 67 tho Sinhalese shown in Table No. 87 should give a very nearly so, and the increase of ^^^S^^^m>a of the two Tables, No.. 87 and ver£ fair idea of the increase of ^%^S1oV^nSJi>J. both among males and females 1 99, will show that this is tne case, in" "B ".,, T_ rr<_ were low, being influenced majority of the Hindus in Ceylon. The table is cnieny intent WLUB «~ ~~ 0._ among the Christian population, more especially among the females when compared witn tne lemaies oi other religions (see also Diagram No. 19 facing page 60). Many of the missionary societies devote a large amount of labour and money to education, and Table No. 92 showed that of the Low-country Sinhalese districts* apart from Colombo, Chilaw, and Puttalam were the most literate, these districts being those where Christianity-is most prevalent. Thehigh figure for literacy in Colombo District is due to various causes of which the efforts of the missionary societies would l)rily_Jbe"ofie; Sinrilarly;-Table-No.-94- showed that of the Tamil districts, Mannar, where the proportion of Christians is greatest, had the greatest percentage of literate female Tamils, though not of males. Table No. 100 shows the proportion of the literates of each religion to a hundred literate persons at each of the last five Censuses :— TABLE No. 100.—Distribution of a 100 Literates by Religion, 1881-1921. Percentage of Males. A. 1921. 1891. 1901. 1911. Religion. mi. 1891. 1901. 191.. 1921. 1881. 11 8 9 10 , 2 3 4 5 0 . 57-7 38-4 . . 45-6 .. 52-5 . Buddhists !. 57-7 .. 59-4 .. 59-7 .. 61-7 .. 63-5 .. 34-1 . 12-3 8-3 . . 8-0 . 8-5 . l Hindus .. 18-0 .. 16-5 .. 17-8 .. 170 .. 16-7 .. 8-4 . 27-7 51-0 . . 43-3 . 37-0 Christians . 16-0 .. 166 .. 15-3 .. 14-7 .. 13-3 .. 53-5 2-3 . . 31 . 2-0 . 2-2 Muhammadans H.. 8-3 .. 75.. 7-2 .. 6-5 .. 6-5 .. 4-0 This table does not give a fair idea of the comparative progress made in education by the adherents of each religion, unless it is read in conjunction with Table No. 79 in the preceding chapter showing the proportions of the adherents of each religion to the total population. In Table No. 99 it was made clear that the increase of literacy during the decade was considerably greater among the Christian females than among the women of any other religion ; from Table No. 100 it might appear that the literacy of the Christian females, if not absolutely less than in 1911, had at any rate not increased during the decade as much as the literacy of the females of other religions. This table does not show and cannot be made to show the literacy of the adherents of each religion, but it shows the religion of literates. Literacy of the Christian and Non-Christian Sinhalese.—The following table shows the percentage of literates of each sex among the Christian and non-Christian Sinhalese at each of the last three Censuses:— TABLE No. 101.—The Percentage of Sinhalese Christians and Non-Christians able to Read and Write, 1901, 1911, and 1921. Percentage of Males. Percentage of FemaU«. „, . .- * r~ ri.RINTIANS -ANon-Christians— . Christians. Non-Chnstians. christians. sbtriat. ,cr-iSrsp u T »a »' I ..6403465 ..710 ..34-5 ..410 8 ..531 ..199 ..27-1 ..397 Kurunegala1 ...89-8 ..«•» -TI-O • ' """ ' ^ _ \'*1.0 [\O.H A ['^-lQ Kalutara K.SS'i ..65-4 ..70-9 ..378 ..48-0 ..544 ..35-2 ..49 „ Colombo Municipality-1 ..63 4 ..61-7 ..69 1 ..49 3 ..51-5 ..61 0 ..40-5 ..42-9 ..55 5 ..17-3 ..18-8 ..30-8 Colombo (exclusive of Municipality) tf..54G ..617 ..6G8 ..40 1 ..49 3 ..564 ..29-i ..42-1 ..54'7 .. 92 ..17-0 ..28-2 Chilaw .. f.,52-4 ..58 4 ..05 6 ..44 9 ..54-0 ..60 8 ..24'8 ..36-1 ..494 .. 4-7 ..12-0 ..24-7 Puttalam £..54-9 .55-9 ..64-1 ..409 ..46 2 ..53-6 ..14-3 ..25*7 ..32-6 .. 1-1 .. 1-8 .. 4-8 Kurunegala showed the largest proportion of literates among the male Christian Sinhalese, but it is closely followed by Kalutara where the corresponding figure for females was the highest, being 61-2 per cent. There were no great differences in the literacy of the male Christians in the various districts, but the same cannot be said of the females. In Puttalam District in 1921 the percentage of literates among the Low-country Sinhalese Christian women was little more than half that in Kalutara District. The table is chiefly interesting as showing how among members of the same race in the same district, the Christian—and more especially the females—are invariably more literate than the non-Christians. : In the Western Province the increase of male literacy among the Christians was not as great as among non-Christians, but in Puttalam and Chilaw Districts it was greater. Female education has been spread ing very fast in the Western Province, the increase of literacy being about equally great for Christians and others, leaving the Christians still well ahead. In the North-Western Province among the Low- country Sinhalese the Christian females made more progress in literacy during the decade than the women of other religions. This table gives very strong proof of the value of the educational work done by the Christian missionary societies among the Low-country Sinhalese, and the value of their work among the Tamils is demonstrated in the next table. 68 CHAPTER VI.—LITERACY. Literacy*! the Christian and Non-Christian Tamils.-Table No. 102 shows the percentage of literates among Tamil Christians and non-Christians in various districts at the last three Censuses 7— Table No. 102.—Percentage of Tamil Christians and Non-Christians able to Read and Write, 1901-1921. Percentage of Males. 00 Percentage of Females. ——\ H Christians. 1 Non-Christians. Non-Christians. A Christians. -«9- A— District. T901. 1911. 1921. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1901. 1911. 1921. 1901. " 1921. 1 2 3 4 1911. ^1 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Colombo Municipality 1 . .53-9 ..53-8 . 64-9 ..39-4 .366 .46-9 .276 .292 . .404 . .101 . . 90 . .16-8 Jaffna 5 .. 49 • 1 ..572 . .629 ..41-2 .457 .540 .21-4 . .328 . .456 . 42 . . 7-8- . .18-6 Mannar J .. go•2 ..58-8 . 62-8 ..300 .393 .34-3 .10-1 . .20-1 . .30-0 . 2-0 . . 00 . . 6-7 Mullaittivu *f..48'4 ..55-8 . 598 ..41-0 .44-2 .529 .160 . .24-0 . .318 . 23 . . 4-e . .12-2 Batticaloa S . .53-9 ..599 . 69-7 . .316 .359 .42-5 . .28 0 . .35 3 . .40-0 . 2-7 . 4-3 . 7-7 Trinoomalee J ..49-7 ..58-9 . 06 1 . .445 .485 . .56 3 . .121 . .32-9 . 44-9 .. 53 . 9-9 . 21-4 If this table is compared with the preceding one, it will be seen that the male Christians among the Tamils were not quite as literate as among the Low-country Sinhalese, and this is even more markedly the case with the females. The non-Christians, both males and females, were however less literate among the Tamils, so that one cannot necessarily infer that the Christian missions do less educational work among the Tamils than among the Sinhalese. If the differences are taken for each district in Table No. 101 between the figures in column 4 and column 7, and compared with the differences between columns 4 and 7 in Table No. 102, it will be seen that the Tamils depend more for the education of their males upon the Christian missionary societies than do the Sinhalese, while the encouragement which the societies give to female education appears to operate rather more among the Sinhalese, though somewhat unevenly as between district and district. In Mannar District there was a decline in the proportion of literates among the non-Christian Tamil males, the only instance of an appreciable decline shown in this table. It is rather remarkable that in Trincomalee District the Tamils of both sexes should be more literate than their co-religionists of the same race and sex in Colombo Municipality and—with the solitary exception of the Christian women in Jaffna—more literate than those anywhere else too. Trincomalee Distriot, about which there may be some doubt as stated before, has made very big strides in education during the decade. Mannar District, with the exception of the Christian women, appears to remain more or less stationary in the matter of education. The literacy of the Tamils in Jaffna District and Colombo Municipality increased a great deal between 1911 and 1921; in the former this was doubtless due to the introduction of compulsory vernacular education previously referred to in this chapter, but this has not yet had time to show its full effect". The Christian Sects.—Table No. 103 shows the proportion of literates among the Christian sects at the last two Censuses :— TABLE No. 103.—The Percentage of Literates among the Christian Sects at the 1911 and 1921 Censuses. Percentage of Literates. / — Christian Sect. Males. Females. A. r * 1911. 1921. 1921. 1911. 1 2 3 4 5 Total Christians 60-3 66-0 38-8 .. 50-1 Presbyterians 84-6 88-0 84-6 .. 85-8 Church of England 74-5 77-4 63-9 .. 09-5 Baptists • • t 73-6 74-9 63-4 .. 68-5 Salvationists 62-3 74-7 43-6 .. 04-5 Wesleyan Methodists • • k 70-6 73-5 56-7 .. 64-3 Congregationalists • . . "1 71-3 72-6 72-2 .. 72-9 Other Christian Sects 56-6 71-4 37-4 .. 07-3 Roman Catholics • • *) 57-5 63/3 33-9 .. 46-4 This table makes it clear that all sects are extending their educational work, more especially among females. There is little to comment upon in it, but it should be borne in mind that the different proportions of literacy are due partly to differing racial distribution, and that the comparatively low degree of literacy among the Roman Catholics is due to the fact that many of the lowest classes are included in that sect, which has more than four times as many adherents as all the other Christian sects put together. . SECTION 5.—LITERACY IN ENGLISH. 69 SECTION 5.—LITERACY IN ENGLISH. English Literates by Race and Religion.—The following table shows by sex the percentage of English literates of each race and religion in 1.911 and 1921. The figures, for 1921 are further illustrated in Diagrams Nos. 18 and 19 facing page 60. TABLE No. 104.—The Percentage of English Literates of each Race and Religion by Sex 1911 and 1921. Males. Females. Race and Religion. > 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 5 1 2: 3 4 Race. (Children aged 0-4 excluded.) 3-8 .. 5-2 1-5 .. 21 All Races .. 92:-2 ... 97-2 92-0 .. 955 -> «* 77-7 .. 82-6 74-1 .. 814 Europeans 393 .. 48-3 23 .. 6-8 Burghers and Eurasians 57 .. 8-5 1-3 .. 2-1 Malays 41 5-9 1-2 .. 2-0 Ceylon Tamils 2-0 .. 3-2 •1 .. •3 Low-country Sinhalese 1-6 .. 2-5 •2 .. •4 Ceylon Moors v •9 .. 1-9 •02 .. 1 Indian Tamils •8 .. 1-3 •2 .. •3 Indian Moors •0 Kandyan Sinhalese Religion. {Children aged 0-4 not excluded. *) 16-8 .. 19-8 10-0 .. 12-9 Christians ' •5 It 30 .. 4-3 •2 .. Muhammadans 1-8 .. 31 •2 .. •4 Hindus 1-6 .. 2-6 •3 .. •6 Buddhists .. 4 The growing demand for an English education is clearly shown in this table by the increased percentage of English literates in every race, especially among the Ceylon Tamils and the Malays. More than two-thirds of the literate Malay males were literate in English, and among them the percentage of English literates alone was nearly as great as the percentage of literates, in the vernacular and in English, among the Kandyan males. The Kandyans were some way behind the other Eastern races in English literacy, chiefly because of the very large number of them who are " cultivators," and have no use for any language, but the vernacular. The number of Kandyans who take up trade or become clerks,; or enter any other profession in which a knowledge of English is necessary, is very small. The Malays,'.' on the other hand, are mostly engaged in occupations which demand a knowledge of English ; that, however, should probably be regarded as the effect rather than the cause of the high degree of English literacy among them. The Ceylon Tamils were ahead of the Low-country Sinhalese in English literacy, though they were behind them in literacy generally. This is what one might expect from the high ratio in the Northern Province of scholars in English schools to scholars in vernacular schools shown in Table No. 90. This ratio if worked out for Jaffna District alone, apart from the rest of the Province, would certainly be higher still. The number of clerks supplied by Jaffna to the Government service is out of all proportion to the size or population of the district, and for the purposes of becoming Government clerks, if for no other, the educated Jaffnese realize the value of an English education. The percentage of English literates among them would probably be greater than it is, if it were not for the emigration of considerable numbers—mostly well educated—to the Straits and elsewhere. The second part of this table, dealing with religions, calls for little comment. It is only to be expected that the Christians should show a higher degree of English literacy than those of other religions, if only because they would include practicaUy the whole of the European and Burgher and Eurasian communities. The Muhammadans are ahead of the Hindus and Buddhists in English literacy, because they include the Malays. English Literacy in the Districts.—The following table shows the English literacy in 1921 of the districts and Municipalities arranged in order of percentages of the English literates (see also maps facing page 63 and Diagram No. 20 facing page 66):— TABLE No. 105.—The Percentage of English Literates to the Total Population, by Sex in each District (excluding Children aged 0-4), 1921. English Literates. English Literates;. District. District. . 1 Persons. Males. Persons. Males. Females. 2 3 2 3 4 Ceylon 5-2 Ceylon .Q 37 5-2 .. 21 Kandy Municipality 26-6 Galle (excluding Munici Colombo Municipality 22-9 pality) 2 •1 Galle Municipality •1 16-0 Badulla . Literacy in the Towns.—The following table gives information regarding literacy and English literacy in the principal towns excepting the Municipalities for which figures are already given (see also Diagram No. 20a facing this page) :— TABLE No. 106.—Number of Literates and English Literates to the Total Population by Sex, in each of the Principal Towns,* 1921 (excluding Children aged 0-4). Percentage of Literates. Percentage of English Literates. Town. Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Moratuwa 64-6 .. _ 71 -1 . 68-1 .. 123 .. 165 81 Panadure . > 63 0 .. 73 0 .. 62-7 .. 16-1 .. 21-7 10-3 Kegalla . J 61-4 .. 71-9 . 47-5 .. 17-9 .. 19-0 . 16-3 Hatton-Dikoya • • "r 61-2 .. 716 .. 36 0 .. 17-3 .. 18-9 . 13-6 Ambalangoda.. .. i 60-9 .. 73 6 .. 47-0 .. 9-7 14-8 . 4-1 Negombo .. (. 60-7 .. 69 0 .. 52-0 .. 94 .. 12-1 . 6-6 Chilaw .. 1 57-8 .. 65-7 . 45-5 .. 10-5 .. 12-6 7-5 Jaffna .. S 57-6 .. 73-9 .. 40-4 11-4 .. 16-5 . 61 a, Minuwangoda.. 67-2 .. 73-0 . 33-2 .. 4-8 7-0 . 1-6 Vavuniya 56-2 .. 68-5 .. 32-3 .. 6-2 .. 8-3 . 2-1 Batnapura 55-5 .. 67-7 .. 33-2 .. 14-2 .. 16-4 10-2 Weligama 55-0 .. 663 . 46-1 .. 3-7 .. 5-3 . 2-4 Mullaittivu . . '3 54-4 .. 70-2 .. 35-2 .. 7-0 .. 10-5 2-6 Matara • • 'V 51-3 .. 68-5 .. 40-0 .. 127 .. 16-3 : 90 Bandarawela .. . . IT 54-0 .. 63-3 . 33 2 .. 19-4 .. 21-3 15-4 Hambantota .. ' . . It, 53 4 .. 66 7 . 39 3 .. 9-6 .. 15-1 . 3-8 Batticaloa • • n 53-1 .. 654 40-1 .. 14-4 .. 19-2 9-4 Trincomalee .. • • i$; 52-6 .. 67 0 . 36-6 .. 11-5 .. 16-6 . 5-8 Nawalapitiya .. • • n 517 .. 669 . 24-9 .. 19-8 .. 241 . 12-1 Kalutara 50-5 .. 63-4 . 37-1 .. 10-4 .. 14-3 6-4 Gampola .. w 50-4 . 663 .. 29-9 13-4 .'. 16-4 9-5 Tangalla • • u 50-3 .. 667 .. 33-6 .. 6-8 9-5 . 4-1 Kurunegala • • iy 49-5 .. 618 .. 26-9 .. 13-2 .. 14-6 . 10-8 Anuiadhapura . • • 51, 49-3 .. 61-6 .. 25-5 .. 10-7 .. 13-3 . 6-4 . Badulla • • •:'. 48-1 604 .. 31-4 .. 17-0 .. 19-8 . 13-2 Lunugala . . ; 48-0 .. 64-1 21-3 .. 8-5 .. 9-8 . 6-2 Matale ••17 47-2 .. 614 . 27-3 .. 14-1 .. 17-1 . 10-1 Nuwara Eliya.. . . • ^ 46-9 .. 57 5 . 30-3 .. 20-8 .. 21-3 . 20-1 Mannar 44-4 .. 55-1 32-1 .. 6-0 . . . 9-2 2-3 Kalmunai . . " - 44-2 .. 66-4 . 21-2 .. 8-3 .. 10-4 . 6-2 Puttalam ? • 391 .. 56-1 .. 14-6 ... 6-8 .. 8-4 . 4-5 Kalpitiya 38-7 .. 555 . 14-3 .. 2-2 .. 2-8 . 1-5 "1 NOTE.—The figures shown in Tables Nos. 105 and 106 are exclusive of children aged 0-4. The literacy figures given for districts and towns in Part I., Table No. 42, are inclusive of children under 5. Literacy In India.—In the following table some percentages of literacy in India are compared with the Ceylon figures, and it would appear that the population of India is much less literate than that of Ceylon even with allowance for the possibility that the definition of literacy in different countries is liable to considerable variation :— TABLE No. 107.—The Percentage of Literates and English Literates to Total Population in India and in Ceylon, 1921 (excluding Children aged 0-4). Percentage of Percentage of English Literates. Literates. Males. Females. MalcB. Females. India • • l 13-9 . 21 1-61 .. 18 Madras Presidency .-1 17-3 . 2-4 1-93 .. •23 Calcutta City .. • •3 53-0 . 27-0 .. 26 0 .. 8-0 Bombay City- . .M 310 . 160 .. 12-0 .. 5-0 Madras City .. •f 50-0 . 190 .. 24-0 .. 6-0 Ceylon . . •* 56 3 . 21-2 .. 5-2 .. 21 Colombo City 1 03-0 40-0 .. 23-0 .. IG'0 * For Colombo, Kandy, and Galle Municipalities see preceding table aad Tabic No. 91 oa pag^ 03. a niiQnAM TP20 ' pKffJPSKTEW 2* LlTEKATES ftK^ttiLlSK 2rIO*£BATH0 females IOOOTZKXISS 1000 MAXES /f&ZeS ^tJO -fgg oiog soo coo -goo aoo o Jlrnbsleuogotia jR&n&ri&ra t*so Jfin*tMNiu9 JCecfiS.Ha PI9 jtfatlorigDiAoyaPt>6 Mora£e*M»a Pff Jfcr/Zaiititw t*X> JYegfombo \ 690 2£k£ara 6BS Ifaverj-titfa 68S JSabaapura 699 Hy-ZTteamalea 6PO J&unslajtvt&a 669 ThncfaUa 669 JiamJb&jtioia 669 JCetZmemai 664 663 CSamjoola J 663 C/tiZ*M> 6S9 JSaUicaioa 6Sf ^tu7**gtal* 69* I 634 JCaZutara \ 633 JSajtetSansuftxela 6/8 Jfoawtepala 616 JVate/e 6f* JOaduila 6ot JYkruviKaJ&zipasxr JZnfla/ajn su Itelpiiiya ssr sst aoo coo 400 soo SOO &00 600 800 PbolaUllcuSurvlyDcpLOyko -1. « 31 SECTION 5.—LITERACY IN ENGLISH. 71 The demand for an English education in preference to any, other form of education is further manifested by the following Table No. 108 which gives the numbers of persons amongst the natives of Ceylon who are literate in English, but illiterate in their own native language:— TABLE No. 108.—Sinhalese, Ceylon Tamils, and Ceylon Moors who are Literate in English, but Illiterate in their Native Language, 1921. Low-country Kandyan Ceylon Ceylon Sinhalese. Sinhalese. Tamils. Moors. A- A . A . District. 4 Males. Females, Females. Males. FemaleB. Males. Females. Males. 2 3 6 6 7 8 . 9 4 ____ 123 67 ". 46 Total, 1911 1,060 . IW •--•---B- 39 Total, 1921 ^ 1,517 870 52 . 276 133 . 78 105 11 . 541 22 . 255 118 . 71 Colombo Municipality A 1,006 •L 10 Colombo (exclusive of Munici 42 pality) .. . > 308 201 Kalutara .. 22 10 Kandy Municipality .. U 110 62 22 14 Kandy (explusive of Munici pality) .. ' . o — 1 Matale .. ..% — 1 Nuwara Eliya .— 2 Galle Municipality .., 0 25 21 Galle (exclusive of Municipality) > i 8 5 Matara 13 12 Hambantota.. .. < 9 2 Jaffna .. .. < 12 10 Mannar .. ..< 2 Mullaittivu .. .. > 1 Batticaloa • • n- 5 Trincomalee .. 3 Kurunegala .. . .'V Puttalam 4 4 Chilaw 19 12 Anuradhapura . .\t — 1 Badulla .. . .i\ — 12 Ratnapura . A<>-— 6 7 KegaUa .. . .?s — .20 Ability to speak English.—The following table shows the proportion of persons of each sex (to 1,000 of the total population) in each of the Provinces and Municipalities who were able to read and write English, and also those who were able to speak English, in 1911 and 1921. TABLE No. 109.—Proportion of Persons of each Sex able to Read and Write English and able to speak English to 1,000 of the Total Population, 1911 and 1921 (excluding Children aged 0-4). English Literates. Able to speak English. Province and Municipality. Males. Females. Males. Females. , >- * V , , -Mo- 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ceylon 1 38 .. 52 .. 15 . 21 . . 40 .. 56 .. 15 .. 22 >_ Western Province 67 .. 91 .. 30 . 42 .. 73 .. 100 .. 32 .. 45 Central Province J 41 .. 52 .. 16 . 21 .. 44 .. 57 .. 16 .. 24 Southern Province x 25 .. 35 .. 8 . 12 .. 26 .. 34 .. 9 .. 12 Northern Province i. 39 .. 61 .. 10 . 15 .. 39 .. 60 .. 10 .. 15 Eastern Province k 29 .. 31 . . 8 . 11 . . 25 .. 33 .. 8 . . 11 Noith-Western Province 1 13 .. 19 .. 5 . 7 . . 13 .. 20 .. 4 . . 7 North-Central Province ?' 15 . . 23 . . 3 . 5 . . 15 . . 24 .. 3 .. 5 Province of Uva '? 24 .. 30 .. 7 . 11 .. 25 .. 32 .. 8 .. 12 Province of Sabaragamuwa 17 .. 25 .. 4 . 7 .. 18 .. 25 .. 4 .. 7 Colombo Municipality 11° 185 .. 229 .. 130 .. 164 .. 207 .. 264 .. 136 .. 180 Kandy Municipality IV 222 .. 266 .. 154 .. 183 .. 244 .. 306 .. 158 .. 209 Galle Municipality •1 117 .. 160 .. 51 .. 67 .. 128 .. 172 .. 55 . . 70 /0 k The test questions put to those who claimed to speak English were : " Can you talk in English ? "; " Can you understand a question put to you in English and reply in English ? " ; and "Able to speak English " was defined as meaning " Able to conduct a short conversation, or understand and answer questions put, in English." These instructions were found to have been strictly interpreted and there is no reason to suppose that the figures show a higher proportion of English-speaking than is actually the case. In most of the Provinces there was an appreciable number of persons who, though not literate in English, could yet speak the language. In fact the standard of English-speaking is probably higher than the standard of English literacy. Such is generally but not invariably the case. For instance, it is rather curious to note that in the Northern and Southern Provinces the number of males able to speak English was actually less than the number of English male literates. If the figures are correct, it would, seem that no'Jaffnese learn conversational English for the sake of its general utility—which might be , slight—and that of the large number of them who learn to read and write it, probably for examination purposes, some few cannot talk the language. Similarly some few males in the Galle District apparently learn some English for trade purposes, but are not accustomed to speak it. The Northern Province was only second to the Western Province in the English literacy of its males, but in the latter there was a fair number of people who had learnt to speak English, without being able to read and write it. In 1921 one-tenth of the male population in it of five years of age and over could speak English, which is a very high proportion, and these were not confined to the main towns. 72 CHAPTER VII.—OCCUPATIONS. Of the Municipalities, in 1921, Kandy showed the highest proportion both of English literates and of persons able to speak English. The figures for Colombo were probably lowered by the existence there of large numbers of the cooly class, who in Kandy do not form so large a proportion of the population. Nearly one-third of the male population of Kandy could speak English, which must have a very large effect on the proportion of English-speaking males in the Province. If Kandy were excluded, the proportion of English literates in the Central Province would be found to be about the same as in the other Kandyan Provinces. It is worth noting that the literacy and especially English literacy in towns is often due to largo number of school boarders, employees of Government and Mercantile firms, &c. i mi SECTION 6,^TAMH^SpEa^ciwa SIHU-TCESE: The foUowing table is interesting in that it gives a fair estimate of the number of Sinhalese whose mother tongue is Tamil—a circumstance due to the fusion of the two races already .alluded to in Part I., page 202 :— i TABLE No. 110.—The Number of Sinhalese whose Mother Tongue was Tamil, 1921. Low-country Kandyan Sinhalese. Sinhalese. 1 •—- , f— A_ , District. Females. Males. Females. Males. 1 2 3 4 5 Ceylon 4,195 3,362 ... 39 7 Colombo Municipality 48 28 .. 1 1 Colombo District (exclusive of the Munici- pality) . .J 1,810* 1,677* .. — Kalutara ••t 16 Kandy Municipality 15 Kandy District (exclusive of the Municipality) t> Nuwara Eliya . . . . i Galle Municipality .. .. 8 Galle District (exclusive of the Municipality) Matara ..l6 1 .. l .. — — Hambantota .. M 1 .. — — — Mullaittivu .. ii — — 1 .. — Kurunegala .. 'J — — 4 .. Puttalam .. M 252 . . 112 .. 1 — Chilaw .. 2,049 . . 1,533 .. — — Anuradhapura . . — . . — 2 .. — Badulla .. n — — 7 .. — Ratnapura — 2 .. Kegalla 6 .. — 11 CHAPTER VII.—OCCUPATIONS. SECTION 1.—THE COLLECTION OF THE INFORMATION. General.—There is, perhaps, no part of the information collected at a Census which is of greater importance and utility than the statistics of occupations, but the difficulty in obtaining accurate data is very considerable. The great variety of the different occupations, the difficulty of framing an unexceptionable classification of them, and of obtaining sufficiently precise information, either from the enumerator or the householder to enable specific occupations to be located in the classification, make the tabulation of the occupations a work of great complication, and the results are, in most countries, probably subject to considerable error. The Ceylon Schedule and the Instructions to Enumerators.—The enumerators in Ceylon were given full instructions, both printed and verbal, regarding the manner of entry of the occupational columns in the schedule. The printed instructions, which also show the column headings, were the following :— Columns 9 (a) (Principal Occupation or Means of Subsistence p/ Earner) ; 9 (b) (Subsidiary Occupation or Means of Subsistence of Earner) ,10 (If not Earner, Principal Occupation or Means of Subsistence of Persons on whom dependent) are the most difficult columns in the schedule to fill up, and the following points should be carefully studied and borne in mind :— (1) The first distinction is between " Earner " and "Non-Earner." "Earners " include both workers and persons of independent means, derived, say, from shares, pensions, rents, the workof others, &c. "Non- Earners " include children, women, old and infirm persons, who do not earn money or means of subsistence, and have no means of their own. But women and children who help to augment the family income are "earners." A woman who makes lace, baskets, hoppers, &c, or is engaged as telephone operator, typist, &c., and earns money by her work, or who regularly assists her husband in his work, is augmenting the family ! income, and is an " earner." But a woman who looks after b-f-r house and cooks the food does not augment the family income, and is a " non-earnor." Boys at school or college are " non-earners." Domostic servants are "earnors." Persons temporarily out of employ should be shown as following their last occupation. * Almost all in Negombo Dist rict. • 1 Ot/*ens Jifefzsn ttZimilS Tnctzctn Moors C? JT EM,AL,ES AZZ jeaoes Indian Tamils fCemclifS.n Sinhalese Zjoe&Sra Moans . CgaZon X&mxls TOTAL JUZJRaces Otters •AT&**c[yam Sim\taless Cotv-cocmirySinhalese Cetflora Himils Cec/Zon Jfocns so -to so £o *° so 55 so &T so &o *oo «« - 9 - it. SECTION 1.—THE COLLECTION OF THE INFORMATION. 73 Begging should be regarded as an occupation or means of subsistence, and persons making a livelihood out of begging should be entered in column 9 (a) as " earners." For " earners " column 9 (a) and possibly 9 (6) will show the occupation or means of subsistence. For "non-earners " the principal occupation or means of subsistence of the persons on whom they are dependent will be shown in column 10, and columns 9 (a) and 9 (b) will be left blank. Thus, if a man lives by cultivating his own land, say, with tobacco or paddy, and his wife and children assist him in that cultivation, they will be all entered in column 9 (a), he as "tobacco (or paddy) cultivator and proprietor," and they as "tobacco (or paddy) cultivators." Again, if the head of a family/ is a lawyer, and his wife and children have no independent means of subsistence, enter opposite the name of j such wife or child in column 10 "advocate "or " proctor," as the case may be, and leave columns 9 (a) and 9 (p)] blank. _ L _ (2) The second distinction is between "principal " and "subsidiary " occupation or means of sub sistence (columns 9 (a) and 9 (6)). The " principal " occupation or means of subsistence is that which brings in the largest income, or that on which the earner depends most for a livelihood. The " subsidiary " occupation or means of subsistence is the means of livelihood on which the earner depends, in addition to the previous. Only one—the most important—" subsidiary occupation or means of subsistence " may be entered in column 9 (6). If the earner has no subsidiary occupation, enter " None " in column 9 (6). It should be noted that the relative importance of occupations or means of subsistence is to be judged from their importance as sources of income or means of livelihood.* Columns 9 (a) and 9 (6) will always be blank for " non-earners." (3) The exact occupation or means of subsistence must be entered. Vague terms like "merchant," " trader," " planter," " cooly," &c., must be made definite by adding the kind of merchandise, tra"derlabour, * But-unpaid headmen must show their employment under Government in column 9 (6). f The column for subsidiary occupations should probably be deleted. 74 CHAPTER VII.—OCCUPATIONS. (2) Errors in classification would tend to occur owing to the great number of heads and sub-heads, but it is not thought that these errors were large in number. (3) Changes in classification have probably caused considerable differences in the tabulation at different Censuses, but the absence of sufficiently detailed indexes of occupations at previous Censuses made it difficult to be certain as to what changes had arisen. The nett result of these possibilities of errors or differences, is that, if figures for the smaller sub divisions are compared at different Censuses, a large, and often arbitrary, allowance has to be made for errors or changes of classification, and it is, in many cases, doubtful whether the difference which may remain after making this allowance is significant. With the exception of the possible confusion of Sub-class III., Industrial^ccujjatkinj jmd_Su^-cla.ssJV,, .Trade, the.figure, for-lhe main -divisions may prbTJalny^bTTiomparable within reasonable limits of error, but inferences from the figures have to be made with considerable caution, and generally with reservations as to the above-mentioned errors. SECTION 2.—THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE STATISTICS. Limitations.—The number of the occupational subdivisions is too large to make a reference possible, in this chapter, to all the details according to race, district, &c. For special points, which do not find a place here, reference may be made to the Occupational Table for Ceylon which appears in Volume IV. of the Census publications, 1921. The general plan of the chapter is firstly to show the divisions of the population into earners and dependents, including a note on female earners (Table No. 112); then to set out the arrangement according to classes (Tables Nos. 113 and 113a); then to show the division of classes into sub-classes (Tables Nos. 113, 114, 122, 127, 131); then to give the distribution of sub-clases into orders (Tables Nos. 115, 121,123, 124, 125, 127a, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135) ; and to add some notes on the main specific occupations in each order. It was clearly impossible in the space available to consider the various races and districts, and the figures given generally relate to the Island ft population. In every case " paddy land owner " means " returned as paddy land owner," and so for all ! the other occupations, while " earner " means " returned as an earner," &c. Tables Nos. 114 to 135 » and the notes thereon refer to principal occupations only. Subsidiary occupations are referred to at the end of the chapter. All the tables in this Chapter exclude the Military and Shipping. Earners and Dependents.—-The first classification of the occupations which calls for notice in a broad outline is the distinction between earners and dependents. The proportions of earners to the total population, of male earners to the total males, and of female earners to the total females are shown in the following table (see also Diagram No. 21 facing page 73) :— TABLE No. Ill—Percentage of Earners to the Total Population, of Male Earners to the Total Males and of Female Earners to the Total Females. 1921. 1911. 1901. Total. ! Mules. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Race. Females. Per- | Per Per Per Per Por Per Per Per Cont. of i Cent, of Cent, of Cont. of Cent, of Cent of Cent, of Cent, of Cont. of ! Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Total Persons, j Mules.Females . Persons. Miilos. Females. Persons. Males. Females. 1 4 5 0 8 2 j 3 7 9 10 All Races .'. 49-6 62-4 35-2 430 59-2 24-8 45-9 60-4 29-4 45 1 Low-country Sinhalese 58-5 30-4 38-3 54-1 47-7 21-2 40 4 55-0 24-5 Kandyan Sinhalese A 58-7 353 34-2 52-5 13-9 61-3 40-5 55-4 239 Tamils .. % 72-6 48-4 59-0 73-0 44-1 42-9 CO-8 72-7 4C-3 Ceylon Tamils £ 61-7 23'5 36-9 58-0 14-9 - 771 Indian Tamils >. 81-3 720 82-3 86-4 77-0 42-0 Moors .. .7. 59-4 20-6 39-9 59-5 15-4 39-8 405 59 1 17-2 Ceylon Moors .t. 58-3 19-8 35-2 54-2 14-5 58-9 Indian Moors .1 65-2 33-9 73-8 841 316 Europeans .. /« 56-8 81-4 24-2 60-2 24-2 83-0 55-6 79-3 18-3 Burghers and Eurasians 31-9 52-3 12-0 31-8 10-5 53-0 29-9 51-5 86 Malays .. (V- 30-9 54-6 5-1 31-7 4-9 55-9 34-7 56-0 97 Veddas ... 0! 42-7 52-7 8-5 29-7 6-9 50-5 31-9 52-8 100 Others .. >.% - 80-1 88-0 434 77-1 49-4 86-7 05-0 79-7 27-1 The chief point in this table is the increase of the percentage of earners in 1921, especially among the females. The latter, which is particularly noticeable in the case of the Sinhalese, may be due to the difficulty of classifying women who perform unpaid domestic or other duties. It is possible that these and others were classified at one Census as earners and at another as dependents, and the percentage of female earners may be overstated in 1921, or understated in 1911, or both. In any case, it is not likely, that the overstatement of earners is so great as to reduce the proportion of them below 40 per pent, which would give two earners in a family of 5 persons, and not one as has often been assumed. v. PEBeEMTAOE IV TIKE T?TAI* I^FULATIo-M *F EAR«ER3 A/TODEPE.MDEMT» IKTM RESPECTIVE £*UB-EI,AS9ES too Jlxz, J?jtcss TJTE L?°:PULA-TI°tt «Y EACH I2ACE BY JStUTctyan Sinhalese <5et/ton-25tmiLs TIT ZndusMal OectyaationS. JZ7- Trunsjxxrf. Z7_ Znaota. I UST— &caaae&ic Service :ZR. QKMSne&as, 3T-£*rJbtic force, ZiTt SO 30 •40 60 60 90 Pbo+ft Litbo, Survey Dept;C«y I 75 SECTION 2.—THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE STATISTICS. Female Barners.-In connection with the above table, it is of interest to examine.the^figures.for female earner^. The following table shows the number of female earners in certain occupations in 1911 and 1921 for the races showing the greatest differences :— TABLE No. 112.—The Principal Occupations followed by Females and the Number of Earners in each of them in 1921 and 1911. Low-country Kandyan Ceylon Tamils. Indian Tamils. All Races. Sinhalese. Sinhalese. Occupation aud_the_ Order Number. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 0 7 8 9 10 11 2 3 4 193,326 176,728 174,355 181,507 65,808 59,869 38,745 745,925 478,055 280,199 41 Total earners 12,316' 14,590 23,232 2,824 1,600 37 23,349 39,10C| 4,498 8 Paddy land owners 8,216 90,174 13,626 3,974 577 189 Paddy land cultivators* (la) 114,914 23,331 12,153 Paddy land owners and 22,099 —' 2,634 22 — cultivators .. (la) 30,154 4,119 Coconut plantation owners, 65 83 22,653 1,442 1,076 782 615] (16) 20,064 25,116 16,765 11,825 &o. 2,265! 1,016 103 201 32,233 (16) 43,354 15,542 7,812 2,115 Rubber plantation labourers 6,317 316 3,5491 144,440 148,419 j"» 160,596 166,256 6,964 5,203 7,201 Tea plantation labourers (16) 245 80 26,023 32,115 24,442 51 27 Coir manufacturers (5) 32,864 872| 3 1 27,016 10,153 1,110] 501 2,188 Mat weavers (7) 31,540 13,192 1,951 26 12 635 315 146 142 2,925 Bice pounders and huskers (11 to 7,172 5,116 2,344 288 97 2,747 1,931 1,144 1,492 U il 19,891 7,082 13,706 Hopper makers .. < 888 371 1,075 738 485 (12) ,>-11,714 8,531 9,082 6,07 1.518J Dhobies 91 109 152 14 13 (12) 5,494 3,587 4,781 2,890 198| Milliners, dressmakers, &c. 8 3 2,081 1,626 29 17 (32) 3,722 2,884 1,601 1,229 Fish sellers 11 3,111 4,651 318 230 (32) 5,344 5,648 1,376] 564 24 Bice, paddy, gram sellers 4351 741 172] 26 175 (32) 2,578 5,110 1,419 3,505 220 Bread, rice-cake sellers 4 ll 78 60 11 3 3] Missionaries (45) 7 13 3 I Nuns, &c. (45) 146 183 89 7 10 46 20 8 1 Nurses (47) 649 377 132 100] 182 47| 589 364 66 35 (48)| 4,057 2,269 2,6681 1,520] School mistresses 28i 1 102! 68 28i 15 (50) 1,269 S84 6781 47( Houso rent, shares, &c. 8,034! 4,5661 2,976; 2,375 836; 480 (51)** 44,670 25,629 30,600| 17,2001 Domestic servants, &c. 10,131; 5,565 10,619 3,432 2,209! 3,124 General labourers (52 >M 30,142 23,988 11,807 10.5SO The figures show a large increase of about 268,000 in the total number of female earners, which is seen to be mainly due to the increase of some lOG.OOO among the Low-country Sinhalese females and 116,000 among the Kandyans. The greatest increases are found in Sub-classes I., III., X., and XL, which are further to be traced to increases under Order 1 (re), ordinary cultivation ; Order 1 (b), growers of special products; Order 5, textiles ; Order 7, wood ; Order 11, food industries ; Order 12, industries of the dress and toilet, &c. The increase of about 114,000 under Order 1 (a), ordinary cultiva tion, is the greatest, and is mainly due to the increase of female earners engaged in paddy cultivation, while unspecified cultivators show a large proportional increase. The increase under Order 1 (a) is greatest among the Kandyans, and is probably due, in part, to females who do unpaid work in the fields being entered as non-earners at one Census and earners at another. The increase under Order 1 (b), growers of special products, is largely due to the development of the rubber industry since 1911. Although a certain amount of the increase is probably due to change of definition of " earners," the large differences indicate an increasing number of female earners among the indigenous races. The Classes and Sub-classes.—The numbers of earners and dependents of each race under each of the occupational classes and sub-classes in 1921 are shown in Tabic No. 113. Their percentages to the total population of each race are graphically represented in Diagram No. 21a facing this page. [For Table No. 113 see page 7G.] The percentages of earners and dependents under each of the^occupational sub-classes, to the total population In each District are shown in Table No. 113a and are illustrated in Diagram *o. 21b facing page 77. [For Table No. 113a see page 77.] The chief point in these tables is the large number of persons in Sub-class I., owing to the fact that Ceylon is mainly an agricultural country. . -Uhe numbers shown as « Paddy land owners" and "paddy **°^^£V£™C<*^ •» *oluSive of " paddyland owners and cultivators " who were shown under a separate heading » 1921. TABLE No. I13.-The Total Number of Earners and Dependents of both Sexes under each of the Occupational Classes and Sub-classes by Race, Ceylon, 1921. c 3 B o o & Name of Sub-class. E 11 © 3 frit §•3 8 •g WJ h > o 3 6 9 10 12 ' 13; 14 15 11 Grand Total 4,498,605 1,927,057 1,089,097| 517,324 602,735] 251,938 Production of Raw Materials.. 33,026| 8,118| 29,439 13L 402 4,510 21,959 2,902,680 1,042,438 955,748 274,119| 505,481 101,208 4,971 I. Exploitation of the Surface of 3,004 3,814 ,571 4,000 5,326 the Earth 2,898,001 1,039,685 954,843 274,00E| 505,2661 100,765 II. Extraction of Minerals 4,963| 2,998 3,806 445 4,000 5,224 4,679 2,753 905 113 216| 443 8 Preparation and supply of 6 8 126 102 Material Substances 1,041,657 619,330 53,156 152,116 57,891 113,070 III. Industrial Occupation 16,044 1,888 14,059 233 156 8,714 533,400 360,544 30,121 76,465 17,767 38,260 IV. Transport 1,595 198 4,609 527 54| 2,260 162,433 78,982 11.074J 25,219 24,883] 11,380 1,540 V. Trade 345,824 674 4,242 615] 14 2,810 179,804 11,961 50,432 15,241 63,430] 12,909 Public Administration and 1,016 6,208 091 88 3,644 Liberal Arts 150,173 75,402| 14,639| 29,540 6,117 6,723 509 2,472 VI. Public Force 9,289 8,947 4382 8 1,434 3,151 831 1,240| 514] 556] 35 213 VII. Publio Administration* 30,969 396 2,\)76 277 14,4691 2,341 6,917 2,192 876| 74| 400 VIII. Professions and Liberal Arts , 97,959 2,145] 1,087 468 52,910] 11,056| 19,230 3,083 4,120 337 IX. Persons living on their Incomif 11,956 1,468 4,537 1597 620 4,872 411 2,163 328 1,171 63] D Miscellaneous 404,095J 391 l,869i ]622 69 189,887 65,554 61,649 33,246 30,937 11,502 X. Domestic Service 117,524 754 2,619] 1,216] 346 6,485 65,681 19,175 10,596 13,457| 4,456 1,364 XI. Insufficiently described Occu 29, 325 TEIO 45, 1,886 pations 272,458 119,389| 43,537 48,979| 17,854 24,635| XII. Unproductive '" 9,914 693! 2,163 680 294 4,420 13,415 4,611 2,820 1,857 1,766 1,913 Miscellaneous iS 210 1 116] 23] 7 92 xni. 698 2061 22 117 169 33 14 31 16 3 87 i I * Excluding Government employees classified under Sub-class IV., Transport j Sub-class VI., Public Force ; Sub-class VIII. Professions, &c. DUQ'RAM H<>. SI B PERCENTAGE Coiornbo JCaZufers GoZornbo AfC JCsnak/ AfC GfaZZe Malstna /f<3m bantdta. GsilZtS MC?. Afannar Me*ZZ Haili/vzZosi sgraZa BacUtZZci JCe^azia. ^00 600 SOO £>0O **• 9 23. 05 TABLE No. 113a.—Percentage of Earners and Dependents of both Sexes under each of the Occupational Sub-classes, by Districts, 1921; I Sr*> 8.2 .2* Is * 3 •C •c 6-C 3.S Name of Sub-class. 8 3 11 Ji "3.3 o.S %3 ES OO .a g ES N I.? I 1.1 Si I ll ten is go 13 ISP 1 3 W I C3 18 6 M « M 6 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 8 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 i. Exploitation of the Surface of the Earth !. 64-41 4-8 53-41 60-1 13-91 80-3 80-8 85-6 0-4 53- 61-6 73-7 62-8 64-1 74-1 67-7 50.91 86-61 64-21 83-7 851 83-2 ii. Extraction of Mineralsf t. 61-e in. Industrial Occupations .. 11 -9 15-9 17-2 17-6 15-6 4-7 4-9 4-0| 28-61 26-0 19-11 10-6 15-8 9-6 6-8| 15-9' 12-7 3-8 6-6| 13-4! 3-3 3 4-9 IV. Transport 3-6; 16-2| 4-4 3-5 9 2-1 1-5 2-3 5-7 1-7 2-0 1-9 3-3 4-0 2 V. 5' 4-3 4-2 5-5 1-8 6-7 4-6| 3-0 1-6 Trade 7-7 21 10-3 9-6) 17 4-2 3-9 2-0 25-0| 7-8 8-0 7-7 10-5 9-5 3-4 9-2 6-4 3-6 7-7 81 3-7 2-81 3-7 VI. Publio Forcef ° 1 1 vn. Public Administration ? . 4 •8 •4 4 •2 •3 •2 2-4] •2 •4 •6 •9 1-31 10] •7 1-9] •2 •8 •3 •5 •3 |vni 7 J3 Professions and Liberal Arte 2-2 5 2-4 2-6| 7 11 1-4 *9 6-4 2-6 2-6 1-7 41 1-8 17 2-0 2-8 1-1 1-8 1-6 1-4 11 11 rx. Persons . living on their Incomet 2-2| 20 x. Domestic Service 'A 2-6 111 3-0 2-5. 211 1-6 1-7 2-3 8-3 1-8 21 1-5 1-3 1-4 1-2 1-7 2-2 1-3 2-0 2-8 1-2 1-6 XI. Insufficiently described 14 Occupations '/. 61 171 7-9 3-0, 7-2 6-5 51 2-3' 11-9 6-7 4-0i 1-9 10 6 7-2 7-2 7-3 16-4 1-3 9-9 7-2 2-7 2-!4| 2-7 XII. Unproductivet IXLTJ. Miscellaneous f * In Trains and the Basses. t Blanks appear where the proportions are less than 1 per cent. 78 CHAPTER VII.—OCCUPATIONS. CLASS A.—PRODUCTION OF RAW MATERIALS. The Sub-classes of Class A with their numbers are the following :— TABLE No. 114.—The Sub-classes of Class A, Production of Raw Materials 1921. 1911. 190h -\ r EARNERS AND Sub-classes. Earners. EARNERS AND Earners. Earners and DEPENDENTS. Earners. DEPENDENTS. Dependents. 1 2 6 4 6 7 Total of Class A 2,902,680., 1,388,919. 2,765,195. 2,467,687.. 1,108,203 Sub-class I.—Exploitation of 1,150,958. , the Surfaceof the Earth .V 2,898,001„ 1,386,072.. 2,787,389. 2,436.843. . „090,141_ Bub-class TT.—Extraction of 1,134,49JL.. Minerals .. A 4,679 2,847.. 27,806. . 30,844.. 18,062 16,464.. Sub-class I.—Exploitation of the surface of the Earth.—This sub-class is divided into the following orders and sub-orders :— TABLE No. 115.—The Number of Earners and Dependents under each of the Orders and ' Sub-orders of Sub-class I., Exploitation of the Surface of the Earth. 1921. 1911 1901. - Earners and EARNERS AND EARNERS AND EARNERS. Earners. Order. Dependents. DEPENDENTS. DEPENDENTS. Earners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total of sub-clasa No. 1. 2,898,001. 1,386,072. . 2,737,389., 1,134,494. 2,436,843.. 1,090,141 1. Pasture and Agriculture»• 2,818,236. 1,357,475. . 2,643,510.. 1,104,050. 2,361,623.. 1,065,240 f(a) Ordinary cultiva tion . ^ 1,736,333.. 704,311.. 1,608,625.. 512,219.. 1,401,946.. 503,263 (6) Growers of special pro ducts .". 1,066,723.. G43.104. . 1,022,997.. 584,082. 946,530.. 654,193 (c) Forestry ,\ 5,790. . * 3,156.. 3,305. . 1,393. 2,401.. 896 (6) Departments of Agriculture and Irrigation . h 1,367.. 582. . 959. . 378. . 773.. 487 (d) Raising of farm stock . 7,986.. 6,304. . 7,594. . 5,959. . 9,973.. 6,401 (e) Raising of small animals . . ° 37.. 18. . 30. . 19. . 2. Fishing and hunting . . ^ 79,765.. 28,597. . 93,879. . 30,444. . 75,220. . 24,901 Order 1,Pasture and Agriculture.—Thefollowing tabic shows the number of earners and dependents in Order 1, Pasture and Agriculture, classified according to the principal cultivations :— TABLE No. 116.—The Number of Earners and Dependents under Order 1, Pasture and Agriculture, classified according to the Principal Cultivations. ALL RACES. 1921. 1911. 1901. Earners 1 EARNERS EARNERS AND i EARNERS. AND i EARNERS. AND EARNERS. .DEPENDENTS! [DEPENDENTS] [DEPENDENTS 3 | 4 5 I (I 8 ORDER NO. 1 PASTURE AND AGRICULTURE . ( 2,818,230 1.357,47.". 2,643,510; 1,104,0501 2,361,623 1,065,240 (A) ORDINARY CULTIVATION 1,736,333 704,311 1,608,6251 512,219 1,401,940 603,263 T NOS. 1/1, 2/1, 2A/1 PADDY LAND OWNERS] AND CULTIVATORS .. .3. 1,603,254 045,051 1,457,388 453,332 1,077,904 391,945 (6) GROWERS OF SPECIAL PRODUCTS AND MARKET GARDENING .T 1,060,723 643,104 1,022,997 584,082 946,530 554,193 T NOS. 5/1 AND 2 CACAO PLANTATIONS, OWNERS, MANAGERS, LABOURERS, &C..? 9.186J 5,318 15,094 8,891 10,368 9,616 T NOS. 5/5 AND 6 COCONUT PLANTATIONS, OWNERS, MANAGERS, LABOURERS, &C.. * 297,932! 119,220 295,920 104,170 207,680 73,203 T NOS. 5/13 AND 14 RUBBER PLANTATIONS, OWNERS, MANAGERS, LABOURERS, &c. 151,143 109,596 50,093 3S.424 T NOS. 5/15 AND 1G TEA PLANTATIONS, OWNERS, MANAGERS, LABOURERS, &C... 425,8711 323,698| 470,198 369,144 387,620 312,651 OTHER PLANTATIONS I 182,591 85,26(1 191,092 63,447 334,862 158,723 From this table it is clear that the large number of persons dependent on pasture and agriculture is due to the numbers of paddy land owners and cultivators and their dependents, and of labourers on estates, and their families. The former show a considerable increase in 1921 ; the numbers dependent on tea show a decrease, probably as a result of improved methods of production ; while those dependent on rubber show a large increase owing to the extension of the industry. The cacao estates show a decrease in the numbers employed on them, coconuts show a small increase, and "other plantations" a decrease. Indian Tamils.—In view of the economic importance of Indian Tamils in Ceylon, more detailed information is given in Tables Nos. 117 and 118 :— [For Tables Nos. 117 and 118 see page 79.] * THE HEADINGS WITHIN TINS BRACKET ARE SUB-ORDERS OF ORDER NO. 1. T THE NUMBERS AGAINST THESE HEADINGS ARO GROUP NUMBERS AND OCCUPATION NUMBERS OF " THE CLATISIFICD SCHEME," 1921. TABLE No. 117.-lndlan Tamil Labourers and Non-labourers in Ceylon, 1921. Number of Indian Tamil Non-labourers in iNumber of Indian Tamil Labourers and other Subordinates in Total Number of Indian Non-Estates. Non-Estates. Estates A and Others. Tamils. Estates A and Other. „ , Depend- Occupation. , Depend- Earners. | £ . Depend Total} Earners. £ Total. e tB Depend Depend Earners. e tSi Total Earners. Total. 1 ents. 15 16 Total Earners. ents. ents. 11 I 12 13 14 | 7 8 9 10 2 3 4 6 6 47,1,'Oe 34,831 12,276 19,481 10,072 9,409| 105,371 46,846 36,056 10,790 602,735 464,890 137,845 489,302 383,931 786 346 440 Total 708 3,716 2,568 1,148 2,930 2,222 739 352 387 Cacao estates 1,907 J, 11,510 9,216 2,294 10,771 8,864 1,972 8081 1,164 Coconut estates 22,437 101,220 77,619 23,601 99,248 76,811 5,129 2,094 3,035 Rubber estates V 78,723 374,161 292,403 81,758 369,032 290,309 273 224 49 CO Tea estates 150 70 49!) 374 125 220 384 157 227 Tobacco estates V 1,113 > 6,028 4,088 1,340 5,644 4,531 .10 7 3 Unspecified estates 44 t 199 152 47 189 145 Other estates 2,532 1,387 1,145 Government Departments 14,931 3,735 1S.666! 4,104 44,574 33,444' 11,130 i 21,198 16,318 4.880 21,125 7,055 10,188 6,084 and Local Boards 1,262 SOO 303 28,1.80 Others 84,204 61,552 22,652 O The numbers cinployod by Government showed iiisullioieat details. Wo § 9 O as o s 5 M * Non-labourers including Kanakapillais, teamakers, conductors, watchers, &c. . „m„i„i;™ ty,o Tndian Tamils on " other estates " numbering f " A " is the distinguishing letter given hen to the Census list of 2,367 estates. These include nearly the whole immigrant estate population, the Indian lamils on mner only about 14,800. I 1 Other subordinates include Kanganies, Assistant Kanganies, &c. . . «.«u_w- „ ,»i <>nimt of the rubber slump and the time nm 3 W-The above figures may be not representative a! they were collected in March, 1921, when the estate V°V*M™ ^^,^^^^^^^oS! with mixed of the year. They will be in error if the schedules did not snecify the kind of cultivation, " cooly," e.g., being classified under general, non-agricultural labourers. Labourers on cultivation may have been classified under the product with the largest acreage. CHAPTER ^-OCCUPATIONS table _Paddy.-The sub-heads of paddy cultivation and the relevant numb relevant numbers are shown in the following TABLE No. 119._The Paddy Industry J 1921. 1911. ' 1901." Earners and Earners and i *— Dependents. Earners. i Dependents. Earners. Earners and 2 3 Dependents. Earners. Total 4 5 _'. 1,603,254 645,651 6 7 Paddy land owners ?~. 100,466 • 1,457,388 . 453,332 1,077,904 .. 391,945 44,481 Paddy land cultivators }. 1,066,763 • 616,027 . 200,352 407,589 516,286 174,298 Paddy land owners and culti 841,361 .. 252,980 vators .. -.1—436 025 561,618 .. 217,647 ; 193,581 -„^,v/i.u .. iyj,081 .. — ... — .. — .. — v In 1911 there was no head for paddy land owners and cultivators, and it is difficult to discover whether those returned as " owners and cultivators " were tabulated under " owners " or " cultivators." If, as is probable, they were classified under " owners," then the 1921 total of " owners " and " owners and cultivators " is comparable with the 1911 " owners," and we see that the earners show a total of 238,000 in 1921 against 200,000 in 1911, so that the figures do not give any indication of a decrease in the number of paddy land owners. It was, of course, likely that many persons returned themselves as paddy land owners when they were merely cultivators, but there is no reason why this should have been the case to a greater extent in 1921 than in 1911, and, on the whole, it is likely that the above figures are representative of an actual increase in numbers. The increase in the number of cultivators in 1911- 1921 is very considerable, though not quite so great proportionately as in 1901-1911. Further Notes on Agriculture.—In addition to the kinds of cultivation already mentioned, figures are available for cinnamon, which supported 14,107 persons in 1921 against 18,228 in 1911; coffee,! which supported 30 persons in 1921 against 49 in 1911 ; cotton, which supported 5 persons in 1921 against 142 in 1911 ; citronella, which supported 10,213 persons in 1921 against 11,330 in 1911 ; vegetable and fruit growing, which supported 51,158 persons in 1921 against 74,017 in 1911. Agriculture in the Districts.—The following table shows the number of persons returned as earners and dependents under the head of pasture and agriculture in the respective districts :— TABLE No. 120.—The Number of Persons under the head of Pasture and Agriculture in each of the Districts. 1921. 1911. District. Earners and Earners and Dependents. Earners. 1 Earners. Total 2 Dependents. 3 4 2,818,236 . 1,357,475 5 Colombo Municipality 2,643,510 1,104,050 Colombo J 8,678 4,023 Kalutara 345,002 6,873 2,999 u 123,082 346,762 Kandy Municipality 189,430 79,673 126,495 KandyJ V 4,523 165,201 65,885 Y 1,759 4,099 Matale 322,209 194,877 1,332 Nuwara Eliya 94,217 313,055 174,949 51,744 91,404 Galle Municipality. . 143,008 96,617 49,009 136 744 Galle} 2,992 1,033 92,376 9 826 Matara 143,623 55,773 965 131.53S Hambantota 138,372 50,807 43,049 127,432 Jaffna 87,022 38,503 44,735 84,785 Mannar 156,706 61,657 24,208 is 160,986 Mullaittivu 11,654 5,315 53,546 10,759 Batticaloa 13,204 4,976 4,383 87,282 12,156 4,088 Trincomalee 'lb 32,322 . 82,681 Kurunegala 15,224 5,698 . 26,664 14,388 Puttalam 306,477 163,574 . 4,679 266,162 Chilaw 19,500 11,334 . 88,905 22,636 56,504 24,105 . 8,272 Anuradhapura 49,465 80,740 39,915 . 16,345 Bacmlla 74,495 199,327 106,430 . 24,250 Ratnapura 184,482 168,835 80,245 . 88,170 Kegaua 223,562 . 135,429 59,893 Miscellaneous, viz. 123,912 . in Trains and 210,152 98,853 the Basses .. /-.\ I — .. — 145 . 101 Increases in the figures for 1921 are general, but decreases appear in Colombo District, and among the dependents in Jaffna and Puttalam Districts. The chief decreases in Colombo District are among agricultural labourers, some of whom may have been classed as general labourers ; among the superior staff on coconut plantations probably owing to confusion with labourers ; and among tea plantation labourers. But these are nearly counterbalanced by increases of paddy land owners and cultivators ; of rubber plantation staff and labourers ; of general labourers ; of coconut labourers, &c. The Other Orders and Groups of Sub-class I.—Among the other groups of this sub-class, we find three Government departments—the Forest Department, the Department of Agriculture, and lithe Department of Irrigation. But from vhe figures it appears that considerable numbers of the employees of these Departments omitted to have their occupation specified infull, and were included among Govern ment servants, or under other heads. * Sco footnote on page 75. t But coffee is grown as a minor product on a fair number of estates, and probably the estate coolies cultivating it, wero entered as concerned with the principal product of the estate. J Exclusive of Municipality. CLASS B.—PREPARATION AND SUPPLY OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCES. 81 Of Group 8, woodcutters, &c.—containing 5,032 earners and dependents—the great majority were woodcutters, there being only a few wax, honey, and forest produce collectors, root diggers, and - charcoal burners. The small number of choya root diggers is a survival of a larger industry, which was * \ supervised by a special department in the time of the Dutch.* The choya root was used for dyeing, |j but the industry was supplanted by cheaper mariufactured dyes: '"» Under Order 1 (d), raising of farm stock (total earners and dependents, 1921, 7,986; 1911, 7,594), the majority in 1921 were cattle breeders and keepers, with a fair proportion of shepherds, 525 elephant trainers and keepers, 84 sheep and goat breeders, a few pig breeders and horse breeders. Under Order 2, fishmgajidhuhtihg7thefe were, in 1921, only 5 pearl fishery divers and 10 depend- - ents, and 143 chank fishers and 284 dependents, the great majority 28,154 earners and 50,753 dependents, against 29,918 earners and 62,572 dependents in 1911: being returned as " fishermen " without other qualification. The last were chiefly found in the Districts of Colombo and Jaffna. Table No. 115 shows a decrease in Order 2, fishing and hunting, which is mainly due to the decrease in the number of dependents. The slight decrease among the earning fishermen may be due to confusion with fish-sellers in Order 32 (Group 94) who show a considerable increase. The hunters and their dependents decreased from 562 in 1911 to 62 in 1921, mainly owing to the Veddas of Uva being returned in 1921 as cultivators instead of hunters as in 1911. Sub-class n., Extraction of Minerals.—Table No. 121 shows the number of earners and dependents under each of the Orders of Sub-class II.:— TABLE No 121. -The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Orders of Sub-class n.—Extraction of Minerals. 1921. 1911. 1901. A ... ^— —^ t \ i * r Earners and Earners. Earners and Earners. Earners and Earners. Order. Dependents. Dependents. Dependents. 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 . 30,844 .. 18,062 Total Sub-class II. .1 4,679 .. 2,847 . 27,806 .. 16,464 . 16,077 . . 30,301 .. 17,728 3 Mines \ 3,670 .. 2,215 . 27,047 .. 543 .. 334 4 Salt, &c, \ 1,009 .. 632 759 .. 387 . Of this sub-class the majority are dependent upon plumbago. In 1921 these numbered 2,363 earners and 1,399 dependents, as against 15,417 earners and 10,054 dependents in 1911, the fall being mainly due to the slump in the plumbago trade. The number of plumbago mine-owners fell from 384 earners and 688 dependents in 1911 to 66 earners and 95 dependents in 1921. In 1921, 748 gem diggers and their dependents were included in this sub-class, almost all in the Province of Sabaragamuwa. The decrease from the 1911 figure of 1,111 to 748 in 1921 was due to the decline of the gem trade. Workers in salt showed a considerable increase. It may be noted in connection with this sub-class that there is no coal in Ceylon, and only small quantities of iron. CLASS B.—PREPARATION . AND SUPPLY OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCES. The second of the main four classes is Class B, the preparation and supply of material substances, consisting of the three Sub-classes, III.—Industrial Occupation, IV.—Transport, and V.—Trade, the numbers under which are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 122.—The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Sub-classes of Class B—Preparation and Supply of Material Substances. 1921. 1911. 1901. -A _ . , A _ ^ • SKSteE. E—' Earners. E— 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 Total I Class B .'.1,041,657 .. 529,606 .. 886,702 ..L 380,307 .. 764,820 .. 352,147 Sub-class HI.—Industrial occu pation 533,400 .. 288,697 .. 442,011 .. 191,130 .. 394,159 .. 184,955 Sub-class IV.—Transport .3. 162,433 .. 78,533 .. 121,322 .. 53,004 .. 80,009 .. 37,789 Sub-class V.—Trade X 345,824 .. 162,376 .. 323,369 .. 136.173 .. 290,652 .. 129,403 Dcnliam, Ceylon at the Census of 1911, p. 404; Bcrtolacci, p. 270. S2 CHAri'KK VJ I.—UCUUl'ATiUNS. Sub-class III., Industrial Occupation.—This sub-class consists chiefly of makers and manufacturers as distinguished from sellers and traders who are entered under Sub-class V. (Trade). A person who both makes and sells an article should have been entered in Sub-class III. The orders under industrial occupation with the numbers of earners and dependents, &c, are shown in the following table :— • > TABLE No. 123.—The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Orders of Sub-class III.—Industrial Occupation. 1921. 1911. 1901. f \ i s Earners and Earners and Order Earners and Earners. Earners. Earners. Dependents. Dependents. Dependents. i 2 3 4 0 G 7 Total : Sub-class III. .! 533,400 . . 288,697 . . 442,011 .. 191,130 .. 394,159 .. 184,955 5 Textiles .. . ?- 86,697 . . 68,473 . . 63,534 .. 40,191 61,678 .. 43,075 6 Hides, skins, and hard materials fromthe animal kingdom . .J 1,378 . . 456 . 1,773 .. 510 1,630 . 521 7 Wood, &c. . 147,128 .. 77,139 . . 122,692 .'. 49,850 .. 113,288 .. 50,701 8 Metals .. . .r 46,553 . . 17,783 . . 53,303 .. 19,274 .. 43,368 . 15,135 9 Ceramics .. 1 22,097 .. 11,638 . . 17,264 .. 7,264 .. 18,736 .. 8,301 10 Chemical products proporly so-called and analogous1 2,288 .. 1,133 . 2,459 .. 887 520 . 171 11 Food industries . .J 89,380 . . 47,715 . . 54,647 .. 22,876 . . 52,923 . 22,495 12 Industries of dress and the toilet .. . . °i 79,586 .. 41,724 . . 75,162 .. 31,709 .. 65,483 . 31,031 13 Furniture industries . .'0 520 . . 173 . 260 . . 84 105 . 50 14 Building industries .. 43,654 . . 16,125 . . 41,528 .. 14,326 .. 30,772 . 11,214 15 Construction of means of transport . . 1,525 .. 643 . 847 .. 335 301 . 95 16 Production and transmis sion of physical forces .. 868 .. 372 . 743 .. 468 366 . 175 17 Industries pertaining to literature, the arts and sciences, &c. 8,142 .. 3,238 . 5,796 .. 2,165 4,237 . 1,556 18 Industries concorned with refuse matter . 3,584 .. 2,085 . 2,003 .. 1,191 752 . 435 Increases in 1921 are general under most of the orders, but Order 6—Hides, Skins, and Hard Materials from the Animal Kingdom, Order 8—Metals, and Order 16—Production and Transmission of Physical Forces, show decreases in the numbers of earners. In some cases, there may be a confusion between the orders of this sub-class and the corresponding orders of Sub-class V. (Trade) which is referred to further below. Order 5, Textiles.—Under the order textiles, the predominant occupation is the manufacture of_cpir, which in 1921 supported 6,345 male and 37,580 female earners and dependents, against 7,845 malesand 36,101 females in 1911, a large majority of the earners being females in both cases. Weavers (unspecified) and their dependents amounted to 2,680 persons, against 4,718 in 1911, the greater part being Ceylon Moors. Lace-making in 1921, as a principal occupation, supported 15,892 female earners, mostly Low-country Sinhalese, and in all, 18,009 persons were dependent on it, against 6,641 in 1911, while the number of cotton spinners and weavers and their dependents increased from 896 in 1911 to 1,928 in 1921—mainly iri the town of Colombo as the result of the opening of mills in Wellawatta. Order 6, Hides, Skins, &c.—Under this head are included those who work in skins or make general leather articles. Shoemakers are entered under Order 12—Industries of Dress and the Toilet—but this division is clearly Artificial, though difficult to avoid. The total supported by this industry is small, and consists mainly of makers of combs and their dependents, 464 males and 403 females, the male earners numbering 262 and the female 6. The number of tanners or workers in hides was small. Order 7, Wood, &c.—Workers in wood, basket makers, &c, and their dependents amounted in 1921 to 147,128 persons, against 122,692 inl911,the greater proportion were carpenters and mat-weavers and their dependents, most of the earning carpenters being Low-country Sinhalese males, while the earning mat-weavers were mostly females of the same race. Order 8, Metals.—The workers in metals consist chiefly of goldsmiths, who with their dependents numbered 24,165 in 1921, against 23,616 in 1911. Blacksmiths and their dependents numbered 14,434 in 1921, against 20,703 in 1911. The workers in brass, copper,'and bell metal, amounted to 725 earners with 1,190 dependents, against 784 earners and 1,613 dependents in 1911. The workers in tin, zinc, lead, and other metals amounted with their dependents to 2,070 persons, against 1,767 in 1911. The workers in plumbago in 1921 amounted to 1,275 persons (earners and dependents) ; in 1911 these were classified with Order 3. The manufacture of firearms, which appears to have been considerable at one time, was represented by only 3 earners in 1911 and 8 earners in 1921. Order 9, Ceramics.—Of the industries under this head, potters and their dependents were the most numerous, amounting to 13,764 persons in 1921, against 11,602 in 1911. The next, in point of numbers, were the brick and tile makers amounting with their dependents to 8,224 in 1921, against 5,660 in 1911. The majority of the potters and brick and tile makers were Low-country Sinhalese of the Western Province. The number of persons supported by the industries in Order 9 shows an increase of 28-0 per cent, since 1911, and if the figures are combined with the corresponding trading head (see Table No. 12G, page 86) Order 29, the increase is 20*0 per cent.* * It may bo noted that, although brick and tile makers are classified with potters under Order 9 in Sub-class III. (Industrial Occupation), sollors of pottery and brick and tilo sellers are entered under two separate Ordors (29 and in Subclass V. (Trade). • CLASS B.—PREPARATION AND SUPPLY OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCES. 83 Order 10, Chemical Products.—The chief occupation under this head was the manufacture of coconut oil (1,497 persons in 1921, against 14 in 1911). Cinnamon and citronella oil manufacturers and their dependents numbered 1,605 in 1911 and 168 in 1921. Chekku owners and their dependents numbered 85, against 433 in 1911, while the figures for aejatedwater manufacturers and factory owners and their dependents were 250 in 1921, against 260 in 1911. The number of chekku owners may have been understated in 1921, as their occupations are often combined with oil pressing. There were 29 match manufacturers in 1921, the majority of whom were Low-country Sinhalese, 30 soap manufacturers (against 17 in 1911), and a few paint and ink makers. Order "11, Food and Drink Industries.—The-chief occupationJndudedin_thi s order_was_ljQnp££*._. making. The number of hopper makers and their dependents increased from 13,809 in 1911 to 30J096 in 1921, of rice.pounders and buskers and their dependents from 9,185 to 12,754, and the tobacco and cigar, &c, makers and their dependents showed an increase from 6,430 to 9,782 in 1921. The next in point of numbers were toddy drawers amounting to 23,449 earners and dependents, against 17,700 in 1911. There were in 1921 about 1,081 copra curers, against none in 1911, and 998 men and 489 women employed in desiccating mills, against none in 1911, due, partly, to change of classification. Order 12, Industries of Dress and the Toilet.—Of the industries under this head dhobies and their dependents were the most numerous, amounting to 48,185 in 1921, against 45,917 in 1911. The next in point of numbers were tailors, milliners, dressmakers, and darners, including 17,608 earners and dependents, against 14,544 in 1911, and barbers amounting to 8,848 earners and dependents, against 10,887 in 1911. The number of persons supported by hat making increased from 25 in 1911 to 722 in 1921, the earners having increased from 11 in 1911 to 573 in 1921. Most of the hat makers were Low- country Sinhalese of Kalutara and Colombo Districts. There were 32 Low-country Sinhalese females in Kandy District, who earned their living as shoemakers and sandalmakers in 1911, but not one was returned at this Census as being so employed. The total number in Ceylon of shoemakers and sandal makers and their dependents was 2,594 in 1921, against 2,414 in 1911. The majority of the shoemakers were descendants of Portuguese of the mechanic class, while the majority of the sandalmakers were Indian Tamils of a low caste, who are commonly known as " Chakkiliyais." Order 13, Furniture Industries.—Under this head, the predominant occupation is furniture making as distinguished from ordinary carpentry, which is classed under Order 7 as woodwork. The number of furniture makers amounted in 1921 to 384 earners and dependents, against 260 in 1911. Most of the furniture makers were Low-country Sinhalese of Colombo and Galle Districts. Order 14, Building Industries.—Of the industries under this head masons and their dependents '; were the most numerous, amounting to 36,540 persons, against 32,429 in 1911. The number of building, j contractors and their dependents increased from 1,439 in 1911 to 2,025 in 1921, whilst the number of men supported by stone work showed a decrease to 3,168 from 5,902 in 1911. The number of well- sinkers and their dependents decreased from 186 in 1911 to 33 in 1921. Order 15, Construction of Means of Transport.—Under this order in 1921 there were 535 bicycle repairers and their dependents, an increase of 291 persons since 1911. The next in point of numbers were carriage builders and painters, including 468 earners and dependents, against 294 in 1911, and motor car repairers amounting to 376 persons (earners and dependents), against 70 in 1911. Order 16, Production and Transmission of Physical Forces (Heat, Light, Electricity, Motive Power, &C).—Under this order the predominant occupation in 1921 was electrio light service, which supported 692 earners and dependents, against 302 in 1911. Next comes gas works service which showed a decrease to 142 from 441 in 1911, mostly among Ceylon Tamils and Indian Tamils. Order 17, Industries pertaining to Literature, the Arts and Sciences, Amusements and Games.— The main occupation under this order was that of printers and compositors who, with their dependents, numbered 3,417 in 1921, against 3,072'in 1911. The next in point of numbers were bookbinders, who amounted to 1,118 earners and dependents in 1921, against 914 in 1911. There were"12'palm leaf binders in 1911, and noae.at this Census. The number of watch and clock makers and their dependents amounted to 1,045 persons in 1921,"against 784 in 1911. There were 61 theatre, circus, &c, managers and their employees, and 182 club waiters, &c.; these were not separately" classified in 1911. The number of enamellers and their dependents amounted in 1921 to 101. Order 18, Industries concerned with Refuse Matter.—In this order the majority were, scavengers and their dependents who amounted to 2,364 persons in 1921, against 1,275 in 1911. Next come the latrine coolies who amounted to 1,096 (earners and dependents) in 1921, against 674 in 1911. There were only 4 bone-pickers and their dependents as compared with 54 in 1911. Tie number of latrine eoolies shown for 1921 is exclusive of Municipality and Local Board employees. Sub-class IV., Transport.—Tablo No. 124 shows the number of earners and dependents under each of the Orders of Sub-class IV. TABLE No. 124.—The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Orders of Sub-class IV.—Transport. 1021. 1911. 1901. A . Oram- Earners one! Earners and Earners and „ UrUel - Dependents. Earners. Dependents. Earners. Dopondents. Earners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Sub-elass IV. .'. 162,433 .. 78,533 .. 121,322 .. 53,00? .. 80,009 .. 37,789 19 Transport by water .V 19,403 .. 8,251 .. 18,783 .. 7,03.! .. 14,194 .. 5,372 20 Transport by road .4 99,871 .. 49,866 .. 85,606 .. 37.8S0 .. 65,815 .. 32,417 21 Transport by rail 35,852 .. 17,541 .. 13,433 .. 6,744 .. —f .. —t 22 Post Office, Telegraph, and . Telephone Services . f 7,307 .. 2,875 .. 3,500 1,350 .. —f .. t The increased facilities for transport since 1911 are reflected in the increases under each order, the increase of the number of the railway employees being proportionately the highest, owing partly to, new worjts under construction. The Post Office employees also show a high proportional increase. 84 CHAPTER VII.—OCCUPATIONS. Order 19, Transport by Water.—The largest number of workers under this head were boatmen, of whom more than half were Low-country Sinhalese. With their dependents they numbered 9,886 in 1921, against 14,111 in 1911, the decrease being probably due to the development of other means of communication. The employees in Harbour Works and Dockyard and their dependents amounted to 5,310 persons, against 1,077 in 1911, but in 1911 many of them were entered as general labourers. Order 20, Transport by Road.—The predominant occupation under this head was cart driving, which supported 46,431 persons in all, against 40,958 in 1911. The number of motor car drivers (not private) and hirers, with their dependents amounted to 5,581 in 1921. In 1921 the motoj^ar drivers were'divided under two heads, viz., private in Order 51, Group 140A, and not private in Order 20, Group 78. The verbal distinction was, however ,_notj^bj TABLE No. 125.—The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Orders H of Sub-class V.—Trade. ^1921. 1911. 1901. Earners and Earners and r *— Ordor. \ Dependents. Earners. Earnors. Dependents. Earners and Earnors. 1 \ 2 3 4 Dependents. 5 7 Total: Sub-class V. ..' 345,824 . 6 162,376 . . 323,369 .. 136,173 . 23 Banks, establishments of . 290,652 .. 129,403 credit, exchange, and insurance . A 1,653 931 . 1,926 .. 1,020 . 24 Brokerage, commission, 2,850 . . 1,322 and export . .1 4,336 . 1,288 . 2,251 .. 683 . 4,184 .. 25 Trade in textiles .. f 14,552 . 1,711 6,731 . . 14,671 .. 5,818 . 26 Trade in skins, leather, and 16,120 .. 6,986 furs .. 114 . 43 171 .. 62 . 27 Trade in wood, &c. ..I 4,786 . 150 .. 41 1,420 . 3,591 .. 1,042 . 28 Trade in metals, machinery, 3,230 . . 959 and minerals .. 1 1,619 431 . 3,180* .. 855 . 4,001 .. 29 Trade in pottery . .. t 854 . 1,290 427 . 1,863 .. 806 . 585 . . 30 Trade in chemical products 1 968 . 303 395 . 209 .. 82 . 619 .. 31 Hotels, cafes, restaurants, 311 &c. .. 26,204 . 13,502 . . 12,232 .. 4,939 . . 10,379 • .. 32 Other trade in foodstuffs ..11120,128 . 4,235 56,917 . . 132,484 . . 57,904 . . 103,857 .. 33 Trade in clothing, toilet 46,519 articles ..<» 1,084 . 472 . 449 .. 161 461 .. 249 34 Trade in furniture .. 'i 2,508 .. 1,037 . 1,716 .. 611 . 1,636 .. 538 35 Trade in building materials^ 3,182 ., 1,456 . 3,111 .. 992 . 2,975 .. 1,153 36 Trade in means of transport ii 3,137 1,042 . 3,180 .. 1,227 . 3,948 .. 1,735 37 Trade in fuel .. ll> 5,283 .. 2,649 . 4,318 . .. 1,751 . 7,270 .. 3,432 38 Trade in articles of luxury and those pertaining to letters, and the arts and sciences . .n 7,813 2,646 . 8,004 .. 2,471 . 2,819 .. 1,037 39 Trade in refuse matter ..''« 77 .. 31 . 1,203 .. 578 . 25 . . 14 40 Trade of other sorts ..^ 147,526 .. 70,958 . 128,810 .. 55,171 . 125,543 . . 57,508 „„. uamu, jcisutuiisiuuuuis ui ureau, axenange, and Insurance.—The majority of this order were bankers and money lenders, amounting to 1,071 earners and dependents, against 1,134 in 1911. Money changers and their dependents, most of whom were Ceylon Moors, amounted to62 in 1921, against 136 in 1911. It is possiblo that there was some confusion between this order and the next. Order No. 24, Brokerage, Commission, and Export.—The majority of this order were brokers (unspecified) amounting to 2,511 earners and dependents, against 1,302 in 1911. There were only 21 Commission Agents|ih;19ll, but the number in 1921 was 120. Order No. 25^ Trade in Textiles supported 14,552 persons, against 14,071 in 1911. Drapers and cloth dealers andit^uidbpendents amounted to 12,349 earners and dependents, against 11,924 in 1911. Of the persons sup^^rtied-by this trade in 1921 about 57 per cent, were Ceylon Moors. The coir dealers and their dependents showed a decrease to 1,358 from 2,141 in 1911. The number of persons*engaged in cotton trade was 110 males and 15 females, who, with their dependents, numbered 243 persons. Old coat sellers included 297 earners and OS dependents. CLASS B.—PREPARATION AND SUPPLY OF MATERIAL SUBSTANCES. 85 Order No. 26, Trade in Skins, Leather, and Furs.—The number of sellers of hides and horn, and their dependents decreased from 171 in 1911 to 100 in 1921. Order No. 27, Trade in Wood, &c., gave a livelihood to about 4,786 persons, against 3,591 in 1911, and included timber dealers, rubber dealers, and a few basket and mat sellers and their dependents. Order No. 28, Trade in Metals, Machinery, and Minerals.—Tho number of plumbago dealers and their dependents who predominate in this order decreased to 1,326 in 1921 from 3,150 in 1911. The small number of sewing machine sellers and their dependents increased from 11 in 1911 to 63 in 1921. Order No. 29, Trade in Pottery.—Sellers of pots and other earthenware vessels, with then- dependents, amounted to 854 in 1921 and 1,863 in 1911. . Order No. 30, Trade in Chemical Products.—'Chemists and druggists and their dependents wero the most numerous in this order, and have increased from 170 in 1911 to 732 in 1921. Order No. 31, Keepers of Hotels, Cafes, Restaurants, See., and their dependents amounted to 26,204 persons in 1921, against 12,232 in 1911. There were 4,552 persons dependent on the selling of arrack and toddy, against 4,552 in 1911. In 1921 about three-fourths of the, persons supported by this trade were Low-country Sinhalese. The number of eating-house-keepers, rcsthouse-keepers and their dependents, who predominate in this order, increased from 3.815 in 1911 to 16,610 in 1921. Order No. 32, Other Trade in Foodstuffs.—In 1921 about 120,128 persons were dealers in foodstuffs and their dependents, against 132,484 in 1911. Of all the occupations under this head, fish-selling is the most important, supporting "25,016 earners and dependents in 1921, against 21,304 in 1911. Most of the fish-sellers were Low-country Sinhalese and Ceylon Tamils. Tobacco, cigar, and snuff sellers and their dependents numbered 13,873 in 1921, against 14,594 in 1911. Most of the tobacco and cigar sellers were Ceylon Tamils. The number of copra sellers and their dependents increased from 1,478 in 1911 to 1,600 in 1921. Order No. 33, Trade intJiothing, Toilet Articles.—The number of dress sellers and their dependents who go under this head increased from 272 in 1911 to 625 in 1921. Order No. 34, Trade in Furniture.—The sellers of iron and hardware and their dependents numbered 979 persons, against 553 in 1911. In 1921 about 82 per cent, of these were Ceylon Moors. There were 318 furniture dealers (earners)'in 1921, against 131 in 1911, and 329 glass and chinaware dealers, against 113 in 1911. About three-fourths of the former were Low-country Sinhalese, mostly in the Colombo District, and an equal proportion of the latter wero Indian Tamils, mostly in the Colombo Municipality. Order No. 35, Trade in Building Materials.—Of the persons depending on this trade, liuie sellers and their dependents were the highest in point of numbers, and showed an increase to 2,274 in 1921 from 2,018 in 1911. Brick and tile sellers and their dependents decreased to 369 in 1921 from 710 in 1911. Order No. 36, Trade in Means of Transport.—Ths number of persons depending on this trade is very small, excepting the cattle sellers and their dependents, who numbered3,020inl921,agaiust3,075 in 1911. Order No. 37, Traders in Fuel and their dependents amounted to 5,283 in 1921, against 4,318 in 1911. In 1921 they included 4,461 firewood sellers and their dependents, against 3,240 in 1911, 365 kerosine oil sellers and their dependents, against 380 iu 1911, and a small number of coal owners, coal contractors, and candle sellers. - Order No. 38, Trade in Articles of Luxury and those pertaining to Letters and the Arts and Sciences.—In 1921 there were 3,087 gem dealers and their dependents, against 3,342 in 1911, and 3,250 jewellers and their dependents, against 3,093 in 1911. The majority of those supported by the above two trades were Ceylon Moors. The decrease among tho former was due to the depression of the trade caused by the war. Order No. 39, Trade in Refuse Matter.—Under this head were entered only bone and manure sellers, who, with their dependents, amounted to 77 in 1921 and 1,203 in 1911. Order No. 40, Trade of other Sorts.—Under this head in 1921 were included 56,386 shop-keepers and other tradesmen (including boutique keepers) and their dependents, against 46,267 in 1911. In 1921 about 21 per cent, of the earners were Ceylon Moors and 11 per cent, were Indian Moors. Merchants and their dependents amounted to 49,712 earners and dependents, against 50,801 in 1911. Of the earners 19 per cent, were Ceylon Moors and 8 per cent, were Indian Moors. There were 8,884 salesmen and their dependents, against 4,977 in 1911 and 22,331 mercantile clerks and their dependents, against 19,858 in 1911. In 1921, 377 persons were entered as pingo carriers, against 613 in 1911, and 2,759 as basket women, against 1,747 in 1911, the majority of whom were Low-country Sinhalese. Hawkers amounted to 1,842 earners and dependents, against 826 in 1911. In 1921, acrobats and their dependents numbered 139, against 90 in 1911. In 1921, 91 were exhibitors of trained animals against 122 in 1911. Possible Comparison between Industrial Occupation and Trade.—In connection with the figures noted in the Table No. 126 it is necessary to draw attention to the great difference which exists between economic conditions in Ceylon and in Europe. In Europe almost all goods pass through a middleman, the producer in only a very few cases selling direct to the buyer, whereas in Ceylon, the maker of an article usually sells it direct to the consumer, and is thus classified under the industrial and not the commercial head. Thus, although nearly S,200 people in Ceylon were engaged in the manufacture of earthenware vessels, which are to be found in nearly every house in Ceylon, only 427 persons have been shown as traders in pottery. In the smaller towns and villages, the shop-keepers do not specialize to any great extent in any particular commodity, and all sorts of miscellaneous articles are sold in the same shop. Traders often deal in as great a variety of goods as the following :—Grain, stationery, aerated water, hardware, chinaware and earthenware, foodstuffs, clothing, medicinal roots and herbs, salt, oil, &c, and it is this, perhaps, which accounts largely for the fact that about 40 per cent, of the total number of persons, supported by trade have been recorded, under the heading " Merchants and Traders, otherwise unspecified." Thus, while one of the many difficulties of occupation classifi cation in the West is the subdivision of labour, in the East it is the multiplicity of occupations followed by the individual. The column for subsidiary occupations is an attempt to meet the latter difficulty, but its success is ddubtful. 86 CHAPTER VTI.—OCCUPATIONS. The above-mentioned difficulty of distinguishing between the maker and seller might also have given rise to some confusion between the corresponding orders of Sub-classes III. and V. The instructions were that persons returned as both " makers and sellers " were to be classified under Sub-class III., but it is possible that this may not have been done either on account of errors of description or of sorting. The totals of the two sub-classes are, therefore, shown below for such of the orders as might show the confusion referred to, the figures probably giving a reasonably correct figure for the total number of persons supported by manufacture of, and trade in, the goods mentioned. TABLE No. 126.—The Total Number of Persons and Earners under some of the Orders of Sub-class III.—Industrial Occupations, together with the Totals for the corresponding Orders-of--Sub-elass-Vj—Trade; 1921. 1911. 1901. A r- —^- , ^- N N Earners and r Name of Order. Earners. Earners and Earners. Earners and Earners. Dependents. Dependents. Dependents. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Textiles 101,249 .. 75,204 . . 78,205 .. 46,009 . 77,798 . . 50,061 Hides, skins and hard materials from the animal kingdom /. 1,492 .. 499 . 1,944 .. 572 1,780 .. 562 Wood. 151,914 .. 78,559 . . 126,283 .. 50,892 . . 116,518 .. 51,660 Metals 48,172 .. 18,214 . 56,483 .. 20,129 . . 47,369 . . 16,425 Ceramics S. 22,951 /.. 12,065 . 19,127 .. 8,070 .. 19,321 .. 8,604 Chemical products properly so- called and analogous . .<> 3,256 . . 1,528 . 2,633 .. 946 1,139 .. 482 Dress and the toilet . .1 80,670 .. 42,196 . . 75,611 .. 31,870 . 65,944 .. 31,280 Furniture .$ 3,028 .. 1,210 . 1,976 .. 695 1,741 .. 588 Building .> 46,836 .. 17,581 . . 44,639 .. 15,318 . 33,747 .. 12,367 Means of transport .i.o 4,662 .. 1,685 . 4,027 .. 1,562 4,249 .. 1,830 Literature, the arts and sciences, amusements and games ..« 15,955 . . 5,884 . . 13,800 .. 4,636 7,036 .. 2,593 Refuse matter ..IX. 3,661 .. 2,116 . 3,206 .. 1,769 777 . . 449 Substantial increases between 1911 and 1921 are found under most of the items, the only decreases being under " hides, skins, &e.," and " metals." Between 1901 and 1911, the decreases are more numerous and unexpected, and are probably in part due to change of definition. The large proportion of earners in the textile and wood industries is probably due to the considerable employment of women in coir manufacture and mat-weaving. CLASS C—PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LIBERAL ARTS. The third of the main classes of occupations is Class C, public administration and liberal arts, which consists of four sub-classes the numbers under which are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 127, -The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Sub-classes of Class C—Public Administration and Liberal Arts. ^901^ 1921. Earners and Earners and ,, , , Earners and Earners. Earners. Earners. bub-class. Dependents. Dependents. Depondents. 1 ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Class C ..' — — .. 130,565 .. 53,551 .. 150,173 . 66,818 Sub-class VI.—Public Force — * * 7,273 . 2,558 9,289 . 3,255 Sub-class VII.—Public Ad ministration .. —* * .. 29,388 . 9,887 .. 30,969 . 10,987 Sub-class VIII.—Professions and Liberal Arts 71,431 .. 32,590 .. 83,877 . 37,407 .. 97,959 . 48,125 Sub-class IX.—Persons living on their Income .. 4,906 2,532 .. 10,027 . 3,699 .. 11,956 . 4,451 3o Sub-class VI., Public Force.—This includes the Regular Army, Defence Force, Navy, and the Police Department. TABLE No. 127a.-Th e Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Orders of Sub-class VI.—Public Force. 1921. 1911. 1901. Order. Earners and Earners and Earners and Earnors. Earners. Earnors. Dependents. Dependents. Dependents. 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total i Sub-class VI. 10,240 3,870 ... 7,273 ... 2,558 ... 1,328 .. 503 41 Army l,569t 825t . 300 .. 133 . . 1,205 .. 454 42 Navy "i 45 15 . 255 . 52 . . 123 .. 49 43 Police Department 8,626 3,030 . 6,718 .. 2,373 .. — — The numbers in the orders Army and Navy are small, but the increase of the dependents is noticeable. The figures for the Police Department include police officers of all ranks, clerks, and other emploj'ees with their dependents. The increase is due to the expansion of the Force. * Comparable figures aro not availablo owing to the different scheme of classification adopted in 1901. t Inclusive of population separately enumerated by the Military. CLASS C.—PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND LIBERAL ARTS. 87 Sub-class VII., Public Administration.—The number of persons in this sub-class is shown in the following table:— TABLE No. 128.—The Number of Persons and Earners under Order 44 of Sub-class VII.— Public Administration. 1921* 1911* 1901. Earners and t> Earners and ^ _ Earners and — Order. DependeX EamcrS- Dependents. EamcrB- Dependents. EarnOTS- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 44 . Public-Administration !... 30,969 ... .10,987 28,429 - 9,509 59,883—, 20,359— Public Administration.—This sub-class comprises one order and the following groups : Group 122, Service of the State; Group 123, Service of Foreign and Dependent States ; Group 124, Municipal and Local Board Service. Service of the State consists of (1) Government servants and their dependents not otherwise classified, numbering in 1921 about 23,737 persons', (2) nativelieadmen of all ranks and their dependents amounting to 1,249 persons in 1921, against 3,742 in 1911, the difference being due to unpaid Government service being treated in 1921 as a subsidiary occupation. In 1921 there were! about 110 chief headmen in the Island, 600 superior headmen, and about 3,750 village headmen. In, addition, there were peace officers, Irrigation headmen, and others appointed for special purposes. Employees of Government and local bodies who have a special occupation of their own, such as doctors, printers, school masters, surveyors, draughtsmen, &c, were shown under the special heads provided for these occupations. But there is clearly room here for great differences in classification according! to the description given in the schedule. Thus, for example, the doctors employed by the Government; Medical Department may have returned themselves as " physicians " or " Government servants," \ instead of " Government medical officers " ; the civil and electrical engineers, architects, and other \ specialists employed by the Public Works Department may have stated their occupation as " engineers," " architects," " P. W. D. employees," " Government servants," &c, omitting either their special appoint ment, or their employment by Government. The same considerations apply to several other departments, and it is likely that, in the tabulation, interchanges may have taken place between the heading of Government Service and various other headings. The number of employees of the various Government Departments should be ascertainable from the Civil Establishment List, but this omits the unpaid headmen, private teachers whose salaries are partly paid from Government grants, labourers, and others. The total persons specified in the Civil Establishment List of 1921-22 was about 21,000, but additions as above indicated have to be made to this, and if all the persons paid directly from Government votes are included, the total may be about 70,000. But this excludes labourers on contract, of whom there may be a large, and somewhat indeterminate number, and other marginal cases, such as those already mentioned. At the Census of 1921, the number of persons whose occupations, as returned.H indicated Government employment was about 55,000, or about 1*2 per cent, of the total population.! Corresponding figures for other countries arc not available; mainly on account of the above-mentioned! difficulties of definition, but, even if they were forthcoming, they might not be comparable as the functions of Government differ in different countries. Group 123, Service of Foreign and Dependent States included 7 Consuls in 1921, against 10 in 1911, and the Maldivian Representative in both Censuses. Group 124, Municipal and Local Board Service supplied employment to nearly 2,587 males and 240 females together with 3,136 dependents. Nearly all the female earners were scavenging coolies. Sub-class VIII.: Professions and Liberal Arts.—An increase from 83,877 in 1911 to 97,959 in 1921 is shown in the figures for persons in this sub-class. The following table shows the number of earners and dependents under each of the Orders of Sub-class VIII. :— TABLE No. 129.—The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Orders of Sub-class VIII.—Professions and Liberal Arts. 1921. 1911. 1901. -A . _^ .—„ „ : A Order. Earners and ^ Earners and i?„_„„_. Earners and _ Dependents. Earnurs' Dependents. Earners- Dependents. Eamere- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total: Sub-class VIIT. .'. 97.959 .. 48,125 '. . 83,877 .. 37,407 .. 70,103 .. 32,422 45 Religion and Charity .V 28,523 .. 18,781 .. 27.243 .. 16,583 .. 27,391 .. 16,762 46 Law .. 8,385 .. 2,718 .. 6,329 .. 1,894 .. 6,447 .. 1,808 47 Medicine 22,287 .. S,19C .. 20,194 .. 6,695 .. 15,116 .. 5,108 48 Vlnstniction . s 21,904 .. 11.298 .. 15,565 .. 7,033 .. 10,328 .. 4,676 49 Letters,"Arts, and Sciences i 16,860 .. 7,132 .. 14,516 .. 5,202 .. 10,821 .. 4,068 Order 45, Religion and Charity.—The first order amongst the professions and liberal arts is religion and charity, under which were included 28,523 persons. The Buddhist priests were the most numerous of this order, and amounted to 9,660 earners and 435 dependents, against 7,774 earners and 1,279 depend ents in 1911 ; of the 1921 earners, 5,294 were Low-country Sinhalese, 4,300 Kandyans, 56 " Others," and one European. According to the new scheme of 1921, which arranged for the co-operation of the Buddhist priesthood in the taking of the Census, notices were sent to 7,539 priests. The balance consisted of unordained priests. Ebittayas amounted to 3,337 earners, against 3,019 in 1911, with 112 dependents, f against 163 in 1911. The number of missionaries, clergymen, and ministers decreased from 603 in 1911 \ to 623 in 1921. There was a decrease among Europeans from 273 in 1911 to 241 in 1921, and among i Burghers from 47 in 1911 to 25 in 1921. There was a considerable decrease in the number of monks, '• nuns, and lay-brothers (182 in 1921, against 253 in 1911). In 1921, 31 were said to earn their living as Sanyasees and one man and 21 women as Upasakas. Deyil^dancers classified under temple, burial or buming-ground service, &c, numbered with their dependents 3,816 in 1921, against 4,332 in 1911. Of these, the majority were Low-country Sinhalese. Cemetery-keepers amounted to 58, of whom 18 were Indian Tamils and 11 were Ceylon Moors. There were 119 males and 33 females employed under charitable and other public societies, and most of them were S. P. C. A. employees. * The 1911 and 1921 figures exclude euiployoos of several departments : Railway, Public Works, Post Offico. Telephone ari.1 Telegraph. Police. Harbour. !:<•.. who wro inr>liH"d 17- l'i'il. 88 CHAPTER VII.—OCCUPATIONS. Order No. 46, Law.—Of the 816 barristers, advocates, and proctors in 1921, 377 were Low-country Sinhalese, 228 Ceylon Tamils, and 129 Burghers. The number of lawyers in 1911 was 562. There were 283 Notaries Public, 204 of whom were Low-country Sinhalese and 65 Ceylon Tamils. Lawyers' clerks and articled clerks increased from 823 in 1911 to 1,422 in 1921. The number of petition drawers and their dependents was 645, against 759 in 1911. Order No. 47, Medicine.—An increase from 20,194 in 1911 to 22,287 in 1921 was shown in the figures falling under this head. Native medical practitioners or vcdaralas predominated under this head, and, with their dependents, amounted to 9,969 in 1921, against 10,734 in 1911. Most of the vedaralas were Low-country Sinhalese, though there were many Ceylon Tamils and Ceylon Moors. Next in point of -numbers were physicians, who, with their dependents, numbered 3,258 in 1921, as against 4,063 in 1911. The 191-1-figures probably-included dispensers, and-if-thesc are added to the-192-1-figures-we get~l,~412 earners and 3,506 dependents in 1921, against l',246 and 2,817 in 1911. The number of dispensers employed on estates in 1921 were 221 and their dependents numbered 458. In 1921 there were 619 male and 4 female apothecaries ; 2 of the females were Low-country Sinhalese and the other two were Burghers. There were 50 veterinary surgeons and a small number of dentists and oculists. Tho number of midwives increased from 632 in 1911 to 748 in 1921. Of the 649 nurses in 1921, 234 were Burghers and 193 Europeans. Vaccinators amounted to 147 males and 23 females, and hospital orderlies, attendants, &c, to 893 males and 399 females. Order 48, Instruction.—Tho number of persons dependent on instruction for their livelihood was 21,904 in 1921, against 15,565 in 1911. The earners alone showed an increase of 61 per cent. The majority of those occupied under this head were schoolmasters and tutors, who amounted in 1921 to (5,634 male and 3,905 female earners. The number of schoolmasters^ and teachers increased from 4,690 in 1911 to 7,065 in 1921, and school mistresses from 2,269 in 1911 to 4,057 in 1921, of whom the Kandyans alone increased from 405 in 1911 to S72 in 1921. Governesses numbered 70 in 1911 and 77 in 1921, of whom 34 were Europeans, 32 Burghers, 10 Low-country Sinhalese, and one Indian Tamil. Order 49, Letters, Arts, and_Sciences.—In this order, the architects, surveyors, engineers, and their employees were the most numerous, amounting to 5,309 earners and dependents, The next in point of numbers were tom-tom beaters, in Group 137, " music composers, players on all kinds of musical instruments, &c," amounting:'to~l,355 earners. There were 83 shorthand writers (66 of whom were Burghers), compared with 2 in 1911, and ISC typists, against 21 in 1911. The number of persons who gave their occupations as bana-bo'ok or ola-book writers was 33, against 60 in 1911. The number of civil engineers was 163, and of land surveyors 487 ; of the former 107 were Europeans. There was one astronomer, compared with 50 in 1911. Astrologers amounted to 614 males and 39 females with 1,240 dependents. Nine nautch-girls (Ceylon Tamils) were registered in Jaffna District. Sub-class IX.—Sub-class IX. consists of persons living on their income, whose numbers were the following :—• TABLE No. 130.—The Number of Persons and Earners under Order 50 of Sub-class IX.— Persons Living on their Income. 1921. 1911. 1901. Earners, and Earners and Earnors and Ear ers Order. Dependents. Earnors. Dependcnts. Dependents. " - 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 50 Persons living principallv on their income ). 11,950 .. 4,451 .. 10,027 .. 3,(599 .. 4,900 .. 1,910 Order No. 50—Of the 11,956 earners and dependents living on their income in 1921, the majority were pensioners and their dependents, including 6,210 earners and dependents, against 5,803 in 1911. In 1921, 5,710 persons were entered as depending on property, against 3,496 in 1911. CLASS D.—MISCELLANEOUS. The last of the four main classes of occupations is Class D, which is subdivided as shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 131.—The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Sub-classes of Class D—Miscellaneous. 1921. 1911. 1901. Sub-class. Earners and Earners and ,^ Earnors and Li rilcr Dependents. ' «- Dependents. *«"-ners. D„pendentg. Earners. 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 Total: Class D . 404,095 .. 246,533 .. 324,847 .. 181,015 .. 197,227 .. 119,863 Sub-class X.—Domestic service1- 117,524 .. 101,220 .. 85,500 .. 65,908 .. 79,486 .. 61,636 Sub-class XL—Insufficiently described occupations ..3 272,458 .. 135,915 .. 227,033 .. 10S.024 .. 106,059 .. 51,043 Sub-class XII.—Unproductive H 13,415 .. 8,941 .. 12,210 .. 7,588 .. 9,463 .. 6,060 Sub-class XIII.—Miscellaneous 5 COS .. 457 . . 38 . . 35 . . 2,219 .. 1,124 TABLE No. 132.—The Number of Persons and Earners under Order 51 of Sub-class X.—Domestic Service. 1921. 1911. 1901. . * . , ^V. N , A- . Order Earners and Earners. Earners and Earners. Earners and Earners. Dependents. Dependents. Dependents. 1 2 3 4 5 0 r 7 51 Domestic Service 1 17,524 .. 101,220 .. 85,566 .. 65,908 .. 70,486... 61,036 SUBSIDIARY OCCUPATIONS. 89 Sub-Class X : Domestic Service.—In 1921, there were 52,067 men and 44,670 women earning their living as cooks, ayahs, &c, against 34,787 men and 25,629 women in 1911. In 1921 there were 12,445 persons depending on them, against 14,230 in 1911. In 1921 there were 22 Veddas with 14 dependents, supported by domestic services, against 14 and 11 in 1911. Watchers included 4,327 earners and dependents in 1921, against 4,616 in 1911. Sub-class XI: Insufficiently described Occupations.—General labourers predominated in this snb-class and included 125,249 earners and 119,482 dependents in 1921, against 106,053 and 114,823 in 1911. In 1921, 6,554 males and 10 females were entered as mechanics in unspecified shops, against 354 males and 4 females in 1911. In 1921, 2,588 males and 31 females were employed in unspecified offices, ~shopsrand warehousesT "•"" " Unspecified contractors included 1,440 earners, against 1,517 in 1911. TABLE No. 133.—The Number of Persons and Earners under Order 52 of Sub-class XI.—Insufficiently described Occupations.. 1921. 1911. 1901. A ,_ A , , A. s Order Earners and _ Earners and Earners' Earners and Dependents. Earners- Dependents. *arnere- Dependents. Earners. l 2 3 4 5 r. 7 52 General terras which do not indicate a definite occu pation .. A 272,458 .. 135,915 .. 227,033 .. 108,024 .. 106,059 .. 51,043 Sub-class XII : Unproductive Occupations.—The following table shows the number of earners and dependents under each of the Orders of Sub-class XII. :— TABLE No. 134.—The Number of Persons and Earners under each of the Orders of Sub-class XII.—Unproductive Occupations. 1921. 1911. 1901. . A , -A . , _. Order Earners and Earners Earners and Earners. Earners and Earners. Dependents. Dependents. Dependents. 1 2 3 4 5 0 7 Total: Sub-class XH. .'. 13,415 .. 8,941 .. 12,210 .. 7,688 .. 9,463 .. 6,060 53 Inmates of jails, asylums, and hospitals . > 2,053 .. 383 .. 1,422 .. 301 385 .. Ill 64 Beggars, vagrants, and Prostitutes ..3 11,362 .. 8,558 .. 10,788 .. 7,287 .. 9,078 .. 5,949 In 1921, 1,458 persons were enumerated as inmates of asylums, institutions, and hospitals, against 1,346 in 1911, and 317 persons as prisoners in jails, against 58 in 1911. In 1921 there were 4,532 male and 4,015 female beggars with 2,800 persons depending on them, the 1911 figures being 4,312 males and 2,809 females and 3,429 dependents. The number of prostitutes showed a great decrease and now stands as 9, against 161 in 1911, a difference which is probably nominal rather than real. Two males were returned as gamblers, against five in 1911. Sub-class XIII: Miscellaneous.—Sub-class XIII. is a miscellaneous one, and consists of unspecified occupations and a small number of occupations that cannot be classed under the heads mentioned above. The figures are given in the following table :— TABLE No. 135.—The Number of Persons and Earners under Sub-class XIII. 1921. 1911. 1901. A . , , A ^ , A Order Earners and Earners. Earners and Earner8 Earners and Earners. Dependents. Dependents. Dependents. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 55 Miscellaneous J. 698 .. 457 38 .. 35 .. 2,219 .. 1,124 SUBSIDIARY OCCUPATIONS. Subsidiary Occupations.—With regard to the subsidiary occupations it was decided to tabulate these in respect of nine occupations common to all the districts, viz. : (l)Land owners; (2) cultivators ; (3) growers of special products; (4) carpenters ; (5) cart drivers ; (6) merchants and traders ; (7) Govern ment servants ; (8) vedaralas or native medical practitioners ; (9) general labourers ; with a separate column for remaining occupations headed as Others, against 12 important principal occupations. The table for Ceylon is No. XVIII. in Volume IV. of the Census publications, 1921, the details for the Districts being available in the Office of the Director of Statistics. In 1921 there were about 229,979 males and 41,700 females, or 6 per cent, of the total population of Ceylon, with more than one.occupation. By subsidiary occupation about 25,548 persons were land owners, 40,053 cultivators, 83,295 growers of special products, 3,310 carpenters, 3,475 cart drivers, 24,628 merchants and shopkeepers, 6,925 Government servants, 2,282 vedaralas, 27,722 general labourers, and 54,441 following other subsidiary occupations. Paddy land owners with subsidiary occupations amounted to 12,795, of whom 4,149 were (by subsidiary occupation) cultivators, 3,328 growers of special products, 779 merchants, 997 land owners, 420 general labourers, 1,059 Government servants, 91 carpenters, 66 cart drivers, 134 vedaralas, and the rest were Others. 2*-22 90 GHAPT ER VIII.—INFIRMITIES. Land owners (otherwise unspecified), with subsidiary occupations, amounted to 2.037, of whom 624 were (by subsidiary occupation) cultivators, 412 growers of special products, 169 merchants, 115 general labourers, 98 Government servants, 25 carpenters, 17 cart drivers, 11 vedaralas, and the rest were Others. Paddy land cultivators who have more than one occupation amounted to 92,191 persons, of whom the majority, 36,733 persons, were (by subsidiary occupation), growers of special products. Cultivators (otherwise unspecified), with subsidiary occupations, amounted to 5,310 persons. Paddy land owners and cultivators who had dual occupations amounted to 40,574 persons, of whom more than half was engaged in growing special products as a subsidiary occupation. Land owners and cultivators (otherwise unspecified), with subsidiary occupations, amounted to 2,573 persons. There were about 28,199 coconut planters, owners, &c, with more than one occupation, of whom 12,087 were oultavators-by-subsidiary-oceupationT - - Vegetable and fruit growers who followed occupations other than this amounted to 5,418 persons. The majority of them, numbering 1,226 persons, were (by subsidiary occupation), growers of special products. , Fishermen, with subsidiary occupations, numbered 3,150 persons, of whom the majority, amount ing to 1,723 persons, were (by subsidiary occupation), merchants and traders. There were about 2,622 carpenters who had more than one occupation. Most of the carpenters were (by subsidiary occupation), land owners and cultivators. Merchants; shopkeepers, and other tradesmen with dual occupations amounted to 5,292 persons. 1,366 of them were (by subsidiary occupation), land owners, and 1,108 growers of special products. There were 1,037 Government servants, who followed other occupations, of whom 564 were (by subsidiary occupation), land owners, 164 cultivators, 98 growers of special products, 10 merchants and traders, and the rest amounting to 201 persons were entered as Others. \ Under the Miscellaneous heading of " Others " about 70,481 persons were entered, of whom about 13,371 were entered as growers of special products, by subsidiary occupation, 11,853 as land owners, 10,789 as cultivators, 10,935 as merchants and other tradesmen, 4,978 as general labourers, 459 as cart drivers, 374 as Government servants, 365 as carpenters, 142 as vedaralas, and 17,215 as Others. CHAPTER VIII.—INFIRMITIES. The Particulars Collected.—The instructions given to enumerators at the 1921 Census regarding infirmities were that they should make a record of all persons who were deaf and dumb from birth, or of unsound mind, or totally blind. Possibilities of Error.—The figures regarding infirmities are probably liable to considerable error. It is likely that, owing to failure on the part of the enumerators to understand the definitions, or to diagnose the infirm ties correctly, persons were entered as deaf-mutes who were deaf without being dumb, or dumb without being deaf, or who had become deaf and dumb after birth ; idiots or eccentric persons may have been entered as insane ; and people blind in one eye or not totally blind may have been entered as blind. Even if the enumerators could in every case have been made to understand exactly what particulars were required—so as to avoid errors of the classes mentioned above—there is the possibility that infirmities were frequently concealed, especially in the case of insanity. Thus, in .what follows, " totally blind " means " reported as totally blind," and so on. All the tables in this Chapter exclude the Military and Shipping. Blindness.—The following table shows the total number of totally blind persons in the population and the proportion per 10,000 persons of each sex at each of the Censuses since 1881 :— TABLE No. 136.—Totally Blind Persons of each Sex in Ceylon, 1881-1921. Proportion per 10,000 Persons Year. Number. Enumerated. Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 C 7 i 1881 5,906 . 3,543 . . 2,363 . . 21 . . 24 . . 18 1891 >• 5,636 . 3,371 . . 2,265 . . 19 . . 21 . . 16 1901 !>! 3,747 . 2,269 .. 1,478 . . 11 12 . . 9 1911 3,957 . 2,428 . . 1,529 .. 10 .. 11 8 1921 4,005 . 2,361 . . 1,644 . . 9 . . 10 . . 8 Although there has been a slight increase in the actual number of reported cases of blindness, the increase has been less proportionately than the increase of the population, and accordingly we find that the proportion of blind persons to 10,000 of the population was less than in 1911 and less than it has ever been before. There has been a decrease in the number of blind males, and an increase in the number of blind females. But the figures show a decrease in the incidence of blindness among ma'es, and no change in its incidence among females. BLINDNESS AND DEAF-MUTISM. 91 Total Blindness by Race.—The following table shows the number of blind persons in every 10,000 of each sex of the population in each race in 1901, 1911, and 1921 :— TABLE No. 137.—Number of Totally Blind in every 10,000 of each Sex of the Population in each Race, 1901-1921. ^901^ 1911. 1921. i— Males. Females. Males. Females. Race. Males. Females. 0 7 I 2 3 4 5 8 10 8 AU Races .1 12 9 11 . -g- 11 -8- 10- 7 Low-country Sinhalese .1 12 17 12 16 12 Kandyan Sinhalese .i 18 12 7 6 6 6 Tamils •f 8 7 9 6 8 5 Ceylon Tamils • r * * 6 5 5 7 Indian Tamils .b 7 5 7 6 Moors . T 8 8 5 7 6 Ceylon Moors • % * 6 5 2 9 Indian Moors •"S 3 6 4 • I 0 6 4 4 Burghers and Eurasians 6 2 • ii 8 4 9 -t Malays 2 3 Others •IV — Europeans and Veddas have been omitted from this table owing to their small numbers, the actual number of Veddas reported as blind in 1921 being 1 male and 1 female, while there were no Europeans so reported. Dr. Nell kindly sent the following notes on these figures :— (a) The smaller number among Indian Tamils may be due to immigration inspection preventing as much as possible an influx of diseased persons. (6) Ceylon Tamils are less addicted to alcohol and freer from syphilis. (c) Kandyan Sinhalese are more welded to traditional practices which damage the eyes of children having " ophthalmia of the newborn." (d) Careless and harmful use of belladonna in unsuitable cases accounts for glaucoma in most Kandyan and Low-country Sinhalese. A valuable note on the causes of blindness in Ceylon is given in the Census Report for 1911, pages 383-387. Deaf-Mutism.—The following table shows the number of deaf-mutes and the proportion per 10,000 persons of each sex in Ceylon at each Census since 1881 :— TABLE No. 138.—Deaf-mutes of each Sex in Ceylon, 1881-1921. Proportion per 10,000 Persons Enumerated. Year. Number. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. Persons. 6 2 3 4 5 7 1 2 542 338 204 2 2 _ 1881 3 694 435 259 2 2 1891 8 2,578 1,542 1,036 7 6 1901 8 9 7 1911 3,233 1,921 1,312 6 7 5 Jo 1921 2,710 1,562 1,148 There has been a very considerable decrease in the number of deaf-mutes of each sex as recorded at the Census of 1921. It is, however, impossible to say how far this is due to the fact that there may have been a greater overstatement of the number of deaf-mutes in 1911 than in 1921—owing to the difficulties of definition—or how far it reflects an actual decrease in the number of those suffering from this infirmity. The following table shows the number of deaf-mutes in every 10,000 of each sex of the population in each race in 1901, 1911, and 1921 :— TABLE No. 139.—Number of Deaf-mutes in every 10,000 of each Sex of the Population in each Race, 1901-1921, 1921. J90K 1911. Race. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 7 7 5 All Races 8 . 6 9 7 6 5 Low-country Sinhalese 9 . 6 10 7 6 5 Kandyan Sinhalese 8 . 6 9 7 8 7 Tamils 8 . 7 7 8 12 9 Ceylon Tamils 9 6 6 5 5 Indian Tamils A . 6 6 6 5 Moors 6 7 7 5 Ceylon Moors X 6 3 2 5 Indian Moors V. 3 6 3 6 Burghers and Eurasians t.°. 7 2 Malays 2 3 Others l>. "9- The Ceylon Tamils appear to suffer more from deaf-mutism than any of the other races and there has been a considerable increase in the proportion of deaf-mutes of each sex among them There does not se?m to be any obvious reason why this proportion should have increased, or why it should be greater among the Ceylon Tamils than the other races. •f No blind amongst Malay women in 1911. ** Figures are not separately available. 92 CHAPTER VIII.—INFIRMITIES. Insanity.—The following table shows the number of insane persons and the proportion per 10.000 of the population of each sex from 1881 to 1921 :— TABLE No. 140.—Insane Persons of each Sex in Ceylon, 1881-1921. Proportion per 10,000 Persona Number. Enumerated. Year. .. -A , A Persona. Males. Females. Poisons. Males. Females. 1 3 4 6 6 7 1881 3,087 1,873 1,214 11 . 13 9 1891 2,806 1,743 1,063 9 . 11 8 1901 933 UOl "--332- 2 1911 1,801 1,123 678 1921 . .5 2,087 U358 729 There has been an increase in 1921 as compared with 1911 in the number of reported cases of insanity among both males and females, but the proportion among the females has fallen, while that among the males has increased. It is, however, uncertain to what extent the figures represent the facts, although the agreement of the 1911 and 1921 figures is close enough. The sudden drop in the totals in 1901 points to some error or change of procedure or definition. The higher proportion of insane males is, however, a constant feature of the statistics for the total population, although it is lower in the case of Indian Tamils and Indian Moors. In India some think that the proportions might be expected to be greater for females, but it is probable that the reasons for this opinion—namely, the comparative, neglect of female children, early child-bearing, confinement ceremonies, &c, and the hardships of widows and women of the lowest classes—are applicable to only a slight degree in Ceylon. The following table shows the number of insane persons in every 10,000 of each sex and race from 1901 :— TABLE No. 141.—Number of Insane Persons in every 10,000 of each Sex of the Population in each Race, 1901-1921. 1901. 1911. 1921. -a. ...A. ^ f- ( r Race. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 All Races 3 2 .. 5 4 . . 6 Low-country Sinhalese 4 2 . . 7 4 . . 8 4 Kandyan Sinhalese . .i 3 2 .. 3 2 . . 4 3 Tamils . . *v 2 2 .. 4 4 . . 4 3 Ceylon Tamils * . * 5 3 .. 5 2 Indian Tamils . .V, * * 4 5 .. 3 4 Moors . . -1 1 1 . . 4 2 .. 4 2 Ceylon Moors .. e * * 5 2 .. 5 2 Indian Moors .. «i .. _* * 2 3 . . 2 6 Burghers and Eurasians 2 1 .. 20 11 22 15 Malays ..ii 12 2 . . 12 3 .. 7 3 3 Others • -i V — — 1 — 3 The small numbers involved, and the probability of high error in diagnosis, render conclusions hazardous. But it may be observed that, with one or two exceptions, the 1911 and 1921 figures do not differ widely. It is curious that the immigrant races (Indian Tamils and Indian Moors) show a higher proportion of insane persons among females. It is not known whether the high proportions among Burghers and Eurasians and among Malays are representative of the facts. The number of insane persons reported among the Europeans in 1921 was 5 (4 males, 1 female) ; and in 1911, 8 (7 males, 1 female). The following table gives, by race and sex, the number of persons enumerated in the Lunatic Asylum, Colombo, on the night of the Census :— TABLE No. 142.—The Number of Persons by Race and Sex, enumerated in the Lunatic Asylum on the Night of the Census, 1921. Raee. Persons. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 All Races .. { 965 . 567 398 Low-country Sinhalese v. 480 . . 282 . . 198 Kandyan Sinhalese . . i 201 . . 119 .. 82 Ceylon Tamils . . >» 43 . . 32 . . 11 Indian Tamils . . < 150 . . 75 . . 75 Ceylon Moors . . t-, 26 . . 21 .. 5 Indian Moors . • t 7 5 . . 2 Europeans . . t 5 . . 4 . . 1 Burghers and Eurasians °\ 45 . . 24 . . 21 Malays . . 3 . . 1 2 Cochinese 2 . . 2 . . — Goanese . . 1 1 — Malayali . . > s .. 1i . . —— . ... 1i Others . . rl . . 1 . . 1 . . —. T About half the number of the inmates were Low-country Sinhalese, and next come the Kandyans, who, however, numbered less than half of the Low-country Sinhalese. 44 per cent, of the Sinhalese and 50 per cent, of the Tamil insane in the Island were confined in the asylum. Out of the 54 insane Burghers and Eurasians, 45 were in the asylum. * Figures are not available separately. 0 DlAGRAAi Jf°Z2. DlSTRI BU TI 7* BV SoE °? ATH°USA«D °F TKE 1»TAL' BLIWDJ DEAT-JSIUTK A7*CD I«SA.NE P«»FDL.A.TI«W °F BACK SBX, CEYL°^ -"©CH, 19H «5rf <9»< , I?TSA.tfE Blwd soo i — w LBS /*\» THAI1 .E3 / *X' je • y VIA! ItAL ES •Fk. Soo A\ -""^ i 240 240 •w^— 7//r— \\> A- \ A;- if Y80 i \ \ •/ao 1 i 1 71 \ f / 1 / it VS S20 1 "V //i . \ % i it i 1 60 6o J. — - 1 i i 1 OS *>-,3 20-2 30-39«>-*9*rSS<;0}0„r • OS «,-,9 SO-SS *0** SOS9 *$0»*r OS 2C-2S **** ^ *TS> *>£0»*r 9 1 Statistical Department. INSANITY, &c. 93 " ' Out of 949 inmates who were able to state their birthplaces, 303 were born in the Colombo District, 148 in Kandy, 72 in Galle, 71 in Kalutara, 52 in the Colombo Municipality, 24 in Kurunegala, 20 in Jaffna, 19 in Ratnapura, 17 in Matara, 13 in Matale, and 13 in the Kegalla District; 162 gave India as their birthplace, and 3 as England. The following table shows the total number of blind, insane, and deaf-mute in each district with the proportion per mille in 1911 and 1921 :— TABLE No. 143.—The Total Number of Blind, Insane, and Deaf-mute in each District and the Proportion per Mille in 1911 and 1921. Proportion pur Millo: 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. District. Deaf- Deaf- i Blind, ilnsanej Blind. nd. 1 nsane mute. IBlind. mute. 12 13 (i 10 1 •69 4,005j 2,087 2,710 •96 •44! •79 •89 •46 Ceylon •22 1,000 54| •43 3'43'i •29 4-10 Colombo Municipality* 1 Colombo District (exclusive ' •91 •39 •63 Municipality)* •84 . 30 •53 Kalutara District •49 •43 •52t Kandy Municipality J>l-27 •44: 1-18 | -12 •65t Kandy District (exclusive Municipality) •04fij 1-42 •06 •68 Matale District •09: •99 05 •57 Nuwara Eliya District •59 •64 •67t Galle Municipality ^102 •36! •95 Galle District (exclusive 103 •31 Sit Municipality) •79 •63 •65 Matara District •80 • 11 •51 Hambantota District •62 •28 116 Jaffna District •69 •20 113 Mannar District* •48 • 16 •96 Mullaittivu District 1-05 •20 •89 Batticaloa District •21 15 103 Trincomalee District •6" 12 •28 Kurunegala District 8" •11 •67 Puttalam District •64 •03 •60 Chilaw District •9£ » - IE > -81 Anuradhapiira District* i-o:1 -05 •42 Badulla District 1-2* i 1' •45 Ratnapura District 1-1! > 1' •83 Kegalla District This table confirms what one might have expected from the previous tables which showed the prevalence of the specified infirmities among the various races. Thus, it is at once obvious that the Kandyan Districts—with the exception of Kurunegala—are those where blindness is especially prevalent, and we have already seen that the Kand\'ans were the chief sufferers from this complaint. Similarly, deaf-mutism, from which the Ceylon Tamils were seen to be the chief sufferers, appears to have been chiefly prevalent in the Tamil districts. Institutions.—The comparative figures of admissions to some of the institutions in 1911 and 1921 are the following :— 1911 665 Lunatic Asylum, Colombo 1921 336 1911 705 Indoor Patients, Eye Hospital, Colombo .. 1921 1,157 1911 8,584 Outdoor Patients, Eye Hospital, Colombo 1921 16,134 But the figures furnish no guide as to the incidence of the infirmities, as the variations may have been caused by the increased popularity or efficiency of European treatment or by other incidental causes. The Question of the Retention of the Column for Infirmities.—The British Empire Statistical Conference, 1920, was of opinion that " the information hitherto obtained through the Census with regard to infirmities has proved unsatisfactory," and, in some countries, the inquiry was abandoned in 1921. In India a suggestion was made that the information regarding insanity should be confined to a return of certified cases in asylums, but the Government of India was of opinion that the errors were fairly constant from Census to Census ; that the ratio of variation affords some guide to the growth or decline of a disease ; that the statistics furnish some clue to the territorial and racial distribution of the infirmities ; while it was pointed out that the accuracy and completeness of the figures could be commented upon by the Superintendents of Census Operations. In Ceylon, as in India, the column was retained in 1921, but it was decided to publish only the Island figures, the rest being on reference at the Statistics Office, Colombo. The probable inaccuracy of the figures, the abandonment of the inquiry in several countries, the somewhat limited utility of the figures, and the advisability of reducing the Census schedule are the chief points which require consideration in connection with the retention or deletion of the inquiry in 1931. * The fieures on which 1911 rates are based have not been adjusted for change of area t F»«rtfe» in Kandy District (inclusive of the Munic pahty) were 1 • 13 (bl.nd) • 14 (.nsane), and « The Bombay Tests.-But it lias also to be noted, in this connection, that the Superintendent of Census, Bombay Presidency (Mr. L. J. Sedgw,ck, I.C.S.), finds more continuity in the infirmity figures than might have been expected, in respect of the sex ratio, the age distribution, and the localities If these tests are applied to the Ceylon figures, we find the following results :— TABLE No. 144. -Proportion of Males to 100 of the Blind, Deaf-mute, and Insane Populations. Census Blind, Deaf-mutes, Year. Insane, Males. Males. Males. 1 2 3 - - 4 1881 60-0 62-4 60-7 1891 59-8 62-7 62-1 1901 60-6 59-8 64-4 1911 61-4 59-4 62-4 1921 59-0 57-6 65-1 The variations in the above figures are certainly less than might have been expected With regard to age distribution, the following tables show the proportion by sex of the afflicted at each decennial age-group to the total afflicted at all ages :— TABLE No. 145.- -Distribution of 1,000 of the Blind of each Sex by Decennial Age-groups in 1901, 1911, and 1921. 1901. 1921. 1 -A. i Age-Group. Males. Females. Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0- 9 .. i 166 112 174 .. 141 143 119 10-19 . .V 190 208 . . 176 185 165 144 20-29 . .2 190 194 .. 175 178 166 168 30-39 . ."-t 165 122 .. 137 135 150 173 40-49 . "i 124 119 .. 131 112 122 121 50-59 . . 1> 86 97 .. 107 116 112 114 60 and over . .1 78 86 . . 131 130 174 162 TABLE No. 146—Distribution of 1,000 of the Deaf-mute of each Sex by Decennial Age-groups in 1901, 1911, and 1921. 1901. 1921. -A- A i Age-Group. Males. Females. \ Males. Females. Males. Females. 1 2 3 4 5 G 7 0- 9 . . i 206 217 .. 186 214 170 156 10-19 277 278 . . 291 286 298 304 20-29 230 • • s 236 .. 234 213 204 220 30-39 148 125 .. 131 121 155 137 40-49 78 . . < 72 . . 84 90 96 101 50-59 42 44 42 48 44 50 60 and over •> 20 26 . . 32 28 33 32 TABLE No. 147.—Distribution of 1,000 of the Insane of each Sex by Decennial Age-groups in 1901, 1911, and 1921. 1901. 1911. 1921. * Age-Group. Mules. Females. Maks. Females. Males. Females. 1 3 4 5 6 7 0- 9 52 36 17 38 .. 22 . 3 10-19 189 147 111 106 . . 107 . 117 20-29 . 1 314 277 281 265 . . 281 239 30-39 . 4 218 268 281 260 . . 273 . 239 40-49 . S 118 133 166 178 . . 169 . 157 50-59 . t> 70 90 85 96 . . 97 . 124 60 and over .0 38 48 58 56 . . 51 115 H J- Again, as can be seen either from the Tables Nos. 145, 146, and 147, or Diagram No. 22 facing page 93 the agreement between the figures, though subjected to several exceptions, is greater than might have been expected. The figures for the deaf-mutes appear to be in the closest agreement, while those for the insane and blind show somewhat greater irregularity. If the figures for the proportion of the afflicted at each age-group to the total population at that age-group are tabulated or plotted, a somewhat similar agreement is found, except for the insane in 1901. It would, therefore, appear that the figures are less haphazard than might have been expected, and they, appear to indicate that the enumerators at different Censuses had fairly constant ideas as to the recording of infirmities. But it is still doubtful to what extent their conceptions accorded with the official definitions ;. the rclativo errors in the figures, though fairly constant, may be large ; and, although it may bo the case that the figures do represent the facts to some extent, the possibility of high error raises doubts as to conclusions which may be drawn from them. These points, together with the others already mentioned, appear to justify the restricted publication of the figures for 1921, and to«uggest the consideration of the omission of the relevant columns from the Census schedule of 1931. MAP OF SOUTHERN INDIA AND CEYLON WITH THE — LtAKKADIVE-AND MALDIVE ISLANDS a LAKKA DIVE ' v e. 'CM/ac Telltcheri B'fraFa- V»/%M IS L ANDS :v Kaafamat'~- ..... jyJlntim AoaffiiM {-J :*Jlntrot Z-Kavarat/u' . Kg tpent '"' Suheli NINE DEGREES CHANNEL »Ma/iku(Minikai) EIGHT DEGREES CHANNEL ' KuruncgSlaJiBBatticaloa jfcy^p.1 Kandyf?" ^j^havandijfulu/ltol ColorrlboVr Afowara £lit/a\ .--\v«?^Badulia/ ^ {•^/7i/adummati'/)fof ^'^^.iltatnapura. Jlakunudd(Malcolm) Mol':'\ I ^" • \MMi/aatu/rimac?uluAfof. /LJta'losmaq'ulu JIM jZ&gSM/adummddu/u Mof ^let -' Galle^^S^^C'VS^ Got ^ Atse/JfAbss AlbO. '1P*f$$#*at*'At*' Jlr/jVto/ V\ VS-Kale Mol. ^ M M/onofe'Afo/ V W S.M/anc/eJM i/'J(u/aAu Jtfo, > Reduced from a Map offhe Coast of India" HaddummaH AM. P ONEandHALF OEGREE CHANNEL ttuvaduCSuVodiuajAlot \ EQUATORIAL CHANNEL Fua Mufaku q Addu/tM Phirh Litha Survey Dipt, Gtylon. 23. j. ?s. CHAPTER IX.—THE MALDIVE ISLANDS—SITUATION AND POPULATION. 95 CHAPTER IX.—THE MALDIVE ISLANDS.* Situation.—The Maldives, a group of coral islands in the Indian Ocean, are situated some 400 miles to the south-west of Ceylon, and he between 72° 33' and 73° 44' East Longitude, and between 7° 6' North Latitude and 0° 42' South Latitude (see map opposite). The most northerly island lies about 350 miles from Cape Comorin, and Mule Island is about 415 miles from Colombo. The number of inhabited islands of the Maldive Archipelago according to tho Census returns, was.SlJ. There is no record of the number of uninhabited islands, but it is reported that they are more than 2,000. The inhabited islands are grouped together in clusters called .atols : most of these, with the exception of the northern atols. are surrounded by a barrier reef which serves as a natural protection. The atols are 18 in number, but.for centuries past, theyTiave~been arranged foraa^mimstFative^urposes, in 13"groups7~ according to the following statement:— Distribution of Atols in the Maldive Islands. Number of Atol. Inhabited Administrative Group. Islands. 1 2 1. Tiladummati Atol . 33 .. 1. Tiladummati Atol 2. Miladummadulu Atol North 3. Miladummadulu Atol South .. 16 1 •• 2. 4. Malosmadulu Atol North. ••• i8i.. 3. 5. Malosmadulu Atol South .. iej 6. Fadiffolu Atol 4 . . 4. Fadiffolu Atol 7. Male Atol (excluding Male Island) .. 12^ .. 5. Male Atol (including Male 8. Male Island .. 1J Island) 9. Ari Atol .. 20 6. Ari Atol 10. Felidi Atol 7 .. 7. Felidi Atol 11. Mulaku Atol 8 .. 8. Mulaku Atol Nilande Atol North 8> 12. • 1 Q Nilande Group 13. Nilande Atol South 6j- ». 14. Kolumadulu Atol .. 13 .. 10. Kolumadulu Atol 15. Haddummati Atol .. 13 .. 11. Haddummati Atol 16. Huvadu Atol .. 21 .. 12. Huvadu Atol 17. Fua Mulaku Islandf ••• lV- 13. Addu and Fua Mulaku Group 18. Addu Atol 217 An Annual " Census."—Pyrard de Laval writing in the early part of the seventeenth century mentions an annual Census as being taken at the close of " Ramedan "% :— " Three days before the close of Ramedan,% the bell (gong) or coly and the trumpets go round the town in the usual way, as when a festival or a royal command is announced, and warn the people on behalf of the Pandiure% (whom the Arabs call Gady\\) that all the Maldive islanders should bring, or send in writing, the names of all, both great and small, men and boys, women and girls to be registered; those of Male to the Pandiare,% and those of other islands to the Naibe^ of their atol. When they do' this, they have to give in for each person an offering of half a larin, equal to four sols of our money, or its equivalent in goods ; this is done quite voluntarily and faithfully, for they believe that without! it their Fast would be of no effect."** In this connection the Maldivian Government Representative reports that " this annual Census alluded to by Pyrard was not a Census in the proper sense of the word. A religious festival is held annually to celebrate the close of Ramazan, and every earning male (roughly taken to be between 15 and 55) is expected to contribute, according to the Arabic law, 1 /40th of the earnings he had accumulated in the current year. This offering is made in either money or kind according to the convenience of the persons expected to make the offering.^f To insist upon their religious devotion and to see that every male of the specified age does not neglect his religious duty, every possible check is made on the numbers by adopting the procedure detailed by Pyrard. " It has been a custom to retain a twelfth part of the total money or kind collected at these Censuses with the Fadiyaru and for the rest to be distributed among, or spent in giving alms, to Sayyids (descend ants of the Prophet Muhammad, known in Ceylon, as Mavlanas) and to orphans, slaves, beggars, &c." Other Partial Enumerations.—The Maldivian Government Representative also reports that " there was a time when something like a modern Census used to be taken at the accession of a Sultan. This enumeration was an administrative measure, confined to adults and men between 15 and 55 years of age, and adopted as a means of estimating the population coming under direct tax, which is only 120 ldri%% or its equivalent in produce, per year, and such enumeration was last taken in these islands about 35 years ago." * The leading living authority on the subject of the Maldives is Mr. H. C. P. Bell, C.C.S. (Retired). Considerable details will be found in his Reports on the Maldive Islands (Sessional Papers XLIII. of 1881 ; XV. of 1921), and in a further Report now in preparation. Ho was good enough to read tliis Chapter in the manuscript and to suggest several important amendments. \ My Head Clerk, Mr. M. R. Peiris, deserves great credit for the work done by him on the subject of the Maldive Islands. t Though really a tiny Atol it is always treated as an island. Cf. Rasdu(" Ross Atol ") and Geidu (" Horsburgh Atol ")• both similar small atols classed as islands. (Bell). j For Ramazdn (Arabic); M. R6da. | Or Fadiyaru (= Chief Justice). || Now almost universally written, Kuzi. T[ Or Naibu (= a Law Officer under the Fadiyaru). ** Quoted by Donham, " Ceylon at the Census of 1911," p. 499. tt Confirmed by Mr. Bell who was at Male during Ramadan A.H. 1341 (A.C 1922). tt Of 30 bodu luri / equivalent at present to a rupee in Ceylon currency. 96 CHAPTER IX.—THE MALDIVE ISLANDS. Estimates of the Total Population.—But none of these enumerations included the whole population, and the actual figurewa s a matter of virtual guesswork,* till the first modern Census was taken in 1911, when a total figure of 72,237 was obtained. Although it is difficult to find a basis for estimating the population in former times, it is believed that it was once considerably larger than it is now, and it is, interesting to note that "the islanders themselves, . " . . point" with melancholy significance to islands in nearly every atol now.lying waste where homesteads stood of old. It is, however, satisfactory to find good ground for the belief that the gradual depopulation, mainly attributable to the proverbially unhealthy climate—has not merely been arrested, but that from the closer connection now yearly being established with the outside world, and the increased facilities for obtaining yearly necessaries of life, a steady reaction is setting in."f Regular Censuses.—The. firstxeguIar_Census -in-191-I-has-already-been-mentioned:—The~second decennial Census was held in 1921, the figuresshowin g a decrease of 1,824, due mainly to the influenza epidemic and starvation due to the rice crisis. The comparative figures are shown in Table No. 148 below. The Census of 1921.—As in 1911, the Census of 1921 was conducted by the Maldivian Government in a highly efficient manner. The Maldivian Government Representative at Colombo, Mr. E. Abdul Hamid Didi Effendi, acted in consultation with the Superintendent of Census, Ceylon, the chief assistance rendered by the Ceylon Government consisting in the supply of the schedules. In the absence of printing \0- type in the tana, or Maldivian characters, the schedules were lithographed in the Survey Office, Ceylon, and despatched to the Maldives for distribution before the setting in of the south-west monsoon. The difficult task of taking the Census of the very numerous and widely scattered atols was then promptly undertaken. Under the able supervision of Mr. E. AbdulMajid Didi Effendi, the Chief Treasurer to the Maldivian Government, the enumerators were carefully instructed, and expeditions were sent from Mate to the different atols. The necessary particulars were then abstracted from the schedules, and returns were prepared in the Maldivian language to be forwarded to the Maldivian Government Represent ative in Colombo. By him they were translated into English, and forwarded to the Ceylon Census Department for incorporation in the Preliminary Report on the Census operations. The excellence of the administrative arrangements is clearly demonstrated by the fact that the blank schedules which were despatched from Colombo on December 28,1920, were filledi n for 217 islands, checked, and precised in time for the completed returns to be received in Colombo by September, 1921, and for the main results to be published in English in the Ceylon Government Gazette of October 7,1921. This eminently satisfac tory record was largely due to the great care and interest taken in the work by the Chief Maldivian Officials at Mate, and the Maldivian Government Representative in Colombo, as well as to the able manner in which the Census staff in the Maldives carried out the duties assigned to them, and to willing co-operation on the part of the inhabitants. Population of the Maldives, 1921.—The total population of the Maldive Islands at the Census of 1921 was 70,413, against 72,237 in 1911. There were 38,174 males and 32,239 females, against 39,244 and 32,993 respectively in 1911. The distribution among the various atols in 1911 and 1921 and the increase or decrease during 1911-1921 are shown in the following table :— TABLE No. 148.—Population of the Maldive Islands, by Sex, for each Atol, 1911 and 1921, and the Percentage Increase or Decrease (—), 1911-1921. Percentage Increase or 1911. 1921. Decrease (—), 1911-1921. * . A Atol. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. 1 2 4 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 Maldive Islands !. 39,244. . 32,993. . 72,237+ 38,174. 32,239. 70,413+. .— 2 7. .— 2 3 - 25 Tiladummati Atol 6,805. . 5,795 . 12,600. 5,307. . 4,801. . 10,108. .—22 0. .—17 •2 Miladummadulu Atol North-? 1,772. . 1,464. . 3,236. 1,375. . 1,127. . 2,502. .—22 4. Miladummadulu Atol South'? .—23 •o .—22 2,637. . 2,195 . 4,832. 2,435. . 2,084. } . 4,519. .— 7 •7. .— 6 •1 .— 6 Malosmadulu Atol North . . 2,226. . 1,930. . 4,156. 2,406. . 2,020. . 4,426. 8 1. 4 7 6 Malosmadulu Atol South .k 2,144. . 1,658. . 3,802. 1,906. . 1,461. . 3,367. .—11 1. .—11 9 .—11 Fadiffolu Atol .1 1,536. . 1,350. . 2,886. 1,962. . 1,630. . 3,592. 27 7. . 20 7 . 24 Male Atol (excluding tho Island) .. £. 1,680. . 1,347. . 3,027. 1,676. 1,382. 3,058. 2. 2 6 10 Male Island .*>. 2,829. . 2,407. . 5,236+ 3,359. . 2,768. . 6,127 + 18 7. 15 0 7-0 Ari Atol . . iP. 2,254. . 1,750. . 4,004. 2,370. . 1,849. 4,219. 5 1. 5 7 5-4 Felidi Atol .. V. 1,289. . 1,078. . 2,367. 1,223. . 1,003. 2,226. — 5 1. .— 7 0 60 Mulaku Atol , >~ 948. 712. . 1,660. 986. 758. 1,744. 4 0. 6 5 51 Nilande Atol North A 946. 778. . 1,724. 926. 696. 1,622. — 2 1. .—10 5 •9 Nilande Atol South 1,132. 941. . 2,073.. 1,224. . 1,018. 2,242. 8 1. 8 2 Kolumadulu Atol • 1 2,228. . 1,838. . 4,066. 2,232. . 1,779. 2. .— 3 2 Haddummati Atol • 4,01.1- •4 1,599. . 1,256. . 2,855. 1,657. . 1,323. 2,980. 3 6. 5 3 •4 Huvadu Atol I ?. 3,907. . 3,471. . 7,378. 3,648. . 3,372. . 7,020. — 6 6. .— 2 9 •!) Fua Mulaku Island . 1,178. 1,021. . 2,199. 1,142. . 1,043. 2,185. — 3 1. 2 2 Addii Atol . . '1 •0 2,134. . 2,002. . 4,136. 2,340. . 2,125. . 4,465.. 9- 7. 6 1 8-0 „, „ v^^.o cn uiic a.uuii5, -Liiauuniinaiii nas me largest population, 10,108. If the administrative units are taken for comparison Malosmadulu group comes second with 7,793 inhabitants ; and Miladummadulu group and Huvadu Atol third and fourth with 7,021 and 7,020 inhabitants respectively. Addu and Fua Mulaku group comes fifth with 6,650. Male Island comes next with 6,127 inhabitants (5,236 in 1911). It is the capital of the Maldives and the residence of the Sultan ; and is situated about half way in the chain of atols extending north and south for 450 miles and upwards between Ihavandiffulu, the most northerly Atol attached to Tiladummati Atol, and Addu, the most southerly Atol. The entire foreign trade in the atols is conducted at Male and, as the capital, o j'all the islands in the Maldives it is the most in touch with the outside world and * Some of the estimates are given in Denham, " Ceylon at the Census of 1911 499. t Bell, " Tho Maldive Islands " (Sessional Paper XLIII. of 1881), p. 53. 1 Inclusivo of the natives of India and Coylon enumerated in Maid Island. HOUSES, FAMILIES, RACE AND RELIGION. 97 the only one where there is a foreign element in the population. Male1 is low-lying, like the rest of the archipelago, and is approximately one mile in length by three quarters of a mile at broadest. The present density of population in this island] is therefore, very high-running to about 8,170 persons per square mile. Regarding this congestion, Mr. Bell remarks, " The- undue proportion, from a sanitary point of -e a. mi I :j view, Of . . • graveyards cannot but force attention. They arc everywhere painfully in evidence along the streets. " As with graveyards, the prodigality of mosques in Male is one of the most noticeable features disclosed by a tour of the island ; they abound passim, and (with the burial grounds usually attached) occupy so much of the total area that some form of expansion, very probably by utilizing the nearer islands ofthe atol, will ere long have to be devised. " M416, with its teeming population of over 5,200 souls,* is far too overcrowded already." Migration/ or other measures for relieving the congestion, must inevitab1y~bc resortcd'tcriiTthe nott!iSt£mt_luturc7*'t According to the returns furnished by the Maldivian Government there were 27 burial grounds in Male Island out of 505 in the Maldives as a whole. On the other hand, " The scrupulous cleanliness and order in which the coral carpeted streets it of the Town % are studiously kept have earned the deserved eulogy of more than one European visitor :—' Within the residential part of the town, the whole place is kept in such order as might well give a lesson to much more civilized places. The streets are as tidy as could well be, and evil smells are apparently quite unknown.' "§ The foregoing Table No. 148 also shows a decrease during the decade of 2"5 per cent, in the total population of the Maldives, and that decreases occurred in nine of the atols. In the absence of statistics of births and deaths and migration, it is not possible to investigate the causes of increase or decrease in the various atols. According to the Maldivian Government Representative the population of the Maldives in 1921 was considerably reduced by the influenza pandemic of 1918 and 1919, and the famine ; due to the rice crisis, which was severely felt in the islands in 1918-1920. 1 In this connection, it may be noted that the food supply in the Maldives is not satisfactory. As rice does not grow in these islands, it has.to be brought from India and Ceylon, and, during the rice crisis, a bag was sold in Male at Rs. 60, while the price in Colombo was only Rs. 38. Only Mulaku, Haddummati. and Addu Atols are reported to be self supporting, the staple foodstuffs being dry .fish, fine grains, coconuts, and yams. The Maldivians ordinarily depend to a considerable extent on fish, coconuts, and jaggery. " During the famine," says the Maldivian Government Representative, " a great number of coconut': trees were felled by the hungerstricken to utilize everything that the coconut palm could yield in the way of food. Though every attempt was made by Government to face the crisis, a large number died of 'j hunger. " A characteristic feature of the Maldivc Islands is their lcvelncss—the islands never rising to anything approaching a hill so that there are no rivers even in the rainy seasons. Most of the islands have thick jungle where the coconut palm is seen to tower above the foliage. Although rice is not grown, 1 dry grain is successfully grown and usually thrives wherever it is cultivated. Three kinds of millet—bimbi (= Sin. kurakkan), urd (= Sin. mcneri), and kudi bai (= Sin. tanahal)—and maize are raised in many of the atols, and many fruit trees (papawa, oranges, plantains, mangoes, pines, &c.), and nearly all the, ) low-country vegetables found in Ceylon are cultivated. As a result of the untold hardships, they under-' went during the famine time, the Maldivians are now giving much greater attention to the production1 of foodstuffs." Regarding the health of the atols, he says," the ruling factor of the climate is the monsoons, south-west and north-east as in Ceylon. The climate is generally reputed to be unhealthy for Europeans, but suits the Maldivians well, and, as a race, they are fairly healthy and active. In the Northern Atols, severe outbreaks of malarial fever, frequent during the dry season, are now considerably less owing to the clearing of the jungles, which, along with the still lagoons, were direct causes of the disease. The temperature in the Southern Atols and Male is not higher than that of Colombo. Addu is the healthiest atol and Male and Fua Mulaku arc the healthiest islands, while Huvadii Atol and Havaru Tinadu, an island in this atol, are the most unhealthy.'* Classification of Buildings.—Tho various buildings in the Maldives numbered 16,251, and included 14,056_d welling houses, 839 Kuran schools, 010 dispensaries, 487 mosques, 237 public halls, 18 navigation schools, and 4 Arabic schools. Of the dwelling houses 74 were tiled, 821 roofed with galvanized sheets, and 13,161 thatched or built of coral stone. Houses and Families.—The number of houses increased from 13,820 in 1911 to 14,056 in 1921, while the number of families decreased from 13,966 in 1911 to 13,508 in 1921. The proportions of persons per house (5-0) is slightly higher in the Maldives than in Ceylon (4-8). In the case of families, the proportion of 5-2 persons per family is also higher than the ratio (4-7) obtained in Ceylon from sampling tests. As in 1911, Fiidiffolu Atol shows the highest number of persons per house (7-2) and Addu Atol the largest families (on an average 5-9 persons in each). Race and Religion.—With thecxecption of 217 foreigners on Male Island (137 Boras, 22 •' Malabars," •I and 58 Ceylon Moors) the population of the Maldives was entirely Maldivian. All the inhabitants were Muhammadans, but it seems clear that Buddhism was once the chief religion of the peoplc.|| Their conversion to Muhammadanism is dated in 1153 A.c. On the extent of animistic nature-worship, reference may be made to Professor W. Geiger's MdMivian TAnguislic Studies.*^ Mr. Bell is of opinion that the former inhabitants of the Maldives were, centuries ago, closely connected with the Sinhalese.** * Total number 5,230 at tho 1911 Census. t Bell, " Report on a Visit to Male " (Sessional Paper XV. of 1921), p. 41. j Virtually tho ont-iro area of tho island is covered by tlio town. § Bell, loo. ext. || See Bell, op.cit. p. 7. '} Edited by Boll, and published in tho Journal o[ tho Coylon Branch of tlio Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XXVI1. Extra Number, p. 5. ** Soo also parograph on laiigttagc on page 103 of this report. 29-22 * 98 CHAPTER IX.—THE MALDIVE ISLANDS. Birthplaces.—All the Maldivians enumerated in the islands were returned as locally born. Of the 159 natives of India, the Boras (137) were merchants from the Bombay Presidency and the " Malabars " (22) from the coast of Malabar. Of the 58 Ceylon Moors several were born in Galle and the rest in Colombo. There were 30 Maklivians enumerated in Ceylon in 1921, 22 males and 4 females, in Colombo Municipality; 2 males in Colombo District; and 2 males in Ratnapura District. Their birthplaces were returned as Galle (2 males and 1 female), and Maldive Islands (24 males and 3 females). Sex.—The total number of males enumerated in the Maldives in 1921 was 38,174, against 39,244 in 1911; and the total number of females in 1921 was 32,239, against 32,993 in 1911. The detailed figures for the various atols are given in Table No. 148 on page 96. Masculinity* in the Atols.—The following table shows the masculinity in 1911 and 1921 for each atol, the Ceylon figures for Sinhalese and Ceylon Moors being added for purposes of comparison. TABLE No. 149.—Masculinity in each Atol, 1911 and 1921, at all Ages. Atol. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 Maldive Islands .. i 543 542 Tiladummati Atol 640 625 Miladummadulu Atol North ...•> 648 550 646 Miladummadulu Atol South • • t . 639 Malosmadulu Atol North.. . • \ 535 544 Malosmadulu Atol South.. . . V 564 566 Fadiffolu Atol 532 546 Male Atol (excluding the Island) - • « 555 548 Male Island 540 548 Ari Atol . .,0 563 562 Felidi Atol .. II 544 549 Mulaku Atol . 571 565 Nilande Atol North . .11 549 571 Nilande Atol South . . I" 546 650 Kolumadulu Atol ..if 548 556 Eaddurnmati Atol ..It 660 566 Huvadu Atol . . '1 630 520 Fua Mulaku Island . .('<• 536 623 Addu Atol .. •=) 616 624 Ceylon (all races) ..Jw> 530 529 Sinhalese in Ceylon 523 524 Ceylon Moors in Ceylon .. • •VV 522 621 The masculinity of the population of the Maldive Islands thus appears to be considerably higher than the ratio found in any of the countries mentioned in Table No. 3, on page 1; and an inquiry on the lines indicated in Chapter I., in the case of Ceylon would be interesting and valuable, but is not possible at present, in the absence of records of births and deaths by sex. It may, however, be noted that it cannot be due to immigration ; that it is unlikely to be due to errors of enumeration ; and that the explanation lies in the combined results of the relative male and female natural increase and the previous sex ratio. It is not known whether the female death-rate is higher in the Maldives than the male rate, but it is possible that it may be so. It will be observed that while the masculinity of the total population shows only a slight fall between 1911 and 1921, the ratios for many of the separate atols show very considerable differences, due, no doubt, in many cases, to the small population involved. Masculinity by Age.—The following table shows the masculinity by decennial age-groups in the Maldive Islands in 1911 and 1921. Some Ceylon figures are also added for purposes of comparison. TABLE No. 150.—Masculinity by Decennial Age-groups In the Maldive Islands and Ceylon, 1911 and 1921. Maldive Islands. Ceylon. Decennial \ A Age-Group. r~ - t Sinhalese. Ceylon Moors. A A 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0- 9 • 1 528 . . 516 . . 515 514 512 .. 507 10-19 545 . . 526 .. 518 523 512 .. 520 20-29 • i 501 . . 461 . . 497 499 506 . . 496 30-39 . 1 553 . . 585 .. 551 548 559 .. 552 40-49 603 .. 653 .. 548 546 539 .. 540 60-59 . t 600 .. 665 .. 524 534 535 . . 553 60 and over "7 625 .. 666 .. 567 571 556 .. 551 The low figure for the Maldives at ages 20-29 in 1921 is exceptional and requires further investigation. In view of the absence of migration, the subject of the masculinity of the Maldives deserves more detailed mention than is possible here and the collection of vital statistics in the islands would be of the utmost interest and value. * I.e., the number of males to 1,000 persons of both sexes. 1 0-4- *0-s+ /S-*9 20-24 24-89 30-34 3S-S9 40-44 44-49 &0-J4 SS-S9 6o-&4 6S-69 VO-94 P5-?9 So-84 6S\ 89. 90-94 95-99 Statistical jjeparlmeni. Photo, lilho.StcrYHtfD^i: Ce-yloy. 3.3. St- AGE STATISTICS. 99 Age.—The number of persons, males, and females, at each age up to 4, and by quinquennial groups thereafter are shown in the following table:— TABLE No. 151.—Population by Age, 1911 and 1921, of the Maldive Islands. 1911. 1921. y Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Age-Period. Males. 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 . 32,993 72,031*. 37,957 . 32,239 70,196* All Ages ! 39,038 ...969_ —0 ± 745- . 743 —1,488-. . . 479 ... 490- 769 781 1,550 1 1,024 . 904 1,928 . 1,228 1,185 2,413 2 ..*r 1,187 . 1,057 2,244 . 1,505 . 1,475 2,980 3 s 1,379 1,269 2,648 . 1,929 1,790 3,719 4 \l 1,881 1,752 3,633 . 3,853 3,449 7,302 6- 9 ' i 5,337 4,596 9,933 . 5,430 . 4,307 9,737 10-14 i 4,407 3,283 7,690 . 6,717 . 5,724 11,441 16-19 3,586 . 3,386 6,972 . 6 9,898 . 2,706 3,660 6,366 20-24 .I. 4,902 . 4,996 2,350 2,248 4,598 25-29 II 2,607 . 2,372 4,979 . 3,318 2,449 6,767 30-34 3,064 . 2,618 5,682 . 1,606 1,038 2,644 35-39 1,865 1,478 3,343 2,316 . 1,203 3,519 40-44 1,856 1,250 3,106 . 848 476 1,324 46-49 IS 1,202 767 1,969 1,593 792 2,385 50-54 )6 1,268 901 2,169 508 267 775 65-59 n 823 486 1,309 1,040 537 1,577 60-64 1,005 597 1,602 Y& 282 152 434 65-69 299 237 636 291 135 426 70-74 329 178 507 78 27 105 75-79 'a. 152 52 204 87 48 135 80-84 •i? 61 31 92 13 5 18 85-89 e$ 23 22 45 7 1 8 90-94 28 9 37 if, 3 3 95-99 8 9 17 'ft 1 1 100 The distribution of the population by quinquennial groups is illustrated in Diagram No. 23 facing this page, and there is no doubt that it is a very curious one for an indigenous race. The peak at 15-19 in 1921 is very unusual, and this and the various other irregularities are worthy of further investigation. We have already seen (page 17) that the normal distribution for ages under 5 was a more or less gradually decreasing series, but the above table shows a continuing increase. The Triple Age-grouping.—The distribution for the three age-groups 0-14, 15-49, and 50 and over, is shown in the following table, some comparable figures being given for Ceylon (see also page 19). TABLE No. 152.—Percentage Distribution of the Triple Age-grouping—Maldives, 1911 and 1921, and Ceylon, 1921. Maldives. Covlon. Sinhalese. Ceylon Moors. 1911. 1921. 1921. 1921. A r \ (~ r" r 50 and 50 and 60and 50 and 0-14. 15-49. 0-14. 15-49. 0-14. 15-49. 0-14. 15-49. over. ovor. over. over. 12 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 .. 49 .. 9 Persons I 41 . . 50 . . 9 . . 41 . 51 8 . . 41 .. 48 .. 10 .. 42 .. 49 .. 9 Males v 41 . . 49 . . 10 . . 40 . 50 . 10 . . 41" .. 48 . . 11 . 42 Females 41 . . 51 . . 8 . . 42 . 52 6 . . 42 .. 48 .. 10 .. 42 .. 50 .. 8 No anomaly is apparent here, the Maldivian figures being in fair agreement with each other and with the Ceylon distribution. Decennial Age-Groups.—The following table shows the distribution by decennial age-groups for the Maldives and for the Sinhalese and Ceylon Moors in Ceylon :— TABLE No. 153.—Decennial Age Distribution of 100 of each Sex in the Maldives, 1911 and 1921, and in Ceylon, 1921. Maldives. Ceylon, 1921. Age-Group. Persons. Males. Females. Sinhalese. Ceylon Moore. ^ , wf> ,— , Females. Persons. Males. Females. 1911. 1921. 1911. 1911. 1921. Persons. Males. 12 13 1 2 3 4 5 ^ 6 7 8 9 10 11 1921. 29 29 30 0-9 .'. 30 .. 27 . . 30 .. 26 . 31 .. 28 .. 29 . . 28 30 22 22 22 10-19 >. 20 .. 30 . . 20 . . 29 . . 20 .. 31 .. 22 . . 22 22 19 19 18 19 20-29 X 21 .. 16 . . 19 .. 13 . . 22 . 18 .. 18 . . 17 12 13 14 12 30-39 . . • * Exclusive of the natives of India and Ceylon enumerated in Male Island. 100 CHAPTER IX.—THE MALDIVE ISLANDS. Child-bearing Age.—The proportion of the women of ages 15-39 to a 1,000 of the total population is shown for each atol in the following table :— TABLE No. 154.- -Proportion of Females Aged 15-39 to 1,000 of the Total Population, in each Atol in 1911 and 1921. Atol. 1911. 1921. Atol. 1911. 1921 1 2 3 1 2 3 Maldive Islands .'. 205 .. 215 Mulaku Atol «J. 186 . 199 Tiladummati Atol .V 204 .. 243 Nilande Atol North )i 190 217 MUadumrnadulu. AtoLNorthL_205_ 226 Nilande Atol South 174 202 Miladummadulu Atol South The following table shows the number of persons who are paying the direct tax of 120 Idri a year in currency or in kind. TABLE No. 155.—The Total Number of Males, Aged 15-54 (inclusive), in each Atol of the Maldives. 1911 and 1921. Atol. 1911. 1921. Atol. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 1 2 3 Maldive Islands .'. 20,360 20,454 Ari Atol .. i a 1,204 . . 1,347 Tiladummati Atol }. 3,452 2,925 Felidi Atol \i 581 . 592 Miladummadulu Atol North i 959 820 Mulaku Atol . The Mean Age.—The mean age (see page 28) for the Maldives was 23*1 for males, 20-1 for females, and 21-7 for total persons in 1921, and 23 "1 for males, 21-4 for females, and 22-3 for total persons in 1911. The Centenarians.—At the 1921 Census there was a male aged 100 in Nilande Atol South. There were no persons returned as centenarians at the 1911 Census ; 8 persons were entered as between 90 and 94, and 3 as between 95 and 99 in 1921, against 37 and 17 respectively in 1911. Conjugal Condition.—Although in the Maldives, the age at which both sexes marry is generally 15 and over, there were, however, 346 persons (86 males and 260 females) married, widowed or divorced at ages 10-14. These amounted to about 7 per 1,000 of the population of those ages, against 10 in 1911 and 9 among the Ceylon Moors in Ceylon in 1921. Proportion of the Unmarried.—The following table shows (a) the proportion of unmarried males, aged 15 and over, to 1,000 of the male population of those ages ; and (6) the proportion of unmarried females, aged 15 and over, to 1,000 of the female population of those ages. TABLE No. 156.—Proportion of the Unmarried in a Thousand of the Total Males or Females Aged 15 years and over in the Maldives and Ceylon, 1911 and 1921. Males. Females. » , 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 Maldive Islands 187 231 .. 101 .. 91 Ceylon: f^in^,le" 430 459 .. 262 .. 288 (^Ceylon Moors 331 346 .. 80 .. 90 So far as the figures are to be relied upon, this table indicates that marriage is more universal among the Maldivians than among the Sinhalese or the Ceylon Moors in Ceylon. The increase in the proportion of unmarried males in the Maldives is noticeable, while the proportion of unmarried females seems to have decreased. It is seen that the proportion of the unmarried females is very small. Pyrard, as quoted by Mr. Denham,* says, " Fathers .... give their daughters in marriage as soon as possible after the age of ten years, thinking it a great sin to let a girl want a husband ; wherefore the}' hand them over at the age of ten or eleven to the first that asks them, without making any bother, be he old or young, man or boy ; provided only there is little difference in their quality, that is all they think of." " Ceylon at the Census of 1911," p. 503. 101 CONJUGAL CONDITION. . The proportion of the unmarried, aged 15 years and over, is shown for each atol of the Maldives 1 the following table :— TABLE No 10157.—Proportion of the Unmarried, Aged 15 years and over, to a Thousand Persons of TABLE NO. £eh™f^ose Ages> in each Atol of the Maldives In 1911 and 1921. Unmarried Males. Unmarried Females. 1921. Atol. 19U. 1921. 1911. 1 2 3 4 5 Maldive Islands 187 231 101 91 "TUa^ummatr Atol —• - • - -.-l—-137- -222- 79- —51— Miladummadulu Atol North . 1 132 184 38 34 Miladummadulu Atol South • «r 192 173 53 102 Malosmadulu Atol North . r 217 125 63 44 Malosmadulu Atol South . I, 261 234 71 45 Fadiffolu Atol .1 207 266 79 18 Male Atol (excluding the Island) . 8 301 244 279 136 Male Island .1 162 263 26 62 Ari Atol .10 188 268 68 140 Felidi Atol • n 157 203 113 101 Mulaku Atol* . a 206 281 53 178 Nilande Atol North* • >3>19 4 251 42 140 Niiande Atol South . 'M 232 282 82 153 Kolumadulu Atol .. ..ir 219 196 88 67 Haddummati Atol.. . it 233 237 83 123 Huvadu Atol . n 141 206 136 135 Fua Mulaku Island 352 167 144 292 105 Addii Atol Aaau aiui .. ..Jt , The lowest proportion of the unmarried males (125 in Malosmadulu Atol North) is very much less than the average (231), and that of the unmarried females (18 in Fadiffolu) is about 1 /5 of the average (91), for the Maldives as a whole. Conjugal Condition by Age-groups.—The following tables show the proportions of the unmarried, married, widowed or divorced, of each sex at the decennial groups in 1911 and 1921 :— TABLE No. 158. -Conjugal Condition of a 1,000 Persons of each Sex at each Decennial Age-group in the Maldives, 1921. Widowed or Divorced. Unmarried. Married. . > . —* \ Females. Males. Females. Age-Group Males.' Females. Males. 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 All Ages 703 . 175 206 (15 and over) I 231 . 91 .. 594 57 2 3 10-14 984 940 .. 14 675 46 107 15-19 1 674 218 .. 280 778 227 172 20-29 /t 205 50 .. 568 s 784 185 191 30-39 49 25 .. 766 671 177 307 40-49 28 .. 22 .. 795 534 220 450 50-59 .7 14 16 .. 766 330 354 654 60 and over br 11 16 .. 635 TABLE No. 159.- Maldives, 1911. Married. Widowed or Divorced. _A _A ^ t ( Males. Females. Age-Group. Females. Males. Females. Males. 6 7 1 3 4 5 All Ages 157 . 151 (15 and over) I 187 101 .. 656 .. 748 .. 113 .. 12 . 20 10-14 . x 980 867 .. 8 87 . 109 692 289 .. 221 602 .. 15-19 • 3 803 .. 146 . 97 20-29 190 100 .. 664 850 .. 163 116 30-39 52 34 .. 785 770 .. 149 195 40-49 • t 28 35 .. 823 691 192 289 50-59 22 20 .. 786 486 .. 293 506 60 and over 9 12 8 .. 695 These tables show low proportions of the unmarried at ages 40 and over, much similar to those «f the Son Moore Koeykrn who show the lowest proportions for these ages among any race in Ceylon ; ?„?^S£SSie7a^ earlier and more universal than in the case of the males. The comparative proportions of the unmarried are further examined below^ » Total number of males or females is less than 1,000. 102 CHAPTER IX.—THE MALDIVE ISLANDS. Proportions of Unmarried Females at various Ages. -These figures are given for 1911 and 1921 in the following table :— TABLE No. I60.-Distribution by Age of a Thousand Unmarried Females aged 15 and over in the Maldives, 1911 and 1921, and in Ceylon, 1921. Maldives. Ceylon, 1921. *• Age-Group. 1911. 1921. Sinhalese. Ceylon Moors. 1 2 3 4 5 15-19 • • 1 498 .. 735 .. 453 .. 691 20-29 • • i- 377 .. 173 .. 347 .. 225 30-39 ••l 70 .. 52 . . 103 .. 44 40-49 • • M 36 .. 22 . . 51 .. 21 50-59 ' • c 14 .. 10 .. 27 . . 8 60 and over •• t . 5 . . 8 .. 19 .. 11 This table shows that, probably as a result of the economic changes in the last years of.the decade 1911-1921, the proportion of the unmarried of ages 15-19 has increased; but the proportions in the higher ages are much smaller comparatively, and show a closer approach to universal marriage. Widowed or divorced.—The proportion of widowers* to widows* has increased from 1,000 : 815 in 1911 to 1,000 : 977 in 1921. The proportion of the widowed or divorced among the males in 1921 was 175 per 1,000 and among the females 206, the reason for higher proportion in the case of females being that the women, who generally marry earlier than the men, are more likely to be widowed sooner and may have a smaller, chance of re-marriage. " After the dissolution of the marriage by divorce or death, the women cannot marry again quite so soon.. When a husband dies, four months and ten days are ordained for the widow to mourn him ; and then to marry again it suffices not for the women to say off-hand that her husband is dead, for she must prove his death by three witnesses who speak to the time, manner, and cause thereof. If, however, the husband were absent from the kingdom and the wife had nothing of his, she could re-marry a year after, "t Literacy.—By a literate is meant a person able to read and write a language. The following table shows the proportion of literates in each age-group 5-9, 10-14, 15-19, and 20 and over, for males and females in the Maldives, for 1911 and 1921. TABLE No. 161.—Percentage of Literates in the Maldives by Sex and Age-group, 1911 and 1921 (excluding Children Aged 0-4). Males. Females. Age-Group. — *\ 1911. 1921. 1911. 1921. 1 2 3 4 5 All Ages (5 and over) .. i 47 53 44 45 5-9 6 9 .. 9 7 10-14 ••I 41 29 45 29 15-19 60 54 60 50 20 and over • • ^ 72 70 71 57 Ceylon All Ages (5 and over)— All Races 47 56 13 21 Sinhalese 52 51 .. 14 24 Ceylon Moors 38 47 3 6 1> This table shows that the proportion of literates of both sexes has decreased since 1911, except in the case of males aged 5-9. At both censuses the proportion of male literates is almost the same as in Ceylon for all races, but the female proportion is very much higher than for any race in Ceylon, excepting the Europeans, and Burghers and Eurasians. Both sexes of the Maldivians appear to be very well instructed in their language. Schools are numerous : in 1921 there were 839 Kuran schools, against 498-in 1911, but the number of schools where navigation is taught has fallen from 28 in 1911 to 18 in 1921. Mr. Bell, in his. report of 1881, quoting Christopher, writes : " Children of both sexes are required to read the Kuran, under the tujtion of the minor priests, from the age of three or four. When considered to be sufficiently grounded in its precepts, they receive no further instruction beyond being initiated into the ceremonials of religion. Christopher is at fault in asserting that a knowledge of writing is left to be acquired anyhow. ' Their studies,'says Pyrard,' are to read and write and to learn their Alcoran .... they write their lessons on little tablets of wood, which are whitened, and * Including the divorced of each sex. t Pyrard, quoted by Denham, " Ceylon at the Census of 1911," p. 504. LITERACY, LANGUAGE, OCCUPATIONS, 103 when they have learned their lesson they efface what they have written and whiten them afresh'; he adds that the letters are drawn on fine white sand spread over wooden boards. It would otherwise be difficult to account for the fact that at the present day the majority of the men seem to possess a fair acquaintance with the ordinary Maldive character if they had received ho instruction when young." * The proportion of literates in the various atols is shown in the following table in which is also included the number of schools in each atol. TABLE Mo. 162.—Percentage of Literates to the Total Population of each Sex (excluding Children : aged 0^4), and the Number of Schools, in each Atol, in 1921. 1 Percentage of Literates. Atol_ Males. Females. Kuran Schools. Navigation Schools. 1 2 3 4 5 Maldive Islands ..i 52-8 44-5 839f 18 Tfladummati Atol . 45-5 37-1 .. 126 .. 3 Mfladummadulu Atol North .5 54-9 .. 42-8 .. 46 — Miladummadulu Atol South .4 49-7 44-0 .. 54 2 Malosmadulu Atol North ..s 25-7 .. 10-6 .. 66 .. 1 Malosmadulu Atol South .. (, 21-4 3-4 .. 62 — F&diffolu Atol .. "\ 34-2 .. 18-6 .. 26 3 MeJeAtol(excludingtheIsland)% 45-5 .. 10-8 .. 32 .. — Male Island ..*) 67-6 .. 58-2 19 4 AriAtol .. ..io 85-9 .. 81-8 73 — FelidiAtol.. ..i- 74-3 .. 80-1 .. 22 — Mulaku Atol ..»> 78-6 .. 75-3 .. 23 — Nilande Atol North . .rj 40-5 .. 32-5 .. 28 — Nilande Atol South .. i4 27-2 .. 12-2 .. 23 .. — Kolumadulu Atol .. ;r 40-4 .. 29-3 .. 66 .. — Haddummati Atol .. The highest proportions of literacy for both sexes were in Ari Atol and the lowest in Malosmadulu Atol South and Malosmadulu Atol North. Language.—A very large portion of the Maldivian vocabulary consists either of pure Sinhalese words, with modified vowels and change of " p " to " f " (Arabic influence), or of derivatives from a root common to the two languages. Intercourse with other races has added a considerable number • of words of foreign origin. Traces of Buddhism in the islands and the close affinity of language have suggested the natural theory that " at a period of time still unknown to us, the Maldives were colonized from Ceylon, or, as also may be possible, were colonized at the same time as Ceylon, by Aryan immigrants who came over from the Continent of India. " The first view seems the more probable .... owing to reasons which appear on a study of the character of the Maldivian language. This, in fact, shows a number of features which are character istic of the Sinhalese language, and which have not arisen in the Prakrit foundation of Sinhalese, but seems to have originated on Ceylon soil itself. In course of time the Aryan stock of the Maldivian population would be much mixed with Dravklian and Arab blood; so that the physical type of the Maldivians can no longer be considered a unit."t Script.—The oldest Maldivian alphabet, so far known, is styled Divehi Akuru, or Dives Ahuru.§ . This archaic type of characters has gone out of use, and, even a hundred years ago, was employed to a limited extent only. Gray has shown that the Dives Akuru have a resemblance to the Sinhalese alphabet of Twelfth Century Inscriptions. The modern alphabet is called by the natives Tana, and is written, unlike the old characters, from right to left, following Arabic in this respect.|| Occupations.—As in 1911, 65 per cent, of the male population of the Maldives were returned as earners and 35 per cent, as dependents. The Ceylon percentages of earners were 59 for Sinhalese and 58 for Ceylon Moors, in 1921. At this Census nearly 50 per cent, of the female population earned their own living, against 56 per cent, in 1911. The Ceylon figures for 1921 were 32 per cent. Sinhalese earners and 20 per cent. Ceylon Moor. * " The Maldive Islands " (Sessional Paper, XLI1I. of 1881), p. 59. + There were also three Arabic schools in MA16 Island and 1 >n Addu Atol. _ J " Maldivian Linguistic Studies " by Goiger, p. 3 {vide footnote U on page 97 of this report). Cf. Pndliam, Cej^n, U849^ Vrt. L.^17.^^ ^ examincd t,,rco or four copper plate grants (M. ldmifdnu) undecypherable by any Maldivian. These are in a character older than Dives Akuru, and much resemble the script of medieval Ceylon inscription* ^ ^ q[ ^ Moldivi8n charoctors, see Geiger op. eit. and appendices with plates added by H. C. P. Bell, the editor. 104 CHAPTER IX.—THE MlLDIVE ISLANDS. The following tables show the occupations in which the largest number of males and females in each atol were employed. More details are to be had in Table XXVII. in Volume IV. t>f the Census Publications, 1921. TABLE No. 163.—Percentage of Male Earners engaged in Principal Occupations, one per cent, and over of the Total Male Population in each Atol of the Maldive Islands, 1921. s e c S c 2 © e II 9 © © * s •gJs s Atol. IS e s fi CI g • ox © > V) © >. EH D to H •a H -fc- -T3 A "in O B 1 2 5 6 7 9 10 ii 12 13 14 15 16 17 Maldive Islands .'. 3.. 2.. —. . 1. 3. 39. . 2. 2. , 2. 3. 1 Tiladummati Atol .3 2.. 1. . 3.. 44... 2.. 5. 5. , 2 Miladummadulu Atol North* .3 25. 17. Miladummadulu Atol South •7 44. Malosmadulu Atol North 2.. 54. Malosmadulu Atol South 10. 54. Fadiffolu Atol 1 55. Male Atol (excluding the Island) .8. 4.. —. 2. 44. Male Island .1 —.. —. 20. 5. 22. Ari Atol '.k 4... •—. 53. Haddummati Atol .4 3.. —.. 1.. 12.. —.. 1.. 1.. 32.. —.. —.. 2.. —. . 1. HuvaduAtol !7 6..—..—.. 5.. —.. 1.. 2.. 35. 1. Fua Mulaku Island 11i 2.. 4.. —.. 21.. 5.. 14. AdduAtolJ ft 2.. 3.. 2.. 10.. —..—.. 3.. 18. TABLE No. 164.—Percentage of Female Earners engaged in Principal Occupations, one per cent, and over of the Total Female Population in each Atol of the Maldive Islands, 1921. CO flj .8 § s © a Atol. S *8 2 ? > 3 QJ CD S o s li !> .£ CO © a P Peg 2. C G © •J CO CD > 1 5 & o 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 ©o Maldive Islands ^ 29.. i.. 2.2. . —.. —.. 2. 5. 2 3. 2..— Tiladummati Atol .1"-^.. 49.. —.. —.. —.. —.. 2. 3. 8. Miladummadulu Atol North5—.. 61.. —.. —.. —.. —.. 4. 1. Miladummadulu Atol South*-—.. 47.. —.. —.. —.. —.. 1. 4. Malosmadulu Atol North i—.. 35.. —.. —.. —.. —.. —. 6. Malosmadulu Atol South h 9.. 44.. —.. —.. —.. —.. —. 10. Fadifiolu Atol 8. 40. Male Atol (excluding the Island) \ m Male Island —'. 10.. —. 13.. Ari Atol .. (.0. 27. 14. —. . 2. 4. . 8.. Felidi Atol II 1.. —.. 9 2.. Mulaku Atol ii- _' 38.. 5.. 15. . Nilande Atol North 48.. —.. Nilande Atol South 49.. —.. Kolumadulu Atol 'A —. 48.. —.. —.. —.. —.. —.. 1.. 4.. —..' —.. —.. —.. —..— Haddummati Atol 34.. —.. Huvadii Atol 0.. 1. 4.. —.'. —.. 3.. 1.. 9.. 22.: —.. —.. —.. —..— Fua Mulaku Island . ,. —..—II.—..—„.. . —.—•.• 30.. . —.. —... 111. . —.. 7.. —.. —.. —.. —.. —..—. AdduAtol Q. —.. 25.. —.. 3.. —.. —.. 5.. —.. 12.. —.'. —.. —.. —. . —. .— Nearly 60 per cent, of the male earners depend upon fishing for their livelihood. The returns furnished give 4,411 boats in these islands, 1,730 of whiclTare described as fishing boats and 1,598 as ordinary boats, 75 as pleasure boats, 74 as rowing boats, and 20 as freight vessels'; 676 are termed bokuras, 160 hodees, and 52 dhonees. Besides these, there were at Male Island 20 cargo boats, 4 brigs or large Ocean-sailing vessels, 1 dangee, and 1 schooner, which brings the annual tribute from Malo to Ceylon. The-'fish is mostly dried and exported to India and Ceylon. Dried fish, generally called " Maldive fish" (Kommala Mas,Sin^Umbalakada) is largely used D"y~the Indians and theCeylonese to flavour their curries, &c. The following figures of exports to Ceylon are given by Mr. Bell.U viz., 1860, £13,098; 1870, £25,696; 1880, £32,919; 1890, £70,914; 1900, £172,040; 1910, £187,709; and 1919, £209,382; and he remarks that "the striking growth in importation .... amounts to very-nearly'l,500 per cent during the past sixty years." * Also 2 per cent, basket makers. § None in 1921. t Also 2 percent, blackmitbs. || Only 9 fomales in 1921. X Also 2 por cent, callers for prayers. 1[ " Report on a Visit to Male "(Sessional Paper of 1921), pp. 36 and 37. , OCCUPATIONS. 105 At the 1921 Census, 14j760 (all males) were enumerated as engaged in fishing, against 14,386 (all males) in 1911. Of these, 15'7 per cent, were in Tiladummati Atol, forming 44 per cent, of its male population ; 8 • 8 per cent, were in Malosmadulu Atol North, forming 25 per cent, of its male population ; 8-7 per cent, in Huvadu Atol, forming 35 per cent, of its male population ; 8 per cent, in Kolumadulu Atol, forming 53 per cent, of its male population ; 7*6 per cent, in Ari Atol, forming 48 per cent, of its male population ; and the rest distributed in the remaining atols in varying proportions ranging from 58 per cent, to 5 per cent, of their respective male populations. The next industry of importance is coir mqkiiig. The coir of the Maldives has been famous for ' centuries for its light colour, fineness, and strength; The Portuguese in the olden days are said to have j obtained most of the rope required for their fleets in the Indian seas from these islands. The coir trade with Ceylon since 1880 has beennegligible—«oconutsand.coix-from-thejslan^ In 1921 there were 9,224 persons employed in the coir industry—all females, excepting 10 males in Kolu madulu Atol. The 1911 figures were 10,493 (all females, excepting 7 males—-4 in Ari Atol and 3 in Addu Atol). A little over 25 per cent, of the 1921 figures were in Tiladummati Atol, forming 49 per cent, of its female population. The best sort of coir is reputed to come from this Atol. Another principal industry is lace making which claimed 1,586 earners (all females, except 1 male in Addu Atol)—a considerable increase"over the 1911 figure (322). There were 2 coir-mat makers, one each in Tiladummati and Male Atols. Seventeen persons were returned as lacquer workers (all males) and 777 as mat weavers (of whom 4 were males), against 58 and 1,160 respectively in 1911. The Maldives are famous for their excellent lacquer work and finely woven mats. Mr. Bell says of the Maldivian lacquer work, " In painting fancy articles, such as favourite~~b~oats, lances, wooden dishes, axe handles, &c., the Maldivians have reached a degree of perfection, both in brilliancy and gradation of colour and beauty of design, which it would be difficult to surpass, throwing in the shade the by no means contemptible efforts of the Kandyans in similar lacquer work. The best specimens* are procurable at Tuladu in Malosmadulu Atol."| Lac used for colouring is not cultivated in the Maldives, but the crude material is imported and purified and prepared by methods kept secret amongst the few persons engaged in this work, whose number has now fallen to 17 from 58 in 1911. " The delightful lacquer work industry of the Maldive Islands,'" Mr. Bell remarks,! " is said to be steadily declining. None is now executed, apparently, except for Royalty and the Nobles. The gradual disappearance of this unique Maldivian art seems inevitable, unless it can be specially fostered by local aid and foreign encouragement. " Anxious to see the actual modus operandi, Ahmad Didi§ sent the only available worker at Male to my residence with a half-completed lacquered vase of wood, already lathe-turned and coloured a rich black with bright red borders. " Simply standing before me, holding the vase in his left hand, the artificer, with marvellous deftness, ran first one, then the other, of a couple of sharp-edged tools, not unlike short fine chisels, round the face of the black portions, gradually evolving therefrom exquisite foliaged tracery by cutting down to the pale yellow base coating of lacquer which underlies the black. The man worked rapidly, and with no pattern as guide or other adventitious aid, the arabesque design assuming intricate shape with ruachine-like accuracy." Of the 17 lacquer workers in 1921, 9 were in Miladummadulu Atol South, 5 in Male Island, and I each in Malosmadulu Atol South, Ari Atol and Haddummati Atol. Of the 777 mal toeavers, 750 were artistic mat weavers—all females, of whom 749 in Huvadu Atol— and the rest (27) ordinary mat weavers, of whom 4 were males. Huvadu Atol is the centre of the mat industry, as the rush from which the mats are made is found there in abundance. The colours used are black, yellow-brown, and white, which are very tastefully blended. Basket makers numbered 35 (all males)—32 in Miladummadulu Atol North and 3 in Felidi Atol. There were 10 in 1911. There were 348 cowrie collectors (all females), against 194 males and 851 females in 1911. According to Mr. Denham, || " the early export trade of the Maldives consisted principally of cowries, coir, coconuts, and ambergris, and the trade in the first two commodities was so great that in the eleventh century the Islands were divided by traders into two groups, which were known as ' Cowry Islands ' (Dyvah houzah). and ' Coir Islands ' (Dyvah Kanbar)." Pyrard, as" quoted by Mr. Denham,"U writing in 1619, says : " They vend also little shells that contain a creature in them of the bigness of the end of one's little finger, white, very smooth and glittering . . . . These go only to Bengal, the inhabitants of which esteem them so much that I have seen thirty or forty ships laden without any other commodity bound thither, though in Bengal they have gold and silver and plenty of other metals, yet these shells pass there as money, and the king and noblemen hoard up prodigious quantities of them, accounting them their treasure. They give twenty coqueteea (? kegs) of rice for a parcel of shells, each parcel containing 12,000." Of the 348 cowrie collectors in 1921, 256 were in Ari Atol. A product largely imported into Ceylon from the Maldives is tortoise-shell. The trade in this article has been yearly improving, and from the figures given by Mr. Bell ** it is seen that the value of the import in 1860 (£1,778) was in 1919 on the way to double itself (£3,172). Persons engaged in the collection of this commodity and enumerated in 1921 were 67 turtle catchers (26 in Ari Atol and 41 in Mulaku Atol), and 4 tortoise-shell collectors (3 in Male Atol, and 1 in Felidi Atol). In 1911 there were 27 turtle catchers. There were 1,425 cultivators (853 males and 572 females, against 520 males and 851 females in 1911); 60 vegetable collectors and sellers (all females, in Miladummadulu Atol South); and 9 tree- planters* Som (alel omalesf thes,e iarn eHaddummat to bo seen in thi eAtol) Colomb. o Museum. f " The Maldive Islands " (Sessional Paper, XI.TI1. of 1881), p. 88. j In his " Report on a Visit to Male " (Sessional Taper XV. of 1021), p. 01. § Eldest son of the Prime Minister. ': " Ceylon at the Census of 1011," p. 507. *• "Report on a Visit to Mal6 " (Sessional Paper. XV. of 1021), p. 37. 29-22 108 CHAPTER IX.—THE MALDIVE ISLANDS. Carpenters numbered 1,133 (1,470 in 1911); gold or silversmiths 268 (398 in 1911), of whom 123 were in Nilande Atol South and 52 in Addu Atol; blacksmiths 220 (233 in 1911) • tailors 33 (27 in Male Island) ; barbers 29 ; wood-turners 19 (8 in 1911) ; masons 11 (all in Maid Island) ; stone workers \0 (6 in Ari Atol) ; dhobies 8 (all in Male Island) ; linkers or copper-vessel menders'! (all in Tiladummati Atol) ; ginners or cotton cleaners 3 (all in Male Island). There was one grinding-stone maker (in Tiladummati Atol), and one carver (in Felidi Atol). Sail weavers numbered 1,113 (all females, except 1 male in Ari Atol), of whom 668 were in Fadiffolu Atol and 387 in Tiladummati Atol. In 1911 there were 4 males and 1,409 females. Weavers numbered 457-331 males and 126 females, against 575 (all males) in 1911. Of these, 192 males and 125 females were in Malosmadulu Atol South. Net makers numbered 270, of whom 215 were males, against 299 in 1911, of whom 279 were males ; sail makers 17 (all females, in Huvadu Atol) ; and cloth weavers 2 (both males, in Malosmadulu Atol_North)^ ; • • rp^—- ^gpg l~25l iJiaicKwmvers—679 males and 572~females, against 1,189 males and 627 females in 1911 ; 1,273 toddy drawers and 231 coconut pluckers, against 431 and 1,663 respectively in 1911 ; and 1919 domestic servants—1,126 males and 793 females, of whom 622 males and 271 females were in Mate Island. 498 males and 34 females were returned as traders, of whom 161 males and 4 females were in Mate Island, and 127 males in Tiladummati Atol; also 18 males and 2 females were returned as travellers, of whom 10 males and 2 females were in Kolumadulu Atol. 611 were returned as native doctors (421 in 1911), of whom 178 (against 204 in 1911) were women. All the women in the Maldives are said to be treated by female doctors. The number of dispensaries in the atols was 610, an increase over the 1911 figure (439). The number of midwives was 179 (223 in 1911). Charmers numbered 57 (142 in 1911) and astronomers, who were also necromancers, numbered 13 (28 in 1911). The Maldivians are historically* famous for their knowledge of spells and charms. In 1911 there were 464 mosque keepers, 1 shrine keeper, 6 "callers to prayer," and 64 priests. Due to a change in definition these have been returned in 1921 under the following heads : " callers to prayer (271), ordinary priests (216), and high priests (184). There were 487 mosques in the different atols in 1921, against 444 in 1911. Wherever there are forty or more adult males in any island a " Khatib " or high priest will have to be appointed for " Juma " prayers (principal prayer on Fridays). Of the learned professions, there were 2 returned as Arabic teachers, 18 as instructors in navigation, and 839 as Kuran teachers, of whom 240 were women. In 1911 these were classified as Kuran teachers (205, of whom 126 were women), secular teachers (407), instructors in navigation (44), and arithmetic teachers (all females, 3). In 1921 there were 3 Arabic schools (all in Male Island), 839 Kuran schools (126 in Tiladummati Atol), and 18 navigation schools. Professional and literary arts also included 7 writers or copyists (all in Addu Atol), 197 Law or Peace officers. ' Persons maintained out of the public coffer were at this Census classified in the Maldivian returns under two heads, viz., Dependents on Government and Government Servants. The former term has been employed by the Maldivian Government to denote exclusively the servants in the household of the Sultan and in the dwellings of His Highness's relatives, and numbered 95 (72 males and 23 females), all in Mate Island, as against 104 in 1911. Government Servants numbered 692 males, 684 in Male Island. Almost the whole of the earning male population in Male belong to the land and sea forces in the pay of the Government. " So there are," says Pyrard, " few men of means, but choose to join ; albeit they must have the permission of the King ; and it costs them sixty larins to enter, whereof twenty go to the King for permission and forty to be divided amongst the Company which one desires to join."f The following is a brief note * by the Maldivian Government Representative regarding the various forces in the Maldives. " The Land Forces consist of (1) the Lascoreens or Militia, (2) the Palace Guards or Volunteers, and (3) the Gunners. " The Militia consists usually of 6 companies, each 100 strong, rank and file. They are used as police or for ceremonial purposes, and may be called by the Sultan to perform any public task requiring a large number of men. " The Palace Guards or Volunteers, numbering about 25, are generally engaged in guarding the palace during the day. They also form the Sultan's ' Bodyguard,' and are liable to be called upon as a Guard of Honour upon all State occasions. They are the only units who are armed with rifles, and take their words of command in English. The night guards at the palace, about 49 in number, are usually drawn from the Lascoreens.§ " The gunners are grouped into four ' Batteries ' of 12 each. Their duty is to look after the various pieces of ordnance in the island, and to fire the salute, whenever necessary. " Besides these three distinct bodies there is also a small body of men(about 40), included among the Government Servants, whose duty is to maintain order at State ceremonies, and to inflict corporal punishment upon offenders against the State law. " The sea forces include the seamen employed on the State vessels, formerly || 14 in number, and on the Government trading vessels, consisting of a brig and three schooners, one being the ' Fath-ul- Majid' utilized for the annual embassy to Ceylon. Each of the State vessels was manned by 11 men called Kaldsin (= seamen). The Kaldsin were under the orders of a ' Vice-Admiral' called Ranaliamddi and under him are one Kuda Dandehelu or ' Captain ' who had command of the three most important vessels and an ordinary Dandehelu or ' Lieutenant ' posted to each of the other eleven vessels. " The Maldivian Government has nowadays no naval force. Out of the Kalasin about 120 were members of the navy which existed at one time. The Kalasin are at liberty to look after their own affairs whenever they are not employed on the State vessels or engaged in other Government duties (e.g., landing rice from ships, distribution of rice to the land forces and others, &c). At the Census of 1921 the Kalasin have been returned under their private occupations, though in fact they should have been enumerated as Government Servants." * See Barbosa (16th century), Hakluyt Society. + As quoted by Denham, " Coylon at the Census of 1911," n. 608. X For further details see Bell's " Report on a Visit to Mal6 (Sessional Paper XV. of 1921), pp. 27-29. § At present the palace guards do night duty as well. I| By a fiction the " Navy " (14 gurdbu), long defunct, is still held to exist. (Bell). GENERAL. 107 The total number of the Land Forces and the seamen is thus estimated at 800 to 1,000. There were 27 persons (23 males and 4 females) returned as beggars (all in Male Island), as against 40 in 1911. ; . Infirmities.—The following table shows the figures relating to the blind, the deaf-mute, and the insane persons in the Maldives. The Ceylon figures for 1921 are added for purposes of comparison :— TABLE No. 165.—Number of Totally Blind, Deaf-mute, and Insane Persons of each Sex in the Maldives in 1911 and 1921, and their Proportion per 10,000 of each Sex of the Population. i Blind.—-Deaf-mute. .. .. , , . . Insai^ S^TaWeTlel^ Persons. J^'fwi Pe^n*. Males. Females. Total number in the f 1911 I. 147 .. 76 . . 71 .. 110 .. 55 .. 55 .. 58 .. 29 .. 29 Maldives* .. I 1921 >: 147 .. 70 .. 77 .. 82 .. 53 .. 29 . . 45 .. 20 .. 25 Proportion per 10,000 ( 1911 20'4 .. 19-5 .. 21-5 .. 15 3 .. 14 1 .. 16-7 .. 8 0 .. 7-4 .. 8 8 in the Maldives*.. 1^1921 20 9 .. 18 4 .. 23-9 ..11 7 .. 14 0 .. 9 0 .. 6-4 .. 5 3 .. 7-7 Proportion per f All Races 5. 8-9 .. 99 .. 7-8 .. 6 0 .. 6 6 .. 5-4 .. 4 6 .. 57 .. 34 10,000 in Cey-4 Sinhalese k 10-3 .. 117 .. 8-6 .. 55 .. 61 .. 4-8 .. 5-1 .. 64 .. 3-6 Ion, 1921 (.Ceylon MoprsTI 6-7 .. 7-4 .. 5-9 .. 6-2 . . 6-9 .. 5-4 .. 34.. 4-9 .. 17 The proportion of the blind, the deaf-mute, and the insane in the Maldive Islands are considerably ' higher than in Ceylon. Pyrard records that " the eye sickness is common enough, and you see great numbers of people blind by it and most of them have short sight."! Pyrard in Mr. Denham's opinion is referring particularly to " night blindness." The high proportion of blindness is probably attributable • to the intense glare of the sun's rays falling on bare white sand. For Mr. Bell remarks, " . ... a tropical sun in a brazen sky, beating down on blinding white streets and garden ' compounds ' of finely powdered coral, renders the heat and glare, untempered by shade trees or breeze, very trying in the daytime."J Elephantiasis is said to be common, particularly in Huvadu Atol. Cases of Leucoderma have been reported also from Huvadu mostly and isolation of such cases, as they occur, is strictly enforced by Government. Most diseases in the Maldives may be ascribed to bad water. Mr. Bell remarks that " Water for drinking purposes, not always of good quality, is mostly obtained from shallow wells sunk in the compounds." § The number of wells was very large (9,868), 1,720 in Male Island and 1,592 in Tiladummati Atol; tanks numbered 1,880, 567 in Addu Atol, 594 in Huvadu Atol, and 426 in Mulaku Atol; and lakes 67, 20 in Tiladummati Atol and 15 in Miladuramadulu Atol South. Inhabitants. !|—The Maldive Islands may be said to be peopled at this day by a civilized race, ! originally of Aryan origin; they exhibit characteristics both of the Aryan and Dravidian types. Very \ many present traces of Arab and Moplah physiognomy, which gradually lessen southwards from the more northerly atols. Many of the types are common enough in Ceylon among the Moormen and Southern Indian races. The men are commonly of a dark brown colour ; but some of the higher classes at Male have a lighter complexion, due to intermarriage with Circassians and other fair-skinned aliens of pure race. The women are usually somewhat fairer than the men. They have regular features, and shapely figures, and are for the most part good-looking, some being decidedly pretty. Their thick dark hair is tied into a knot high up—at Male, the capital, on the right-side of the head. General Character.—The Maldivians are an inoffensive race; formerly timid, and—from their isolation—a suspicious people. In conduct they are thoroughly humane and hospitable. Towards each other and strangers they are markedly kind and obliging. They readily assist one another on emergencies ; to their kindred they are very affectionate. The upper classes are extremely hospitable and the better educated not wanting in sociability. In their few manufactures they display much skill, taste, and expertness: as bold and skilful : navigators they stand, perhaps, unrivalled. " Crimes of a heinous character are scarcely heard of on these Islands, and even theft and personal violence are of rare occurrence : murder has been seldom known."*f " As regards the inhabitants of Male (whose physical characteristics have been frequently described by visitors),** it is pleasant to record, with the experience born of close observation, that a delightful spirit of ease and contentment seems to prevail universally. So far as can be judged, the natives appear to be healthy and well-to-do. They go about their respective business cheerfully, and with an air of settled purpose and determination, preserving the while the silent observant demeanour which customarily marks the Muhammadan. The very bazars (native and foreign) present none of that noisy bustle and semi-confusion daily experienced in the crowded marts of Southern Indian and Ceylon. " Discipline and self-control rule from the highest to the lowest, side by side with the fullest toleration and freedom of action—the latter extending in the case of the ordinary women (albeit under Muslim rigime) to the limit of permitting their appearance in the streets, unveiled. " Male, with its own quaint self-centred ways, is, in certain respects, an Oriental Utopia, which, at heart, desires nothing so greatly as to be left by the outside world as much as possible alone, to ' lotus- . eat' undisturbed in its seagirt happy isolation." ft * Exclusive of the Indians and the Ceylon Moors at Mai 6. t As quoted by Denham, " Ceylon at the Census of 1911," p. 509. j " Report on a Visit to Male " (Sessional Paper XV. of 1921) p. 51. § Bell, op. cit., p. 42'. || For detailed information, vide Bell, " The Maldive Islands" (Sessional Paper XLIIl. of 1881), pp. 21 et eta. and 63-55. Bell, op. cit., pp. 53 and 64. J* ".See in this connection,' Memoir' by Liouts. Young and Christopher, 1836-8 ; Bell,' Report on the Maldive lelnnde' (Sessional Paper XLIIl. of 1881-2); Hak. Boo, ' Pyrard,' 1887-8." t+ Bel?, " Report on a Visit to MA16 " (Sessional Paper XV. of 1921), p. 43. 108 CHAPTER X.—ADMINISTRATION. Dress.*—The ordinary dress of men consists of short drawers (M. haruvdlu), a cloth wrapped round the waist after the Sinhalese fashion (M. mundu), and a kerchief twisted over the head (M. ruvia). When in foreign parts, some affect white shirt (M. kuru libds), Turkish waistcoat (M. saduriya), and a coarse blue loin-cloth edged with red ; these with the reddish kerchief on the head form usually the. distinctive features of the ordinary Maldivian male attire. The women wear invariably a waist cloth, chocolate in colour, relieved by black and white stripes (M. feli); a chemise-like upper garment, reaching to the knees, of fancy colour, but chiefly blue or terracotta, short sleeved, and edged at the neck with moderately broad gold and silver tinsel lace (M. libds); and a kerchief bound round the hair top-knot. A profusion of bangles decks the wrists, and the upper classes also wear necklaces, earrings, and other ornaments. Girls until 9 or 10 years~wear only n~waist cloth ; and~boys are forced to put oiil-He same after circumcision. Social Distinctions.—These formerly existed to a considerable extent in the Maldives, but are now gradually breaking down.t CHAPTER X.—ADMINISTRATION. Introductory.—An account of the large amount of detail which requires attention in the conduct of a Population Census would be of little general interest, and it is proposed to refer here only to a few of the more important points. Fuller particulars will be found in the Ceylon Census Manual, 1921, some copies of which are available at the Office of the Director of Statistics, Colombo, and information on points not dealt with in the Manual or this Report can be obtained on application at the same address. Outline of Procedure.—The first step in connection with the 1921 Census of Ceylon was taken in November, 1919, when arrangements were made for the ordering of the large quantity of paper required. The Census of Administrative Units was commenced in January, 1920 ; the Census and Numbering of Habitable Buildings was next attended to in May, 1920, to September 30, 1920 ; and finally the Preli minary and Final Censuses of the Population were taken, the former between February 14 and 19, 1921. and the latter between 7 P.M. and midnight on March 18, 1921. The intention of the Preliminary Census is that the.enumerator may enter at his leisure the particulars of persons likely to be in his " block " on the Census date, and may have as little entering as possible to do on the night of the actual Census. The Enumerators.—As only a small part of the population of Ceylon is able to fill in Census schedules, this work is generally done by specially trained enumerators, either headmen or town officers, or other suitable persons. In general, very great care and interest were taken in their duties by the enumerators, and many of the books of schedules were models of careful, neat, and accurate work. Each general enumerator, on the average, attend to the Census of 60 buildings, and of 290 persons. " Institutions."—A useful innovation at this Census was the introduction of the term " institu tion," which was defined to mean " a building or buildings occupied by a group of persons, who, on the night of the Final Census, will be working or living together in the real or nominal charge of a person who knows English well, and who can be trusted to fill up the Census schedules for himself and the others neatly and correctly in English, or to see this done by one of the others on his responsibility.': This definition proved to be easy of application, and minimized complications which previously resulted from the variety of ways of dealing with police stations, railway premises, hospitals, jails, asylums, hotels, clubs, mills, boarding schools, certain private houses, &c. All of these came easily within the definition of " institution," and the occupants were enumerated on the same principle, the Census being taken by the person in charge or his nominee on a special form called the '• Occupier's Schedule." The innovation was a decided success, but improvements might be effected by the restriction of the number of unofficial " institutions," and the taking of a complete Preliminary Census. The Schedule.—The form of the schedule was, of course, a matter for great deliberation, and was finally settled as shown below :— Census of Ceylon, 1921.—General Schedule.—(To be filled up by the General Enumerator.) Schedule No.- . « , 7 4 Race. ^ j If Sinhalese, Sox. •c i state whether | Religion. Unmarried. 5 I Kandyan or IfChristinn, Married. £ j Low-countrv. enter Widowed, 2 If Tamil or jor Divorced. w I Moor, state 1 _ Denomi — whether Ceylon •£ nation. Male. Female. g, oi Indian Tamil 3; < or Moor. ! i This column U to befilled b y the Enumerator OR the morning of March 19,1021, after all the persons in his Block have been enumerated. • For detailed information vide Bell, " The Maldive Islands " (Sessional Paper XLIII. of 1881), pp. 66 and 66. t Bell " Report on a Visit to Male " (Sessional Papor XV. of 1921), p. 31. GENERAL. 109 All the possible additions to the schedule were carefully considered, but none were put in for the reasons already given (see page 3 of Part I. of this report). It was also felt that some reduction in the number of columns was desirable, but it was decided not to depart from the previous practice. Now, however, thegeneral conclusion appears to be unavoidable that the scope of the Census of Ceylon, j as hitherto laid down, is somewhat too ambitious; The emphasis laid in this report "on the extent of the { possible errors must not be construed as a condemnation of all the information collected at the Census, but reasons have been given in Chapter VIII, for theomission of thecolumn for "infirmities," while the column for "subsidiary occupation " seems.to confuse the enumerators without supplying information of great practical value. The errors under the heading of religion, conjugal condition, age, birthplace, occupation7~and~literacy may-be-fairly large, .though, not ..great enough to discount the practical utility of the data or to justify the deletion of these columns; The information by race is, as we have seen in Part I., not without error, but the figures are essential and the error is probably small; while the returns by sex should be as correct as those of the total population. The present report does not exhaust the investigation of this subject, and further work may cause a modification of these views. But a reform in the direction of greater simplicity in the schedule and higher accuracy in the details collected would seem to be desirable. Other Details.—Among other details, it may be noted that much attention was given in 1920 to the re-writing of the Census Manual in somewhat greater detail than was hitherto customary. The issue of this Manual to the Commissioners and Supervisors, before the operations were far advanced, saved much correspondence, and made reference easy to all the rules. But it would be even better if the Manual is issued at the very beginning of the operations, and, to enable this to be done, the Census work should i commence at least two years before the actual date of the Census. ! Distribution of Forms.—A special study was made of the best methods of estimating and distribu ting the large number of forms required by the different Census officers. The framing of the estimates was done by the Census Class, whose members thus gained considerable practical experience, and assisted materially in the work in hand and later at the Kachcheries. Every endeavour was made to minimize the work of the District Officers, and it is believed that the new distribution system was a great success in this respect. Staff.—In August, 1920, the Superintendent of Census held a class for the Commissioners' clerks, an innovation which proved later to have been of great value in securing uniformity of procedure and, careful attention to detail in the districts. By March, 1921, the full Census Office staff of 176 clerks had been recruited. The majority of them put on a great deal of hard and conscientious work, and, on the reduction of staff, about 50 clerks obtained employment in other Government Offices. The Department was, however, under-staffed at the top, and it was only by unremitting labour that the senior officers were able to cope with the great volume of work. An investigation was made regarding the principles of rate-setting, time studies, and standard tests, but these were not very extensively employed in actual practice, as the experience of the methods was too short to enable reliable standards to be fixed. A population Census is obviously a most suitable subject for the application of methods of gauging aptitude and standardizing production, and it is hoped that studies now in hand will produce results which can be applied to the recruitment and organization of staff of succeeding Censuses. Office.—The Superintendent af Census was greatly indebted to the Hon. Mr. F. Bowes, C.M.G., Chairman of the Port Commission, and to Mr. A. D. Prouse, Harbour Engineer, for their allowing the department the use of an eminently suitable office, 330 feet by 40 feet in size, with excellent lighting. Its only drawback was its distance from the railway and trams. Cost.—The total expenditure of the Department of Census and Statistics during the continuance of work on the Population Census amounted to Rs. 395,702" 24. From this total, a sum of about lis. 75,000 has to be deducted as properly chargeable to general work done in connection with the establish ment of a new Statistical Department, and the difference represents the cost of the Population Census in 1921, namely about Rs. 320,000. The original approved estimate was Rs. 350,000. The total cost in 1911 was Rs. 194,115 and in 1901, Rs. 156,207-22. The cost per head in 1921 was 7-1 cents, in 1911 4 • 72, and in 1901 4' 36. The increased cost in 1921 was due to the general increase of the rates of clerical; salaries, cost of paper and printing, and other items, as well as to the increased work done.* The cost of enumeration amounted to Rs. 103,330 in 1921, against Rs. 74,277 in 1911. The former figure was only obtained after very drastic revision of the estimates furnished, and an increase in the cost of enumeration may be expected at succeeding Censuses. Mechanical Tabulation not adopted.—The advisability of installing the Hollerith system of electric tabulation was carefully considered, but it was decided to retain the Bavarian slip system of hand sorting. The Hollerith system has many advantages, but was not adopted for various reasons. The Census Office was some distance from the nearest electric cable, and the expense of a special line would have been added considerably to the cost of the machinery. The slip system is simple, flexible, and, although it is subject to a higher error than the mechanical apparatus, this error is capable of reduction by systems of check to a reasonably small figure. The slips were of four different colours, one for each of the chief religions ; of different shapes for the two sexes, and the three heads of conjugal condition. The other details were posted on the slip according to an authorized system of contracted symbols. On completion of the posting, the slips were sorted by hand according to the information required. Other Mechanical Aids.—Three adding machines were in use for computation, particularly in the correction of proofs, and were found to be indispensable in respect both of speed and accuracy. A spiral slide rule and logarithmic tables were used for the calculation of ratios. Suggestions for the next Census.—It is not necessary to mention here the detailed suggestions for the next Census, which have been left on file, but the main recommendations may be noticed. It seems to be advisable to commence the operations at an earlier date than has hitherto been usual, say, eighteen months before the date of the Census. • The^ncrease in the coat per head in Ceylon is less than that in several other countries. Increased cost of clerical wistance, a$d tVie high prioe of paper, were the principal reasons for higher expenditure in 1021, in Ooylon as elsewhere. „ 110 CHAPTER X.—ADMINISTRATION. The date of the Census has hitherto been fixed on the same day as the Census of India, in view of the considerable migration between India and Ceylon, but the first quarter of the year is not a suitable time for a Census of the estates, as the population is below the normal at that time. If the figures of the intercensal population on estates, which should be available in due course, show that the abnormality is very considerable, the point should be taken up with the Government of India. Another pointTjf impoTtance7~which_willT,eqnire~~cTm^ is that-of- small number of senior officers who have hitherto been seconded for Census work. In the past, an undue strain has thus been laid upon the senior staff, and the extension of the number of experienced officers deserves consideration. It has been mentioned already that mechanical tabulation was not utilized at the Census of Ceylon in 1921, but an investigation of the most recent development should be made before the Census of 1931. If the adoption of tabulation by electricity is decided upon, an office with the necessary fittings, or adjacent to the main, will have to be selected. The remaining point of more than routine interest is the question of a quinquennial Census. This is specially necessary in the case of the estate population, as the Census figuresg o rapidly out of date for a highly migratory population, and as reasonably accurate figures of this important economic entity are often required. But the additional expenditure and labour involved in the taking of a quinquennial instead of a decennial Census is very considerable, and it is doubtful whether the legislature or the public i would approve of a more frequent enumeration. But the subject deserves detailed consideration. Appendix I.—Population (excluding the Military and Shipping*) at the Censuses of 1921 and 1911, by Literacy, Religion, and Race. Religion. 1 English Literates. Persons. Literates. Christians. Others. Buddhists. Hindus. Muhammadans. : Census 1 Province, District, &c. Year. to «5 0* A V V £ i Vi *s 5 £ % 2I 6 -s s I o> s . "A i "3 o a* H a* o S Fx 13 Males . S3 H V H « H 23 24 16 17 18 19 20 21 0 1 2 S3 4 & 0 7 9 10 * Females . 12 13 14 15 f 3 289 795 167795 134737 302532 232381 211019 443400 506 CEYLON .! l»21 2381812 2110793 4498005 1156119 381475 107290 37213 1458487 1311318 2769805 522643 459430 982073 484 1121 158045 125586 283631 214344 194824 j| 409168 637 ! 1911 •2175030 1931320 4100350 878760 204062 70S02 23781 1290418 1177752 2474170 505586 432674 938260 103 308 46179 31923 78102 115911 112920 I 228831 205 Western Province . 1921 «(16028 579919 1246847 376543 183668 52995 20906 444707 '407271 851978 69926 27702 87628 135 368 45038 30300 75344 106197 103466 i 209663 233 ; 1911 691959 514362 1100321 289391 108830 34268 13174 382440 353715 736155 58051 26740 84791 12 63 266520 24583 19674 44257 21529 18418 !. 39947 51 Central Province .i 1921 379598 338141 717739 151489 32793 17099 0040 194076 172270 306946 138759 127707 37941 39 12 61 121742 261967 23198 18083 41281 20819 17122 ! . 1911 35*476 3137S2 072258 116090 15670 12702 4132 174195 156823 331018 140225 : 7705 . 44 21 65 5220 12305 11305 10859 22164 4094 3011 Southern Province . 19it 337385 333869 671234 160258 57820 9854 3325 314837 314158 028995 7085 3450 ' 7272 9 1 10 ; 11278 10832 22110 3822 1911 •110909 311908 028)17 121533 29779 0507 2159 297029 294702 591731 4771 2923 7694 8 12 306162 7209 6022 13231 20155 26096 ! 52251 4 Northern Province .: 1921 187221 187608 374829 102777 39573 10116 2503 2058 1115 3173 151795 154307 61408 3 3 303308 6905 6093 12998 65 184438 185528 369960 87378 19038 6100 1023 2249 76094 10883 30 35 | V911 — — — 47912 97670 37198 38898 5850 5027 i 1 Eastern Province .! 1921 97784 95037 192821 37733 7093 2586 848 4944 3165 8109 49758 71126 10205 1 46179 95493 35611 35515 5458 4807 | 1 1911 943X3 80315 183698 28880 4181 2292 3999 2814 0813 49314 33025 80264 92 36 128 «in 9558 26690 19068 13357 45244 35020 North-Western Province . 1921 27.-.87J 216307 492181 149592 33955 464 1 1222 193732 158330 352008 17138 29641 73457 5 3 8 7941 22535 17373 12268 41074 32383 • %1911 240372 193744 434110 107777 10503 2702 ; 59 1K7326 141149 308475 14594 11675 1761 4 4 3320 9013 7119 4556 1104 597 North-Central Province .' 1921 .",4929 41596 96525 27156 11104 1146 160 40355 33117 73472 0287 7902 5793 4254 10047 1476 35 41 76 ! 11911 47424 38537 8-5901 19904 774 004 89 60400 7098 28 59 — — 81403 5007 3314 8321 3943 3155 31 Province of Uva .'. 1921 109636 39639 6250 3224 73283 03700 130983 4190— 7 39436 5443 309 601 124228 233864 980 70380 4819 3021 7840 3173 2270 292 I 1911 101091 30354 2101 2314 620 70053 62375 132428 37247 33133 14504 45 nar,oi 216092 93703 9407 0130 15537 8347 0157 43 Province of Sabaragamuwa . . 1921 110331 I sens 5366 189743 158179 347922 49082 44081 12243 3 I 257224 21 1590 471814 1200 84190 8030 5214 13244 7264 4979 | 1911 22546* 77393 0486 164128 134413 298841 45743 38447 156 183053 408521 3313 009 307 122 4 120 138 18 Miscellaneous} : 1921 6(U 90 751 (1(11 45 260 17 152 7 159 240 61 -'I 1 1911 1 Burghers and Malays. Veddas. Others. Low-country Sinhalese. Kandyan Sinhalese. ; Ceylon Tamils I! Indian Tamils. Ceylon Moors. Indian Moors. Europeans. Eurasians. Census Province, District, &c. Year. 3 2 ! 2 3 1 H B H 48 ;52 53 50 57 26 28 29 30 31 32 36 37 38 39 40 42 6969 6433 13402 2330 2174 4510 18060 3899 21959 CEYLON .. 1921 1005137 o0273.-J 31196 12074 251938 26382: 0644! 33026; 4635! 3483 8118 14507 14932| 29439 921920 1927057 [575459 513038 1089097 203048 254270517324 334083 208052 6813 6777| 12990 2792| 2440 5332\ 9443' 3278 72721 7592| 7.W47 73322 26663 1 1911 894078\822781 1716869 625483 473078\ 998561 259667 250894 510561 310382 238001 543446 122114 /777S7J 23390112627 2 64521 32724; 4645 2947 13264 1306 14030 346f 9339 9783 19122 3632 3241 0873 1 1 Western Province 1921 515479 489809 1005288 7173 056: 12735 14038 10434 2507: 01100 30133| 91293; 27000 24890 51890 13230 3242 10472 2000 1459 5636 «9J 6529 3284 8345 8430\ 76775 3408 2929 6337 1911 453857 432138 885995 6851 4029 9880 10022 12243] 28205\ 50870 25754 826251 26627 23665 59292 13296 3043] 16339 2047 1237 10081 405 1418 |2792 2054 2096 4150 1430 1416 2840 i/entral Province 1921 33321 22649 55970 163883 152259 310142' 5902; 3840 9742 147759 130012 283771 17528 16104 33632! 5260 2021 7281 1453 1339 706* 59* 7666 2679 7900 7957 3977 7277 7273 2490 1911 28953 19201 48154 149780 141160 290940\ 4709. 3293, 8002 147768 128530 270298. 15615 14382 29997: 5869 2246 8115 1537 1142 224 83 807 294 732 830 1502 56' 574 1141 •Southern Province 1921 315713 315138 630851 852 902 1754 1273 4941 1707 7158 5498 12050 10421 10176 20597 238 67 305 187 107 797 90 2*7 273 806 894 7700 623 603 72*6 1911 298492 296170 594662 649 663 1212 966: 424 1390 4538 2881 7479| 10241 10067 20308 246 40 286 757 116 155 50 205 123 318 342 060 58 42 100 i 32 18 50| Northern Province 1921 1413 276 1689 1181 925 2100 173498178824 352322 3309 1110 4479] 0656 5952 12608 409 18 487 72 61 753 ' 33 7*6 756 343 476 759 48 47 89] ! 29 26| 55; 1911 1201 1713 I '349997 2992 6354 6900 72354 438 26 464 96 60 71 35 100 110 882 689 1371 28 31 59 1646 1542,3188 Eastern Province 1921 1885 297 2182 3659 '2903 0502 51542 50338'l01880 1058 313 1371 36055 38829 75475 487, 30 517 71 39 69 • 47 706 777 656 604 7209 367 303, 6641 7604 146413058] 1911 1072 104\ 1236 3133 2540 5673 61510. 48785 100295 697 189 886\ 34775 35137 69972 448 49 497 68 43 845 204, 1049 183 440 300 800 575 531 11061 North-Western Province 1921 94484 701011 164645 138480 118504 254984 8031i 5912 13943 15962 7708 23730 15506 12546 28112 3378 253 3629 115 08 53* 779 777 747 477 373 790 466 5071 7067 1911 74386\ 57023 131409 127840 112251 240097 7688 5630 13318 12113 6018 18131 1399L\ 17414 25599 2732 202 2934 95 52 147 63j 210 40 18 68 98 74 172 51 50 101 431 392 823 North-Central Province 1921 4340 1028! 6974 35732 31180 06912 4033 2149. 6182 3008 1547 45551 6497 4436 10933 546 59 605 37 48 : 36 82 62 744 83 69 752 856 770 7626 1911 2801 63002 5350 2931 6230 4729 9350 465 66 527 24 12 861 1179 330 1415 324 240 584 328 340 668 3611 309 070 226 222 448 518 Province of Uva 1921 8157 3861 12018 65118 59805 124983 2019! 1242 32611 42471 40091 82502 3484 2612 6090 1079 730 20* 320 2743 322 794 576 333 2*9 622 332, 2771 609 1303 290 593 7* 1911 8104 4175 12279 62725 68671 121396 1297. 758 2055, 37655 33669 71314 2977 2380 5357 1423 1660| 2831 1921 1598 614 2212 349 161 510 488 410 898 260 239] 499 1171 'rovince of Sabaragamuwa 39185 18090 48275 101302 141538 302900 1991! 1029 3020 51961 40132 98093 7370 5206 12576 7631 2980 1911 1355 4701 1825\ 299 97 390 399 297 696 775 727 290 2349' 26333 12789\ 39122 123490 264648, 1209; 680 1889] 46605 39245 85850 6304 4521 70*25 251 29 1921 141168 99 41 103 18 i; 19 28 8 . 36 7 >lisce!laneous 154 11 165 19! 14 135 177 48 225 13 13 1911 19 12l! I I I ' I I I I ' 1 1 1 ' : u« Masses. . * The total for Ceylon of the Military and Shipping was 4,017 in 1911 and 5,944 In 1921. 8 By " miscellaneous " arc meant persons enumerated in trains and In the GreatI anCSIAKd J-ittjB *'cre e found on further Inquiry t Detailed particulars for 1911 are left blank where they are not comparable with those of 1921 owing to correction II At the 1921 Census about 92 par cent, of those cnumsratsd as Ceylon Tamils onidjuste estateds »(ien the same basts. >r change of limits since 1911 not being possible. to be Indian Tamils. 19U figures for Ceylon. Provinces, and Districts, have been adjusted (In J See note (t) on page 113. Appendix I.—Population (excluding the Military and Shipping) at the Censuses of 1921 and 1911, by Literacy, Religion, and Race—conld. Religion. English LI teratcs. Huddhlsts. Muhammadans. Chlrstians. Others. Census Province, District. Ac. Year. 1 e e Fer n fa H H 9 12 14 15 17 18 10 20 21 23 Western Province. 1921 149595 94508 244163 87057 33339 31081 136S5 50245 38519 88764 32705 8915 41020 30139 17027 48066 36344 29118 65462 162 89 251 Colombo Municipality '1011 133736 84790 218626 66187 21484 60234 41150 46164 61626 352 0780S9 202807 110000 23001 9688 507399 5599 15951 4485 11627 09713 143959 32 44 Colombo District (exclusive 1921 349574 320400 15SS6666227 15249 5580 262335 10352 18131 11384 74246 130135 12 15 of Municipality) '1011 313040 296202 608302 7826 2569 4iS637 1921 107759 155045 323704 80070 39003 0065 1635 132127 123688 255815 16869 13188 30057 8808 9511 18409 9854 9556 19410 11 13 Kalutara District 1911 145183 134310 279493 06339 22119 3441 947 112662106632 218284 14487 11023 25510 8959 8837 17796 9084 3818 17902 1 I Central Province. 2449 6247 6477 15 10 Kandy Municipality 1921 18894 13008 32502 11157 4692 4533 2180 9183 10046 998 3170 3798 3420 •1911 16938 129S9 29927 8423 3207 3300\ 1699\ 13809 3667 3607 2530 6236 6128 10 27 Kandy District (exclusive ol" 1021 210122 191309 l 401431 83707 18318 7247 2035 115080 105531 221517 09626 04781 134407 1 4654 12686 27340 9835 8304 18130 21 28 Municipalitv) •1911 199726 178777 378602 63622 1108 6063',US7\ 200063 13547313758 11580 25338 | 17610 15 18 02(14:) . 53041 1 10581 20732 350P 2010 010 38085 33375 71460 17938 15348 33286 4177 3151 7328 I 2438 4066 4504 5 0 Matale District 1021 r,S491 49876 I10830; 20729 |2016 36280 31131 66431 16890 13990 30880 4007 2836 6843 \ 2314 1899 4213 1911 20803 i 0193 1474 409 57323 05057 1954 1388 3342 ! 4901 10827 Nnwara KJiya District 1021 87939 70223 i 107102 3300 1200 31 122 20201 40017 40640 5830 10 1911 83322 72140 |166402 23416 j2340 2876 837 27431 23224 60055 48538 43409 91947 1736 1128 2464 ! 5012 4378 9090 Southern Province. 1921 19485 10588 ' 39073 10074 ! 01 15 271 1 1 1 58 1 3557 14102 27050 383 83 400 4303 4228 i 8531 '• 1239 1172 2411 (ralle Municipality 39900 89S0 !3926 13808 14184 28052 491 83 574 4441 4304 | 8745 1201 1296 2587 20093 19807 .14/ 1 ; 1911 2017 3004 1400 2494 Galle District (exclusive ol 1021 135241 138801 : 274045 06105 i 20055 3802 003 128580 133324 261013 3055 2882 0537 1500 1504 1004 1911 124839 120202 261041! 622S6 1067i 1 22.1.3 119710122321 242031 22S3 1503 37 86 1039 1396 3035 , 1204 982 2180 Municipality) : 613 1021 I 101! I I J 18808 238500 55300 ' 18148 2502 11127 1 12550 1 12027 224580 2417 1970 4387 3444 3730 j TlSO , 1180 1105 2354 Matara District 1911 U4SSI 112427 2273118: 422S6 |7868 108801106066 215516 1546 1137 2683 3471 3050 i 7121 i 1001 9S4 1985 27873 l 3608 17 13 023 00132 54705 114837 030 285 015 1908 1301 I 3359 200 446 1 llambautota District 1921 03028 50570 I 110007 710 177 .180 19 U 67096 I 1050s I79S2 1316 641 142 64690 A 1649 106139 Jr. I 901) 661 1727 1482 I3209 I 326 I 1S8 514 IS I Race. — I llunrh'Ts and Indian Moors. Europeans. Malays. Veddas. Low-country Sinhalese.; Kandyan Sinhalese. | Ceylon Tamils.* • Indian Tamils. Ceylon Moors. Ktirusians. Provinc. District, &c. i — • Ics . -• I 5. z> s n S ,~ j "o r- O £ i **•rt H i ^ 31 31 I 35 i 36 | 16 17 48 54 55 i 50 57 2 s 20 j 30 ; - ,• Wentern Province. 8858 0336 3950Oi 11640 254 17: 1213'2830 7217 7610 14S63 ;753 5852i Colombo Municipality 1021 50087 504831 11O470: 2457 1673 4 130 14503 30224 13777 I'll 110 1056:12100 — ' — - | 3755S\— — — II3S.5.1 — |2S/9, — — — i 5456 1911 95870, 2614 15020— •21827 14397 309! TSOi —! 5506 1921 309504 028240: 3317 2603 0010 4700 4182j 8801 12210 037l>! 18592, 4004 3978 8042 107j 1070] 177 1747 1835 3582 1670 185; 1855 Colombo District (exclusive 318730 — j 178221 — 20.34! 292! — | '648 — ) ol Municipalitv) 1911 559417'— , — .5221 — 11015 — — 8487 — — 1872 890 1021 130750 12982: 206578 1 300' 1106 2595 1071 51 1588 1872— 0 14421! 33141 8265 9272 1 7537 410 1021 521 148 217: 375 302 677 122 110: 241 484 125! 600 Kalutara District 1911 1184791 350\ U78l\ 27245', 4481140 173 .107 199 500124 109 233' 34! 2307021147 80S 2046 680 l 103015401 83858593 16978 301\ 99 133 Central Province. 1 30:1 2209 3081 2142 1760 3902 09SJ 167 I II' 402 OOS 057 1805 1.01' 58! 341 Kandy Municipality 1021 101 15 1 I5S 3554 8012 ooo: 2165 OlOj — 801] - 3141, 72;« 247 1197 720 — .72 — 1 1911 94 IS 0081 11 SO 1987 144120 111 151077 3592 251 3 1000: 3573! 1008 —048 619 12019347 4. . 500! ;08; 304 Kandy District (exclusive of 1021 15057 25547 IHI510 05602 107211 2631 1815! 4440 74600! 69427i 11534 11044 22578 232 OOO — 1522; 144415 2964 12744234-1 1030 433415, — Municipality) 1911 22350— 1804772050 3Si 8 — ioi so! 34903: 101829819 20001 102 7 440 1473 1241 S3! 207' — — 101416 0 173' 80 545 Matale District 1 021 5334 36 8085 33177 30151' 0333: 808 540, 1417 18774 2032 2521 5453 158 154 312 IM 10 90 1911 j43I8\ 2941 502;/26 6 14392]31007 275 6 988 37.11301 i20 | 64\ 184 168141\ -.309; 159 76: 231 725931792 2890 100753 704 570| 17275 101508' 2289 5045 722 348 1070 541 574l]115 151 137 28827 0 *?32' 187 Xuwara Kliya District 1021 70001 3924 1000:1 24720 22857 47580 1040 1611 49477j 020 770 1600 1 ' 340 306 700 !502 96 283 707 3/2 477 1033 2/3 m -9.1 468\//- / 0/332 45743]97075, 1010556 | 362 "l93\ , 263. 5*2 1911 0101 910722205 20704 43029 ! 762 507 1359 I 319 081 - Southern Province. IO2' 14041 14631 28075 75 78 153 250 117J 307 300 82! 45 4070 4089 8105 100 0' 43: 110. 363 417 780 112 :214 44 I4i (lalle llunicipality I 021 : 110! 5S II IIS 1479. 43, 403 7/5 123 60 63.i2.r 430 155 885109 |2/9j 50 1911 29210 00 70 142 214 ion! 37 2 445 31031 717 4150 4182 8338 56 20, 82 112 78 190 23 : 45 5. lialle District (exclusive of 1021 12*70 4 3342: 262126 4 13 107 OK 303 40: moo 1539,3840 1408 1403 2001 tin; 53 18 71. 14 ! 25 72! 1ft 87 Municipalitv) 1911 243021331 280 611 194 07: 2'; i 2307 1572 13702942 79 70 140 Tl\ 23; 64 1021 225326 172 107 300 2*0' 04' 383 2488 4014 3314 3002 0970 70j 54 35 80 2or 277 (82 40 42; I 01 a5| Matara District 2120: 2775 «6l 84 26 20, 55 36 22! ! 55 47 105] 3336 2/6 1 33 1911 3003 0939 208 514 1 i'A 210199110 138 284 2481 353 1572 1203,41 0 24' Kll 13 383 408 701I 42 II. -nbantoM District 1021 1 11724 102 130 322 431 183 014 202 127 305 1533 062 2405 0X 24 52 58 110 464S20\ 53 95 1911 100232VII. 09 175 280 1241 404 211 til 1177 912 2089 12! 18\ 81 71 152 984' 4.5I 115 • Detailed particulars for 1011 are left hinnk "here they arc not comparable with those of 1921 owing to correction for j t See preceding note. I j At the 1921 Census about 02 per cent, of those enumcratfc.l as Ceylon Tamils on estates were found on further inquirv chan^Himits J« ^™t*£&ffl"ur Municipality. wl.i.h arc no. separately available being includ-d in District Figure.. | to he Tntlian Tamil*. l!>11 figures fnr Oylmj, Prm-inccs :»ml nistrict-i. have h?on adjusted on thp saint1 h.->^i>. Military and Shipping) at the Censuses of 1921 and 1911, by Literacy, Rehgion, arid Race-con^ Appendix I.—Population (excluding tho Religion. Others. English Literates. Muhanimadans. Christians Persons. Literates. Buddhist*. Hindus. Census Province, District, Ac. Year. m 3 e 2 3 s o » to "S S o o H H .Pn H a "3 o I 24 8 B P3 18 19 20 21 22 23 s H a 13 14 16 16 17 o f 7 8 10 11 12 2 3 i 6 6 m 8 12 1742 3802 17840 19590 37448 4 a 853 140907 147459 288366 2120 36080 2 2 northern Province. 0531 2423 673 180 7926 1715 3641 17061 19019 108988 330541 89256 30728 279 140460 146260 286710 5434 , 12194 — 1921 161653 17809 5629 1538 219 60 5042 4311 3706 8017 6700 Jallna District 169068 167044 326712 74427 44 329 3488 1654 13019 1 — 1 1911 7733 1780 335 49 285 4676 4263 3847 8100 — 1921 14844 10738 25582 223 1352 1646 1063 , 2009 Mannar District 25918 7448 1302 347 66 7400 6354 12764 778 574 h-t •1911 14968 10960 31 U00 ~801 1901 531 1257 1299 1010 | 2309 — — — 18700 5788 1005 250 1747 0814 6209 12023 726 o 1921 10824 7882 184 19 963 784 Mnllalttlvu District 7534 17336 4503 627 i 7803 30 34 64 Si 1911 9S02 30378 32804 03182 4120 3683 6917 40519 40224 80743 3536 , 7466 Eastern Province. 4781 1045 568 4121 2706 79994 30138 30582 60740 3930 79168 79541 158709 28886 2415 5829 40884 39024 1736 1344 I 3080 —1 — 1 Batticaloa District 1921 22467 3032 1629 388 3414 7688 16927 6818 6004 12912 1 78386 7MS7 153943 369 1192 0239 10386 1528 7271 ; 2799 1 O 1911 34112 8847 2312 941 280 823 8430 7155 16585 5463 4933 1921 18610 15490 653 228 ' 585 399 984 IS Trlncomalec District 13758 29755 6119 1149 7310 • 19058 37 26 63 1911 15997 15873 10285 6163 16448 11748 K! 136631 302755 9976 6897 3737 5408 14145 4 3 7 Korth-Wettern Province. 104215 15857 2046 593 106074 4444 12152 8507 6*71 7397* 69 ! 198120 156077 354197 144218 122307 266525 7708 12442 6651 3665 10316 53 6 Kurunetrala District 1921 306807 71162 6342 1473 367 2524 1310 3834 6854 5538 1 1 1911 169174 137633 5339 3020 8959 6357 71976 15293 s 35010 10779 1616 490 140 3873 6629 50890 2 —4 6 1921 21421 14189 463 124 8213 2529 1606 4135 26845 24045 Si Futtalam District 16432 39361 10603 1890 40354 4033 2351 6989 44014 •11911 22929 1502 483 22319 18035 6510 2247 1440 35J7 50333 46041 102374 34598 10482 33737 — — — 1321 20012 9271 766 268 4 Chllaw District 48269 39679 87943 11675 1164 507 1761 4 •1911 0287 3326 9613 7110 4556 35 41 76 100 40355 33117 73472 4254 10047 1476 North-Central Province. 41590 96525 27150 1004 1140 66460 7992 5793 1921 54929 774 604 89 59 Anuradhapura District 47424 38537 85961 19964 3943 315£ 7098 28 31 •1911 81403 6007 3314 8321 601 130983 41067 39430 7840 3/73 227( 6443 309 292 _ Province of Vra. 233804 37247 33133 70380 4819 3021 1921 124228 109636 132428 Tlatlulln District 101091 218692 1911 116601 Itace. Appendix I.—Population (excluding the Military and Shipping) at the Censuses of 1921 and 1911 by Literacy, Eeligion, and Race—cmtd, Bellgion. Persons. Literates. EngllshXlterates, Buddhists. Hindus. Mnh&xDiii&danB. Christians. Others. Census Province, District, &c. Year. 8 2 S £ 3 S 3 2 o o f o o S EH ft. H EH EH H H 3 4 S 7 8 0 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 10 21 22 23 24 PRODUCE OF SABARAGAMMCA. Ratnapura District •1921 112025 90950 202975 46023 8146 2572 536 83080 66795 149875 22505 20347 42042 2876 1272 4148 3446 :504 6050 28 32 60 U911 . 93626 72634 166160 33849 3131 1696 253 130940 27711 3266 4242 2 Kegalla District 1921 145109 123640 268830 63708 10522 2794 605 106663 91384 108047 27087 23734 50821 6531 4858 11380 4001 8653 8554 17 11 28 131842 110519 242361 43544 3355 1118 167901 66479 9979 8001 1 I MITCCLLNNEOUS. Persons enumerated in trains 1921 653 ! 90 743 604 45 250 17 147 154 246 61 307 122 126 135 &8 153 Persons enumerated In tin Grcnt and Little Basses . 1921 8 : 8 7 7 5 5 3 3 Itaco. Low-country Sinhalese Kandyan Sinhalese. Ceylon Tamils.} Indian Tamils. Ceylon Moors. Indian Moors. Burghers and Europeans. Eurasians. Malays. Veddas. Others. Census Prorlnce, District, 4c. Year. n 5 3 E 2 2 $ E S PRORINCE OF SALARAAAMMCA. Itatnapura District 1921 15180! 7380| 22560 68500j 50935] 128525 1026 608 1534 22080. 20704 43774 2102 018 3020 624| 271 805 167 241 231: 188 410 48 1056 834. 1800 1911 19058 113460 635 MJ 978 2SM7 2667 548 118 149] 178\ 137 316 40 22| 62 1177,1019] 2196 Kegalla District 1021 15005; 10710| 25715 92772J 81603] 174375 065 521 1488 28081 25338 64310 6268 4288 0556 074 343 1317 182 269; 257! 222 479 191 191 382: 604 337 941 1911 20004 151198 574 «7 »JI 69003 *26« J277 181 2 • 1021 totals include pilgrims enumerated at the Adam's Peik temple and surroundings, which In 1011 wore In Kandy } At the 1921 Census about 02 per cent, of those enumerated as Ceylon Tamils on estates werefonndon further Inquiry to be Indian Tamils. 1011 figures for Ceylon, Provinces and Districts, have been adjusted on the same basis. t Detailed particulars for 1011 are left blank where they are not comparable with those of 1021 owing to correction for change of limits since 1011 not being possible. V Appendix. H.-Population of the Principal Estates in Ceylon at the Censuses of 1921 and 1911, by Literacy, Religion, and Race. Religion. Persons. Literates. English Lltcratos, Christians. Others. Iluddhlst*. Hindus. Muhammadans. Census Prqy*.nee, District, *c. Year. n A A i a s 3 i a •3 1 o 4) ales . ? males . a to o to tS 1 & H 1 £ i a to n H a to to 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 8 10 11 12 13 14 16 16 19 1 4 0 7 M 4392 3037 8329 26330 20074 45404 65 63 128 18037 10839 2812 31049 1084K i 50897 240031 224001 464092 O ;YLON .. 1921 300887 207983 508850 83000 202969433369 4129 3201 7330 22331 16881 •192J2 18 23 57642 ;«7.1 33.143230390 618 3115 2242 6357 5 3 8 • i—i 1911 274554 •234909313467 .1245 79911 21090 118533050 9147 19711 10081 35792 320 292 1921 28054 22203 50922 0481 2530 1327 277 5497 333 241 574 2334 1624 i 5954 ratern Province 117 20.09 . 5942 18824 14847 33671 4021 12782 26 1911 25334 1X811 4414.1 6102 5112 828 384.1 1r r 120151 246572 2327 2294 12213 10509 I 19 0 39584 7878 6285 1018 1030.1 7- >i " 17020 125421 4006 31957 11 2 1.1 ntral Province 1921 150345 14027'. 290020 1003 12127126973 114261 241234 2134 1872 12048 9889 I30S5H 279317 7601 1 105 93 198 820 I 016 ! 1441 0 6 1911 148767 32039 2951 4333 120 3203 2031 5234 5300 4698 9898 74 — nthern Province 1921 9440 7337 10777 3248 078 492 3036 2445 5601 43 31 360 224 ; 583 4 9483 20 2232 1092 3324 69 25 94 1911 5694 3792 U62 117 212 1 t I 43 22 65 •rthern Province • 1921 113 47 160 82 18 :< ~1 88 69 165 29 n I 47 1911 US S7 202 61 6 6 _ 412 289 701 42 13 65 40 59 o 224 17 27 8 ~63 ~ 6 09 19 • 78 stem Province 1921 557 327 884 2 202 69 261 31 9 40 66 12 I 1911 300 81 381 9 5 ; l 3912 9426 166 86 252 2212 3428 1 1 2 128 60312 79 4199 2376 6574 5514 1216 4140 a irth -Western Province 1921 12092 7690 19682 4636 1006 5023 3208 8233 133 68 201 2062 3394 15006 64 2192 1240 3432 22 11 33 61 1078 04 1911 9412 2786 334 317 3 G03 96 658 377 172 649 13 irth Central Province : 1921 1013 291 1304 410 16 32 J 1911 _ 74735 ~669 417 986 2456 2041 4497 ~18 25 ~43 3157 —117 0 303 1909 1323 3232 37796 30939 2 ovlnce of Uva I 1921 42748 40745 83493 11134 2737 34060 31266 65326 662 341 903 1701 1241 2988 1 I 1911 38180 33777 71937 7316 604 867 200 1860 887 87354 835 731 1660 4348 3334 7682 16 28 44 o 3577 1999 404 5249 3113 8362 45457 41897 ovlnce of Sabaiagamuwa I 1921 65905 49103 105008 14285 4979 42164 36814 78978 893 639 1332 3726 2756 s«i 3 2! I 1911 60756 42217 92973 8668 823 1362 203 3971 2008 — Race. Burghers and Malays. Veddas. Others. Ceylon Moors. Indian Moors. Europeans. Eurasians. Low-country Sinhalese. Kandyan Sinhalese. Ceylon Tamils.* Indian Tamils. B Census CM Province, District, Ac. Year. s a a I S I o o a to a to o 8 H H 1 a to H a to i to t 47 48 49 61 52 66 67 to to 46 30 33 34 37 38 39 40 44 I 25. 26 27 29 a 32 35 H 31 753 730 1433 2910:1994 4904 1192 1108 2300 2238 1970 4214 072 098 2070 1100 933 2039 M 13252 37111 9670 7792 17408 1819 897 2710 265042 288302 1044 730.2363948 742 1640 66157 6 1237 4! 1 2397119114303 EYLON .. 1921 23S59 2002 243376214189] 1044 424 1906 2074 1627 47051 267 119 386 1749.1791 1 25406756 4 £629 13093112l\ 881 125 122 108 230 168 04 222 140 116 201 112 116 228 1911 190 67 257 21501 17644 72 53 107 95 202 7T\ 31108 'estern Province 1921 5800! 3833 9099 220 149 309 4/ 41 712 149 114 257 146 29l 174 120 47 207 > 6504 193 146 449 7/ 61 13520234 1401 9 852 016|140' 404 450 920| 354 367 721 392i 213 605 1911 4114\2194 641 135330 129210 052 094 1346 1259 1178 2437 949 O 10U 4792' 2460 7258 5810 4809 10679 434 207 1090 1141 946 2117 942306, 1448 449 442 441 440 405 6351 541 :otra1 Province 6794 4447 7656; 446| 467 904 13591612197 4 576 514 30| 79 44 123 11 18 20| 63' 82 1911 4109 1645 3319 6058 40 28 68 50 47 97 67 97 2041 5243 34 39 731 101 13 114 5793 5 44 47 29 15 44 II 1 76 inthern Province 1921 3202 10 23 3254 2444 10 6 16 42 25 1 1911 22*6 1707] 4453 33 4 "I 13 1 1 3 2 5 'li 1921 98 45 143 3 —. 2 i! 4 orthern Province 7 112 46 193 1 1911 11 60 6 4 10 ~8 ~~ 4 12 3 2] _ 36 41 419 292 711 18 7 14 19 7 26 astern Province 1921 28 1 29 2451 2 10 14 10 4 1911 1 2 i i 228 47 19 6 U, • 5 24 30 47 79 42 121 40 33 73 94 120 1 85 29 114 6121 4329 38 108 19 17 111 160 orth-Weetern Province 1921 4593 2403 7050 955 614 1560 44 42 14 46 45 Ahi 46 64 64 126 .17 34 97 i 1517 509 337 846 49 65 114 64073493 4 3 3 5 3 8 7 3 10 109 161 1911 5114 4635 20 8 34 282 128 4 13 3 1 orth-Central Province 1921 341 47 338 228 45 273 1911 149 396 ~95 92 187 113 86 199 685 462 1047 _ 77164 142 "ll5 257 270 200 470 247 1921 501 1567 1033 936 1909 144 93 ~237 39053 38111 1001 420 47 69 146 44 44 176 C8< 42 770 rovlnce of Uva' 1066 124 44209 67438, 211 701 412 216 141 Z47 214 13991103 2602 79M 943 321\ 1264 1073 6461 7719 71 64 32229 333 515 437 952 302 126 427 227 175 402 113 105 218 2495 322 143 465 47535 43815 91350 168! 165 722 412 99 64 164 1467il444 2905 rovlnce of Saharagamuwa 1921 3904^ 1900 5864 1360 1135 41404 142, 144 2041 424 454 441 214 69 424 190 1917 2964! 1046 4050 1414 7973] 2491 114 101 21943486 37378 Appendix II. Population of the Principal Estates in Ceylon at the Censuses of 1921 and 1911, by Literacy, Religion, and Race—cantd. Religion. Persons. Literates. English Literates. Buddhists. Hindus. Muhammadans. Christians. Others. Province, District, Ac. Census Year. om> OJ CP $ *3 o ale s ima l a a . <8 a a 4> a a 3 H a H 4 5 6 7 8 h9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 .24 Wettern Province. Colombo Municipality 1921 1911 Colombo District (exclusive I 1921 — — — — 8016 6158 14174 3337 1159 437 101 of Municipality) 1 1911 7774 5603 13377 2486 1808 4294 4200 3350 7550 127 114 241 1201 883 2084 Kalutara District 1921 1646 762 246 46 1081 618 1699 6734 4299 20638 16110 36748- 6144 1371 890 10033 141 97 238 «1* 5*9 1407 1911 17S60 13208 30768 176 3011 1842 4853 15511 12731 28242 199 178 877 1914 1359 3273 Central Province. 3566 340 682 71 2762 4243 13090 10648 23638 192 144 1516 1036 2551 Kandy Municipality 1921 275 240 516 112 43 33 16 128 105 233 110 1911 250 226 476 37 105 215 35 29 64 Kandy District (exclusive of J 1921 77630 74 — * 762 230 72694 150324 21305 4065 2923 863 *4 Municipality) 1 1911 78357 68905 147262 6825 4304 10129 03370 60960 124330 1397 1417 2814 7025 6008 13033 18 Matale District 1921 18580 10239 17244 1558 2392J 5731 6803 126108 1377 1267 2644 34819 4791 855 720 231 1290 2108 12634 13 1911 17000 14186 31186 878 15730 14023 29759 362 341 703 1191 997 2188 1 Nuwara Eliya District 1921 53860 51102 3708 490 536 131 780 390 1170 14709 12699 27408 346 104962 13376 2915 1609 220 566 1165 877 2042 1911 53150 47233 100393 £08 3122 1968 6090 46205 45063 91268 667 536 1103 3962 3535 7497 Southern Province. 11013 872 1455 359 2561 1371 J932 46248 88488 411 3*5 796 3940 3237 7177 Oalle Municipality 1921 1911 — — Oalle District (exclusive of J 1921 6412 4841 — — 11253 2240 449 374 88 2538 Municipality) 1 1911 3860 2435 6295 1623 4161 3306 2798 6104 42 28 70 525 392 917 Matara District 1921 1167 93 164 13 1816 927 2743 jm 1397 3229 9 9 2857 2473 5330 837 206 115 581 18 209 102 392 1911 1834 1357 3191 32 400 981 1932 1791 3723 54 59 113 290 223 513 Hambantota District 1921 405 24 48 7 416 165 581 194* 171 23 194 171 23 3 84 1224 2272 34 22 56 160 121 231 1911 8 92 62 9 71 0 6 15 11 11 Race. Low-country Sinhalese. Kandyan Sinhalese. Ceylon Tamils.} Indian Tamils. Ceylon Moors. Indian Moors. Burghers and Europeans. Eurasians. Malays. Veddas. Others.- Province, District, &c. Census Year. 00 oa | $ & V 3 o o H a s a 3 3 a a "a1 3 H a o o o a "el 1 "3 1 H a ft H V a 0 26 27 H H a a H l£ 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 30 37 38 39 40 42 46 47 48 49 50 51 62 53 54 65 56 57 Wettern Province. Colombo Municipality 1921 79/1 — — — _ Colombo District (exclusive I ail 2828| 2044 4872 —• _ 78 55 133 01 91 4770 3834 8610 39 _ ol Municipality) 7911 1191 688 1879 56' 43 28 39 67 42 50 100; 50 51 101 00 26 86 Kalutara District 1921 99 25 431 6240 469210932] 46' 65 54 39 49 1 _ 3038 1789 4827 142| 94 236 129 160 119 35 22 25 47 42 14 56 1917 1596 4429 10725 13810 30535 33] 94 69 163 110 100 161 2923 137 103 240 49 87 11327 25371] 35 62 65 127 , —• 207 93 300 Central Prorince. 14044 74 64 133 106 725 35 70 155 35 77 52 Kandy Municipality 1921 46 29 75 76J 62 138 2 149 138 287 1 1917 99 9 — — — 1 1 Kandy District (exclusive of 1921 87 4 270 9 2331 1339 3970 3364 3017 0381 191 Hi — —• Municipality) 1911 306 69109 60121 135230 423 452 875 746 720 1400 450 312 702 267 266 —18 5 195 380 3 3163 43571 537 735726 359 733| 264 157 421 Matale District 1921 661 400 1061 465 342 374 78369 9 1482 764 435 154 327 33* 807 100 124 16797 15007 31804 90 97 187 201 178 379 105 05 170 163 1917 477| 229 705 416 244 660 75 26 70 53 56 62 118 — 36 11 40 Ifuwara Eliya District 1921 1454 698 2152 15526] 1334628872 76 59 135 107 273 712 56 163 48 34 63 199 1905 1448 33531 143 66 209 49281 47944 97225 138 283 171 41 — — 91 59 150 7917 13/9| 507 7326 1529] 145 312 280 592 294 232 526 127 135 262 113 110 223 - 93 44 1023 2552] 751 135 336 49028]4459 3 93626 126 222] 177 130 357 325| — 137 Southern Province. 96 18250 7 172 13* 310 199 " 235 223 45* la^le^unlcipallty 1921 98 101 1911 — — — — Oalle District (exclusive of 1921 2518 1617 413 3ft z z _ Municipality) 1911 1834] 94*1 3063 3093 6756 20 17 37 6 5 10 _ 2782 7915 7446 3367 - 30 15 45 Matara Distrlot 1921 601 416 1017 5 9 14 1 7 • 32 53 1917 2110 1958 4008 30 30 00 — - 21 412\ 159 571 7/33 6 13 19 - 31 4 35 Hambantota District 1921 83 8 91 1339 2477 27 16 43 .11 1911 20 7 27 72 23 — —' z 2 0 * Figures are not separately available being included In figures for the District - - t See preceding note; u 1 J Xi tne„1921,St"8"3 a00"192 Per cent, of those enumerated as Ceylon Tamils on estates were found on further inqulrv to be Indian Tamils. 1911 figures for Ceylon, Provinces and District-, have been adjusted on the:same basis. ,nlulry «• II._Populat.ion of tho Principal Estates in Coylon at the Censuses M 1921 and 1911, by Literaoy, Religion, and Riwe-W. Religion. Literati's. Others. Persona. Bngll9h literates. Buddhists. Hindus. Muhammadana. Christian!. Census 1 « Province, District, Ac. i Year. 8 S •j _: 8 1 o 3 1 1 -3 H a Fx o a ! H S £ 1 to I Females . i 22 23 ' H i . 1 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 o Males . 11 12 3 4 6 6 7 8 18 24 n • • 36 22 58 Northern Protinee. 37 14 1 — 1 Jaffna District 1921 68 35 91 86 69 155 O 7077 lit 81 51 6 1921 202 Mannar District , , , —• 50 12 02 a — 5 I — E 7 ~ 1 nu ~~ 67 12 ~ 09 45 4 r Mullalttlvu District 1921 1911 17 17 28 43 Eastern Province. 17 7 8 4 389 270 605 — 15 % 442 295 737 171 10 _ Batticaloa District 1921 _ 1911 ~~23 ~13 ~~ 36 26 13 ' 38 12 4 16 o _ ~65 ~~ 2 j 67 1921 115 ~ 32 ~ 147 63 1 10 1 202 59 201 31 9 40 66 12 74 Trlncomalee District 1911 81 381 123 9 31 I 1 1 2 S5 300 | 109 1319 732 2061 1990 ! 6435 4676 3451 8127 107 62 North- Western Protinee. 0235 15783 3428 771 401 00 3445 751 Burghers and Malays. Veddas. Others. Ceylon Moors. Indian Moors. Europeans. Eurasians. Low-country Sinhalese, j Kandyan Sinhalese, j Ceylon Tamils.* Indian Tamils. Kl Census Province, District, Ac. Year. & i 3 1 ! 3 s o o •a H H a 1 it, a cm CM 49 i 50 a * i H a o 39 28 30 32 34 35 30 38 25 26 27 29 31 g 33 — I 1! Northern Province. 47 351 821 I - o Jaflna District 1921 2 2 1911 m 4«| 704; _ ! 1921 . - 1 Mannar District 1911 5j - — "fll! :ii - 1 .Mullalttlvu District 1921 _ 1911 — — — — _ I Eastern Province. 10; 393 277 670 _17j 17j — Batticaloa District 1921 | 2 0 4 19/1 — 0 Si 331 1 1! 1921 26! 1 27 30 — 1 26 15! ~"4ll Trlncomalee District 2241 47| 244j 79 24; 72! 1*1 1 70j 1911 2 44 11 55 J 1 1 1 501 80! 39| — 20. 56', 41; 76 > North-Westem Province. i 591 1485' 66 73 5233 3S11 0074 30i 47| 42 651 77 64 27 O Kurunegala District 1921 3150 1078 4828 894 6446; 26. 22 43\ 9 9 72/j 40 02 4904 2644, 1 — 1 10) 10! 1911 1442\ 697 2139 430 294 8, 90 5(1 140; 18! 4 — — 44 —24 ft 1921 105 423 32 13 45 J2 2 4 4 56 Puttalam District 318 24 548 294 841. 29 70 49| 1 0: 41 15 56 1911 7/4 27 49, 7.5) 14, 30 9 0 24 489\ 12 S'.LJ 33 798 432 1230, 10 — 6 471 2| 2, 6 Chllaw District 1921 1125 080 1805 29 10 2: 24\ 941 619] 1475\ « 70, 4 6 — A | 1911 77471 494 1744 42 41 44, 40 109 52 .101 14\ 4 3 North-Central Protinee. 20 34 232 123 410| 13: — Anuradhapura District 1021 341 47 388 228 45 273, 1911 — ' — 187| 113 585 462 1047 — — 257! 270 200 470 247 149 390; 95! 02 199 Province of Uva. 1969! 144 93, 237 39053 38111! 77104 142 115, 420: 47' 40 146\ j 64 42 770 1921 1060 501 1567 1033 936 10;! 472| 276| 747 347214 106 7716 BadulU District 1074 1719 71 724| 44209, 42229, 07433 2771 943 427 SI, : 1911 1264 646 102 74 17fli 912 790 1702 157, 245! 189 434 130 48 1781 I 7727 7009 2740 Province ot Salmraiafhuira 454 1052: 167 «! 23: 21336. 1994o! 41232 81 76 J20 70 40 770; ii 1921 2319 1022 3341 598 24007 60 70: 740 204 779 427 94 24 313 800 Ratnapura District 1414 450 444 904: 44 44! 14447: 776441 172 77 125! 101 226 175 1911 1224 444 20199, 23309 50008 87 89! 176 270 248 618 42 202! I 446429 1 776 1921 1045 878 2523 762 681 1443 155 781 233 744 430l 2441 749 110' 135 Kegalla District MM 74 63' 7.17 301-W26222' 4444 7 rt\ 55, 44 1911 1739 698 24.17 MR 715 TAMIL*. 1911 figure? tor Ceylon. Provlnces»nd Districts, have been adlustecyon the same basis. 1 iiiiiTiirirrfrtniifrfrTlI't'T"1*"1"" Appendix III.—Population of the Principal Towns (excluding the Military and Shipping) at the Censuses of 1921 and lCll, by Literacy, Religion, ahd Race. Note.—Particulars for 1911 regarding race and religion by sex are omitted, where they are not avallablo in previous records, and those regarding literacy, religion, and race are omitted where they are not exactly comparable with those of 1921. .\vlng to correction for change of limits since 1911 not being possible. I I Itellglon. Persons. Literates. English Literates. ! Buddhists. Hindus. Muhamuiadans. Christians.' 1 Others. ! 1 Ceusus as Town. tn Cfl tit •n m to" Year. CD V cu JU cd tn "5 s 00 Ci Ci la CD i 3 2 a 1 *oJ a 3 a 3 a o Ci V o i o Ci 1 i a Eh << Ci 53 8 H Ci Eh H H "3 i Ph O Ci Eh C O 1Eh Eh o Males . u Total . 22 24 1 3 5 8 Eh u 13 14 15 18 i! 2i | Males . 23 a !i Eh 7 a. 17 19 20 4 0 10 TlVtf^rn Product. Colombo Municipality 1921 149595 94568 244163 87657 33339 81681 13085 50245 38519 88704 32705 8915 41620 30139 17927 48066 36344 29118 65462 162 80 251 1911 133736 ' 84790. 218526 65187 21484 23001 0658 — — 69234 11160 — — 46164 — — i 61626 — — 352 N'egombo Local Board 1921 10895 10367 21262 6011 4770 1158 608 1435 1012 2447 004 371 1275 1115 675 1700 7439 8309 I 15748 2 — —2 1011 10119 9749 19868 — — — — — Mlnuwangoda Local Board .. 1921 531 375 900 —35 5 —J 07 — — 5 —25 0 —19 2 —45 1 40 20 60 104 46 150 128 117 245 — — —• —— — — _ —— — 1011 SSS 426 1014 — — — — — . — «» Moratuwa Local Board 1921 14232 14370 28008 8859 7124 2057 1037 0842 0701 13543 222 49 271 317 0 323 0849 7618 14467 4 1011 12370 13488 25868 — — — — — — 1 Kalutara Local Board 1921 6958 6638 13596 3839 2183 —80 7 377 4305 4328 8723 279 09 348 1119 1071 2190 1163 1169 2332 2 3 1911 0542 6464 13006 3601 1523 671 281 — — 8184 440 — 2176 —• — 2206 — — Panadura Sanitary Board .. 1921 5496 5251 10747 3584 2478 1064 484 4711 -1788 9499 127 31 161 166 29 105 489 •100 889 3 — 3 1911 S233 S017 10250 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Central Province. — Kandy Municipality 1921 18394 13608 32562 111.".? 4092 4533 1! 80 0483 7163 16646 2178 998 3176 3798 2449 6247 3420 3057 0-177 1 16 1911 1693S 12989 20927 8423 3207 — — — 13869 3667 _ — 6236 — — 6122 • — 33 Gampoia Local Board 1921 - 3420 2770 6202 1994 096 493 220 1414 —130 2 2710 475 207 682 1188 035 2123 348 332 680 i — 1 1911 3070 2411 5521 1501 494 330 165 — 2415 639 _ — 1800 —. — 667 — — — .N'awalapitlya Local Board .. 1921 2004 1217 3221 1211 255 436 124 754 —40'. ) 1103 385 199 684 615 360 875 348 247 595 2 4 1911 2313 14S4 3767 1271 253 2961 101 — — .1258 683 _ — 1108 —•• — 625 — — 3 Hatton-Dikoya Local Board.. 1921 2011 929 2940 1347 278 350 104 875 453 132S 361 89 450 483 207 690 292 180 472 — — — 1911 1945 1080 3025 1052 184 241 12 — — 989 878 — — 645 — — 511 — — 2 w Matale Local Board 1921 4497 3308 7865 2*76 787 688 290 2040 1 (155 3701 773 437 1210 1208 799 2007 466 476 942 4 1 5 ___ 1 1911 4297 3159 7456 - — — — — — — Nuwara Eliya Hoard of Im-1 1921 4490 3035 7525 232— 3 779 —80 1 516 —180 0 9S1 278— 7 1302 942 2214 208 J27 395 1112 083 2005 2 2 4 d — proveraent 1 1911 3X92 2600 6492 — X Iiace. Burghers and Veddas. Others. Low-country Sinhalese. Kandyan Sinhalese Ceylon Tamils. Indian Tamils. Ceylon Moors. Indian Moors. Europeans. Eurasians. Malays. ! Census Town. I Year. Ji 3 3 a s .3 a 3 o e o o 3 l V Ci o H H H (H H H *H H S Eh 25 27 29 30 31 33 34 36 37 38 39 42 43 46 47 48 52 ' 53 55 57 I I ! Western Province. 11110 1056| 12166 Colombo Municipality 1921 09987 50483 110470 2457 1673 4130 8858 5735 145931 :)0224| 9330' 30560J 13777, 11040 2541711242,3033 14275 1623 1213 2836 7217 7646 14863 3099)27531 1911 95876, 2614 15620, — j 37558] 24827, 13853\ 28191 14397 5456 5106 1 4l| 52 142| 21 163 N'egorabo Local Board ..i 1921 I 7901 8510 1041l! 80 48 128 740 058 1398 780 215 1001 734 608 1342] 284; 10] 294 24 29 53 163| 216 370 93 1911 ! _ 1 1921 I 337 300 637j 1 8 22 15 58 "a! 71 281 ~41 80 - 2 1 1 1 Minuwangnda Local Board 1911 | -I ooj 14 152 1921 I 129531 13750 20703; 256| 4081 105 114 279 422 104 526 I25I 5 109 — 169 12 251 37 93 107 2001 138 Moratuwa Local Board 1911 ! 130 48 Kalutara Local Board 1921 6081 5180 10241! 77 144 171 113 284 3841 465 957 1025 1982 120 140] 124 122 246 1911 483018102 9932 65 in\ 131 80\ 21l\ 355 449 940 1080, 2020\92 101 94 32\ 128 I 26 1921 104! 215 113 60 173 280 333 92 12 104 48 49| 46 32 78 35 Panadura Sanitary Board . .i 1011 4759 4056 9715; Central Province. ! 605 1017 341 I\**r*tv.MunlclpaIlty ..' 1921 5801 4584| 10445 4158 3554 8012 1363 000 2269 2105 019 3084: 2142 1700! 3902 998| 167 1165 204 258 462 008 957 1865 612 — I 283 1911 9438 6681, 2129| 3099 3S92\ 1497\ — I 426 1934\ — 927 304 68 56 114! 53 80 133 — I ~24 35 Gampoia Local Board 1921 913| 701 1614 686 723 1309 179 164 3431 485 180 605 830 784 1614 294 67 361 4 10 14 1911 787, 585 1372. 641 665 1306\ 131 205 • 337] 460] 127 587 66 0\ 676: 1336 282\ 74 356 4 8\ 12 54 67 111\ 4680 96 — I- 6 3 \ 71 60 140; 25 22| 47 — j 23 35 N'awalapitlya Local Board .. 1921 6461 302 948 243| 188 431 99; 34 133 381; 234 615 333 307 640 1S0| 27; 177 33 22! 65 1911 622' 464 1088, 257 147 404 157 112 2«9, 450, 145 595 369, 329\ 698 277 97 374\ S3 40: 93 64 69 123' 6260\ 122 3 1921 731 338 1069 189| 163 352 185 54 239| 347i 96 443 181 131 312 233 33 266 30 28 58 37 42 79! S3 40 9S — ! 25 29 lEitioii-Dikoya Local Board.. 1911 532 306 838 192, 149 341 198 91 289 480, 294, 774 IS Si S8< 273 205 34 239 22 28, SO 47 41 88, 45* > 85< — : 89 48 1921 1144 913 2057, 1046 925 1071' 387 284 671 6361 350! 992 782 6481 1430 828 87 415 15 17 32 61 75 136; 60 61 130| — j 29 31 Mat.ilu Local Board 1911 ! 124 149 273J 80 541 74 N'uwara Kllya Board of I in- J 1921 1319 807j 2166 700; 465 1105; 180 581 238! 1616; 11051 2721 07 40! 107i 103 20 123, 217| 310i 527 01; 14l! — I movement 1_ 1911 1^— Race—eoW. 5 1 ——-————^———Religion. _.. • Area proclaimed for the registration of BlrfhB ..nd Dentlia. Appendix III.—Population of the Principal Towns (excluding the Military and .Shipping) at the Censuses of 1921 and 1911, by Literacy, Religion, and Race—contd. to o Religion. Persons. Literates English Literates. Buddhists. Hindus. Muhamraadans. Carls tilths Others. Census Town. Year. • ! 2 •3 a a i 1 a 3 A a 1 I o a 1 o H E-i 23 a H S 43 t \ I H 1 5 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 4 a «j t o 18 Eastern Province. 3121 1817 916 425 216 41 258 2770 2863 6639 432 220 662 1983 2033 4010 Batticaloa Local Board 1921 5406 6168 10564 j 4786 10170 _ 1911 5384 76 1010 1967 73 ~~76 ~224 244 408 2586 740 229 110 67 05 10 951 2 Kalmunal Town* 1921 1314 1272 129 67 22 59 1943 I ! 72 465 1911 1312 1227 2539 217 6338 523 j 1100 1769 1921 4881 4533 9414 2975 1468 737 233 188 29 3269 3009 677 ~847 912 Trlncomalee Local Board . 1911 4409 4368 «M7 2367 828 <500 J2S 126 5741 1138 1832 North-Western Province. 3728 10187 3071 869 864 350 3223 1907 5220 812 865 1107 1842 | 015 1957 1082 761 1848 Kurunegala Local Board 1021 0450 8544 1911 5299 3245 106 645 604 243 747 2255 i 1950 4211 ~l09 593 1402 1921 4007 2898 6905 2028 365 805 112 ~439 Puttalam Local Board 3343 2647 193 80 317 712 3641 1319 11911 24 9 21 4 25 121 57 178 630 484 1114 ~81 ~110 291 Kalpltlya Sanitary Board . 1921 953 655 1008 482 80 940 645 J59J 1911 456 170 669 873 410 170 692 000 296 895 2269 2012 4281 Chllaw Local Board 1921 3954 2688 6642 2397 1070 1911 3087 2383 5470 204 North-Central Province. 017 627 132 2120 3300 1780 j 059 2745 I 670 237 807 668 302 920 Anuradhapura Local Board. 1921 6037 2744 7781 2890 1958 — 735 1911 3541 1817 MSI 1760 271 J79 7i 1821 845 1180 Race. Burghers and Malaya. rVeddas. Low-country Sinhalese. Kandyan Sinhalese Ceylon Tamils. Indian Tamils. Ceylon Moors. Indian Moors. Europeans. Eurasians. Others. X'ensus Town. i Year. I 3 3 3 a 3 I 3 3 o o o o o EH H H o 3 fx H H a H a a H 42 ' 43 46 47 48 54 66 67 25 27 28 29 H 31 32 33 34 35 30 37 38 39 40 30 Eastern Province. I 4173J 4425 8593 174 335 2081 5431 23i 12! 35 341 389 730 10 1 — Hattlcaloa Local Board J 1921 2001 238| 2; 03 1911 103 h - 75 1081 1178] 2259 43 45 — 29 81 79 Kalniunal Town* . 1921 67 2229 57, — 14 149 2 ; 1911 70\ 205 34 204 3314 3700 75S0 123 100! 454 488 042 90 11 107 125| 140 28 Trincoiualcc Local Board .'• 1921 218 7095 117 »77 119 23\ 142 ii 123 HI 234 471 34 ' 1911 135 175\ 3477 414 Norlh-Weslern Province. 332 708 655 725 24 20 122 141 263 210 208 418 21 2011 317 171| 880] 358 1238 400 531 JCurunegala Local Board 1921 2577 1550 4133| 1157J 851 —. 1911 1 354 143 4971 1955! 1833| 3788 198 208 ~381 ~29| 07 90 113 209 50 763 339| 110: 87 44 131 477 304! 841 ?u?U'^m Local Board 1921 330 808 68 456 Mi; 8il\ JS2 132 504\ 1634 3239 JSJ 174 40 64 100122 222 2« \1911 472 105\ 114 98 70 13 89| 437 458 945 127 130 4 12 16 17 33 Kalpltlya Sanitary Board . 1921 124 170 37 212 1911 207 201! 339 107 4'JO; 290| 208 498 225| 229 10 ~40l 30| 701 ~80 821 162 10 Cliilaw Local Board 1921 — 2002| 4572 79, 391 1911 iorth-Central Province. 1305' 322 180 502 185 10 195 02 130 . 82! 35 1512 700j 2272 712 434< 1196 1247 713 1900 894 471 Anuradhapura Local Board 1921 1199 024, 28V 7-5 71 140 455\ 1162 2 138 43\ 106 130 1911 797 402] 908 1000, 571) 531\ 281\ i I . t Population given Is for Gravels comprising Local Board area and two villages outside this area. • Area proclaimed for the registration of Births and Deaths. • Area proclaimed for the registration or jurau ana i«AU». '-ft.. Race—conid. lll.-Population of the Principal Towns (excluding tho Miliary and Shipping)^ the Censuses of 1921 and 1911, by Literacy, Religion, and Appendix 3 ———^ Religion. Others Literates. English Literates Mnhammadans. Christian i Persons. Buddhists. Hindus. i Census _1 Town. Year. 3 3o a 3 I e a«> 3 I o I' 3 H I o H H H I a a to 19 20 21 22 23 24 to & a 12 13 16 16 17 18 5 6 9 10 11 4 7 442 439 881 2 Province of Vva. 620 242 762 755 481 1236 I 2431 032 796 393 2850 2386 5245 1192 i 78$ — Badulla Local Board 1021 4578 3548 8126 4279 573 ~20 322 —8 2 527 216 198. 287 116 403 j ~193 1911 3768 3063 6831 1639 too *491 ~267 758 "l41 ~~67 — Bandarawela Looal Board 1021 1115 671 1686 640 153 218 71 201 346 352 — 578 _ 22 ~~18 40 — •1911 Sir 641 797 72 66 126 ~04 j "~49 143 i 1478 678 137 20 11 135 "~82 217 ~~70 Lunugala Sanitary Board 1921 321 205 526 180 88 1«7 165 169 | 34 18 3 12 1911 323 192 515 173 23 302 725 0 3 485 679 214 898 | 423 Province of Sabaragamuna 2081 1968 4949 322 113 — — Ratnapura Looal Board 1921 4414 2600 7014 2718 731 650 224 — *274 ~106 ~870 ! 391 ~428| 819 — 1911 3909 2799 6108 ~034 2112 140 ~~68 198 — 1921 1983 1625 8508 1274 —63 2 "33: 217 1178 — Kegalla Local Board 1911 1108 1335 — 3043 — I Race. Burghers and Malays. Teddas. Others. Ceylon Moors. Indian Moors. Europeans. Eurasians. Low-country Sinhalese. Kandyan Sinhalese. Ceylon Tamils. Indian Tamils. Town. Census Year. •i I .2 3 1 o f i § 3 3 H 3 o 1 I i » o H 62 65 67 to H H I H H 50 a 37 43 27 28 20 30 31 32 33 34 35 39 25 26 86 4 12 234 147 149 694 211 241 100 134 3 Province of Vva. 237: 6981 393; 301 — — 1 _ 1921 1149 701 1850 1842 1868| 3710! 230 94 344 401 277 250 1 .4 Badulla Local Board — 4*7! 650 30 69 44 39 83 7917 3084, 296 *~ 75 240 ~78' 80 ~29 6 — 1503 — 116| 312 78 47 125 •6 7 244 165! FD 6 Bandarawela Local Board 1921 326 175 601 196 IS; - I 208 79 63 12 ~3 •7977 , — 293 -"l 60 "44 67 1 1 6 —7 417 74 27 17 11244 62 42 94 43i "~20 7 1 Lunugala Sanitary Board 1921 109 60 169 38 ""SO; us 81 77 1977 — 65- — — 40 — | — 16 63 . — 139 59 121 15 11 261 Province of Saharaaamuua 411 609, 186 005 121 129 23 1709 891 2600 1449 1235 268lJ 182 61 243 29o' 112 1 ~10 Ratoapura Local Board 1921 _ —— 100 40 34 7 7917 — 1 ~178| NO 116 "47 — 1303j 65! 35 100 179! 81 200! ~~64! Kegalla Local Board 1921 736 619 1855 680 ~623 1917 —' 1 • Exclusive of the ouMoor population 63 (52 males and 1 female!, whose race, religion, literacy, Ac. are not available 123 INDEX. INDEX. PAGE PAGE Birthplaces, Percentage in each district of those 15 Acouraoy of age statistics bom in the district 42 Percentage of natives of each district of birthplace statistics ) . 31 47 of " oonjugal condition " statistics enumerated in the district, in 90 —• of infirmity statistics contiguous districts, and in other 60 — of literacy statistics .. parts of the Island 73 of occupation statistics , Percentage of natives of each raoe to 48 — ofa r-AQE PAGE Congregational ists 57 Estates, School-going age ... 26 Conjugal condition by Provinces 38 European birthplaces 45 • by race and age-groups 34, 35 Europeans, Decennial age distribution of 23 '• by raoe in Colombo Munici- .Increase by age-groups and conjugal • pality 38 condition of 12, 13 chapter 31-41 , Masculinity by Provinces and —, Definition of 31 districts of 0, 12 , Increase of European popula Exogamy 41 tion by .. 12, 13 F in England and Wales 36 Farm stock, Raising of 78, 81 . ——: • in-India — - : 36 Female death-rate high.in imhojaltliy^arg^^Z^ ol adults by race 32 Females, Enumeration of 3 of minors .. 31, 32 -, Sinhalese, Calculated population of on estates 38 30 •, Unmarried, by age and race 35, 36 Conjugal condition statistics, Accuracy of 31 Fertility ratios by race 33 —, Importance of 31 Firewood sellers 85 :—: , Understatement of 31 Fishing 78, 81 Consuls 87 Fish sellers 85 Contractors, Building 83 Foodstuffs, Dealers in 84, 85 , Unspeoified 89 Forms, Census, Distribution of 109 Copra curers .. 83 Freethinkers .. 58 sellers .. 85 Friends' Mission 58 Cost of Census .. 109 Fruit and vegetable growers 80 Cotton spinners and weavers 82 Furniture 82-6,0 Cross-oousin marriage ..40, 41 & Furniture dealers 85 Addendum Customs, Marriage .. 38-41 Deaf-mutes in Ceylon by districts .. 93 Gaswork service 83 : Gem dealers .. ... 85 , Distribution by age-groups 94 81 , Number at each Census.. 91 diggers 39 , Proportion at each Census 91 General Marriage Law, Marriage according to 29 —, Proportion in each district 93 Glover's Age Diagrams 82 • , Proportion in each race by Goldsmiths 87 sex. .. .. 91 Government service 58 , Sex ratios at eaoh Census.. 94 Greek Church 17 Death-rate (Ceylon), Female higher than male .. 2, 4, 5 Groups of ages, Examination of , Female crude, in good and bad years 5 , Ratio of male to female, by age-groups H 84 compared with other countries .. 5 Harbour work employees 83 .Ratio of male to female (all ages), com Hat makers 85 pared with India and othercountries 4 Hawkers 87 Deaths, all races by sex, annual number, 1901- Headmen, Native .8i2 , 84, 86 1921 ...... 2 Hides, skins, &c. 54 Decennial age distribution of the races .. 20-24 Hindus, Distribution of a hundred, by race 50 ; age-grouping .. ... 19 , Distribution of a hundred, in districts.. 41 Dependents ...... 74 —, Divorce in Jaffna District, among 52 Desiccating mills, Employees in 83 , Increase in the number of, 1871-1921 .. 66 Devil-dancers ...... 87 , Percentage literacy of, by sex .53 Dhobies .. .. .« 83 , Proportion by sex of, in Ceylon 54 Diga marriage (Kandyan) .. .. 39 , Proportion of, in a hundred of each ra*e Dispensers ...... 88 , Proportion of, in each Provinco and 55 Distribution of Census Form9 .. .. 109 district 109 Divorce among Hindus in Jaffna District 41 Hollerith system of abulation 83 Hopper makers among Muhammadans in Batticaloa 41 District .. 41 Hypergamy , Kandyan .. .. 37, 40, 41 I (i Immigrant, races, Masculinity of , Muhammadan .. ..37,40,41 80, 88 Income, Private under General Marriage Law .. 40,41 58 Independent Catholics Divorced, Proportion by race of the .. 37 16 Index of Concentration Dockyard employees .. .. 84 32 India, Child marriages in Domestic servants .. 88, 89 30 , Conjugal condition in Dress makers, &c. .. .. 83 70 , English literacy in .. • • 18 , Errors of statement of ugc in Earners by race and sex 74 70 , Literacy in .. • • , Female, by principal occupations 75 45 , Number of Ceylon-lx>rn enumerated in .. Ebittayas 87 44 India-born onumorated on Ceylon estates Electric light service 83 43. enumerated in Ceylon Elephant trainers and keepers 81 79 Indian Tamil labourers Endogamy- 41 10 Engineers .. 88 Indices of Concentration and literacy 10, 17 England and Wales, Comparison of decennial age by race 0, 7 distribution with Indigenous races, Masculinity of 20 SI-83 Industries : , Conjugal condition in 36 94 Infirmities, Bombay Tests regarding English, Ability to speak 71 90 , Definition of ability to speak 71 , Instructions to enumerators regarding 93, 109 , Literacy in .. .. 69--72 , Question of retention of column for . Infirmity chapter 90-94 , Proportions by Provinces of persons able 90 to speak .. 71, 72 Infirmity statistics, Accuracy of , Possibilities of errors in 90 , Races illiterate in their native language, Insane in Ceylon by districts .. 93 but literate in .. .. 71 94 English literacy by districts .. . . 69 , Distribution by age-groups . . in India .. 70 , enumerated in the Lunatic Asylum, by raoe 92 « —• in town's .. .. 70 92 , Number at each Census English literates by race and religion .. 69 92 , Proportion at each Consus . . , Proportions in Provinces of .. 71,72 93 , Proportion in each district .. Enumerators ...... 108 92 , Proportion in each raco by sox Errors of mis-statemont of age, Effect of the ,.. 18 94 , Sox ratios at each Census Estate employees ... .. 78-80 108 Institutions •.. .. • .. Estate population, Birthplaces of the .. 51 41 ' Estatos, Conjugal condition on.. 3S Intor-rocial marriogos , Fertility ratio .. 33 J 41 , Masculinity by districts and races indi Jaffna District, Divorce among Hindus in 4 genous and immigrant .. 15 Jastrzcbski on sox ratios at birth K;> , Masculinity by race, 1881-1921 .. 15 Jowollers 58 , Number of India-born on .. 44 Jews .. .. J INDEX. 125 K Kandyan Law, Marriage according to 39 Masculinity of indigenous and immigrant races.. 6,7 Knibbs on calculation of sex ratios i • 1 of the "natural " population in each on groups of ages 17 district 7 Variation in .. 3 L a 83 79, 89 Masons Labourers, General 83 7» Match manufacturers r, Indian Tamil 82 82 Mat weavers .. Lace makers ...... 38 87, 88 Mean age at marriage Lawyers, &c. .. • • ] ' 28 18, 31 by race Life Table for Ceylon .. j 109, 110 85 Mechanical tabulation - Lime sellers .. • j_. Median-age by-race- 28, 29 Literacy among Sinhalese Christians and Non Medical practitioners, Native .. • Christians .. .. 67: Medicine 87, 88 among Tamil Christians and Non 85 68 Merchants Christians .. .. Metals 82,84-86 and Indices of Concentration 16 Midwives... 88 by race and district .. .. 63-66 Minerals 78, 81 by religion 66-68 Ministers and clergymen 87 chapter .. .. 59-72 Minors, Conjugal condition of .. 31, 32 -, Difficulties of definition of .. 60 69-72 Missionaries .. .. 87 in English 59 Mis-statement of age, Causes of IS , Information asked for regarding 70 Monogamy among Veddas 39 in India 70 .Moors, Decennial age distribution of 22 in Towns 68 , Difference of masculinity of the Ceylon of eaoh Christian Sect 63 12 percentages by districts and Indian 61 percentages by Provinces Moors (Ceylon), Masculinity by Provinces and 6, 12 percentages by race .. 60, 61, 63-65 districts .. percentages by race in Colombo Muniei Moors (Indian), Masculinity by Provinces and 6, 12 pality 66 districts -, Progress of, in Ceylon 60-63 Mother tongue, Races literate in English but illiterate in their 71 Literacy statistics, Accuracy of 60 60 , Sinhalese who returned Tamil as 72 : , Factors to be allowed for in 60 Motor car drivers 84 , The use of .. ,'!,,;"• ,)•.-'• '• • 83 Literates of each religion .. 66, 67 repairers 87 Muhammadan Law, Marriage according to ... 39 Local Board and Municipal service 54 Lunatic Asylum, Insane by race enumerated in.. 92 Muhammadans, Distribution of a hundred, by race Lutherans 58 , Distribution of a hundred, in districts 56 M , Increase in the number of, 1871- Magar, Definition of 37 1921 53 Malaya, Number of Ceylon-born enumerated in.. 45, 46 , Percentage literacy of, by sex .. 66 Malays, Decennial age distribution of 24 :—, Proportion by sex of, in Ceylon. 53 , Masoulinity by Provinoes and districts of 6, 14 , Proportion of, in a hundred of Maldive Islands, Age statistics 99, 100 each race .. 54 , Atols 95 , Proportion of, in each Province , Birthplaces .. 98 and district 55 , Census 95, 96 Municipal and Local Board service 87 , Centenarians 100 Music composers, players, &c. 88 , Chapter 95-108 100 , Child bearing age N 97 , Classification of buildings Nathan on Ceylon-born in Malaya 46 , Conjugal condition 100, 102 Native Headmen 87 , Dress of inhabitants 108 Natural ages, Definition of 26 , General charaoter of inhabitants 107 , Distribution of each race by 27 , Geographical situation 95 Natural population. Masculinity by districts of.. 7 , Houses and families 97 Nautch-girls 88 , Infirmities 107 Nell, Dr. Andreas, Notes by, on blindness in Ceylon . 91 , Inhabitants .. 107 Non-Christians, Literacy among Sinhalese 67 , Language and script 103 , Literacy among Tamil 68 , Literacy 102 " No Religion " 58 , Masculinity .. 98 Notaries Public 88 - , Mean age .. ... 100 Nurses .. .. 88 . Militia, &o. .. 106 103-107 O y Occupations .. , Population .. 96 Occupation chapter 72-90 , Race and religion 97 Occupational Classes and Sub-classes by race and 108 76, 77 , Social distinctions district 73 Marriage, see conjugal oondition Occupations, Classification scheme of • 75 • customs 38-41 ——: followed by female earners 72; 73 Marriages, Inter-raoial 41 Instructions to enumerators regarding f 89, 90 Marriage Laws, Systems of 38 , Subsidiary 73, 74 Masculinity by districts and racesindigenous and Occupation statistics, Accuracy of 109 immigrant, 1921 15 Office, Census .. 58 by race and age periods, 1871-1921.. 9-14 " Othor " Christians, Sects included in , Ceylon, 1871-1921 1 " Other " Religions, Adherents of, Distribution of , Ceylon, Investigation of the high a hundred, by ratio of 3 race 54 , Ceylon, nearly highest in the world 2, 3 •———, Distribution of , Constancy of some of the figures of 10 a hundred, in , Definition of 1 districts 50 , Difference of Ceylon Moor and , Increase in the Indian Moor 12 number of, , Difference of Ceylon Tamil and 1871-1921 .. 53 Indian Tamil 11 , Proportion by , Difference of Low-country Sinhalese sex of,in Ceylon 53 and Kandyan Sinhalese 10 , Proportion of, , Differential birth-rates and 3 in a hundred , Differential death-rates and 3 of each race .. 54 , Immigration and .. 3 "Other" Religions, Religions included in 53 -. in estates by race, 1881-1921 15 " Others" (by race). Decennial age distribution of 24 in foreign countries 1 : , Masculinity by Provinces in Provinces and districts 6 and districts of 6, 14 in Towns ; , Knibb's methods of calculation of . of each race by Provinces and districts 6, 10-14 Paddy Industry 80 ^- of indigenous races 3,6 Parturition, Deaths of women at 126 INDEX. PAGE Pensioners PAOE 88 Petition Drawers Shop-keepers and other tradesmen 88 85 Physicians Shorthand writers 88 88 Plumbago Single ages. Tabulation by .81, 82, 85 16 Plymouth Brethren Sinhalese, Decennial age distribution of 58 21 Police , Difference of masculinity of the Low- 8G country and Kandyan Poll tax, Number of persons paying 27 10 , Female population, Calculated Polyandry 39 30 — whose mothor tongue is Tamil Polyandry in India 39 72 Sinhalese Kandyan, Masculinity by Provinces and Polygamy 39,40 districts of .. Post Office employees 6, 10 . 83.J34 --Pottery rr .~ J&iAalesflioOT.=COUJITIY,-Ma8culinit-y^ 82, "84, 85 and districts of Presbyterians 6, 10 57 Smoothing of age diagrams, Method of Printers and Compositors 16 83 Soap manufacturers Private income 83 80, 88 South India United Church Production of Raw Materials .. 58 78-81 Staff, Census Office Professions 109 80-88 Statement of age, Effect of the errors of Public Administration 18 80, 87 in round numbers Public Force 17 86 Straits Settlements, Number of Ceylon-born enumerated in Q 45 Subsidiary occupations 89, 90 Quartile lower, by race Suggestions for the next Census 28, 29 109, 110 Quartile upper, by race Sundbarg's triple age-grouping 28, 29 18, 19 Quinquennial age distribution .. Surveyors .. 25, 26 88 Survival ratio , Population below each 28 30 Quinquennial Census, Reasons for 110 Tabulation by single ages 16 , Mechanical Race by religion and Province 109, 110 58, 59 Tailors, &c. by religion, Hundred persons of each 83 54 Tamil, Sinhalese whose mother tongue is ——, English literacy by 69 72 Tamils, Decennial age distribution of 22 , Percentage literacy by .. 60,61 , 63-65 , Difference of masculinity of the Ceylon , Unmarried females by 35, 36 and Indian Races, Birthplaces of the 46 11 Tamils (Ceylon), Masculinity by Provinces and , Conjugal condition by age-groups of 34, 35 literate in English but not in their native districts of .. 6, 11 Tamils (Indian), Masculinity by Provinces and language 71 districts of . . 6, 11 , Masculinity 1871-1921 by age periods of. . 9-14 Tavalam men 84 -, Masculinity by Provinces and districts of. 6 10-14 Teachers 88 , Proportion of the blind by 91 Tea estate employees 78, 79 , Proportion of the deaf-mutes by 91 Telegraph service .. 83, 84 , Proportion of the insane by 92 Telephone service 83, 84 , Quinquennial age distribution of 25, 26 Textiles ..82,84, 86 Railway employees 83, 84 Rationalists Theory of age distribution 29-31 58 Theosophists Raw materials, Production of . . 58 78-81 Tile and brick sellers Relationship, Some terms of 85 40 makers Religion chapter 82 52-59 Tobacco estate employees , Definition of 79 manufacturers 83 , Distribution by clistricts of a hundred sellers 85 persons of each Toddy drawers 83 , Distribution by raco of a hundred sellers .. 85 persons of each 54 Tom-tom beaters 88 , English literacy by .. 69 Towns, English literacy in 70 , Information askod for regarding 52 , Literacy in 70 , Literacy by 60-68 , Masculinity in 8 Religions, Percentages by sex, Ceylou 53 , Persons enumerated in , Percentages in each Province and by town or other locality of birth 50 district 55 Trade . .81,84-86 Religion Statistics, Accuracy of 52 Transport . .81,83,84 Rice pounders and buskers 83 Triple age-grouping, Sundbarg's 18,19 Rickshaw coolies 84 Typists .. 88 Road coolies, &c. 84 Road tax, Number of persons paying 27 U Roman Catholics 57 Undenominationalists Round numbers, Statement of age in 17 58 Union movement in South India Rubber dealers 85 58 Unitarians ——— estate employees 78, 79 58 Unmarried females by age and race Rural population, Decennial age distribution of 24, 25 35, 36 persons, Proportion by race of 32, 33 Unspecified ages 29 Upasakas Salesmen 87 85 Urban population, Birthplaces of the Salt .. 50 81 Salvationists .. , Decennial age distribution of 57 Sandalmakers the 24, 25 83 Sanyasees 87 Scavengers Vedaralas 83 88 Schedule, General, Ceylon Census, 1921 108 Veddas, Decennial ago distribution of 24 Scholars, Number in Ceylon of.. 62 , Masculinity by Provinces and districts of 6, 14 School-going age, Figures by-districts 26 Vegetable and fruit growers 80 , Figures BY race 26 Schoolmasters, &c. 88 W Schools, Number in Ceylon of .. 62 Watchers 89 Seventh Day Adventists 58 Watch makers 83 Sex, Ceylon totals (1871-1921).. 1 Weavers (unspecified) 82 chapter Wesloyans 1-15 57 proportions of tho " natural " population by Whipple on Index of Concentration 16 districts on triple age-grouping 7 19 ratios at birth by race Widowed, Proportion by race of the 4 37 Sex statistics, Accuracy of Woodcutters 1 81 Shintoists 58 Shoemakers 83 Zoroastrians 58 H. BOSS COTTLE, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, COLOMBO, CEYLON.