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</p><p>Essential idea: This lists the essential idea for each sub-topic.</p><p>1.1 Sub-topic </p><p>Nature of Science: Relates the sub-topic to the overarching theme of Nature of Science. </p><p>Understandings: International-mindedness: • This section will provide specifics of the • Ideas that teachers can easily integrate into content requirements for each sub-topic. the delivery of their lessons. Applications and skills: Theory of knowledge: • The content of this section gives details • Examples of TOK knowledge questions. of how students are to apply the Utilization: (including syllabus and cross- understandings. For example, these curricular links) applications could involve demonstrating mathematical calculations or practical skills. • Links to other topics within the Chemistry guide, to a variety of real-world applications Guidance: and to other Diploma Programme courses. • This section will provide specifics and give Aims: constraints to the requirements for the understandings and applications and skills. • Links to the group 4 subject aims. • This section will also include links to specific sections in the data booklet.</p><p>Group 4 experimental skills</p><p>I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. (Confucius) Integral to the experience of students in any of the group 4 courses is their experience in the classroom, laboratory, or in the field. Practical activities allow students to interact directly with natural phenomena and secondary data sources. These experiences provide the students with the opportunity to design investigations, collect data, develop manipulative skills, analyse results, collaborate with peers and evaluate and communicate their findings. Experiments can be used to introduce a topic, investigate a phenomenon or allow students to consider and examine questions and curiosities. </p><p>By providing students with the opportunity for hands-on experimentation, they are carrying out some of the same processes that scientists undertake. Experimentation allows students to experience the nature of scientific thought and investigation. All scientific theories and laws begin with observations.</p><p>It is important that students are involved in an inquiry-based practical programme that allows for the development of scientific inquiry. It is not enough for students just to be able to follow directions and to simply replicate a given experimental procedure; they must be provided with the opportunities for genuine inquiry. Developing scientific inquiry skills will give students the ability to construct an explanation based on reliable evidence and logical reasoning. Once developed, these higher order thinking skills will enable students to be lifelong learners and scientifically literate. </p><p>Chemistry guide 23 Approaches to the teaching of chemistry </p><p>A school’s practical scheme of work should allow students to experience the full breadth and depth of the course including the option. This practical scheme of work must also prepare students to undertake the individual investigation that is required for the internal assessment. The development of students’ manipulative skills should involve them being able to follow instructions accurately and demonstrate the safe, competent and methodical use of a range of techniques and equipment. </p><p>The “Applications and skills” section of the syllabus lists specific lab skills, techniques and experiments that students must experience at some point during their study of their group 4 course. Other recommended lab skills, techniques and experiments are listed in the “Aims” section of the subject-specific syllabus pages. Aim 6 of the group 4 subjects directly relates to the development of experimental and investigative skills. </p><p>Mathematical requirements All Diploma Programme chemistry students should be able to:</p><p>• perform the basic arithmetic functions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division • carry out calculations involving means, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios, approximations and reciprocals • use standard notation (for example, 3.6 × 106) • use direct and inverse proportion • solve simple algebraic equations • plot graphs (with suitable scales and axes) including two variables that show linear and non-linear relationships • interpret graphs, including the significance of gradients, changes in gradients, intercepts and areas • interpret data presented in various forms (for example, bar charts, histograms and pie charts).</p><p>Data booklet The data booklet must be viewed as an integral part of the chemistry programme. It should be used throughout the delivery of the course and not just reserved for use during the external assessments. The data booklet contains useful equations, constants, data, structural formulas and tables of information. In the “Syllabus content” section of the subject guide, explicit links provide direct references to information in the data booklet which will allow students to become familiar with its use and contents. It is suggested that the data booklet be used for all in-class study and school-based assessments. </p><p>For both SL and HL external assessments, the data booklet cannot be used for paper 1, but candidates are provided with a copy of the periodic table given in section 6 of that booklet. Clean copies of the data booklet must be made available to both SL and HL candidates for papers 2 and 3. </p><p>Use of information communication technology The use of information communication technology (ICT) is encouraged throughout all aspects of the course in relation to both the practical programme and day-to-day classroom activities. Teachers should make use of the ICT pages of the teacher support materials. </p><p>24 Chemistry guide Approaches to the teaching of chemistry </p><p>Planning your course The syllabus as provided in the subject guide is not intended to be a teaching order. Instead it provides detail of what must be covered by the end of the course. A school should develop a scheme of work that best works for its students. For example, the scheme of work could be developed to match available resources, to take into account student prior learning and experience, or in conjunction with other local requirements. </p><p>HL teachers may choose to teach the core and AHL topics at the same time or teach them in a spiral fashion, by teaching the core topics in year one of the course and revisiting the core topics through the delivery of the AHL topics in year two of the course. The option topic could be taught as a stand-alone topic or could be integrated into the teaching of the core and/or AHL topics. </p><p>However the course is planned, adequate time must be provided for examination revision. Time must also be given for students to reflect on their learning experience and their growth as learners.</p><p>The IB learner profile The chemistry course contributes to the development of attributes of the IB learner profile. By following the course, students will have engaged with the attributes of the IB learner profile. For example, the requirements of the internal assessment provide opportunities for students to develop every aspect of the profile. For each attribute of the learner profile, a number of references from the Group 4 courses are given below.</p><p>Learner profile Biology, chemistry and physics attribute</p><p>Inquirers Aims 2 and 6 Practical work and internal assessment</p><p>Knowledgeable Aims 1 and 10, international-mindedness links Practical work and internal assessment</p><p>Thinkers Aims 3 and 4, Theory of knowledge links Practical work and internal assessment</p><p>Communicators Aims 5 and 7, external assessment Practical work and internal assessment</p><p>Principled Aims 8 and 9 Practical work and internal assessment. Ethical behaviour/practice (Ethical practice poster, IB animal experimentation policy), academic honesty</p><p>Open-minded Aims 8 and 9, International-mindedness links Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project </p><p>Caring Aims 8 and 9 Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project, ethical behaviour/ practice (Ethical practice poster, IB animal experimentation policy)</p><p>Chemistry guide 25 Approaches to the teaching of chemistry </p><p>Learner profile Biology, chemistry and physics attribute</p><p>Risk-takers Aims 1 and 6 Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project</p><p>Balanced Aims 8 and 10 Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project and fieldwork</p><p>Reflective Aims 5 and 9 Practical work and internal assessment, the group 4 project </p><p>26 Chemistry guide Syllabus</p><p>Syllabus content</p><p>Recommended teaching hours Core 95 hours Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships 13.5</p><p>1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change</p><p>1.2 The mole concept </p><p>1.3 Reacting masses and volumes </p><p>Topic 2: Atomic structure 6</p><p>2.1 The nuclear atom </p><p>2.2 <a href="/tags/Electron_configuration/" rel="tag">Electron configuration</a> </p><p>Topic 3: Periodicity 6</p><p>3.1 Periodic table</p><p>3.2 Periodic trends </p><p>Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure 13.5</p><p>4.1 Ionic bonding and structure</p><p>4.2 Covalent bonding</p><p>4.3 Covalent structures</p><p>4.4 Intermolecular forces</p><p>4.5 Metallic bonding</p><p>Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry 9</p><p>5.1 Measuring energy changes </p><p>5.2 Hess’s Law </p><p>5.3 Bond enthalpies</p><p>Topic 6: Chemical kinetics 7</p><p>6.1 Collision theory and rates of reaction</p><p>Topic 7: Equilibrium 4.5</p><p>7.1 Equilibrium </p><p>Chemistry guide 27 Syllabus content </p><p>Recommended teaching hours</p><p>Topic 8: Acids and bases 6.5</p><p>8.1 Theories of acids and bases</p><p>8.2 Properties of acids and bases </p><p>8.3 The pH scale</p><p>8.4 Strong and weak acids and bases </p><p>8.5 Acid deposition</p><p>Topic 9: Redox processes 8</p><p>9.1 Oxidation and reduction </p><p>9.2 Electrochemical cells </p><p>Topic 10: Organic chemistry 11</p><p>10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry </p><p>10.2 Functional group chemistry </p><p>Topic 11: Measurement and data processing 10</p><p>11.1 Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results </p><p>11.2 Graphical techniques </p><p>11.3 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds Additional higher level (AHL) 60 hours Topic 12: Atomic structure 2</p><p>12.1 Electrons in atoms</p><p>Topic 13: The periodic table—the transition metals 4</p><p>13.1 First-row d-<a href="/tags/Block_(periodic_table)/" rel="tag">block</a> elements</p><p>13.2 Coloured complexes</p><p>Topic 14: Chemical bonding and structure 7</p><p>14.1 Covalent bonding and electron domain and molecular geometries</p><p>14.2 Hybridization </p><p>Topic 15: Energetics/thermochemistry 7</p><p>15.1 Energy cycles</p><p>15.2 Entropy and spontaneity </p><p>28 Chemistry guide Syllabus content </p><p>Recommended teaching hours</p><p>Topic 16: Chemical kinetics 6</p><p>16.1 Rate expression and reaction mechanism </p><p>16.2 Activation energy </p><p>Topic 17: Equilibrium 4</p><p>17.1 The equilibrium law</p><p>Topic 18: Acids and bases 10</p><p>18.1 Lewis acids and bases </p><p>18.2 Calculations involving acids and bases </p><p>18.3 pH curves </p><p>Topic 19: Redox processes 6</p><p>19.1 Electrochemical cells </p><p>Topic 20: Organic chemistry 12</p><p>20.1 Types of organic reactions </p><p>20.2 Synthetic routes </p><p>20.3 Stereoisomerism </p><p>Topic 21: Measurement and analysis 2</p><p>21.1 Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds </p><p>Options 15 hours (SL)/25 hours (HL) A: Materials Core topics A.1 Materials science introduction</p><p>A.2 Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy</p><p>A.3 Catalysts</p><p>A.4 Liquid crystals</p><p>A.5 Polymers</p><p>A.6 Nanotechnology</p><p>A.7 Environmental impact—plastics </p><p>Chemistry guide 29 Syllabus content </p><p>Additional higher level topics A.8 Superconducting metals and X-ray crystallography (HL only)</p><p>A.9 Condensation polymers (HL only)</p><p>A.10 Environmental impact—<a href="/tags/Heavy_metals/" rel="tag">heavy metals</a> (HL only)</p><p>B: Biochemistry Core topics B.1 Introduction to biochemistry</p><p>B.2 Proteins and enzymes</p><p>B.3 Lipids</p><p>B.4 Carbohydrates</p><p>B.5 Vitamins</p><p>B.6 Biochemistry and the environment</p><p>Additional higher level topics B.7 Proteins and enzymes (HL only)</p><p>B.8 Nucleic acids (HL only)</p><p>B.9 Biological pigments (HL only)</p><p>B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules (HL only)</p><p>C: Energy Core topics C.1 Energy sources</p><p>C.2 Fossil fuels</p><p>C.3 Nuclear fusion and fission</p><p>C.4 Solar energy</p><p>C.5 Environmental impact—global warming</p><p>Additional higher level topics C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells (HL only)</p><p>C.7 Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission (HL only)</p><p>C.8 Photovoltaic and dye-sensitized solar cells (HL only)</p><p>D: Medicinal chemistry Core topics D.1 Pharmaceutical products and drug action</p><p>D.2 Aspirin and penicillin</p><p>D.3 Opiates</p><p>D.4 pH regulation of the stomach</p><p>30 Chemistry guide Syllabus content </p><p>D.5 Anti-viral medications</p><p>D.6 Environmental impact of some medications</p><p>Additional higher level topics D.7 Taxol—a chiral auxiliary case study (HL only)</p><p>D.8 Nuclear medicine (HL only)</p><p>D.9 Drug detection and analysis (HL only)</p><p>Chemistry guide 31 Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships</p><p>13.5 hours 13.5</p><p>. hemistry. How doeshemistry. the use of ithout need forithout need translation.</p><p>. ? </p><p>.</p><p>, is an example shift. of a paradigm scientific How does mindedness: - drying of foods -</p><p> discovery of <a href="/tags/Oxygen/" rel="tag">oxygen</a>, which the phlogiston overturned of theory </p><p> on: Chemical symbols and equations are international, effective enabling communication amongst scientists w IUPAC (International Union of is Pure and Applied Chemistry) the world inauthority developing standardized nomenclature for both organic and inorganic compounds. Chemical equations are the “language” of c universal languages hinder help the pursuit and ofknowledge? The combustion knowledge progress Refrigeration and how it related is to the changes of state economyAtom Freeze International • • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilizati • • • </p><p>— definite and multiple proportions. (3.1)</p><p> reliability — should be covered. ound that are not</p><p> melting, freezing, vaporization (evaporation — ous or heterogeneous. e combine in compounds, fixed ratiosform which to </p><p> tate f s</p><p> elements</p><p> the statein and (aq) equations. (l), (g) symbols (s),</p><p> condensation, sublimation and deposition</p><p>, ) Physical chemical and properties depend on the ways in which different combine. atoms</p><p>:</p><p> science: idea Atoms ofAtoms different differenthave their component properties from elements. Mixtures contain than one more and/or comp element chemically bonded together and so retain their individualproperties. Mixtures are either homogen Deduction ofchemical equations when reactants and products are specified. Application of Explanation changes of observable in physicaland temperature properties during changes of state. Balancing include of equations should of a variety types of reactions. ofNames the changes o and boiling 1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and change chemical ofNature Making quantitative measurements with replicates to ensure Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • • Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships Stoichiometric 1: Topic Core Essential Essential</p><p>32 Chemistry guide Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships</p><p> has </p><p> curricular links: curricular - he negative environmentalhe negative of impacts and air refrigeration combustion reactions deduction of formulae of ionic compounds enthalpy cycle reaction; standard compound or state of an element neutralization reactions kinetic theory : T a major contributora major to ozone depletion. — liquid crystals —</p><p>— — — —</p><p>4.1 Aim 8 conditioningsystems are significant. use The refrigerants of CFCs as been Syllabus and cross Topic Topic 5.1 Topic 6.1 Topic 8.2 Topic 10.2 Option A.4 Aims: • </p><p> equired. is not r ” latent heat “ The term The and symbolsNames of elements are in the data booklet section in 5.</p><p>1.1 Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and change chemical • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 33 Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships -</p><p> h aims to</p><p> tion, whic iza</p><p> food, medical, pharmaceutical and the </p><p> lattice structure ofionic compounds, molecular structure </p><p>— standard enthalpy and entropystandard changes defined per mole — th century. (2.3)19 th century. curricular links: curricular - lography. mindedness: - mole ratiosmole of in products electrolysis</p><p> the scale ofand atoms their component particles — — ichiometric fundamental calculations to chemical are processesin in the early ” The SI (SystèmeThe International system of d’Unités) system metric to the refers basedmeasurement, on seven base units. InternationalThe Bureau of Weights according and Measures (BIPM to its French initials) is an international standards organ ensure uniformity in the application of SI units around the world. magnitude ofThe Avogadro’s constantis the scale beyond of our everyday experience. How does experience our everyday limit our intuition? Sto research and industry, for in example manufacturing industries. molar The volume for crystalline solids the by determined is technique of X crystalray weight International • • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Topic 2.1 Topics 4.1, 4.3 and 4.5 ofcompounds covalent and metallic lattice Topics5.1 and 15.2 Topic 19.1</p><p> equivalent equivalent “ ). r</p><p>, of M n and formula units. C and are expressed 12 lative to a compound from its empirical . 1 -</p><p> and relative formula/molecular ( mass</p><p>) r A</p><p> the percentage compositionthe percentage mass and the by empirical </p><p>) has) the units g mol</p><p>: M</p><p>The The makesmole itnumber of to possible correlate the particles mass that withcan the be measured.</p><p>:</p><p> he concept developed mole from the of the related concept of t science tion of problems involving the relationships number of between the — idea The mole is mole The a fixed of number particles and to the refers amount, substance. Masses of are compared atoms on a scale re as <a href="/tags/Relative_atomic_mass/" rel="tag">relative atomic mass</a> ( Molar mass ( empiricalThe formula and molecularformula of a compound give the simplest ratio and the actual number of present atoms in a molecule respectively. Calculation of masses the ions,molar of atoms, molecules Solu particles, of the amount in substance moles and the mass in grams. Interconversion of formula. Determination of formula the of molecular formula and molar mass. Obtaining and using experimental data forformulas deriving empirical from reactions involving mass changes.</p><p>1.2 The concept mole ofNature Concepts Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Essential Essential</p><p>34 Chemistry guide Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships</p><p> mass of hydrates, burning of percent ed to measure mass changes during reactions. loggers can be us : Data : Experiments could include</p><p>Aim 6 ormagnesium calculating number. Avogadro’s Aim 7 Aims: • • </p><p> is SI a derived unit. </p><p> is given in the data booklet in ) ) 1 - A N ’s constant ( L or</p><p> ction paper 1 questions.for 2 and will be given The value ofThe the Avogadro generallyThe used unit of (g mass molar mol se 1.2 The concept mole Guidance: • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 35 Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships</p><p> nts has allowed on, intuition and per square inch (psi). </p><p>, but many other units, butother many remain 2 -</p><p>, although used litre unit. is a commonly 3 , Torr, bar and pounds</p><p> omposition ofomposition (trinitrotoluene). TNT </p><p> curricular links:curricular - Pa) is now widely used as a convenient closeas unit, it very is to</p><p>5 mindedness: -</p><p> intermolecular forces calculations enthalpy changes of molar — — The SIThe unit of Pascal is pressure the (Pa), N m usage in in common different countries. (atm), These include atmosphere millimetres of(mm Hg) <a href="/tags/Mercury_(element)/" rel="tag">mercury</a> bar (10 The The SI unit1 atm. for volume is m Assigning to the masses numbers chemical of the eleme to developchemistry into a physicalWhy science. is so mathematics effective in describing the natural world? idealThe gas equation deduced can be from a small number of assumptions Whatof ideal behaviour. roleis of the reason, percepti imagination in the development of scientific models? changesGas volume during chemical reactionsfor are responsible the inflation ofin air bagsvehicles and are the basis explosiveother of many reactions, as such the dec conceptThe of percentage isin yield monitoring the vital efficiency of industrial processes. International • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Topic 4.4 Topic 5.1</p><p>— Avogadro's initial hypothesis. (1.8)</p><p> o’s law.</p><p> cting gases be determined to</p><p> obtainingfor evidence scientific theories</p><p>: </p><p> d solutionisknown concentration. one of Mole ratiosMole in chemical equationscan be used to calculate reacting mass and gas by ratios volume.</p><p>: science idea Reactants can be either excess. or limiting experimentalThe yield can be different the from theoretical yield. Avogadro’s law enables ratio mole of the rea volumesfrom of the gases. molar The volume of an ideal gasconstant is a temperatureat specified and pressure. concentration molar The of a solutionis the by of determined amount solute of solution.and the volume A standar Solution of to reacting problems relating quantities, and limiting excess reactants, theoretical, and percentage experimental yields. Calculation ofvolumes reacting of gases using Avogadr Solution of problems and analysis of graphs relationship involving the between temperature, pressure and volume for a fixed mass of an ideal gas. Solution of to the problems relating ideal gas equation. 1.3 Reacting 1.3 Reacting masses and volumes ofNature Making careful observationsand Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Essential Essential</p><p>36 Chemistry guide Topic 1: Stoichiometric relationships</p><p>. . R of the gas constant, value</p><p> llion, is ppm, commonly used in measuring small </p><p> s ray crystallography -</p><p>— X could include gravimetric precipitation determination by of an</p><p> base titrations — Ideal gas law - equilibrium calculations Experimental design could include excesslimiting andreactants. redox titration : : Data loggersData : can usedtemperature,be measure to pressure and : The unit parts per mi — — acid —</p><p>Aim 6 Experiments insoluble salt. Aim 7 changesvolume in reactions or to determine the Aim 8 levels of pollutantsfluids.This in unit for convenient is communicating very low concentrations,is a formal SI butnot unit. ic 9.1 Top Topic 17.1 Topic 18.2 Topic 21.1 and A.8 3.2 topic Physics Aims: • • • </p><p> are ) R</p><p> and parts per million (ppm). 3 -</p><p> concentration is required. from idealfrom behaviour at low , dm mol 3 - and the value of the gas constant ( of , and the value the gas constant</p><p>𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛</p><p>=</p><p>𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃</p><p>.</p><p>Explanation ofof the deviation real gases andtemperature high pressure. Obtaining and using experimental values to calculate molar mass of the a gas the from ideal gas equation. Solution of problems involving concentration, molar amount of and solute ofvolume solution Use of method the ofexperimental concentration titrationcalculate tothe of a solution reference by solution. to a standard Valuesfor volume the molar of an ideal gas data booklet in are given the in section 2. idealThe gas equation, given in the data booklet in sections 1 and 2. Units of concentrationinclude: g dm to useThe of denote square molar brackets to</p><p>1.3 Reacting 1.3 Reacting masses and volumes • • • • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 37 Topic 2: Atomic structure</p><p> eaponry entists 6 hours</p><p> dimensional images - , I believe it is that all dating. dating.</p><p> aeological</p><p> geological and arch</p><p> in ” use to interpret indirect evidence, the gained use ofthrough </p><p> mindedness: -</p><p> chemical clocks chemical <a href="/tags/Isotope/" rel="tag">Isotope</a> uses enrichment physical properties to separate <a href="/tags/Isotope/" rel="tag">isotopes</a> of <a href="/tags/Uranium/" rel="tag">uranium</a>, and is in countries many employed and as w part of nuclear energy programmes. Richard “If Feynman: all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed and only one sentence passed to the next on generation things of Are are made atoms.” the models and theories which sci create accurate descriptionsof the primarilynatural they world, useful or are interpretations for explanation prediction, and control natural world? of the No subatomic particlescan will be (or Which be) directly observed. ways of knowing do we technology? Radioisotopesin are usednuclear for medicine diagnostics, and treatment research, as tracers inand pharmaceutical biochemical research, and as “ PET (positron scanners emission give three tomography) of tracerand concentrationcan body, in be used the to detect cancers. International • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: • • development of the nucleardevelopment of model that was the atom first proposed Rutherford. by the </p><p>— alpha particles were used in </p><p> to deduce to numberthe of protons, </p><p>𝑋𝑋 𝑍𝑍 𝐴𝐴 integer relative atomicinteger masses and abundance of -</p><p> f need not be isotopes learned.</p><p> topic composition.</p><p>: </p><p> the subatomic particlethe of theory matter represents shift a paradigm science in that occurred late in 1800s. the (2.3) — The The ismass of an atom concentrated in positively minute, its charged nucleus. from given data,from including mass spectra.</p><p>:</p><p> science i dea Atoms containAtoms a positively dense charged nucleus composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons). Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus. mass The spectrometer is the to determine used relative atomic mass of an from itselement iso Use of notation the nuclear symbol neutrons and electrons and ions. in atoms Calculations involving non isotopes Relative masses and charges ofsubatomic particles the should be known, actual values in are given section 4 of the data mass booklet. of The the electron can be considered negligible. Specific examples o operationThe of is the not mass spectrometer required.</p><p>2.1 The atom nuclear ofNature Evidence and improvements in instrumentation (1.8) shiftsParadigm Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • • • Topic 2: Atomic structure Atomic 2: Topic Core Essential Essential</p><p>38 Chemistry guide Topic 2: Atomic structure</p><p> ng effects on izi</p><p> experiment can experiment be undertaken. — NMR</p><p>D.8 and D.9 s option — nuclear fission curricular links: curricular - nuclear medicine Simulations offoil Rutherford’s <a href="/tags/Gold/" rel="tag">gold</a> Radionuclides dangers to health carry due to their ion : : : —</p><p>C.3 and C.7</p><p>Aim 7 Aim 8 cells. Syllabus and cross Topics 11.3, 21.1 and Options Option D.8 Aims: • • </p><p>2.1 The atom nuclear</p><p>Chemistry guide 39 Topic 2: Atomic structure</p><p> its detectors used to </p><p> implications ofclaim for this </p><p>, with involvements from sensitive means of determining the has been to prove that this is aim </p><p>...</p><p> cathode rays.(1.8) for Nuclear Research (CERN) is by run</p><p>(20 states(20 in 2013)</p><p> ization tates s the implicationsfor knowledge? of this the limits of human</p><p>Jacob Bronowski. WhatJacob Bronowski. are the</p><p>Organ —</p><p> ember </p><p> m mindedness: -</p><p>The EuropeanThe European scientists countries. other many from It operates the world’s largest particle physics research centre, particle including accelerators and study the fundamental constituents of matter. Heisenberg’s Uncertaintystates Principle that there is a theoreticalto the limit precision withknow which we can the and momentum the position of a particle. What are aim “One of the physicalsciences has been to give an exact picture the of achievement world.material One unattainable.” the aspirations of natural sciences in particular and for in knowledge general? Absorption and emission are widely spectra used in astronomy to analyse light from stars. Atomic absorption is spectroscopy a very presence and concentrationof metallic elements.</p><p>International • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: • •</p><p> the use of in andThomson’s magnetism electricity spin.</p><p>—</p><p> and can hold a</p><p>, n</p><p> line spectra explained the Bohr by model of (2.2) the atom.</p><p>—</p><p>. 2 n levels oflevels successively higher energies. - quantum quantum mechanics is current the most among models of (1.9) the atom.</p><p>— produced when photons are emitted as from atoms </p><p>:</p><p>The electron The configuration can of be an atom deduced from its <a href="/tags/Atomic_number/" rel="tag">atomic number</a>. emission spectrum of provides <a href="/tags/Hydrogen/" rel="tag">hydrogen</a> evidence for the existence : n energy level or shell given an is integer number, els of containfixed orbitals, a number regions of space where there is science lev line - al i dea Emission are spectra excited electrons to a lower return energy level. The of electrons in levels, discrete energy which converge at higher energies. mai The numbermaximum of electrons, 2 detailedA more model describes of atom the the divisionof energy the main level into s,f p, d and sub Sub a high probability offinding electron. an Each orbital hasstate energy a defined for electronic a given configuration and chemical and environment can hold two electronsopposite of Description of between the relationship colour, wavelength, frequency and acrossenergy the electromagnetic spectrum. Distinction between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum.</p><p>2.2 Electron configuration ofNature Developments in scientific research follow in improvements apparatus Theories being superseded Use theories to explain natural phenomena Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • Essenti</p><p>40 Chemistry guide Topic 2: Atomic structure</p><p> ra.</p><p>. — stellar characteristics</p><p> nn distribution density as function a probability Boltzma – curricular links: curricular - — periodicity — emission spectra Emission spectra could be using observed discharge tubes of different deduction of formulae of ionic compounds Maxwell : : — —</p><p>Fireworks Aim 6 gases and a spectroscope. tests Flame could bestudy spect used to </p><p>• Syllabus and cross Topics3.1 and 3.2 Topic 4.1 Topic 6.1 Physics topic 7.1 D.2 and option Aims: • </p><p>. atomic z spectrum are and p y , p , x</p><p> line emission ) and condensed) electron 4 and the p 3p 2 hydrogen atom, hydrogen including the 3s 6 orbital 2p 2 box diagrams, such as the one given - Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion 2s in 2 - atomic </p><p> represent the character and relative energy of ) should) be covered. 4 3p 2</p><p>Description of of the emission spectrum the relationships between the linestransitions and energy to the first,second and levels.third energy Recognition ofan s the shape of Application of the <a href="/tags/Aufbau_principle/" rel="tag">Aufbau principle</a>, principle to configurationsforwrite electron and ions atoms 36 up to Z = Details of the electromagnetic spectrumin are given the data booklet in section 3. of names The the different series in the hydrogen not required. Full electron configurations 1s (eg configurations [Ne] 3s (eg electronThe configurations and Cu as of Cr exceptions should be covered. orbitals.</p><p>2.2 Electron configuration • • • Guidance: • • • Orbital diagrams should be used to orbitals. Orbitalto arrow diagrams refer below. • </p><p>Chemistry guide 41 Topic 3: Periodicity</p><p>6 hours ; the periodic a is table ing play in of the development the applies to their own disciplines. </p><p> data to explain the organization ofdata to explain the elements. the organization</p><p> lyse</p><p> curricular links: curricular - mindedness: - Apply the organization of the periodic table general to understand Be able to recognize physicalof elements. samples or images common organize subjects organize based on structurefunction and electron configuration : : : Be able to ana :</p><p>—</p><p>The developmentThe of the periodic and table years took involved scientists many differentfrom countries upon the foundations building other’s of each work and ideas. What inductive roleand deductive did reason periodicWhat table? role inductive and deductive does reasoning in have science in general? scientificOther subjects use the periodic also table the structure to understand and reactivity of elementsit as Aim 3 trends in properties. Aim 4 Aim 6 , allowed for of the prediction propertiesthat beenhad not yet of elements — scientists International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 2.2 Aims: • • • </p><p> s </p><p> id - o lanthan metals and <a href="/tags/Metalloid/" rel="tag">metalloids</a>. - ciatedwith the four sub transition metals, transition</p><p>. </p><p> known</p><p>) is) the energyouter level that is occupied electrons. by</p><p> n tom can be deducedtom from itsthe periodic position on table.</p><p>: ic table, versa. and vice</p><p> s should be </p><p> id The arrangementThe of elements in the periodic electron table configuration. helps to predict their o</p><p>: s, p, d, and f.s, p, d, and </p><p>—</p><p> science idea The periodicThe table into is four arranged blocks asso periodicThe table consists of groups and periods (vertical columns) (horizontal rows). periodThe number ( numberThe of the principal level energy and the number of the <a href="/tags/Valence_(chemistry)/" rel="tag">valence</a> electrons in an a periodicThe table shows positions the of metals, non Deduction of configuration the electron from the element’s of an atom position on the <a href="/tags/Period_(periodic_table)/" rel="tag">period</a> termsThe alkali metals, <a href="/tags/Halogen/" rel="tag">halogens</a>, noble gases, and actin group numberingThe scheme from group 1 to group 18, as by recommended IUPAC, should be used. levels 3.1 Periodic table ofNature Obtain evidence for theories scientific making and testing by predictions based on them key example of this.Early models of the from periodic and later Mendeleev, table Moseley discovered. (1.9) Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • Guidance: • • Topic 3: Periodicity 3: Topic Essential Essential Core</p><p>42 Chemistry guide Topic 3: Periodicity</p><p> taking” - global </p><p> be connected to stability properties. This gives </p><p> dicillustrates the “risk Table </p><p> trations. </p><p>Whatis impact of the global acid deposition? curricular links: curricular : : - tion has led to the productiontionled has to the ofproducts that many cause ic Table is an excellent example in ofclassification science. How iza mindedness:</p><p>- and 8 Experiment with chemical trends or directly in through the the laboratory useThe of transition ionsmetal as catalysts could be investigated. Periodic trends studied databases. can be with thecomputer use of anomaliesfirst inionization values energy can production of rain acid : : : down groups. — —</p><p>Industrial problems when released into the environment. predictiveThe of power Mendeleev’s Perio ofnature What science. demarcation betweenis scientific the and pseudoscientific claims? PeriodThe does classification and categorization help and hinder the pursuit of knowledge? 1 Aims Aim 6 use of demons teacher Aim 6 Aim 7 International • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 2.2 in electron configuration Topic 8.5 Aims: • • • • </p><p>O, 2</p><p> alkali metals with alkali r reactionsr of Na</p><p> metallic behaviour of an - ur with water. f the treatment the treatment of the reactions of new substances on the expected based reactivity of elements. (3.1)</p><p> metallic due behaviourto are the trends above. - ize</p><p> synthes the position of in an element the accurate periodic make tablescientists allowspredictions to of physical its and chemical n its in position the periodic table. </p><p>—</p><p>, and the oxidesthe and , ofnitrogen and sul 10 Elements show trends in their physical chemical and properties across periods and </p><p>O : n metallic and non 4</p><p> i dea Vertical and horizontal trends in the periodicatomic radius,for exist ionic table radius, ionization electron energy, affinity and <a href="/tags/Electronegativity/" rel="tag">electronegativity</a>. Trends i Oxides basicfrom change amphoteric through to acidic across a period. Prediction andthe explanationmetallic of and non basedelement o Discussionand similaritiesdifferences of the in the properties of elements in group, withthe same reference to alkali 1) and halogens metals (group (group 17). Construction of equationsexplain to fo the pH changes examplesOnly of general trends across and periods down groups are required. ionizationFor the discontinuities energy increase in the across a period should be covered. trendsGroup should include water, alkali metals with halogens and halogens ions. with halide MgO, P 3.2 Periodic trends 3.2 Periodic trends ofNature science: Looking for patterns scientists to the ability Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 43 Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure</p><p>. How</p><p> ul?</p><p>13.5 hours 13.5</p><p>. .</p><p> ray crystallography inray structural determinations -</p><p> investigate compounds based on their and bond type</p><p>— use of X industrial processes</p><p> curricular links: curricular - — electrostatics Use conventions naming ionic to name compounds.</p><p>: Students: could : Computer simulation could be used to crystal observe lattice structures — periodic trends</p><p>.</p><p> us and cross General rulesGeneral in chemistry (like the octet rule)exceptions. often have exceptionsmany to exist have for a rule to to cease be usef What evidence for the existenceWhat have do you is of ions? the difference between direct and indirect evidence? Ionic liquids are efficient solvents and electrolytes electricin used power sources and green Aim 3 Aim 6 properties or obtain <a href="/tags/Sodium/" rel="tag">sodium</a> chloride solar by evaporation. Aim 7 Theory of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: • Syllab Topic 3.2 Topic 21.1 and Option A.8 5.1 topic Physics Aims: • • • , + 4</p><p>NH</p><p> electron latticestructures ionic by bonds</p><p>. - molten ionicmolten compounds conduct but solid electricity ionic compounds do not. The solubility and melting pointsionic of 3 4 — metals gaining electrons. -</p><p> and PO - 2</p><p>4 consist in ofheld ions together</p><p> and name ofand name an ionic compound from its component , SO - 2 3</p><p> familiarwith theof names ions: these polyatomic , CO - 3</p><p>:</p><p>, HCO - Ionic compounds 3 :</p><p> science</p><p> i dea , NO - OH Positive by form ions (cations)metals losing electrons. valence Negative ions (anions) non form by numberThe of electrons or gained is the by lost determined configuration of the atom. ionicThe bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are usually solids with lattice structures. Deduction offormula the ions, including ions. polyatomic Explanation of the physical of properties compounds (volatility, ionic electrical conductivity of and solubility)terms in their structure. Students should be 4.1 Ionic bonding4.1 Ionic and structure ofNature Use theories to explain natural phenomena compounds can be used to explain observations. (2.2) Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure Chemical 4: Topic Essential Essential Core</p><p>44 Chemistry guide Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure</p><p>(2.5)</p><p>. onded compounds.</p><p>. metals and metals -</p><p> curricular links: curricular cooking with polar molecules - — organic molecules Use conventions naming covalently to name b</p><p>: —</p><p>Microwaves Aim 3</p><p>Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 10.1 Aims: •</p><p>. . s vector</p><p> metals have differentmetals have properties than compounds that contain non - electrons. troduced a classwhich of compounds share electrons. used the Pauling idea of to explain electronegativity unequal </p><p>Lewis in — compounds containing non —</p><p> lts from thefrom lts differencein <a href="/tags/Electronegativity/" rel="tag">electronegativities</a> of the bonded </p><p> the positively charged nuclei.the positively</p><p>: </p><p>Covalent compounds form by the sharing of :</p><p> cience</p><p> s i dea A covalent bond by formed is the electrostatic attraction a shared between pair of electrons and Single, double covalent and triple bonds involve one, two and three shared pairs of electrons respectively. Bond length decreasesbond strength increases and number of as the shared electrons increases. Bond polarity resu atoms. Deduction of nature of the polar a covalent electronegativityfrom bond values. Bond polarity can be shown either with partial charges, dipoles or Electronegativity values in are given the data booklet in section 8.</p><p>4.2. Covalent 4.2. Covalent bonding ofNature Lookingfor trends and discrepancies Use theories to explain natural phenomena sharing of electrons. (2.2) Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • Guidance: • • Essential Essential </p><p>Chemistry guide 45 Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure</p><p> crease the validity value or of Lewis </p><p>What criteria do we use in assessing the validity of a</p><p>D structure ofD structure molecules andstructure relating to function - curricular links: curricular theory? - — 3 biodegradability of plastics</p><p>: Computer simulations could be used to VSEPR structures. model —</p><p>Does the need for structures resonance de (electron dot) scientific theory? Aim 7 Theory of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Option A.7 Biology topic 2.3 Aims: • </p><p>-</p><p> according pairs</p><p> structures. the development of the model of to explain shape molecular (VSEPR) observable properties. (1.10) — world examples are not limited include to but ructure of molecules ions and showing all structures show the electron domains in the valence shell and are used to predict molecular shape.</p><p> giant covalent/network covalent</p><p>(electron dot) st . </p><p>3</p><p>(electron dot) refers to the tendency of to gain atoms a valence shell a with</p><p>”</p><p> nd O :</p><p> a - 2 3 Lewis : tion of bond angles from tion of bond anglesmolecular andfrom presence geometry of non octet rule science , CO , “ 6 i dea H 6 Lewis (electron dot) structures show all the invalence a covalently electrons bonded species. The total of 8 electrons. atoms,Some like form stablemight Be and B, compounds with incomplete octets of electrons. Resonance structures occur when there isthan one more possiblefor position a double bond in a molecule. Shapes ofspecies the by are determined repulsion of electron to VSEPR theory. and siliconCarbon form Deduction of Lewis valence electronsfor up to four electron pairs on each atom. useThe of to VSEPR theory predict the electron and the geometry domain molecular for geometry species with two, three and four domains. electron Predic bonding pairs of electrons. Prediction from bond of polarity molecular and polarity molecular geometry. Deduction of structures, resonance C 4.3 Covalent structures4.3 Covalent ofNature Scientists models as use representations of the real Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Essential Essential</p><p>46 Chemistry guide Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure</p><p> dots, negative charge buckminsterfullerene) “ 60</p><p> structure can be shown as </p><p> should be used in place of ” (electron dot) (electron</p><p> ovalent bonds should be covered. </p><p> electron domain “ should be covered. </p><p>2 . </p><p>” Explanation of of the properties covalent giant compounds of in terms their structures. term The Electron pairs in a Lewis crosses, combination. or any a dash Allotropes of <a href="/tags/Carbon/" rel="tag">carbon</a> graphite, (diamond, graphene, C and SiO Coordinate c centre</p><p>4.3 Covalent structures4.3 Covalent • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 47 Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure d ize</p><p>How does a special much discussionmuch and the </p><p> fats</p><p>-</p><p> understanding of forces intermolecular to work be attractive forces between their particles could beshow used intermolecular forces to </p><p>— /trans -</p><p> cis</p><p> molecules. </p><p> simulations forces bonding and hydrogen can be used to explainspecial ) curricular links: curricular -</p><p>. using plasticizers controlling biodegradability melting points of </p><p>Computer Computer : dispersion — — — ( 7 3</p><p>The nature ofThe bond the hydrogen is the topic of definitioncurrent the from IUPAC gives sixshould criteria which be used as evidence for the occurrenceof bonding. hydrogen helpvocabulary and hinder the of growth knowledge? Aim interactions — London of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Option A.5 Option A.7 Option B. Biology topics 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.6 with molecules in the body Aims: • -</p><p>< dipole forces ) dipole forces - is an inclusive ” induced and London dispersion ( forces, dipole ) van der van Waals instantaneous “ induced dipole -</p><p> dispersion refers to ( ”</p><p>, dipole, forces ) dipole – polar entities. The term</p><p>- .</p><p> dipole dispersion</p><p>( reater than those that could be attributed to gravity. (2.2)</p><p>: </p><p> forces. ) London The physicalThe properties of molecular substances differentfrom result types offorces between their “</p><p>: dipoleforces bonds. < hydrogen</p><p>- science i dea dispersion ( Intermolecular forces London include bondingand hydrogen relativeThe strengths of interactions these are London Deduction of forceintermolecular the types ofpresent substances, in based on their structure and chemicalformula. Explanation of the physical of properties covalent compounds (volatility, electrical conductivity and solubility) of in terms their structure and intermolecular forces. term The induced dipoleforces that exist or groups betweenatoms any of and atoms shouldfor be used non term, which includes dipole 4.4 Intermolecular forces ofNature Obtain evidence for theories scientific making and testing by predictions based on them interactions. example, molecular For covalent compounds can existliquid insolid the states. To explain and must this, there which are significantly g Understandings: • • andApplications skills • • Guidance: • Essential Essential</p><p>48 Chemistry guide Topic 4: Chemical bonding and structure</p><p> directional - determining nationaldetermining wealth. As </p><p> and the means to extract them, varies to extract them, , and the means</p><p> curricular links: curricular - — water mindedness:</p><p>- use of nanotechnology metals in Global impact of value of extraction precious metals and their Computer simulations could be used of to examples view metallic </p><p>: : : —</p><p>The availabilityThe of resources <a href="/tags/Metal/" rel="tag">metal</a> ingreatly different countries,and factoris a in technologies for develop, the demands different and metals careful change strategies are needed to manage the supply of resources.finite these Aim 1 processes and locations. Aim 7 bonding. International • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Option A.6 Biology topic 2.2 Aims: • • </p><p> d electrons. ize directional bonding. -</p><p> d have enhanced properties.</p><p> the properties of covalentfrom metals and are different ionic substances of and this isformation duenon to the — block elements. - and p -</p><p> of electrons. delocalized (2.2) : </p><p>” Metallic bonds involve a lattice with of cations delocal</p><p> sea : “ a</p><p> science i de ce: A metallic bond is the electrostatic between attraction a lattice of positive ions and delocalized electrons. strengthThe of a metallic depends bond on the charge of the ions and the radius of ion. the metal Alloys usually contain than one an metal more Explanation of electrical conductivity and malleabilitymetals. in Explanationin of melting trendspoints of metals. Explanation of of the properties of alloys in terms non Trends should be limited to s Examples of various should alloys be covered. 4.5 Metallic bonding ofNature Use theories to explain natural phenomena bonds with a Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • Guidan • • Essential Essential </p><p>Chemistry guide 49 Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry</p><p>9 hours</p><p> o use the Fahrenheit for scale (°F) all the energy content of energy the food. lyse</p><p> uld include calculating enthalpy changes from given s and theoreticals and assumptions?</p><p> curricular links: curricular - mindedness: </p><p>- Use of databasesana to Use of datarecord loggers temperature changes. to</p><p> conservation ofmass, changes ofstate conceptthe mole : Experiments: co : : scientific communication. — — -</p><p>The SIThe unit of is temperature the Kelvin (K), but the Celsius scale (°C), which has incremental the same scaling, used in is commonly most countries. The exception is the USA continues which t Whatcriteria do we use discrepancies in judging experimental and between Whichtheoretical of values? ways knowing assessing do we use when experimental limitation Determining content energy of substances important food and fuels.in Aim 6 experimental data (energy content offood, enthalpy of melting of or the ice enthalpy change of reactions simple in aqueous solution). Aim 7 Aim 7 non</p><p>International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 1.1 Topic 1.2 Aims: • • • </p><p>, ,</p><p>. science. (2.6) H° 1 - ∆</p><p> given by should be covered.</p><p>) ° f H ∆</p><p> and formation ( ) ° c H ∆ solution and combustion reactions.</p><p> for reactions chemical in indicated kJ is mol in chemical reactions.</p><p>)</p><p>. measurable energy transfers between systems and surroundings. (3.1) H 𝑇𝑇 — ∆ ∆ (</p><p>𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 conservation ofconservation is energy a fundamental principle of </p><p>= — 𝑞𝑞</p><p>:</p><p>The enthalpyThe changes from chemical their reactions effectcan be calculatedfrom of on the temperature their surroundings. </p><p>:</p><p> science</p><p> values are usually expressed under standard conditions, idea</p><p>H</p><p>Heat isofform a energy. isTemperature of a measure kinetic the average of energy the particles. isTotal energy conserved Chemical reactions transfer that involve of and system the heat between the surroundings are describedas endothermic or exothermic. enthalpyThe change ∆ including standard states. Calculationchange of the whenheat the temperature of substance a pure is changed using experimentA calorimetry for an enthalpy of reactionbe covered and the should results evaluated. Enthalpy changes of combustion ( Consider reactions in aqueous 5.1 Measuring changes energy ofNature Fundamental principle Making careful observations Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • • Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry 5: Topic Essential Core</p><p>50 Chemistry guide Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry</p><p> e aware of this limitation.</p><p>. Temperature is not ofa part the definitionstandard of is commonlyis given as the oftemperature interest.</p><p>298 K</p><p>Standard state refersnormal, pure stablemost to the state of a substance at 100 kPameasured state, but specificThe heat capacity ofwater is in provided the data booklet in section 2. Students the can density assume and specific heat capacities of aqueous solutions are equalof to those water, but should b Heat losses and the heat to thecapacity environment of calorimeter in the experiments should but the beuse considered, of calorimeter is a bomb not required.</p><p>5.1 Measuring changes energy • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 51 Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry</p><p> energy -</p><p> of the applicationof of of the Conservation Energy. include Hess's Law labs.</p><p> synthesis from constituent is elements not possible.</p><p> the same productssame from are formed the the same initial reactants curricular links: curricular -</p><p> conservation of— conservation mass mindedness: - Discuss acceptedsource of the values and use this idea to critique </p><p>: : : Experiments could : Use of datarecord loggers temperature changes. to</p><p>Recycling of materials isan effective of means often reducing the environmental impact of production, but variesterms in in energy efficiency its in different countries. Hess’sis Law an example What are the challenges limitations and of applyingprinciples general to specific instances? Hess’sin significance the Law has study of nutrition,free and Gibbs drugs, whereenergy direct Aim 4 experiments. Aim 6 Aim 7 International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross 2.3 topic Physics Aims: • • • </p><p>− )</p><p> products ° 𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝐻 ∆ ( Σ =</p><p> data. ° 𝑓𝑓 reaction 𝐻𝐻</p><p>∆ 𝐻𝐻 ∆</p><p>Law is s aw to calculate enthalpyaw to changes. L enthalpy change ofenthalpy a reactionof the sum that is multiple </p><p> reactions using of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps.</p><p>. 𝐻𝐻 )</p><p>∆ : </p><p>In chemical transformations can neither energy be created destroyed nor (the first law of thermodynamics).</p><p> based on the conservation of and atomic energy scientists theory, can the hypothesis test that if : — reactants ea °</p><p>𝑓𝑓 science 𝐻𝐻 i d ∆ ( Σ The enthalpyThe change for a reaction that is carriedseries out in a of steps is equal to the sum Application of Hess’s Calculation of Determination of the reactions with changes. known enthalpy Enthalpy offormation data can be found in the section data booklet 12. An application of Hess'</p><p>5.2 Hess's Law ofNature Hypotheses change should energy the then regardless same the be ofof number steps.the (2.4) Understandings: • andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential</p><p>52 Chemistry guide Topic 5: Energetics/thermochemistry</p><p> model, model,</p><p>ΔH values.</p><p> ironmental consequences of ere appropriate. (2.2)</p><p> pollution that causespollution it of comes from a variety regions and </p><p> curricular links: curricular - mindedness: xperiments could be enthalpy of combustion of butane. propane or - Moral, ethical,Moral, social,economic and env Data loggers can be used to record temperature changes.</p><p> covalent structures : E : : : —</p><p>Stratospheric depletion ozone is a particular concern polar inregions the of the planet, although the sources. Internationaland cooperation helped action have to ameliorate the depletionozone problem. sources,Energy such as offossil combustion fuels, high require Aim 6 Aim 7 Aim 8 depletionozone and its causes. International • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 4.3 Aims: • • • </p><p> alculations involving </p><p> ion is exothermic or gases and c breaking requires energy. - energy changes can be explained based on the of model broken and bonds bonds formed. Since these explanations are based on a</p><p> values are given in the data bookletsection in11. — measured </p><p>: y</p><p>Energy isEnergy absorbed when bonds are broken and is released are formed. when bonds</p><p>: forming releases and bond energy</p><p>- science idea lculation changes of the enthalpy from known bond enthalpy values and Bond bond enthalpyAverage is the needed to break energy of one mol a bond in a gaseous moleculesimilar over averaged compounds. Ca comparison of these measured to values.experimentally Sketching and evaluationpotential profiles of energy whether in determining reactants or products stable are more and if the react endothermic. Discussion ofin the bondrelative strength ozone to oxygen in itsimportance to the atmosphere. Bond enthalp bond enthalpiesAverage are only valid for be inaccurate do not take into becausebond enthalpies account they may intermolecular forces. ssential ssential 5.3 Bond enthalpies5.3 Bond ofNature Models and theories agreement with empirical data depends on the sophistication of the and model data obtained can be used theories to modify wh Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • • E </p><p>Chemistry guide 53 Topic 6: Chemical kinetics</p><p>. .</p><p> ic energy energy ic hese 7 hours</p><p> ally stable vs kinetically stable? reaction.</p><p> curricular links: curricular - — metabolism mindedness:</p><p>- everyday uses of catalysts fireworks and ions whereas the artificial Celsiuswhereasscale properties the isartificial on of the based water</p><p> what might be what might thermodynamicmeant by — — enzymes — —</p><p> of gas Depletion ofstratospheric has been caused the catalytic by ozone largely action of CFCs and is a particular concern in the polar T regions. chemicals of a variety from are released regions and sources,international so action and cooperation been needed have to ameliorate the depletion ozone problem. KelvinThe scale gives a natural of temperature measure of the kinet physicalAre properties invented as such temperature or discovered? International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 5.3 Topic 13.1 Option A.3 Option B.2 Biology topic 8.1 although we cannot directly see reactions taking place at the molecular level, we can theorize —</p><p> example of (2.7) this principle.</p><p> to temperature in Kelvin.</p><p>) is) energy the minimum that colliding molecules need in a</p><p>E , a catalystincreases of the rate chemical a reaction, without a E</p><p>: g</p><p>The greaterThe the probability that molecules will andcollide propersufficient with orientation, energy the higher the rate of</p><p>: ration changes infollowed can a reaction bemonitoring indirectly by science idea Species a result react as of collisionssufficient and proper energy of orientation. rate ofThe reaction is expressedchange as in the concentration of a particular reactant/product per unit time. Concent changes and in colour. mass, volume Activation ( energy to haveorder successful collisionsleading to a reaction. decreasinBy itself chemically permanently being changed. Description in of terms the kinetic of theory the movement of particles whose kineticaverage is energy proportional Analysis ofdataexperiments. graphical from rate and numerical 6.1 Collision 6.1 Collision andtheory rates reaction of ofNature principleThe ofis Occam’s used razor as a guide a to theory developing based on the atomic current models. Collision is theory a good Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • • kinetics Chemical 6: Topic Core Essential Essential</p><p>54 Chemistry guide Topic 6: Chemical kinetics</p><p> lyst.</p><p>What of some are the ofcontroversies rate over climate</p><p>: : Why do these exist?</p><p> and 8 Use simulations how molecular to show collisionsare affected by roleThe that catalystsfield play in the of green chemistry. : : : Investigate of the rate a reaction witha cata and without : Experiments could include investigating rates changing by concentration oncentration. </p><p>Aims 1 Aims change? Aim 6 Aim 6 of a reactant or temperature. Aim 7 change of macroscopic properties such temperature, pressure as and c Aim 8 Aims: • • • • • </p><p> of the results. graphs ofchangesgraphs in </p><p> the interpretation of </p><p>Boltzmann energy Boltzmann distribution to account curves for –</p><p> time should time be covered. reaction. against</p><p>Explanation pressure/concentration of the effects of temperature, and particle size of on rate Construction of Maxwell the probability ofcollisions successfulfactors andthese, including affecting the effectcatalyst. of a Investigation of rates experimentally of reaction and evaluation Sketching profiles and explanationenergy of with catalysts. and without Calculation tangentsfrom ofrates reaction of graphs of concentration, volume or mass Students shouldfamiliarwith be concentration, or volume mass against time.</p><p>6.1 Collision 6.1 Collision andtheory rates reaction of • • • • Guidance: • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 55 Topic 7: Equilibrium</p><p> and</p><p> eg 4.5 hours in (5.5) mind. an know? </p><p> ars. litical upheavals oflitical upheavals two world structures (topic 4.3) action are equal. The position of of The position equal. are action dot) d globalfood production. it However, low us to move from low the us to move macroscopic to ize lications of their discoveries? (electron d vocabulary: a closed is system one in which no ize</p><p>.</p><p> affect theand methods findingsaffect Shouldscience? ofscientists be</p><p> arth as it has revolution rge impact on weaponry in impact rge on both weaponry world w E mindedness: -</p><p> ars. He supervised the releaseWorld ofchlorineWar onin the battlefield I w The Haber The process has been described as chemical important the most reaction on also had a la Scientistsinvestigate the world at different scales; the macroscopic and Whichmicroscopic.knowing ways ofal the microscopic? usesChemistry a special is exchangedmatter with the surroundings. Does simply our vocabulary communicate our knowledge; or does it shape what we c career The of Haber coincided Fritz with the po and worked on the production of explosives. social How does the context of scientific work held responsible morally app for the Square brackets in are usedchemistry a range inof contexts: concentrations (topic 1.3), Lewis complexes (topic 14.1) International • of knowledge:Theory • • • Utilization: • </p><p>) c K um is the Q ) can) be c K ) from an equation for from ) a c</p><p>K r r point in time. tems in a state in oftems equilibrium. ) when represented) by</p><p>. the term dynamic equilibriumthe term isother contexts, in used but not necessarily with the chemistry definition </p><p>— relative amount of relative amount products and isotopic and labelling its use (1.8) in defining equilibrium. reaction — . between different constants equilibrium ( equilibrium concentrations. The position of the</p><p>- measures the</p><p>)</p><p>Q at the same temperature at the same (</p><p> action </p><p>: </p><p>Many reactions are reversible. These reactions will reach a state of equilibrium when the rates of the forward reactions re state of the and reverse when of equilibrium the rates reactionsa Many are reversible. will These reach</p><p>: cience s reaction quotient ( idea</p><p>A state isof equilibrium in reached a closed whensystem the rates of the forward reactions and reverse are equal. equilibriumThe law describes how the equilibrium constant ( fordetermined a particular chemical magnitude ofThe the constantequilibrium indicates of the extent at a reaction equilibrium and is temperature dependent. The reactants present during a reaction at a particula equilibrium expression non with equilibrium changes with changes in concentration, and temperature. pressure, A catalyst has no effect position on the of or the equilibri equilibrium constant. characteristicsThe of chemical and physical sys Deduction of constant the equilibrium expression ( homogeneous reaction. Determination of the relationship for re the same equations written inways different </p><p>7.1 Equilibrium ofNature Obtaining evidence for scientific theories languageCommon across different disciplines Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Topic 7: Equilibrium 7: Topic Essential Essential equilibrium can be controlledchanging by the conditions. Core</p><p>56 Chemistry guide Topic 7: Equilibrium</p><p>A case study of Haber can be used Fritz to </p><p> rinciple can rinciple be investigated looking qualitatively by at p</p><p> scientists in society. telier’s curricular links: curricular - â</p><p> cross Animations and simulations can the concept beillustrate used to of Raise awareness ethical, of moral, the and economic implications of the behaviour of behaviour the weak acids bases and : Le Ch : : —</p><p>Aim 6 pressure, concentration changestemperature and on different equilibrium systems. Aim 7 dynamic equilibrium. Aim 8 using science and technology. ofdebate the role Syllabus and Topic 8.4 Aims: • • • </p><p> constant.</p><p> values forvalues reactions that are multiples or inverses of </p><p> c K elier’s principleelier’s the qualitative to predict effects of ât</p><p> plication of Le Ch Ap changes pressure of temperature, and concentration position on the of equilibrium and on the value of the equilibrium Physicalchemical should and systems be covered. Relationship between shouldone another be covered. Specific details industrial of any process are not required. idance: u</p><p>7.1 Equilibrium • • • • G</p><p>Chemistry guide 57 Topic 8: Acids and bases</p><p> the</p><p>6.5 hours d by their languages.by d base theories to develop. –</p><p> excess hydrochloric excess acid in the </p><p> ize is from the derived Arabic word for </p><p> forming in and Greek, reflects - alkali</p><p> means acid links: base theory has theory been developedbase by scientists from </p><p>–</p><p>Oxygene curricular - metal oxidesmetal are responsiblefor acid precipitation mindedness:</p><p>-</p><p> antacids are bases which neutral amino acidsamino acting as amphiprotic species means sourmeans while in Latin, </p><p> the acid/base ofcharacter oxides : Each has theory its and strengths limitations. Lavoisier has been called — — — — non -</p><p>Acidus calcined ashes. mistaken belief that oxygen the element was responsiblefor a compound’s acidic properties. Acid around the world, and its has vocabulary been influence Acid and base be explained behaviour can theories. using different How are the explanationsin chemistry different from explanations subjects in other such as history? Aim 9 the father of but chemistry he was modern mistaken about oxygen in this context. ption B.2 O International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 3.2 Topic 8.5 Option D.4 stomach Aims: • </p><p> gave a compound itsgave acidic allowedfor properties other acid</p><p> base - For example, For Lowry base isLowry a –</p><p>. – 2 Lowry acidsLowry and bases. O – 3 a proton in solution aqueous as H 2 /C</p><p>2 O 4 donor and donor a Brønsted njugate basenjugate in a chemical reaction. + H 2</p><p> both Brønsted</p><p> outside of the arena ofdecisionschemistry, referred are sometimes to as "acid or "litmus test". test" (5.5)</p><p>Lowry acidLowry and base in a chemical reaction.</p><p>— – one early theoryone early of from the acidityderived sensation of a sour taste, false. but this proven had been (1.9) (aq). — ence rather than C + – HCN altering that oxygen the theory HCN was which the element </p><p>O</p><p>3 — Brønsted COO</p><p>3 : the conjugate acidthe or co acidLowry is a proton/H – Many reactionsMany involve the transfer an acid ofproton from a to a base. acceptor.</p><p>+ : (aq) and (aq) H + cience</p><p> s</p><p>COOH/CH idea 3 Brønsted proton/H pair. CH A Amphiprotic species canas act A pair ofspecies differing a single by acid proton iscalled a conjugate Deduction of the Deduction of Lewis is theory not required here. locationThe of the proton transferred shouldclearly indicated. be Students shouldknow the representation of differenceThe amphoteric between the terms and amphiprotic should be covered. both H</p><p>8.1 Theories acids and of bases ofNature Falsification of theories (2.5) Theories being superseded Public understanding of sci Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • • • • Topic 8: Acids and bases 8: Acids Topic Essential Essential Core</p><p>58 Chemistry guide Topic 8: Acids and bases</p><p> base theories. (1.9) base – curricular links: curricular - base titrations – oss The evidenceThe for properties these could beon a basedstudent’s the acid/base ofcharacter oxides enthalpy change of neutralization reactions : — acid — —</p><p>A number ofA number acids and bases are used life in everyday our from rust removers cleaners,to oven from foodsto toothpastes, treatmentsfrom for bee stings to oftreatment wasp stings. Aim 6 experimental experiences. Utilization: • Syllabus and cr Topic 1.3 Topic 3.2 Topic 5.1 Aims: • </p><p> and carbonates. salts.</p><p> tion reactions. iza base titrations with different - are given in the data booklet in are given the in </p><p> hydrogen carbonateshydrogen d depends such evidence on empirical as the production of gases changes in reactions of the colour with metals, indicators or xides, </p><p> observable properties of acids led and bases have to the modification of acid tion of an aci —</p><p>: </p><p> carbonates should be covered.</p><p>The character iza : cience</p><p> s idea Most acidsMost observable have characteristic chemical with reactive reactions metals, oxides, metal hydro metal Salt produced and water are in exothermic neutral Balancingchemical equations for the reaction of acids. Identification ofbase needed the and differentacid to make Candidates should experience have of acid indicators. Bases are not hydroxides, which soluble such ammonia, as carbonates and hydrogen colourThe changes indicators of different section 22. 8.2 Properties of acids8.2 Properties of and bases ofNature Obtaining evidence for theories Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential the release ofin reactions with heat oxides metal and hydroxides. </p><p>Chemistry guide 59 Topic 8: Acids and bases</p><p> language? ” — study of logs scientific “</p><p> base could titration with be monitored an indicator a pH or – curricular links: curricular - acid alkaline solutions./ alkaline Students should be able to use and apply the pH concept in a range of </p><p>: : An concentrations simple a very into number. (2.7) +</p><p>Chemistry Chemistry makes use ofuniversal the language of as mathematics of a means Whycommunication. to ishave important onejust it Aim 3 experimental and theoretical contexts. Aim 6 probe. of H Theory of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Mathematics SL (topic 1.2) and Mathematics HL (topic 1.2) Aims: • • </p><p>-</p><p> at 298 K. 14 eter and universal indicator. − m</p><p>10</p><p>. ] pH = − is not required. ] 𝑤𝑤 − 𝐾𝐾 fold change ion hydrogen in the OH - OH may be applied. may [ values. + . ] and [ +</p><p> pH ] H − pOH [ + H 10 = [ , = 𝑤𝑤 ] 𝐾𝐾</p><p> pH</p><p>+ H instead of H [ + O 3</p><p> and . ] ] ) +</p><p> aq H</p><p>( [</p><p>: +</p><p>H the pH scale is to scale an attempt the relative acidity a wide range over [ he temperature dependence of The pH scaleThe is an artificialscale distinguish used to between acid, and basic neutral</p><p>— : log cience −</p><p> s idea = values distinguishacidic, between neutral and alkaline solutions.</p><p> topic. pH A change of one pH unit a 10 represents concentration pH ionicThe product constant, Solving problems involving Students shouldfamiliarwith the use be of a Students will not on be assessed Students shouldconcerned be only with strong acids bases and in this sub Knowing t Equations involving H 8.3 The pH scale ofNature razor Occam’s Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • • • • Essential Essential </p><p>60 Chemistry guide Topic 8: Acids and bases . (aq), (aq),</p><p>4 SO 2 es, change or </p><p> working qualitatively .8)</p><p> eak acids in exist ciate insolution aqueous </p><p>(aq).</p><p>3</p><p>(aq), NH s involve reversible reactions</p><p>, NaOH )</p><p>(aq</p><p>3 curricular links: curricular - , HNO ) Students should experimental have experience of </p><p> solution chemistry weak acids and base : : : Students could loggers use data to investigate strength of the acid and — — (aq</p><p>The strengthThe of bybe determined an acid the canuse of pH and conductivity probes. In what ways do technologies, which extend our sens reinforce of view our the world? Aim 6 with both strong and weak acids and bases. Examples include: to H Aim 7 bases. HCl Theory of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 1.3 Topic 7.1 Aims: • • — data for a particular of reaction type supports w the idea that</p><p> acid.</p><p> hydrogen hydrogen a weak conjugate n be used interchangeably.n be used </p><p> patternsin and anomalies relative strengthsacids of and bases can at the be molecular explained level. (3.1) . Strong and weak acids and bases also differ — donor anddonor has a weak conjugate base. for of solutions concentrations. equal</p><p> the use of advanced analytical techniques allowed the relative has strength of acids different and bases to be quantified. (1 —</p><p> metals, oxides, metal hydroxides, metal metal : </p><p> and metal carbonatesand metal</p><p>The pH dependsThe on the concentrationthe solution. of acids The strength of depends extent or bases on the to which disso they</p><p>: cience</p><p> s i dea their electrical conductivities</p><p>Strong and weak acids and bases differ in theionization. extent of Strong acids and bases of equal concentrations conductivities higher have than weak acids and bases. A strong acid is a good proton A strong base is acceptor a goodand has proton Distinction between strong and weak acids ofin rates terms of the their reactions with carbonates in termsThe ionization and dissociation ca See sectionin the data 21 bookletfor a list of weak and bases. acids sential sential 8.4 Strong and weak and8.4 Strong bases acids and ofNature instrumentationImproved Lookingfor trends and discrepancies outcomesThe of experiments be used or models may as further evidence for a claim equilibrium. (1.9) Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • Guidance: • • Es </p><p>Chemistry guide 61 Topic 8: Acids and bases be </p><p>These problems </p><p>— bus car use, pooling, etc. al cooperation.</p><p>. Scientific terms have a precise have . Scientific terms </p><p>” — acid deposition production</p><p>— urban stress and the sustainablecity; acid rain “ laden terminology? -</p><p> impact ofimpact acidin different rain countries will help </p><p> the </p><p> environmental change— environmental ns of reducing oxide </p><p> curricular links: curricular dioxide is produced the combustiondioxide by is offuelsfossil high with - mindedness: - ption Urban G: Environments pH change activity and enzyme The effectsThe on different of acid rain construction materials could ur impurities </p><p> f O the acid/base ofcharacter the oxides : : A discussion of : Other mea — <a href="/tags/Sulfur/" rel="tag">sulfur</a> — ental systems and societies topic 5.8 —</p><p>: The polluterThe and polluted country are often country not the Acid same. deposition pollutant is a secondary that affects the from primary far regions source. Solving this problem requires internation All rain is acidic is but not all rain definition.scientific Does simply vocabulary communicate our knowledge in a or canneutral it way have value Aim 6 quantitatively investigated. Aim 8 raise awareness impact of the of environmental pollutant this and secondary the political implications. Aim 8 could be discussed. Global interactions oxides leading to acid rain, which is damaging environment. damaging our is which leading to rain, acid oxides ization: — base properties. Acidis deposition discussed a topic that different canfrom be –</p><p>HL International • of knowledge:Theory • Util Syllabus and cross Topic 3.2 Option B.2 Option C.2 levels of sul Environm Geography Aims • • • sulfur </p><p>. 3 izations. to d by their d by acid itrogen to water ize and HNO 2 reactive metals of 5.6. Acid and n pH , HNO , 4 sulfur dissolve in in dissolve SO 2 , H , 3 combustion methods of and has a oxides - 2 SO 2 sulfur metals can be character - . 3</p><p>SO 2 tion has led to greater production <a href="/tags/Nitrogen/" rel="tag">nitrogen</a> of and ledgreater to tion has understand and to reduce impact the environmental of activities. human (4.8)</p><p> and nitrogen and the effects of deposition acid </p><p> iza combustion and post - and H 4 sulfur SO 2 below 5.6. below</p><p>, H , 2 pH</p><p> oxides of— oxides metals and non : </p><p>, HNO 3 Increased industrial sulfur oxides emissions.</p><p>: roblems cience p s i dea Rain is naturally acidicof CO because dissolved deposition has a Acid whenformed deposition is nitrogen or HNO form Sources of the oxides of should be covered. Balancingdescribe the equations that the combustion of their oxides formation and of the subsequent H Distinction between the pre reducing Deduction ofequationsfor deposition acid acid with deposition and carbonates. 8.5 Acid deposition8.5 Acid ofNature Risks and perspectives. allows Chemistry us to Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • Essential Essential can be reduced through collaboration with national and intergovernmental organ</p><p>62 Chemistry guide Topic 9: Redox processes</p><p> r test.r</p><p> lyse 8 hours d by the Unitedd by ize</p><p> ving electronving transfer, </p><p> bleaching by hydrogen hydrogen by bleaching of clarifying knowledge?</p><p>. What been lost has in and gained this process?</p><p> human right, human ityet is estimated one billion that over </p><p> te. A redox reactionA breatha redox is the basis of the</p><p>. </p><p> are useful when are useful explaining Are artificial redox reactions. </p><p> a usefulway or valid s states mindedness: -</p><p> ng agents such as <a href="/tags/Chlorine/" rel="tag">chlorine</a> or ozone to kill ozone or pathogens. microbial chlorine such asng agents le lack of provision.uses this water supplies Disinfection commonly izi Access to adrinking supply of clean water has been recogn Nationsfundamental as a peop oxid has Chemistry developed a systematic language that has resulted in older becomingnames obsole Oxidation conversion Aerobic respiration, batteries, solarfuel cells,cells, peroxide of melanin household in hair, bleach, offood the browning exposed to air, etc. Driving under the influenceis of alcohol which a global problem resultsin serious accidents. road Natural and synthetic antioxidantsfood in chemistry. Photochromic lenses <a href="/tags/Corrosion/" rel="tag">Corrosion</a> and galvanization similarities to general principles. (1.9) International • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: • • • • • </p><p> group </p><p>-</p><p> equationsin acidic or neutral solutions. -</p><p> ofa compound. in an an atom ion or oxidation) reactions play a key oxidation) role in reactions chemical many play and biochemical processes. – states</p><p> ility of a redoxility reaction of from the activity series or</p><p> changes in the definition and of reduction oxidation from one involving specific elements and (oxygen hydrogen), to one invol numbers represented by Roman represented numerals. by numbers —</p><p>: </p><p>Redox (reduction : cience , used as a ofmeasure the degree ofwater sample. in pollution a s</p><p> metals. i dea Oxidation and reductionbe considered can of in gain/hydrogen terms oxygen loss, transfer change electron or in oxidation number. An oxidizing and a reducing agent reduced is agent is oxidized. Variable oxidation exist numbers for metals transition and for main most activityThe series ranks metals according to the ease which with undergo they oxidation. Winkler The can be used Method tobiochemical measure oxygen demand (BOD) Deduction of the oxidation Deduction of of the name a transition compound from a given metal formula, applying oxidation Identification ofspecies the and oxidized reduced and the oxidizing and reducing agents, in redox reactions. Deduction of using redox reactions half Deduction offeasib the reaction data. non - evidence is used 9.1 Oxidation and9.1 Oxidation reduction ofNature How invokingone to is oxidation numbers examplegood a of scientiststhat way the broaden Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Core 9: Redox processes Topic Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 63 Topic 9: Redox processes Use of </p><p> to itsoxidize ability to other species </p><p> ination of masses, amounts, and volumes</p><p>Winkler to Method measure BOD.</p><p>— redox reactions in physiology products trichloromethane).(eg - difference between ioniccovalent bonding and curricular links: curricular - — xperimental determ oxidation of alcohols Experiments could include demonstrating series, the activity redox Oxidizing agents such as chlorinecan be used disinfectants. as <a href="/tags/Halogen/" rel="tag">halogen</a> reactivity : : — — e —</p><p>: Aim 6 titrations and using the Aim 8 chlorine as a disinfectant is of concern due forming harmful by Syllabus and cross Topic 1.3 concentrations of solutions Topic 3.2 Topics4.1 and 4.2 Topic 10.2 Biology topics 8.2 and 8.3 Aims • • , er roxides . </p><p>Oxidation numbers</p><p>1) and oxygen in pe -</p><p> <a href="/tags/Oxidation_state/" rel="tag">oxidation state</a> are often interchangeably, used though inkler Method to calculate Method BOD. inkler of hydrogen in hydridesof hydrogen metal (</p><p> should with the besignbefore represented given the numb</p><p> state</p><p> states</p><p>1) should be covered. - Solution of a range of redox problems. titration W Application of the Oxidation and number IUPAC does formally distinguish between the two terms. are represented by Roman numerals according to IUPAC. Oxidation eg +2 not 2+. oxidationThe A simple activity in seriesis the data given booklet section in25 (</p><p>9.1 Oxidation and9.1 Oxidation reduction • • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>64 Chemistry guide Topic 9: Redox processes</p><p> cells. ? - real ion half -</p><p>The basic The y. </p><p> some of some these electrolytic processes.</p><p>.</p><p> curricular links: curricular</p><p>- electrochemical cells— electrochemical oxygen fuel cell be used can as source an energy in spacecraft, </p><p>. – mindedness: - Construction of a typicalcell voltaic using two metal/metal Electrolysis experiments couldinclude that salt.of a molten A video</p><p>: : — fuel cells y of knowledge:y</p><p>Research in space often exploration centres factors. on energy hydrogen such as NASA first by those engineered in the USA. The International Space Station is ofa multinational a good example involving project the international scientific community. just an Isabstract energy concept used certain to justify why types ofchanges are always associated with other? Are concepts each as energy such Fuel cells Heart pacemakers Aim 6 Aim 6 could also be used to show International • Theor • Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Option C.6 5.3 topic Physics Aims: • • </p><p> energy, byenergy, bringing about </p><p> exothermic chemical processes electrochemical cells. </p><p> the desire to canproduce by energy be driven socialneeds or profit. (4.5) —</p><p> atory experiments atory involving a typical voltaic cell using two cells.</p><p>-</p><p>:</p><p> ion half - ) cells: )</p><p>Voltaicconvert chemical to electrical energy cells and electrolytic energy convert electrical cells to chemical energy energ</p><p>: cience ea s spontaneous processes. i d Galvanic non - Voltaiccells from spontaneous, convert energy to electrical energy. Oxidation occurs (negative electrode) at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode (positive electrode) a voltaic in cell. Electrolyticcells convert electrical to chemical energy Oxidation occurs (positive at the anode electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (negative electrode) in an electrolyticcell. Construction and annotationof both types of Explanation of how a redox is used reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and how current isconducted in an electrolytic cell. Distinction betweenand electronion flow in both electrochemical cells. Performance of labor metal/metal Deduction ofthe electrolysis the of products salt. of a molten 9.2 Electrochemical cells ofNature Ethicalimplications of research Understandings: Voltaic ( • • Electrolytic cells: • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 65 Topic 9: Redox processes storage of What are the</p><p> s to the development of fuelcells? Although the hydrogen fuelcellconsidered is an environmentally : : Aim 8 friendly, efficient the internal alternative to combustion engine, fuelhydrogen problem. is The use of a major liquid methanol, which can be produced from plants asneutral fuel a carbon doeswhich (one not contribute to the greenhouse effect),fuel in cells has potential. enormous barrier current</p><p>•</p><p>For voltaicFor convention cells, shouldcell diagram a be covered. 9.2 Electrochemical cells Guidance: • </p><p>66 Chemistry guide Topic 10: Organic chemistry The The are net</p><p>11 hours 11</p><p> e of benzene came p, cosmetics, syntheticp, cosmetics, scents and net importers and net importers those that </p><p>What less role do the analytical ways of knowledge play in the </p><p> d to explain of the chemistry life. think Can you of where examples mindedness: -</p><p> e widely regionally throughout the globe, and are complicated the fact by A small proportion of control have the over nations world’s oil resources. interdependence of the countries that are exporters is factor an important in shaping globaland economic policies developments. octaneThe rating (octane can number) be described standard ofas measure a the performance of the fuel in used cars ratings and aircraft. Octane often vary quit that different countries use different of means values. expressing the labelThe “organic chemistry” originates a from misconception that a vital force was neede hasvocabulary developed from similar misunderstandings? Can and should language be controlled ever to eliminate such problems? Kekulé that the claimed inspiration for the cyclic structur a dream.from acquisition ofknowledge? scientific Fractional distillationgreat use of petrochemicals. makes many pesticides,Dyes, explosives, herbicides, soa flavourings.</p><p>International • • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: • • </p><p>. . ogous series.</p><p> format</p><p> other by a common by other structural molecules. full and condensed in </p><p>— PTFE and superglue. (1.4)</p><p> drugs, additivesdrugs, andharmful pesticideshave can effects people on both and the environment. (4.5)</p><p>—</p><p>Organic focuses chemistry of on the chemistry compounds containingcarbon. </p><p>: cience: s</p><p> i dea unit. A homologous seriesseries is a of compounds of family,same with the the generalsame formula, which differ eachfrom Structural formulas can be represented Structural isomers are compounds with themolecular same formula but different of arrangements atoms. Functional groups are the reactive parts of Saturated compounds contain single and bondsunsaturated compounds only contain double or triple bonds. Benzene is an aromatic, unsaturated hydrocarbon. Explanationin of the boilingtrends of pointsa homol of members Distinction between empirical, molecular and structuralformulas. 10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry ofNature Serendipity and scientific discoveries Ethical implications Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • Core chemistry Organic 10: Topic Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 67 Topic 10: Organic chemistry heory, heory, Who should </p><p>— are fossil ment?</p><p> generated molecular -</p><p> ffect the environ a dimensional models of a wide range of -</p><p> uctures, multiple bonds, VSEPR t</p><p> using fossil fuels sourcefossil main of using our as ises fundamentalsome questions </p><p> of alcoholsfuel and biofuels as alternatives to petrol </p><p>— proteins curricular links: curricular - — Lewis dot) str (electron programmes to constructprogrammes three Many productsMany can be obtained fossilfrom fuels to the inherently due organic structure in medicines materials and polymers</p><p> xothermic reactions and bond enthalpies Either use kits model or suitable computer Experiments could include distillation to separate liquids or the use of a areThere consequences in Discuss the use empirical and molecularformulas intermolecular forces : : : : — — — — — e — weak acids B.2 and B.7</p><p>Aim 6 graphics organic molecules. Aim 6 evaporatorrotary to remove a solvent from a mixture. Aim 8 rich chemistry of carbon. ra This fuels too valuable to burn and how do they be responsiblefor decisions making in this regard? Aim 8 (gasoline) and diesel. energy. Syllabus and cross Topic 1.2 Topics4.2 and 4.3 resonance and bond and molecular polarity Topic 4.4 Topic 5.3 Topic 8.4 Option A.5 Options Option D.9 Aims: • • • • -</p><p>. </p><p> s</p><p> chain and branched - hexane as alcohol is the class class is the alcohol as arboxyl.</p><p> halo e known. to</p><p>, alkenes,, alkynes, halogenoalkanes, </p><p>) of) alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, ketones, : alkanes : 2n+2 H n</p><p>. D models (real of or virtual) organic molecules. -</p><p> different classes different</p><p> arenes cyclic alkanes and halogenoalkanes up - Eg for hydroxyl OH, is the functional group where sionstructure ofusing of benzene the physicalchemical and evidence.</p><p> non alkenes up to hexenehexyne. and alkynes compounds up to six (in the atoms basic carbon chainfornomenclature purposes) containing offunctional only one the ether, hydroxyl, groups: carbonyl aldehydes (from or ketones), ester and c</p><p> name. Identification of alcohols, ethers,ketones, aldehydes,carboxylic esters, acids, amines, amides, nitriles and Identification offunctional groups typical in moleculesphenyl, hydroxyl, eg carbonyl, carboxyl, carboxamide, aldehyde, ester, ether, nitrile, amine, alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl. Construction of 3 Application of IUPACin rules the nomenclature of straight chain isomers. Identification secondary of and tertiary carbon primary, atoms in halogenoalkanes secondary and and and alcohols primary, nitrogen tertiary inatoms amines. Discus Skeletalformulas should discussed be course. in the generalThe formulas C (eg alcohols, aldehydes and carboxylicshould acids b distinctionThe between class and names functional needs group names to be made. followingThe nomenclature should be covered: – – –</p><p>10.1 Fundamentals of organic chemistry • • • • • • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>68 Chemistry guide Topic 10: Organic chemistry</p><p>, , n can a have and</p><p> r.</p><p> in countries some to capture the gas as a source problem in countriesproblem many </p><p> lyse</p><p>.</p><p> perfumes, foodflavourings, solvents, nitroglycerin growing —</p><p> curricular links: curricular -</p><p> usage as fuel additives. role in the breatha mindedness: , , dox processes -</p><p> varied uses, varied — polymers — lipids — re he role offruit ethene in ripening. Methane isMethane a greenhouse gas, and its from ruminants release in countriessuch as Argentina <a href="/tags/Brazil/" rel="tag">Brazil</a>, Uruguay, and New Zealand contributes significantly to total greenhouse gas emissions.Landfills are also and a source methane, of technologies are developing of for energy electricity and heat generation. is a misuse Alcohol impact on their economies and social structures. fuels.Alkane usage as T Alcohols Alcohols Esters biofuels and painkillers International • • Utilization: • • • • • Syllabus and cross Topic 9.1 Option A.5 Option B.3 nts and applications of scientific can back research be mapped to key organic chemical </p><p> and</p><p> rich species -</p><p> deficient carbon. - They can undergo can They reactions with acids radical substitution reactions. - A nucleophile is an electron A nucleophile is an</p><p> n reactions.</p><p> esterification (or condensation)esterification (or</p><p> low reactivity and undergo free</p><p>Structure, bonding and chemical reactions involving functionalinterconversions group strands are key in organic chemistry.</p><p> much ofmuch that has the toprogress been made date in the developme cience: — s</p><p> idea:</p><p>Alkanes have Alkenes reactive than are more alkanes and undergo addition reactions. water can <a href="/tags/Bromine/" rel="tag">Bromine</a> be used to distinguish between alkenes and alkanes. Alcohols undergo undergo oxidatiosome Halogenoalkanes reactive are more than alkanes. (nucleophilic) substitution reactions. containingdonates that a it lone to an electron pair Addition consist polymers a wide range of of and form the monomers basis of the plastics industry. Benzene does not readily undergo addition reactionsdoes undergo but electrophilic reactions. substitution 10.2 Functional 10.2 Functional group chemistry ofNature Use of data reactionsfunctional involving group interconversions. (3.1) Understandings: Alkanes: • Alkenes: • Alcohols: • Halogenoalkanes: • Polymers: • Benzene: • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 69 Topic 10: Organic chemistry</p><p> uishing between alkanesuishing between and alkenes, products. - fats as by - trans scusssignificance the of the hydrogenation offood in alkenes the Experiments could include disting : : Di :</p><p>Aim 6 preparing soap and the use of filtration,filtration gravity vacuum (using under a Buchner flask),including purification recrystallization, and reflux distillation, melting point determination and extraction. Aim 8 production including Aims: • • </p><p> sulfur ic to acid)</p><p> nes.</p><p>Explanation ofExplanation distillation isolation in and reflux the of the</p><p> <a href="/tags/Potassium/" rel="tag">potassium</a> dichromate(VI)potassium or potassium manganate(VII) as </p><p> substitution mechanism involvingsubstitution photochemical homolytic fission.</p><p> ylic acid, in the of presence catalyst a (eg concentrated radical -</p><p>Writing equationsfor and incomplete the complete combustion of hydrocarbons. Explanation of of the reaction and ethane with methane halogens of in terms a free Writing equationsfor the reactions ofhydrogen alkenes with and halogens and of alkenes symmetrical halideshydrogen with and water. Outline of of the addition polymerization alke Relationship between ofthe structure to the the monomer and polymer repeating unit. Writing equationsfor combustion the complete of alcohols. Writing equationsfor reactions and the oxidation secondary of primary alcohols (using acidified oxidizing agents). aldehyde and carboxylic acid products. Writing thefor equation the condensation reaction of an alcohol with a carbox an ester.form Writing thefor equation the substitution reactions of halogenoalkanes with aqueous sodium hydroxide. 10.2 Functional 10.2 Functional group chemistry andApplications skills: Alkanes: • • Alkenes: • • • Alcohols: • • • Halogenoalkanes: • </p><p>70 Chemistry guide Topic 10: Organic chemistry</p><p>Free radicals Free should a represented by be 2 and electrophilic substitution reactions not are 2 and electrophilic substitution N</p><p>1 and S N</p><p> radical reactions. substitution - Reference should to initiation, be made propagation and termination steps in free single dot. mechanismsThe of S required. 10.2 Functional 10.2 Functional group chemistry Guidance: • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 71 Topic 11: Measurement and data processing</p><p> case ” tions, cold fusion iza “ 10 hours 10 (ISO) published (ISO) the in 1995. This has been </p><p> o communicate theo communicate full ts. Organization</p><p> correcting and communal publiccorrecting and communal - ing the speed of were flawed. neutrinos </p><p> curricular links: curricular -</p><p> mindedness: -</p><p>The distinctionThe and different rolesClass of Class A and B glassware Consider the moral obligationsscientists t of </p><p>: : : — drug trials uding IUPAC,uding the International Standards </p><p>As a result of collaboration seven international between organ Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement widely adopted in countries most and has been translatedinto several languages. Science been described has as a self endeavour. what extentTo do these characteristics to the other apply also areas of knowledge? Crash of Climate Orbiter the Mars spacecraft. Original results CERNfrom regard Aim 6 could be explored. Aim 8 extent of data, including experimental their uncertainties. The of and Fleischmann Pons 1990s in is the this an example of when was not fulfilled. incl International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Option D.1 Aims: • • </p><p> f the precision, systematic, accuracy, and random errors be interpretedmust through replication. (3.2, 3.4) —</p><p>) to) an appropriate +</p><p>. replicates reliability to ensure</p><p> numerical obtained information from -</p><p> ties in processed ties data, the including use of percentage </p><p>All measurement hasAll a limit measurement ofand precisionaccuracy, and this be taken must into accountevaluating experimental when resul</p><p> cience: s rs. idea: Qualitative data includesnon all observations not measurement from Quantitative data are obtained from measurements, and are always associated errors/uncertainties,with random the apparatus, by determined human and by limitations as such times. reaction Propagation of errors random in data processing shows impact o the uncertaintiesfinal on the result. Experimental design and procedure usually in <a href="/tags/Lead/" rel="tag">lead</a> errors to systematic whichmeasurement, cause a deviation in a particular direction. Repeat trials and measurements will errors reduce but random not systematic erro Distinction between and systematic random errors errors. Record uncertainties as in all measurements a range ( precision. Discussion uncertainties of ways to reduce in an experiment. Propagation of uncertain uncertainties. Discussionsystematic errors of in all work, their impact experimental on the results andcan how they be reduced. 11.1 Uncertaintieserrors and in measurement and results ofNature Making quantitative measurements with Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Topic 11: Measurement and processing data Measurement 11: Topic Core Essential Essential</p><p>72 Chemistry guide Topic 11: Measurement and data processing major or major</p><p> answer should be given to the answer least final </p><p> nificant figures. </p><p> significantfigures in a result figures based is on the in the given</p><p>When adding subtracting, or the </p><p>. Estimation of whether a particular source is of error likelya to have effectminor final on the result. Calculation of percentagewhen the experimental error result can be compared with a theoretical or accepted result. Distinction between and accuracy precision inresults. evaluating numberThe of data. ofnumber decimalWhen places. multiplying dividing or the final answer is given to the least of number sig Note that the data value be recorded must to the precision same as the random error SI units should be used throughout the programme.</p><p>11.1 Uncertaintieserrors and in measurement and results • • • Guidance: • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 73 Topic 11: Measurement and data processing – sheets </p><p> time and rate time – e use ofspread </p><p> wide. used, including th ling. Interpretation ofstatistical these l</p><p> fit lines and gradients. -</p><p> s in many areass such in many as health and education. </p><p> decay graph plot to determine activation determine plot energy to</p><p>Boltzmann frequency distribution;concentration between scientists world plotting software be may – curricular links: curricular - -</p><p> cation mindedness: -</p><p> greenhouse effect; carbon dioxideconcentration and global enzyme kineticsenzyme </p><p> gas volume, temperature,gas volume, pressure graphs : Graph — — first order/ — — Arrhenius — titration curves — — Maxwell</p><p>Charts and graphs, which largely transcend language barriers, can facilitate communi are a Graphs visual representation ofso use data, and sense perception as a ofway knowing. To what extent does their interpretation also on the other rely ofways knowing,such and reason?language as Graphical representations ofdata are widely used in diverse areas such as population,finance climate mode and trends can oftenlead to predictions, and so underpins setting the of policiegovernment Aim 7 ofand the derivation best International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 1.3 Topic 6.1 concentration graphs Topic 16.2 Topic 18.3 Option B.7 Option C.5 temperatures Option C.7 Aims: • ice of ice axes and </p><p> ered as a linear . ata fitlines or curves through data points, </p><p>-</p><p> can be testedcan in experiments whose resultscan be displayed graphically. (2.8) —</p><p>Graphs are Graphs a visual representation of in d trends</p><p> tive trends,tive such variables as that are proportional or inversely cience:</p><p> s idea: scale. Graphical techniqueseffective of means are an communicating the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, and can lead to determination of physical quantities. Sketched graphs labelled have but unscaled axes, and are used to show qualita proportional. graphsDrawn have labelledand scaled in axes, and are used quantitative measurements. Drawing graphs of experimental resultsincluding the correct cho Interpretation of graphs of in terms the relationships and of dependent independent variables. Production and interpretation of best including an assessment ofwhen it can and cannot be consid function. Calculation graphsfrom of quantitiesby measuring slope (gradient) and intercept, including appropriate units. 11.2 Graphical 11.2 Graphical techniques ofNature ideaThe of correlation Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Essential Essential </p><p>74 Chemistry guide Topic 11: Measurement and data processing</p><p> ifferent </p><p> ompound.</p><p> e sensing in physics. on between scientistsin d </p><p> model. (1.10) dimensional of view organs in the - rical formula from percentage composition data </p><p> curricular links: curricular</p><p>-</p><p> mindedness: - the composition of a substance or determine the purity of a c of a the purity of a substancedetermine or the composition</p><p> determination of the empi — lyse Monitoring andMonitoring analysis ofxenobiotics toxins and is in the environment a continuous that involves endeavour collaborati countries. Electromagnetic waves can transmit information that beyond of our sense Whatperceptions. are the limitations ofsense as perception of a way knowing? IR spectroscopy is sensors in used heat and remot Protons in molecules water within cells human can be detected magnetic by resonance giving imaging (MRI), a three body.human International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Topic 1.2 experimental other or from data and determination ofmolecular formula the from data. and experimental formula both the empirical H 1 — for example, spectra are based on the bond vibration</p><p> magnetic resonance and infrared spectroscopy have identificationmade and structural determination </p><p> resonance spectroscopy (</p><p> be understood. , proton nuclear ry structure. H NMR or IR. 1 — mass spectromet</p><p> and to determine the ir and to determine</p><p>Analytical techniques can be used to determine the structure of a compound, ana the structurecompound, ofdetermine a to Analyticalcan be used techniques compounds cience:</p><p> s idea: The degree ofThe unsaturation index or of (IHD) can deficiency be hydrogen used a from determine to molecularformula numberthe of rings multiple or bonds in a molecule. Mass spectrometry proton (MS), nuclear magnetic and infraredNMR) spectroscopy (IR) are techniques that can be used to help identify Determination of a from the IHD molecular formula. Deduction ofaboutinformation the structural features compound from of a percentage composition data, MS, electromagneticThe spectrum (EMS) is in given the data booklet in section 3. regionsThe for employed each technique should operatingThe principlesnot required for of are any methods. these 11.3 Spectroscopic identification organic of compounds ofNature Improvements in instrumentation of compounds routine. (1.8) Models are developed to explain certain not that be observablemay phenomena Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential Spectroscopic techniques are used in the structural identification of organicinorganic and compounds.</p><p>Chemistry guide 75 Topic 11: Measurement and data processing</p><p> effects of the various greenhouse gases on their depend Spectral databases could be used here. the nuclear atom bond enthalpies : : The : — —</p><p>Aim 7 Aim 8 heat radiation. absorb abundance ability to and their Topic 2.1 Topic 5.3 Aims: • • H NMR, 1 For . For</p><p> umbers ofumbers atoms hydrogen in each environment n</p><p> and specific fragments MS (section 28) Integration traces should be covered but splitting patterns are not</p><p>H NMR data H NMR (section 27) The data bookletThe containscharacteristicfor ranges IR absorptions (section 26), 1 only the ability to deduce of the number different hydrogen (proton) environments and the relative is required. required.</p><p>11.3 Spectroscopic identification organic of compounds •</p><p>76 Chemistry guide Topic 12: Atomic structure</p><p> short a . .</p><p>” 2 hours ge Hadron Colliderge Hadron to our method to our of Higgs boson “ image at the atomic level. D - Germer electron diffraction experiment. diffraction electron Germer -</p><p>3</p><p>Werner An electron Heisenberg. can as behave or a wave a curricular links: curricular enthalpy - — mindedness: -</p><p>: Databases could be used for compiling graphs of trends in ionization energies energies in ionization of trends graphs for compiling be used could : Databases s and viruses. The scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) uses a stylus of a — lattice — periodic trends — ionic bonding</p><p> uestioning.” In 2012 two separatetwo 2012 In international working Larthe teams at at CERN independently announced thathad discovered they a particle with behaviour consistent previously predicted with the “What we is observe itself, not nature but exposed nature particle depending onconditions. the experimental Can sense perception give us objective knowledge about the world? de BroglieThe equation shows that macroscopic too have particles wavelength for properties their wave Is to be observed. it meaningful to talk of properties which can from sense be observed never perception? Electron microscopyhas led to many advancesinbiology, such as the ultrastructure of cell single atom to scan a surface and provide a Aim 7 the Davisson for are available and simulations q ms: </p><p>International • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 3.2 Topic 4.1 Topic 15.1 • Ai</p><p> which </p><p> are given in are given the data booklet in 𝑣𝑣</p><p>ℎ</p><p>=</p><p>𝐸𝐸 emission evidence provide spectra for the existence of(1.8) levels. energy —</p><p>) and h . ( 𝑣𝑣 ℎ levels in atoms. - =</p><p>𝐸𝐸</p><p> on energy data foron energy give that information an element shows </p><p> in atoms </p><p>The quantizedThe nature of transitions energy is related states to the energy of molecules. electrons in and atoms </p><p> e of Planck’sconstant </p><p> cience:</p><p> s</p><p> idea: In an emissionan In limitthe spectrum, convergenceof higherat frequency corresponds to the first ionization energy. Trends in firstionization across energy periods the accountexistencefor of energymain levels and sub Successive ionizati relations to electron configurations. Solving problems using Calculation first of the value ofionization the from spectral energy data gives the wavelength or frequency of the convergence limit. Deduction of from itselement the group of an successive ionization energy data. Explanation ofdiscontinuities the trends and first across ionization energy in a period. valu The sections 1 and 2. Use of formula the isRydberg not expectedcalculations in of ionization energy. 12.1 Electrons ofNature Experimental evidence to support theories Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Guidance: • • Additional higher level structure Atomic 12: Topic Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 77 Topic 13: The periodic table—the transition metals 4 hours nalysed using redox </p><p> and Cu do not followpatterns these and are therefore </p><p> incomplete d sublevels.</p><p> perimentally. Transitionperimentally. metals could be a curricular links: curricular - of some countries. oss</p><p> mindedness: - homogeneous and heterogeneous <a href="/tags/Catalysis/" rel="tag">catalysis</a> oxidation of hydrogenation alcohols, of alkenes Economic impact of corrosion the ofiron. redox reactions : : : The oxidation statesof and <a href="/tags/Manganese/" rel="tag">manganese</a>, <a href="/tags/Vanadium/" rel="tag">vanadium</a> for example, could be — — —</p><p>The propertiesThe and uses of transition important the them metals make international commodities. Miningfor factor precious major metals a is in the economies medicalThe symbols for female originate and male from the alchemical symbols for <a href="/tags/Copper/" rel="tag">copper</a> and <a href="/tags/Iron/" rel="tag">iron</a>. What rolethe pseudoscience has of alchemy played in of the science? development modern Aim 6 investigated ex titrations. Aim 8 International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cr Topic 9.1 Topic 10.2 Option A.3 Aims: • • </p><p> the</p><p> with </p><p>14. electrons are - in terms ofin terms unpaired not form ions</p><p> given in section 9 of properties; these are related to their properties all having in section do es , form complexform ions, with it 2 when the s 2 when the</p><p> states of + bond withincomplex ion. a state</p><p> block. (3.1) ransition elements follow certain elements The patterns of behaviour. Zn, Cr - — t coordinate transition ions metal are</p><p> row d row -</p><p> a transition as element </p><p> charges on</p><p> orbitals. -</p><p> of the magnetic properties of the inmagnetic transition metals , and common oxidation, and common states are given block elementsblock </p><p>-</p><p>The transitionThe elements characteristic have </p><p> not considered to be row d - booklet idea: is duction of given the formula charge the oftotal and ligands the ion present. data Transition elements variable have oxidation ligands, coloured have compounds, and displayand magnetic catalytic properties. Zn incomplete d Transition elements show an oxidation removed. Explanation of the of transitionability variableform metals to oxidationstates successivefrom ionization energies. Explanation of the of nature the De Explanation electrons. oxidationCommon 13.1 First ofNature science: Lookingfor trends and discrepancies considered anomalous first in the Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Guidance: • metals transition table—the periodic The 13: Topic Essential Essential Additional higher level</p><p>78 Chemistry guide Topic 13: The periodic table—the transition metals</p><p> orbitals. - logger. orbitals in - data stributed in d spectrometer spectrometer</p><p> curricular links: curricular - (4.1) The coloursThe of a range ofions, complex of elements such Fe, Co, Cr, as Complex ions could be investigated using a electron configuration of and atoms ions : : : : The concentration oftoxic transition ions metal to be carefully needs — photon of light. visible</p><p>Aim 6 Ni and Cu could be investigated. Aim 7 Aim 8 inmonitored environmental systems. levels in a complex electricThe ion. field ligandsof cause may the d - Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 2.2 Aims: • • • </p><p> orbitals in -</p><p> transition ion metal ing the spectrochemical colour observed.</p><p> coloured, as lightis when an absorbed orbitals. -</p><p> he colour of transition complexes metal can the be use explained ofthrough models and based theories on how electrons are di block elements are - — t</p><p> colour can linked to symmetry be explored in the sciences, architecture, and the arts. orbitals the samehave energyin an isolated but splitatom, into two sub —</p><p>- level splits setsinto two of orbitals of different in a complex energy - d</p><p> ate ligands the data given in is booklet in16. section t</p><p> idea: metal and the metal identity of the ligand on the colour of</p><p> series. The d subThe ion. Complexes of d electron is d excited between the colourThe absorbed is to the complementary Explanation of of identity the effect of the oxidation ion, the metal the of number the complexes. Explanation of of the effect ligands different on the splitting of the d transition complexes metal colour and us observed spectrochemicalThe seriesgiven inis the data booklet section in list of 15. A polyden Students are not expected recall to the ofspecificions.colour complex dance: 13.2 Coloured complexes ofNature science: Models and theories (1.10) Transdisciplinary Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • Gui • • Essential Essential complex ionsso of that to split the energy an electron transition corresponds between them to a</p><p>Chemistry guide 79 Topic 13: The periodic table—the transition metals</p><p> orbitals in an d of 3 the</p><p>Only the splittingOnly</p><p> the data booklet in sectionbookletindata the 17. The relationThe between the colour and absorbed observed is illustrated the by colour wheel in Students are not expected know the different to splitting and their patterns relation to the coordination number. octahedralfield crystal is required. </p><p>13.2 Coloured complexes • • </p><p>80 Chemistry guide Topic 14: Chemical bonding and structure 7 hours</p><p> heory, resonancet heory, and ng explanatory power, for </p><p> izi</p><p>What we done as a global have .</p><p>’s structure. structure</p><p> mistry</p><p>(electron dot) structures,(electron VSEPR </p><p> links to a molecule’s and moleculelinks to a curricular links: curricular - — Lewis nce mindedness: - shapes of organic molecules transition che metal as depletion ozone changed time? over</p><p>— — How h to reducecommunity ozone depletion? what extentTo is depletion ozone an example of both a success and a failure forinternational solving an concern? environmental Covalent bonding can be described using valence bondmolecular or orbital To theory. what extent is having alternative ways of describing the same a strengthphenomena or a weakness? actionDrug and scie Vision International • • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Topics4.2 and 4.3 polarity bond and molecular Topic 10.1 Topic 13.1</p><p> theories as need to remain simple as possible while maxim ) is )</p><p> s </p><p> valence more thanmore one bonding - structures to structure alone.</p><p> anations of bondingoften systems sophisticated require more concepts and theories of bonding. FC = (Number of = (Number FC (electron dot) fof the nuclei the bonding atoms. (Number of(Number non - (electron dot) depth expl charge an atom charge an atom would if have all atoms - A resonance is structure one of two or end overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in structures for a molecule or ion that structure with thehaving FC atoms values </p><p>- to -</p><p> on/end bonding theories been modified have Newer time. over (electron dot)</p><p>(electron dot) (electron</p><p>— head -</p><p>½(Number of bonding electrons) - Lewis The . Larger structuresLarger in and more</p><p>) is) the sideways formed by of overlap atomic orbitals, resulting in </p><p>π expanded octets. in a molecule or ion as to opposed being localized between a pair of idea:</p><p> resent a particular molecule or ion. and rep pair Covalent bonds result from the ofoverlap atomic orbitals. A sigma bond ( the direct by formed electron density concentrated between the nuclei A atoms. of the pibonding bond ( electron density and below above the plane o Formal charge (FC) can be used to decide which Lewis dot) structure (electron is several.from The preferred FC is the in the molecule had theelectronegativity. same electrons) electrons) closest is to zero preferred. Exceptions to the octet rule include species some having incomplete octet Delocalizationinvolves electrons that are shared by/between atoms. Resonance involves usingLewis or more two alternativemore Lewis cannot be describedfully with one Lewis Further aspectsFurther of covalent bonding and structure 14.1 ofNature science: Principle razor of Occam’s example the idea offormal charge. (2.7) Understandings: • • • • • Additional higher level bonding and structure Chemical 14: Topic Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 81 Topic 14: Chemical bonding and structure structures predicted by</p><p> heory. Computer simulations can be used to model : : : Global impact of depletion. ozone : ethical,Moral, social,economic and environmental implications of 1</p><p>Aim Aim 7 t VSEPR Aim 8 depletionozone and its solution. Aims: • • • </p><p>) and pi) bonds. (π) </p><p> structures. electron pairselectron atom. on each </p><p>) or pi bonds (π) from the are formed linear .</p><p> x six domains and associated electron bond angles.</p><p>(electron dot) (electron combination of orbitals form atomic to molecular orbitals should be d by CFCs and d by NO</p><p> lyse Prediction whether sigma ( combination of atomic orbitals. Deduction of dot) structures the (electron Lewis of molecules and ionsshowing allfor valence electrons up to six Application ofto ascertain FC which Lewis dot) structure (electron is preferred differentfrom Lewis Deduction of using the VSEPRelectron theory and geometry domain molecular withgeometry five and Explanation of of the wavelength required light to dissociate oxygen and ozone. Description of of the mechanism the catalysis depletion when of ozone cata linearThe covered in the context offormation of the ( sigma Molecular polarities of geometries correspondingfive to and six electron domains should alsocovered. be Further aspectsFurther of covalent bonding and structure 14.1 andApplications skills: • • • • • • Guidance: • • </p><p>82 Chemistry guide Topic 14: Chemical bonding and structure</p><p> relate the bonding in ave the same the same energyave mean as heory, resonancet heory, and bond and Quantum mechanics Quantum involves several </p><p>:</p><p> curricular linkscurricular - (electron dot) structures,(electron dot) VSEPR </p><p> shapes of organic molecules transition chemistry metal</p><p>: Computer simulations could be used orbitals. to hybrid model — — — Lewis</p><p>Hybridization is a mathematical device which allows us to a molecule to itsWhat symmetry. is the the naturalrelationship between sciences,Which and mathematics the natural world? does play symmetry role in the different areas ofknowledge? Aim 7 Theory of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 4.3 molecular polarity Topic 10.1 Topic 13.1 Aims: • </p><p>(electron dot) and sp hybridization. 2 , sp 3 and sp orbitals hybrid in methane, 2 hybridization in valence can bond theory help explain geometries, molecular butlimited. is — , sp 3</p><p> as uncertain</p><p> results thefrom mixing of types of different atomic orbitals on</p><p>Hybridization results the from mixing ofatomic orbitalsnumber the form ofsame to new equivalent orbitalshybrid that can h</p><p> idea: A orbital hybrid atom.the same Explanationformation of of the sp ethene and ethyne. Identification and explanation of the relationships Lewis between structures, electron molecular domains, geometries and types of hybridization. Students need only considerspecies with sp 14.2 Hybridization ofNature science: need The to regard theories theories explaining depending the phenomena, same on specific (2.2) requirements. Understandings: • Applications: • • Guidance: • Essential Essential the contributing atomic orbitals. </p><p>Chemistry guide 83 Topic 15: Energetics/thermochemistry</p><p>7 hours Use of databases to changes involving ionic e changes. and use this idea to critique </p><p> s cycleelectron andtransfer in </p><p> n, rates of evaporation and precipitation </p><p>— carbon cycle, the Kreb</p><p> stoichiometric relationshipsstoichiometric curricular links: curricular - —</p><p> mindedness: -</p><p>Discuss acceptedsource of the values A possible experiment is to calculate the enthalpy either of Use of datarecord loggers temperatur to</p><p> ionization atomic and ionic energy, radii : : : : — — bond enthalpy 1.2 and 1.3</p><p> s biology. The importance The of being to obtain able measurements of something which cannot directly be measured is Borehole significant everywhere. temperatures, snow cover depth, glacier recessio cycles indirect some are among Why indicators of global warming. it is forimportant countries global to combat to collaborate problems like global warming? energy cyclesOther Aim 4 experiments. Aim 6 crystallization the ofheat water or capacity of a cube ofice water when is added to hot water. Aim 7 to source accepted values. International • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic Topic 3.2 Topic 5.3 Aims: • • • </p><p> ides.</p><p> energy cyclesenergy for allow the calculation of values that cannot directly. be determined (3.2)</p><p>— . </p><p> ce, covalent bond and solution. Haber or dissolution cycles. energy - Cl in water. 4 (aq)) can be used for enthalpy/energy of n (section given in 20) are the data </p><p>+ ice and enthalpies.ice hydration M</p><p> replicates reliability to ensure </p><p>(g) + M (section 18), enthalpies ofsolutions aqueous eg Haber cyclesfor 1 and 2 oxides group and chlor -</p><p> atomization, <a href="/tags/Electron_affinity/" rel="tag">electron affinity</a>,latti </p><p> enthalpies </p><p>The concept of the energy change in a single step reaction being equivalent to the summation of smaller steps can be applied be applied can smallersteps of summation the to equivalent singlestep being reaction ina change the energy of concept The lattice </p><p>:</p><p> ng effect ions of some producing covalent character inlargely some cience:</p><p> izi ollowing terms enthalpy/energy should be covered: ionization, atomization, s idea booklet. Representative equations ( hydration, ionization, Enthalpy of solution, hydration enthalpy and lattice are related in enthalpy an cycle.energy Construction of Born Construction cycles of energy lattice from hydration, and solution enthalpy. For example dissolution or NaOH ofNH solid Calculation changes of enthalpy from Born Relate size and charge of to lattions labPerform experiments which couldincludesingle reactions replacement in aqueous solutions. Polar ionicsubstancesassessed. will not be f The electron affinity, lattice, bond, and covalent hydration solution Value for (section 19) and enthalpies of hydratio</p><p>15.1 Energy 15.1cycles Energy ofNature Making quantitative measurements with Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Guidance: • • • Essential Essential compounds. Topic 15: Energetics/thermochemistry 15: Topic Additional higher level</p><p>84 Chemistry guide Topic 15: Energetics/thermochemistry capable </p><p> mics.</p><p> direction of spontaneous change direction of</p><p> earch hypothetical reactions s</p><p>: Use: of databases to re aw curricular links: curricular - L — thermodynamics e energy ise energy a UN initiative with a ofgoal of doubling global and 7 mindedness: - quality of energy , 4 Experiments investigating endothermic and exothermic processes could </p><p>: — — Hess’s — bond enthalpy — equilibrium</p><p>Sustainabl sustainable resources energy 2030. by isEntropy a technical which has term are a precise How meaning. important such technical areas in of different terms knowledge? 1 Aims offree generating energy. Aim 6 be run numerous times to compare reliability of repetitive data and to compare theoretical values. ization: International • of knowledge:Theory • Util Syllabus and cross Topic 5.2 Topic 5.3 Topic 7.1 Option C.1 Physics B.2 option Aims: • • . </p><p>) Sº rs as a result of developments in statistics and(2.2) probability.</p><p> change </p><p> values (</p><p> alculation of ), and absolute), </p><p>ΔS</p><p> standard entropy ΔG. affect </p><p>), change), in entropy ( ) from given ) ΔH in predicting spontaneity and c</p><p>° 𝑆𝑆 ∆ 𝑇𝑇</p><p>− the idea of has through entropy the yea evolved</p><p>° change willchange in result an increase or decrease in entropy — 𝐻𝐻 relates that can the energy be obtained a chemicalfrom ∆ ) </p><p>G l entropy ofl the universe entropy at the expense available of energy to do useful work. This as known is the second law of thermodyna = °</p><p>. 𝐺𝐺 to position of equilibrium.to position of )</p><p> entropy changesentropy ( ΔS ∆ T</p><p>( of ΔG ) ) refers to the distribution of availablethe particles. among energy A reaction is spontaneous if the overall transformation <a href="/tags/Lead/" rel="tag">leads</a> to an increase in total entropy (system plus surroundings). entropy total The increase in spontaneousoverallleads to an transformation if the Ais reaction</p><p>S cience:</p><p> s idea: is a convenient to take way into account both the direct entropy</p><p>Entropy ( Entropy more waysThe can the energy be distributed the higher the entropy. Gibbs free ( energy reaction to the change ( in enthalpy temperature ofEntropy gas>liquid>solid conditions. same under Prediction of whether a consideringby the states reactants of the and products. Calculation Application of various conditions and temperature of enthalpy that will affect this. Relation of Examine various reaction conditions that ΔG resulting the from transformation ofchemicals, the indirect and the entropy change ofsurroundings the as a result of the gain/loss heat energy. of Thermodynamic data is given in section 12 of the data booklet. 15.2 Entropy and spontaneity ofNature Theories can be superseded Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Guidance: • • • Essential Essential always increases the tota </p><p>Chemistry guide 85 Topic 16: Chemical kinetics ic </p><p>Sulfur</p><p>. ic acid. 6 hours e collisions collisions e sulfur equations</p><p>2 N s a linearchain of elementary</p><p>1 and S N</p><p> ic theories? be certain Can we ever in science? especially S</p><p> closely mirrored a country’s mirrored economicclosely health for a long time. curricular links: curricular - enzymes enzymes acting as catalysts — ts to investigate factors which influence rate mindedness: - killinginhibitors. agents and organic mechanisms Databases, data loggers and ICT applications other can be used to -</p><p>: — catalysts — ng explanatory power. The low probability of three molecul izi</p><p>The firstThe was catalyst usedforindustry in the production of acid production What current indicators are some of a country’s health? economic Reaction mechanism can be supported indirectWhat by evidence. is the role of empirical evidence in scientif Cancer research is allidentifying about mechanisms; for carcinogens as as well cancer Aim 7 research proposed mechanisms for lab work and performed out to carry virtual experimen nt to the slowest step ofnt to the slowest stepthe reaction. International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 20.1 Option A.3 Biology topic 8.1 Aims: • is equivale equation . The order of wer activationwer </p><p> the number ofthe number reactant particles </p><p> step. ing graphicalfor first representations zero, ) is affected temperature and its by units are k lys (</p><p> can be either integer fractional or nature in newer theories need to remain as as simple possible maxim while</p><p> determining - —</p><p>:</p><p>Rate expressionscan only be determined empirically and these limit possible reaction mechanisms. In particularcases, such a</p><p> science second reactions. order idea: eactions occur by may thanmore one step and the slowest step determines R the rate of reaction determining step/RDS). (rate molecularityThe of an elementary step is taking part in that step. of order The a reaction a reaction can respect describe, to a reactant,of with the number particles taking part in the rate Rate equations can onlyexperimentally. be determined value ofThe constant the rate the from determined overall of order the reaction. Catalysts alter a reaction mechanism, introducingwith a steplo Deduction of expressionfor the rate experimental from an equation data and solving problems involving the rate expression. Sketching,identifying, and ana and Evaluation of proposed mechanisms reaction to be consistent with kinetic and stoichiometric data. energy. 16.1 Rate expression reaction and mechanism ofNature Principle razor of Occam’s stepwisemeans reaction likely. mechanisms are more (2.7) Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • kinetics Chemical 16: Topic Essential Essential reactions, no equilibria one significant and only activation the rate barrier, Additional higher level</p><p>86 Chemistry guide Topic 16: Chemical kinetics</p><p> should be concentration graphs. step reactions;showing the </p><p>-</p><p>. against </p><p> profile determining step. - time and rate time determining step isstep not the first - against determining step in the -</p><p> in the rate a E</p><p> higher Calculations to will orders be limited with whole number values. Consider concentration Use potential level profiles energy illustrate multi to Catalysts in are involved the rate Reactions where the rate considered. experiment whichAny allows students concentrations to vary to see the effect equation a rate is and hence determine appropriate. upon the rate 16.1 Rate expression reaction and mechanism Guidance: • • • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 87 Topic 16: Chemical kinetics data can be lyse reaction than</p><p> hypothesisand enzymes the of to explain the effect of temperature </p><p> lock and key”</p><p>Use of simulations and virtual experiments to study effect of curricular links: curricular : - nship between the “</p><p> and 7 Experiments could include those involving the collection of temperature Graphing calculatorscan to easily be employed input and ana</p><p> and frequencyand factor values. : :</p><p> a — collision theory E</p><p> for The flashingThe light offireflies produced is a chemical by processinvolving enzymes. relatioThe Arrhenius equation. 4 Aims andtemperature steric factors on rates of reaction. Aim 6 readings to obtain sufficientdata for a graph. Aim 7 Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Topic 6.1 Aims: • • • emperature ofemperature a reaction greater a much haseffect ofrate on the . </p><p>A ln +</p><p> a E RT -</p><p>=</p><p> k and intercept, — changing the t account the</p><p> ln</p><p>/ R / a E</p><p>– determined thefrom determined effect of on reaction temperature rate. ) ) takes into A data booklet.</p><p> step reactions showing the RDS in </p><p>- . 𝑎𝑎 𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 − 𝑒𝑒</p><p>𝐴𝐴</p><p> is given in the ) 1 = 1 𝑇𝑇 𝑘𝑘 − exponential factor) ( - 2 1 𝑇𝑇 is a linear plot is with gradient ( k 𝑎𝑎</p><p>𝑅𝑅 𝐸𝐸</p><p>=</p><p>1 2</p><p>𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘</p><p>. ln A</p><p> against ln </p><p> ln</p><p> us equation uses the temperature dependence of constant the rate + 1/T</p><p>The activationThe of energy a reaction can be a</p><p>E RT its on collision effect rates. resulted of This development in the the Arrhenius equation which proposes a quantitative model -</p><p> ing graphical of representation in form the Arrhenius itslinear equation </p><p> ata. cience:</p><p> s = by lys idea:</p><p>. k A ln ln The Arrheni The activationthe determine to energy. A graph of frequencyThe factor pre (or frequency ofcollisions orientations. with proper Ana Using the Arrhenius equation Describing the relationshipsbetween temperature and rate constant;frequency factor of and complexity moleculescolliding. Determining and evaluating values of and frequency activation energy factors from d levelUse energy diagrams to illustrate multi the diagram. Consider various data sources in using the linear expression expressionThe 16.2 Activation energy 16.2 energy Activation ofNature Theories can be supported falsified or theories and replaced new by explained change on reaction rate. (2.5) Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential</p><p>88 Chemistry guide Topic 17: Equilibrium</p><p>.</p><p>Is this 4 hours n problem solving?n problem um systems.um chemical equation. What the </p><p> depends on the temperature</p><p>— buffer calculations curricular links: curricular -</p><p> sp weak acid equilibria and base — K stoichiometric equations — — equilibrium — 7.1 The equilibriumThe law can be deduced assuming by that of the order the forward and backward reaction matches the coefficientsin is the role of deductive in reasoning science? Wecan use successfully mathematics to model equilibri because we create mathematics reality or because to mirror the reality is intrinsically mathematical? problemsMany in science only be solved can when assumptions are made whichWhat simplify the mathematics. i is the role of intuition conceptThe in dynamic ofclosed equilibriumsystem a can be applied to a ofrange systems in the biological, sciences. and human environmental Theory of knowledge:Theory • • • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 1.3 Topic Topic 18.2 Option A.10 Options B.7 and D.4</p><p>. c K</p><p>. 𝐾𝐾 ln</p><p>− 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅</p><p>= ᴏ G</p><p>∆</p><p> equilibrium constant equilibrium can . </p><p>𝐾𝐾 ln</p><p>− 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅</p><p>= ᴏ G</p><p>∆ is data booklet given in the in section 1.</p><p>. . rinciple to be applied. (1.8, 1.9) (1.8, rinciple to be applied. 𝐾𝐾 experimentally determined expressions rate and backwardforward for reactions canthe stoichiometric be deduced from directly p ln lnK</p><p>—</p><p> and the equilibrium constant. and the equilibrium RT ᴏ - − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 G</p><p> telier’s ∆ =</p><p>â = ᴏ</p><p>ᴏ G G Ch ∆ nciple fornciple in changes concentration explainedcan be the by ∆</p><p> ri</p><p> p</p><p>:</p><p>The The position of can equilibrium be the quantifiedequilibrium by law. The equilibrium constantfor a particular reaction only</p><p> telier’s â quantitative reasoning</p><p> science idea: Le Ch equilibrium law. positionThe of corresponds equilibrium to a maximum value of and a entropy in theminimum value of the Gibbs free energy. GibbsThe free change energy of a reaction and the the related reaction and are positionboth be used to measure an equilibrium of the equation,by Solution of homogeneous equilibrium problems using the expressionfor Relationship between Calculations using the equation expressionThe Students will not be expected the to derive expression useThe of quadratic equations will not be assessed. 17.1 The equilibrium law ofNature Employing equations and allow Le Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • • • Additional higher level Topic 17: Equilibrium 17: Topic Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 89 Topic 17: Equilibrium</p><p> for an esterification reaction and other concept of equilibrium a dynamic can with be illustrated computer</p><p>The equilibriumThe constant : : The</p><p>Aim 6 reactions could be experimentally investigated. Aim 7 animations. Aims: • • </p><p>17.1 The equilibrium law </p><p>90 Chemistry guide Topic 18: Acids and bases base –</p><p>10 hours 10</p><p>For example, do For we judge </p><p> different theories.</p><p> covalent moleculescovalent and Lewis dot diagrams curricular links: curricular edness: - —</p><p> mind</p><p>- transition complexes metal Transition complexes metal could be experimentally explored. Animations can be used to distinguish between the different acid</p><p>: : base has theory developed from the ideas of from different people parts — — nucleophiles –</p><p>Acid of the world through both collaboration and competition. phenomenon same The can be exploredsometimes from different perspectives, and explained by competing theories their universality, by simplicity or elegance? Aim 6 Aim 7 theories. International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topics4.2 and 4.3 Topic 13.2 Topic 20.1 Aims: • • </p><p> base theories canbase be extended theories to a wider field of applicationsconsidering by lone pairs of electrons. </p><p>– — acid</p><p>Lowry but extends it. (2.5) – Lowry and LewisLowry acidsbases and should be se theory to inorganicse theory and organic to chemistry – ba –</p><p> acid ’</p><p> base conceptcan be extendedto reactions proton transfer. that do not involve – a lone pair and acceptor a Lewisa lone base pair donor. is a</p><p> supported, falsified replaced or new theories by</p><p>The acid The cience:</p><p> s idea: A Lewis acid is When a Lewis base reacts a Lewis with acid a coordinatebond formed. is A nucleophile is and an a Lewis base electrophile is a Lewis acid. Application of Lewis identify the role of species. the reacting Both organic and inorganic should examples be studied. Relations between Brønsted discussed. 18.1 Lewis bases acids and ofNature Theories can be Lewis doesn't theory falsify Brønsted Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • Guidance: • • Additional higher level and bases Acids 18: Topic Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 91 Topic 18: Acids and bases re. re.</p><p> base pairs</p><p>–</p><p>— buffers curricular links: curricular -</p><p> mindedness: - The propertiesThe of and weak strong acidscould be investigated conceptpH the strong and weak acids and bases : — conjugate acid — —</p><p>Mathematics is The language. a universalmathematical of nature this topic helps chemistsspeaking native languages different to communicate more objectively. Aim 6 experimentally. International • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 8.1 Topic 8.3 Topic 8.4 Options B.7 and D.4 Aims: • </p><p> b , a K , p K , a and B.7 </p><p> and p</p><p>K b</p><p> s b K</p><p>, K , a K , p , ) and a weak) </p><p> a a K , pOH, K , base reactions. Numerical problems can be simplified by making baseassumptionsby the reactions.relative Numericalsimplifiedconcentrations problems can about be ), and between and ),</p><p>– a pH K log (aq)], (aq)], – only be assessed inonly option . = -</p><p> a w</p><p>K p pplication equilibrium of the law allowsstrengths of and be determined acids and bases to related to their molecular structu = K b is (</p><p> a K constant of a weak acid ( — a be applied to acid be applied to × K</p><p>(aq)], [OH (aq)], a + K [H</p><p> and p</p><p> a K involving</p><p>). b</p><p> depends on the temperature. K</p><p> w</p><p>. K b log The equilibrium law can equilibrium The . </p><p>K )</p><p> ons. b = - cience: K b</p><p> s K idea: . p b and p b K base ( p is ( The expressionThe for the dissociation a conjugate acidFor base pair, relationshipThe between Solution of problems Discussion strengths of the relative of acids and basesvalues using of value The calculationThe solutions ofin buffer pH will and D.4. examplesOnly involving the transfer one of proton willassessed. be Calculations of pH at temperatures than other 298 K can be assessed. Students shouldstate when approximations are used in equilibrium calculati useThe of quadratic equations will not be assessed. K</p><p>18.2 Calculations involving acids and bases ofNature Obtaining evidence for scientific theories (1.9) Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • • • • • • of the involved. The usespecies oflogarithms is also significant here. Essential Essential</p><p>92 Chemistry guide Topic 18: Acids and bases by using by a conductivity rtificial representation? base. An indicator with an an indicatorbase.with An</p><p> of an indicator.</p><p> a K</p><p> tric/conductiometric titrations curricular links: curricular - of and investigation a weak preparation acid, buffer of a solution and What are the unusual features mathematical of Students a pH curve? Experiments could include investigation of pH curves, determination of </p><p>Data logging, databases, spreadsheets and simulations can all be used. </p><p> a or a temperature probe. thermome</p><p>: : — K —</p><p> probe Is an a pH curve accurate description or an a of reality Does science offer a representation of reality? Aim 6 t he p of determination the p the Aim 7 example, the For equivalence point could be determined Theory of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 5.1 Topic 16.2 should alsofamiliar with the be use oflogsusing natural when the Arrhenius expressionin topic 16.2 Aims: • • </p><p> development intechnologydevelopment pH meter has allowedreliablefor more and ready ofmeasurement — of the reaction. n the equivalence point tion of a weak acid/base </p><p> base indicator, base which is a iza –</p><p> ffer solution.</p><p> base buffer alwaysbuffer remains the same, – gate, or by partial neutral by gate, or</p><p> and bases. value. value. s a K</p><p> base pair have different have base pair colours. – /base. between the pH range of an acid</p><p> acid</p><p> pH curves can be investigated experimentally but are mathematically determined by the dissociationbe pH curvesinvestigatedby experimentally can determined but mathematically and acid are constants of the baseor no change resultlittle in in pH. </p><p> base indicatorweakbase acid a is or a weak the components base of where – or cience: s characteristics of the pH curves produced the different by combinations of buffer region on the represents pH curve the region where small additions idea:</p><p>The The strong and weakacid An acid the conjugate acid relationshipThe weak acid, and p its The of acid compositionThe and actionof a bu generalThe shapes of of graphs for pH against volume titrations involving strong and weak acids and bases with an explanation important of their features. Selection of an appropriate indicator for a titration, give of the titration and the of end point indicator. the While the of nature the acid solutions can be prepared by either mixing a weak acid/base with a solution of a salt containing its conju with a strong Prediction of the relative pH of byformed salt aqueous the different solutions combinations ofstrong and weak acid and base. . (3.7) 18.3 pH curves 18.3 pH ofNature Increased power of instrumentation and advances in available techniques pH Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Essential Essential appropriate end point can be used the toequivalence determine point </p><p>Chemistry guide 93 Topic 18: Acids and bases</p><p>Important Important</p><p>(aq) -</p><p>OH</p><p> one proton willassessed. be </p><p>(aq) - (aq) + (aq)</p><p>= pOH. + b Colour B B B K (aq) + In + (aq) + listed in the data bookletin section 22. </p><p>Colour H</p><p>= pH or p = pH or a K p</p><p>± 1. a K Colour A </p><p>Colour A intercept with pH axis equivalence point buffer region points where HIn(aq) colourThe change can be considereda to take of over place range p BOH(aq)</p><p>Only examplesOnly involving the transfer of features are: – – – – an indicatorFor which is acid: a weak – – an indicatorFor which is base: a weak – Examples ofindicators are Salts fromformed the four possible combinations and weak of strong acids and bases shouldconsidered. Calculations be are not required.</p><p>18.3 pH curves 18.3 pH Guidance: • • • • • </p><p>94 Chemistry guide Topic 19: Redox processes s ’ 6 hours up of the - tional community</p><p>Would our scientific </p><p> efficient microbialfuel cells -</p><p> act assources energy alleviating the world</p><p> problems involving Avogadro’s of constant, amount substance </p><p> curricular links: curricular How do national governments and the interna - —</p><p> mical processes in dentistry. micalin processes mindedness: -</p><p> redox processes</p><p>— Many electrochemicalMany cells can problemsenergy cells but some suchsuper as (also(MFCs) termed biological fuel clean cells)contribute can to environment. decide on research prioritiesfundingfor purposes? SHEThe is an example of arbitrary reference. an knowledge be the if same chose we different references? Electroplating. Electroche Rusting of metals. International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • • • Syllabus and cross Topics1.2 and 1.3 and the ideal gas equation Topic 9.1</p><p>. ) Eº the of the SHE is º spontaneous - E</p><p> ectlayer.a thin with metallic termed the termed cell potential (</p><p> or 100 kPa for gases. 3 - is negative indicative of a spontaneous º) is of the potential (voltage) º </p><p>E G is positive indicative ofa non scientists collaborated have to work on electrochemical cell to consider have technologies and the environmental and ethical </p><p>º The EMF is EMF The is 0. — G</p><p>º electrode potentials and the standard electrode. hydrogen (3.1) G —</p><p> hydrogen ion gashydrogen and hydrogen at 100 kPa and 298 </p><p>3 - is positive,</p><p>º ells and microbial fuel and microbialells (4.5) cells. E electrolysischarge on the ion and affect of the amount is negative, is 0, then is º º duced to hydrogen at the cathode. E E</p><p> equation under standard conditions relative to measured the </p><p>When - . °</p><p>Energy conversions between electrical and chemical energy lie at the core of electrochemical cells. of electrochemical core the at lie energy chemical and electrical between conversions Energy When When </p><p>𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛</p><p>− cience:</p><p> s =</p><p> idea: ° 𝐺𝐺 0 V. A voltaic cell force generates an electromotive resulting (EMF) in the movement of the from anode (negative electrons electrode) to the cathode (positive electrode) the via external circuit. standardThe hydrogen electrode consists (SHE) <a href="/tags/Platinum/" rel="tag">platinum</a> electrode of an inert in contact with dm 1 mol K. The standard electrode potential ( reduction half SHE. Solute concentration dm 1 mol is Whensolutions aqueous are electrolysed, water can be oxidized to oxygen at anodethe re and ∆ process. process. duration ofCurrent, product formed at the electrodes during electrolysis. Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an obj</p><p>19.1 cells Electrochemical ofNature quantitativeEmploying reasoning Collaboration and ethical implications implicationsfuelc of using Understandings: • • • • • • Essential Essential Additional higher level Redox processes 19: Topic</p><p>Chemistry guide 95 Topic 19: Redox processes</p><p> up. up -</p><p> water treatment. free waste -</p><p> produce electrical to power electrical energy They can assist They in clean environmental </p><p> environmental protection;environmental waste treatment and microbial fuel — spontaneity of reaction a Biologicalfuel can cells : — Nernst equation —</p><p>Aim 8 devices, houses,factories etc. Microbial fuel powered cells by (MFCs) microbes in sewage can clean sewage result which in may cost</p><p>Topic 15.2 Option C.6 Biology option B.3 cells Aims: • </p><p>Explanations </p><p> values. o et in sectionet in 2. E ate etc) and water usingate </p><p> f ) using) standard electrode o G </p><p> is given in the data bookl 1 - energy changes ( electrodes and copper electrodes. - should be understood. ”</p><p> values, nature ofvalues, nature the electrode and concentration of the</p><p>º E is given in the section data booklet in 1.</p><p>°</p><p> cells in series “ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 −</p><p> esses. = ° xplanation of the products formed during the electrolysis of aqueous solutions. 𝐺𝐺 Calculationcellusing of standard potentials electrode potentials. Prediction of whether a reaction isspontaneous or not using Determination ofstandard free potentials. E labPerform experiments that could reactions include single replacement in aqueous solutions. Determination of ofamounts the relative productsformed during electrolytic proc Explanation electroplating. of the process of Electrolytic shouldcovered in processes theory to be include the electrolysis of aqueous solutions chloride, sodium (eg copper(II) sul both inert platinum or graphite should refer to electrolyte. ∆ Faraday’s constant = 96 500 C mol term The</p><p>19.1 cells Electrochemical andApplications skills: • • • • • • • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>96 Chemistry guide Topic 20: Organic chemistry 12 hours 12 Additional higher level chemistry Organic 20: Topic</p><p>Chemistry guide 97 Topic 20 – Organic chemistry</p><p>Core Core</p><p> ct (eg fading of tomato chniques), separations and extractions. riments of synthetic organic exploring reactions various electrophilic reaction addition of bromine). — Synthesis reaction) (or in of the laboratory an example of a widely used : A range of expe : Aim 6 types of reactionsfunctional group interconversions and could be done. techniques couldchemistry of organic include distillation,filtration, reflux, purificationchromatographic (including te Aim 6 drug or medicine (eg aspirin) a household or produ ketchup</p><p>• • 2 N</p><p>1 and S N</p><p> and sodium </p><p> ossible carbocations in the solvent.</p><p> d to reduce carboxylic acids)</p><p>(use bonds around its ring. Each carbon to carbon bond </p><p></p><p> of 1.5. Benzene is susceptible to attack by electrophiles.</p><p> s of organic reactions logenoalkanes aqueous with sodium hydroxide in terms ofS Markovnikov’s rule can be appliedproduct to predict thein major electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes unsymmetrical with hydrogen halides and interhalogens. The formation ofproduct the major can be explained ofin stability terms the relative of p reaction mechanism. Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon compound (or arene) and has a delocalized structure of has a bond order Carboxylic acids can be reduced alcohols to primary the aldehyde). (via Ketones can be reduced alcohols. to secondary Typical agents reducing are <a href="/tags/Lithium/" rel="tag">lithium</a> hydride <a href="/tags/Aluminium/" rel="tag">aluminium</a> borohydride. Explanation hydroxide of is why a better nucleophile water. than Deduction of of the mechanism the reactionsnucleophilicsubstitution of ha mechanisms. Explanationhow the rate depends of on the identity of the halogen (ie the leaving the whether halogenoalkane group), is primary, secondary or tertiary and the choice of Outline of the difference protic between and aprotic solvents. Deduction of of the mechanism the electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes with halogens/interhalogens halides.and hydrogen </p><p>20.1 Type • Electrophilic Reactions: Substitution • Reduction Reactions: • andApplications skills: Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions: • • • Electrophilic Addition Reactions: • 98 Chemistry guide Topic 20: Organic chemistry</p><p> uric uric f</p><p> dimensional - 1 reactions. stage reaction. - N more precisemore such details </p><p>,</p><p> dash three hooks in reaction mechanisms - - via a twovia</p><p> containing compounds: aldehydes olytic fissionfor S ) and wedge ) - phenylamine phenylamine</p><p>+ and </p><p> nts, refluxnts, etc.). However d. ize</p><p> where appropriate in explaining reaction mechanisms.</p><p>, usingsuitable agents. reducing s of organic reactions cohols Deduction of of the mechanism the nitrationsubstitution) (electrophilic reaction ofmixture of (using benzene a concentrated acid nitric and sul Writing reduction reactions of carbonyl andand secondaryketones to primary alcohols and carboxylic acids to al Conversion of nitrobenzene to Reference should to heter be made differenceThe between homolyticfission and heterolyticshould be understood. differenceThe between curly arrows and fish should be emphas Use of charges partial ( representations (using tapered bonds as shown below) should be encouraged Typical conditions and reagents of known reactions all (eg should be catalysts, reducing age as specific need not be temperatures included. acid). 20.1 Type Electrophilic Reactions: Substitution • Reduction Reactions: • • Guidance: • • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 99 Topic 20: Organic chemistry</p><p>1.3) What . o a like manner. ( - Explore some ia a synthetic route compound v compound</p><p> think in a reverse thinkin om natural sourcesom and include </p><p> approach is oftenin used the design synthetic routes of synthesis and the to ability</p><p>- — organic chemistry curricular links: curricular - mindedness: - synthetic Multiple stage synthetic organic t (up series route of experiments</p><p>- : : ral products are compounds isolated fr re important to the important re developed world.</p><p> axol, mescalinecapsaicin. and t How important areHow important natural products to developing countries? specific examplesproducts of natural available in countries developing which a A retro are the roles of imagination, intuition and reasoning solutionsfinding in to practical problems? Natu Aim 6 ofmaximum four stages). International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topics 10.1 and 10.2 Aims: • topic - in topicin 10 and sub</p><p>Functional group interconversions are</p><p> step syntheticstep routes given starting reagents and the -</p><p> in synthetic design, the thinking process of which the chemistorganic one is invokes retro</p><p>—</p><p>Organic synthesis the is systematic preparation of a compound from a widely available starting materialthe synthesis or of a types can of cover any the reactions covered </p><p> cience: synthesis ofcompounds. organic </p><p>- s</p><p> idea: eaction 20.1. The synthesisThe ofstems an organiccompound from a readily available starting a series via material of steps. discrete the basissuch ofsynthetic routes. Retro Deduction of multi product(s). Conversions than with more four stages will not be assessed in synthetic routes. R 20.2 Synthetic routes 20.2 Synthetic ofNature Scientific method Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • Guidance: • • Essential Essential that ofteninvolve a series can of steps. different </p><p>100 Chemistry guide Topic 20: Organic chemistry</p><p>- three</p><p> n body is chiral. (4.1)</p><p> imilarities and differences d multiplicity (iesingle, whether ines as serve whichmay good </p><p> aproxen.</p><p> n dimensions. Whatdimensions. are the s</p><p>Which ofways knowingconnect allow us to indirect </p><p> two</p><p> hyroxine and t mindedness: Can you thinkCan you drugs of or medic any</p><p>-</p><p> isomerism canisomerism be investigated physical by What models. and computer Have drugs Have and medicines countries some in been sold administered as and racemates instead ofdesired as enantiomer with the the associated therapeutic activity? casefor studies this? existenceThe isomers indirect ofprovide optical evidence for a tetrahedrally atom. bonded carbon evidence to our theories? Stereo is the areasroleother of models such of in knowledge? ofOne the challengesfor the scientist andisthe the artist to represent dimensional world in Whatin the two approaches? is the role of the different of ways knowingin the approaches?two ofMany the drugs from natural derived sources are chiral and include nicotine, dopamine, roleThe of stereochemistry in vision sciencefood and science. In many perfumes, stereochemistry often can important be deemed than more chemical composition.</p><p>International • of knowledge:Theory • • • Utilization: • • • trans and E/Zisomers and trans -</p><p> cis Structural Structural conformational isomers, whichconformational isomers, Isomerism —</p><p>Isomerism Isomerism Conformational themselves. Stereoisomerism dimensional shape of an organicfoundation molecule is the pillar structure its of and often its properties. of Much huma the -</p><p>Isomerism re subdividedre into two classes Configurational Configurational</p><p> the three : </p><p>— Stereoisomerism involves isomers which different have arrangements of in atoms spacediffer but connectivitydo not inbon or </p><p>: science idea Stereoisomers a interconvert by rotation about a σ bond and configurational isomers that interconvert by only breaking and reforming a bond. Configurational subdividedisomersfurther are into optical isomers.</p><p>20.3 Stereoisomerism ofNature Transdisciplinary Understandings: • double or triple) between the isomers Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 101 Topic 20: Organic chemistry</p><p>) ) menthol) or the resolution of mixture. a racemic rates - — organic chemistry curricular links: curricular - stereochemistry in biomolecules importance of chirality and drug action Experiments could include the synthesis and of characterization an — : : — — carbohyd B.10</p><p>Aim 6 (egenantiomer ( Syllabus and cross Topics 10.1 and 10.2 Option B.4 Option Option D.7 Aims • </p><p> the form the form R1R2C=CR3R4 f</p><p> o cyclic C3 and alkenes C4 and -</p><p> superimposeable mirror images ofeach other. -</p><p>D models (real of or virtual) a wide range of stereoisomers. -</p><p> trans isomers can occur alkenes in heteroanalogues) or cycloalkanes (or ugh a solution of the Opticalcompound. isomers are enantiomers. - ounts and is optically inactive. Cis and differ groups) (or atoms relative to in the of positions a reference plane. According refer to alkenes to IUPAC, E/Z isomers R2, R3 ≠ (R1 R4) ≠ where neither R1 nor R2 need be different from R3 or R4. A chiral carbon a carbon is joined to four different or groups. atoms An optically active compound can rotate the plane of light polarized as it passes thro Enantiomers are non Diastereomers are not mirror images of each other. A racemic mixture (or racemate) is a mixture of two enantiomers in equal am Construction of 3 Explanationstereoisomerism in non of cycloalkanes. 20.3 Stereoisomerism • • • • andApplications skills: • • </p><p>102 Chemistry guide Topic 20: Organic chemistry</p><p> bonded atoms; the other the other bonded atoms; Prelog priority attached priority Prelog to - – Ingold – emical propertiesemical of enantiomers.</p><p>. E</p><p> ifthe groups lie onside of the same a reference </p><p>Z</p><p> system, the groupsystem, of highest Cahn</p><p> dash representations type involving tapered bonds shouldfor be used s isomers and E/Zs isomers should isomers be encouraged in the teaching - E/Z</p><p> tran resentations ofisomers. optical ane passing throughbond the and double perpendicular to the plane Comparison between the physical and ch Descriptionof and explanationisomers in optical simple molecules. organic Distinction between using optical isomers a polarimeter. term geometricThe isomers as IUPAC by recommended is now obsolete and cis - programme. the In one of the doublyterminal bonded of atoms is the alkeneR1 or R2) (ie withcompared the group of highest precedence to the attached other R3 or (ie The stereoisomerR4). is pl containing thelinkinggroups bonds to the double the stereoisomer is designated as Wedge rep</p><p>20.3 Stereoisomerism • • • Guidance: • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 103 Topic 21: Measurement and analysis</p><p> n a full performance - 2 hours he science of </p><p>Protein Data BankProtein be detected by magnetic magnetic be detected by MS and MS canHPLC) be used - and the</p><p> dimensional of view organs in the - hematical pattern known independently aven National USA) are Laboratory, examples which </p><p>The CambridgeThe Crystallographic Database, ChemSpider </p><p>Royal Society of Chemistry echniques as such GC TLC, GC, Why replacing MRI tomography is computerized (CT) scans for (at Brookh (at </p><p> mindedness:</p><p>? -</p><p> onal patterns The chemicalThe community often shares chemical on information the structural international stage. developed the by (RCSB PDB) highlight theof international nature the scientific community. intensityThe ratio of in the the lines high resolution NMR isspectrum given by the numbers in Pascal's a mat triangle, a thousandover years ago by a number ofWhy different cultures. is mathematics such tool an effective in science? mathematics Is t Protons in molecules water within cells human can resonance giving imaging (MRI), a three body.human applicationssome is as but used technique a complementary for others? other (and MS t in forensicinvestigations scenes. crime at Analyticalcan techniques be used for to test abuse drug high by athletes. Internati • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • • • H H NMR and MS) have resulted in detailed knowledge of the structure of compounds. (1.8) 1</p><p>H NMR and 1</p><p>H NMR spectra: H NMR 1</p><p> ray crystallography can be used to -</p><p> ray crystallography,ray IR, - ic compounds </p><p> ngles of crystalline compounds. advances in spectroscopic techniques (IR, characterization techniques the form backbone of structural identification of compounds, typically no one technique results i —</p><p>H NMR and H NMR MS. 1 H NMR spectrum, singleH NMR peaks in present low resolution </p><p>1 spincoupling constants will not butbe assessed students area under each peak, chemicalshift splitting and patterns. -</p><p>H NMR shouldH NMR be covered. 1</p><p> technique of single crystal X</p><p>Measurement and analysis : Although spectroscopic</p><p>: a cience:</p><p> s</p><p> i de Structural identification involves of several compounds different analytical techniques IR, including In a high resolution can splitfurther into clusters of peaks. structuralThe identify the bond lengths bond a and Explanation of of as the use the reference tetramethylsilane (TMS) standard. Deduction ofstructure ofa compound the given information from a range of analytical characterization techniques (X Students should the following beinterpret able to from ofnumber peaks, ofTreatment spin shouldfamiliar be with singlets, doublets, triplets and quartets. High resolution MS). 21.1 Spectroscopic identification organof ofNature instrumentation in modern Improvements Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • • Topic 21 Topic Additional higher level Essential Essential structural identificationmolecule. of a</p><p>104 Chemistry guide Topic 21: Measurement and analysis</p><p> e.</p><p> s</p><p> bases be used can her curricular links: curricular - pectroscopic identification of compounds chromatography and protein separation chromatography and pigment : Spectral: data — chiral auxiliaries — — — s</p><p>Aim 7 Syllabus and cross Topic 11.3 Option B.2 Option B.9 Option D.7 Aims: • be known in </p><p> ic compounds ray crystallography need not -</p><p>The preciseThe detailscrystal of X single detail, but studentsshould aware of be the existence of structural this technique in the wider context of structural identification of both inorganic and organic compounds. operatingThe principlesnot required for of are any methods. these </p><p>21.1 Spectroscopic identification organof • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 105 Core topics</p><p> on </p><p>15/25 hours 15/25</p><p> no single ere located in ays of classifying materials </p><p> es. tions,such the Aztecs, as Romans, iza</p><p>Even thoughEven these ancient civilizations w curricular links: curricular</p><p>- the world help and hinder the pursuit ofknowledge? </p><p> mindedness: - ize</p><p> the role of in electronegativity bonding types — What materials were used ancient by civil and Chinese? geographically diverse locations, the materials used they were similar. Although it convenient is to materials classify into categories classificationis How do we evaluate “perfect”. the different classificati systems we use in the different areas of knowledge?does our need to How categor International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 4.2</p><p> packing es (</p><p> tions the materials by used: they Stone Age, Age Bronze and Iron Age. There are various w iza were usedwere for different purposes the development of before a scientific understanding properties. of (1.8) their d civil d ize (melting point,(melting permeability, conductivity, </p><p>— different materials of a material to its bondingstructur and diagrams for compounds binary electronegativity from </p><p> history has character— history</p><p>Materials science involves understanding the properties of a material, and then applying those properties to desired structur</p><p> physical characteristics r inr a compound can be deduced from its on a bonding position . cience: s</p><p>Materials idea: : Materials are classified on their based uses, bonding properties, and or structure. propertiesThe of a material based on the of degree ionic covalent, or metallic characte triangle. Composites are mixtures in which materials are composed of two distinct phases, a reinforcing is phase in that embedded a matrix phase. Use of bond triangle data. Evaluation of various ways of classifying materials. Relating elasticity, brittleness) arrangements, electron mobility, ability to slide of atoms to one relative another) A.1 MaterialsA.1 science introduction ofNature Improvements in technology Patterns in science according to desired (3.1) patterns. Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • Core topics Core Option A Essential Essential</p><p>106 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> tructure and bonding tructure types and and s t etrahedra of : Investigation of and 3 Experiments could include investigating the stretching of bands rubber different or properties chemical environments, of metals, polymers, : </p><p>Aims 1 Aims where covalent networks and polymers fit diagrams. on these Aim 6 under ceramics, or composites, makingconcrete thinfrom slabs various ratios of gravel,cement, and sand and investigating the breakingstrength upon drying. Aims: • • </p><p>. a triangular bonding diagram</p><p>Permeability to moisture should be considered with to bonding respect and simple packing arrangements. Consider properties of and ceramics metals, polymers ofterms inmetallic, covalent, and ionicbonding. See sectionfor 29 of the data booklet A.1 MaterialsA.1 science introduction Guidance: • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 107 Core topics</p><p> of They They Faraday constantFaraday via growing in demand. Whatgrowing in demand. s metals and uses mass and emission </p><p>? Who? decides whichknowledge is to be ize ate, solvingforate, the concentration of a <a href="/tags/Nickel/" rel="tag">nickel</a> f</p><p>— mass spectrometry curricular links: curricular - s performance, alloying was more of initially than an art a science. ’</p><p> mindedness: MS/OES SpectroscopyMS/OES ion - - Experiments could include calculating the </p><p> emission spectra oxidation and reduction : — — ICP</p><p>The useThe of metals, earth rare or exotic minerals, has grown dramatically. are used in green technology, medicines, lasers, technology weapons and elsewhere. are expensive They to obtain but happens ifreserves earth rare are controlled a few countries only by but are used countries? many by Whatfactors/outcomes should be used how time, to determine and money, effortspent is on scientific research pursued? Aim 6 electrolysis sul copper of aqueous or copper solution usingBeer’s law and spectrophotometry. Analysis of alloy composition labscouldbe conducted also determination such colorimetric as manganese in a paper clip or gravimetric analysis copper or in of <a href="/tags/Silver/" rel="tag">silver</a> a coin. International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topics2.1 and 12.1 Topic 2.2 Topic 9.1 Aims: • y enhancey a metal</p><p>OES. metals. - - ng them with ng them izi</p><p> a metal on the a metal activity ICP spectroscopy, developedICP from an understanding ofscientific principles, can to beidentify used and quantify trace —</p><p>. xtracted theirfrom ores and alloyed fordesired characteristics. c fields charge and the number charge of moles ofis electrons given ng alters properties of metals. MS MS and Optical EmissionSpectroscopy ICP . . - F oyi</p><p> instruments and techniques</p><p> with the discovery thatwith trace theamounts discovery of materials certain can greatl Metals can be e</p><p>—</p><p> science: idea: duction of for redox equations the reduction of metals. series. Reduction coke by a more (carbon), reactive or electrolysismetal, of are means obtaining metals some from their ores. relationshipThe between Faraday’sby constant, Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals with other metals or non Diamagnetic and paramagnetic compounds differ spin in electron pairing and their behaviour in magneti of amounts Trace metals can be identified ion by and quantified <a href="/tags/Argon/" rel="tag">argon</a> gas plasma in Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy using Mass Spectroscopy ICP De Relating of the method extraction to the position of Explanation of the ofproduction the electrolysis by aluminium of alumina in cryolitemolten Explanation of how all</p><p>A.2 Metals inductivelyA.2 and coupled plasma spectroscopy(ICP) ofNature Development of new ofamounts metals. (1.8) Details of data (3.1) Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Essential Essential spectra for analysis.</p><p>108 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p>Animations involving ICP could be used. Simulations and virtual experiments could to investigate be used : : Aim 7 Aim 7 semiconductors.</p><p>• • t be t </p><p>MS/OES. -</p><p>OES instruments will no -</p><p>MS and ICP MS - OES. -</p><p>P OES. -</p><p>MS and ICMS - MS and ICP MS -</p><p>Solving stoichiometric problems using Faraday’s constant based on mass deposits in electrolysis. Discussion and diamagnetism of paramagnetism in relation to electron structure of metals. Explanation state of the and plasma its production in ICP Identify metals and abundances simplefrom data and calibration curves ICP from provided Explanationseparation of the and quantification and MS of by metallic ions OES. Uses of ICP Faraday’s constant is the data given in booklet in2. section Details of operating parts of ICP assessed. analysisOnly of metals should be covered. importance The of calibration should be covered.</p><p>A.2 Metals inductivelyA.2 and coupled plasma spectroscopy(ICP) • • • • • • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 109 Core topics</p><p> eing risks. d s an t</p><p> these metals, catalytic converter </p><p> oxide. </p><p>(IV)</p><p>Investigate various catalystsfor both the benefi reaction mechanisms — reaction curricular links: curricular : - fication hydrogenation reactions and</p><p> i mindedness: hydrogenation of fats - activation energy and 3 Experiments could include investigating the decomposition of potassium An ion exchange using zeolite could be explored. Virtual experiments and simulations involving nanoparticles catalysts as</p><p>— : : : — ester —</p><p>Palladium, platinum are common and <a href="/tags/Rhodium/" rel="tag">rhodium</a> catalysts that are used in catalytic converters. Because of the value of thefts are on the rise. Some materials used as catalysts effective harmful are toxicto the and environment. Is environmental degradation justified pursuit in the of knowledge? 1 Aims Aim 6 withsodium tartrate <a href="/tags/Cobalt/" rel="tag">cobalt</a> chloride and the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide with manganese Aim 6 Aim 7 could be done here. Catalysts always increase the rate of the reaction and are left Catalysts unchanged increase theof and the rate reaction always at the International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topics6.1 and 16.1 Topic 10.2 Topic 16.2 Option B.10 Aims: • • • • </p><p> st for a process. on states. increase reactionrates before the development of an understanding work. Thisthey led of how to models that are constantly b n mild/severe conditions,n impact and environmental </p><p>:</p><p>. : catalysts were used to catalysts were</p><p>Catalysts work by providing anCatalysts by alternate reaction work for pathway the reaction. desorb. —</p><p> science idea: Reactants adsorb onto heterogeneous catalysts sites at active and the products Homogeneous catalysts chemically combine with the reactants a form to activated temporary complex or a reaction intermediate. Transition catalytic metal properties depend on the adsorption/absorption properties of and the the metal variable oxidati Zeolites act selective catalysts as because cage ofstructure. their Catalytic particles always are nearly nanoparticles large surface that have areas per unit mass. Explanationfactors involved in of choosingcataly a Description of how metals work as heterogeneous catalysts. Description nanocatalysts of the benefits of industry. in Consider catalyticsuch propertiesselectivity for as the only desired product, efficiency, ability to work i impurities. useThe of carbon nanocatalysts should be covered. A.3 Catalysts A.3 ofNature Use of models tested and improved. (1.10) Understandings • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential end ofthe reaction </p><p>110 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> liquid </p><p>. (1.4) benzoate</p><p> centrated areas in of the world</p><p> links:</p><p> curricular curricular - indedness: r orientationr relative fixed to some the material. in axis m onsumer goods? onsumer</p><p>- chirality and stereoisomers Experiments could include investigating a thermotropic liquid crystal and Computer animations could be used to investigate thermotropic </p><p>: : —</p><p>The productionThe ofelectronic many goods con is where the working conditions not be ideal. may Should be there internationally Whatset labourfor standards allimplications workers? would this on the have cost of c Developments in technology that we can mean store andmore more information available on an increasingly smaller scale. Does this that we mean can accessknowledge? more Aim 6 the temperature range which affectscrystals. these Aim 7 crystals. International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 20.3 Aims: • • </p><p>- crystal -</p><p>.</p><p> crystal state a over - s that show liquid</p><p> crystals the biphenyl and </p><p> d by rod shaped rod d by molecules which . crystals. ize Friedrich Reinitzer accidently discovered liquid flowing crystals experimenting in on 1888 cholesterol while</p><p>— mple ofmple liquid lyotropic r should be limitedr to the biphenyl nitriles. u crystal behaviour on a crystal molecular level. - crystal materials are pure substance</p><p>-</p><p>Liquid crystals are fluids physical that have properties which are dependent on molecula</p><p>: cience</p><p> s i dea Liquidfluids crystals physicalhave are that properties (electrical, optical and elasticity) that are dependent on molecular orientation fixed to some axis in the material. Thermotropic liquid crystal behaviour over a temperature range Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutionsliquid that show the (certain) of range concentrations. Nematic liquid crystalis phase character are randomly distributed align but on average in the same direction Discussion ofneeded the forproperties a substance to be used in liquid displays (LCD). Explanation of liquid Properties needed forcrystals liquid include: chemically stable, a phase which is a suitable stable over range, polar so temperature they can change orientation when an electricfield is applied, switching and rapid speed. Soap and water is an exa nitriles liquid are examples of thermotropic Liquid crystal behavio Smectics and liquid other crystals types need not be discussed. idance: A.4 A.4 Liquid crystals ofNature Serendipity and scientific discoveries Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • • Gu Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 111 Core topics</p><p>) . How hasHow . the </p><p> erties. the second war world om efficiency.om</p><p> inks:</p><p> tion and condensationtion reactions . (3.7)</p><p>— addi curricular l curricular - mindedness: - g of involved, such the risks as recyclingor possible carcinogenic Physical high properties and low of density polyethene could be </p><p>: :</p><p>Plastics unheard were virtually of prior to introduction of plasticsthe world affected economically, socially and environmentally? Aim 6 investigated or synthesis polyester, or polyamide of a other polymer could be quantitatively to performed measure at International • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topics 10.2 and 20.1 Aims: • </p><p> ray diffraction, tunnelling scanning microscopes, electron scientists been able etc), have to understand - chemistry.</p><p> weakening the </p><p> ncy applied inncy green rs in polyvinyl chloride volatile and ize Staudinger's proposal ofof made repeating macromolecules many units was integral in of the development science. polymer (1.9 a hardened thermoset curing. by polymer development and use has grown quickeran understandin than pe once the stressis released. — — as a resultas of in advances (X technology </p><p>— ces the polymer chains. between he formation of expanded polystyrene. bly into </p><p> er.</p><p>Polymers areup of made repeating units monomer which can be manipulated in various ways to give structures withprop desired increasers added to a polymer the flexibility by</p><p>: ize cience: s idea Thermoplasticssoften when heated and harden when cooled. A thermosetting polymer is a prepolymer in a softviscous solid or state that changes irreversi Elastomers are flexible be deformed andunder can force but will to return theirnearly original sha High density polyethene (HDPE) has no branching chains allowing to be packed togeth Low density polyethene (LDPE) has branching some and is flexible. more Plastic intermolecular for economy isAtom a measure of efficie Isotactic have addition substituents polymers on the side. same Atactic the substituents have addition polymers randomly placed. Description of the use of plastic hydrocarbons in t A.5 PolymersA.5 ofNature Advances in technology what occurs level on the molecular and manipulate matter in new This ways. allows polymers to be developed new Theories can be superseded Ethics and risk assessment properties. (4.5) Understandings: • • • • • • • • • andApplications skills: • Essential Essential</p><p>112 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p>- erty erty including LDPE ng 2 izi</p><p>Solving problems and evaluating economy in atom synthesis reactions. Description of how the properties depend on their of polymers structural features. Description ofthe ways ofproperties modifying of polymers, and HDPE. Deduction ofstructures formed from polymer of polymers methylpropene. equationThe for economy percent atom is in provided the data booklet in section 1. Consider foams polystyrene only as examples of prop polymer manipulation.</p><p>A.5 PolymersA.5 • • • • Guidance: • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 113 Core topics</p><p> plications? Would a carbon </p><p> be manipulated and What are the im</p><p> ng nanoparticle dust can be as as harmful dust ng nanoparticle s not an attempt to violate anyit laws; is </p><p> whichpreviously thought was to be unattainable. How do , curricular links: curricular -</p><p> mindedness: - molecular polarity</p><p>— n: Some studiesSome shown have that inhali asbestos. nanotechnology be regulated Should or will this hinder research? International collaborationspacein exploration is growing. be feasible,nanotube space wanted? elevator or useThe of the scanning tunnelling microscope allowed us has to “see” individual atoms these advances in change technology of view our what knowledge is attainable? peopleSome are concerned about the possibleimplication of nanotechnology. How do we evaluate the possibleconsequencesfuture of developments in this area? Is the knowledge we need publicly on the available we rely or do ofauthority experts? Protein synthesisin form ofis cells a nanotechnology ribosomes with acting as molecular assemblers. International • • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilizatio • Syllabus and cross Topics 4.3 e we are tooe we are big.” </p><p> assembly assembly -</p><p> shaped deposit on the anode. -</p><p> hysics P up assembly of nanoparticles and can - the rolein the and ofdevelopment error trial of nanotubes and their associated theories. (2.2)</p><p>—</p><p> high power electron microscopes allowedforstudy of have the positioning (1.8) of atoms. — n at the anode. n at the</p><p> arging an arc through metal electrodes submersed in a</p><p> spontaneously in solution.</p><p> assembly bottom is the</p><p>-</p><p>Chemical techniques position in atoms molecules using chemical reactions whilst physical techniques allow atoms/molecules to</p><p>: ption ofproperties the structure of and carbon nanotubes. cience: s i dea Molecular self occur selectively by attaching molecules to specific surfaces. Self can also occur Possible of methods nanotubes producing are arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and high pressure carbon monoxide (HIPCO). Arc discharge the vaporizing surface involves either of of one the carbon electrodes, or disch solvent,hydrocarbon which a small forms rod Distinguishing between physical and chemicalin techniques manipulating to form atoms molecules. Descri Explanation an inert of why gas, and not oxygen, is for necessary CVD preparation of carbon nanotubes. Explanation of the ofproduction hydrocarbonfrom carbon solvents in arc discharge oxidatio by Deduction of productionfor equations of the carbon atoms from HIPCO. Richard Nobel Feynman, winnerPrize in The principlesThe of physics, far as as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of manoeuvring things atom It i by atom. A.6 Nanotechnology A.6 ofNature Improvements in apparatus need The to regard theories as uncertain “ something, in principle,can be done; thatbut in practice,it has not been done becaus — Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Essential Essential positioned to specific requirements.</p><p>114 Chemistry guide Core topics of </p><p> ideos manufacture of nanotube </p><p>Investigate the theoretical manufacturing and large scale Animations, simulations, and v : : and 9 and 9 , 8 , 8 ,</p><p>Aims 1 Aims nanotechnology products and their implications.Examples could include sporting equipment, medicinal products, construction, cleaning, environmental robotics, or other theoretical weaponry uses. commercial 7 Aims and uses should be used. Aims: • • </p><p> d governments involved in this research. against particlesnanoscale, on the </p><p> t effectivet o n</p><p> implications of nanotechnology include as to toxicityuncertainty levels </p><p>Discussion implicationssome of and applications of nanotechnology. Explanation nanotubes of why are strong and good conductors of electricity. Possible concern that human on a nanoscale, with new materials, risks unknown health defence systems are responsibilities of the industries an Conductivity of graphene and fullerenes can inof be explained terms delocalization of explanation electrons. An based is on hybridization not required. </p><p>A.6 Nanotechnology A.6 • • Guidance: • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 115 Core topics</p><p> cean?</p><p> in the Pacific in O . (4.8) ls of toxicity of some of gyre aised the awareness of the</p><p> reducea Mobius is strip and the plastic , global recognition of ranks this symbol , reuse</p><p>What factorsinfluence the recognition of symbols? </p><p> the problem of problem the links:</p><p> ol for recycle</p><p> impact of on ecosystems humans curricular curricular - —</p><p> mindedness: - organic compounds infrared spectroscopy Database of RIC codes and IR spectra can be used. developmentThe of has green chemistry r</p><p> redox reactions : : : — — — option C.3</p><p>The internationalThe symb designedHowever in the late 1960s. well below other symbols. How can nations address productsThe of sciencetechnology and can a negative have impact on the environment. scientistsAre responsible ethically for the impact of their products? Aim 7 Aim 8 environmental and the ethical implications of using science and technology. International • • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 9.1 Topic 10.1 Topic 11.3 Biology Aims: • • </p><p> in polymer in polymer</p><p> s r ize ) ofplastics) an IRfrom s</p><p>(RIC d biphenyls(PCBs) and dioxins. s , leadingcellular to and genetic </p><p> member heterocyclicmember rings with two oxygen - 1 and 4. s plastics plastics —</p><p> scientific research often proceeds perceived benefits but with the risks in mind, and also implications need to be considered</p><p>—</p><p> the equation forcombustion given any equation the reaction. skills:</p><p>Although materials science generatesuseful many new products there challengesare associated with recycling of and leve high</p><p> usually in position</p><p> cience: s idea: Plastics because do not degrade easily of their bonds. strong covalent Burning of polyvinyl chloridereleases dioxins,incomplete HCland gas combustionhydrocarbon products. Dioxins contain unsaturated six atoms, Chlorinated dioxins are hormone disrupting damage. Plastics processing require more to be recycled materials. than other Plastics are recycledon different based resin types. Deduction of Discussion the of ofrecycling why is intensive polymers an energy process. Discussion of the environmental impact of the use of plastics. Comparison ofstructures of the polychlorinate Discussion ofconcerns the ofhealth volatile using plastic production. Distinguish possible Resin Identification Code spectrum. A.7 EnvironmentalA.7 impact ofNature Risks and problems Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications • • • • • • Essential Essential these materials.</p><p>116 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> examples of </p><p> ng to prevent these hazards. ng to prevent D) and PCBsD) as D like substances. -</p><p>) are in ) the data booklet in section 30. s plastics plastics —</p><p>Dioxins in do not decompose the environment and can be passed on in the food chain. Consider polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PC carcinogenic chlorinated dioxins or dioxin Consider phthalate esters examples as of plasticizers. House fires can toxins release many due to plastics curtains, (shower etc). Low halogensmoke zero cabling is often used in wiri Resin Identification Codes (RIC Structures of various materials moleculesbooklet are in the data in section 31. A.7 EnvironmentalA.7 impact Guidance: • • • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 117 Additonal higher level topics 15/25 hours 15/25 he biological limits</p><p> ray crystallography. -</p><p> and periodicity</p><p> curricular links: curricular -</p><p>— t ravelling waves ray crystallography mindedness: - - 4.2 Animations and simulations useful would be explain very to </p><p>Pauli exclusion principle exclusion Pauli : : — X ray crystallographyray can be used to analyse structures. — <a href="/tags/Atomic_radius/" rel="tag">atomic radius</a> — n temperature, provide a good example of theories needing to be modified - topic 2 ray diffractionray has allowed us to probe the world beyond t - X</p><p>Analytical techniques applications have forensics, in exploration, mineral medicine and elsewhere. How does the unequal accessadvanced to technology affect world economies? X of our senses. How reliable is our knowledge of world the microscopic to what wecompared know at the macroscopic level? Aim 7 superconductivity and X International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 2. Topic 3.2 Topic 21.1 Physics Aims: • </p><p> expulsionfields. of magnetic </p><p> atom/ion isan atom/ion coordination its number. ray crystallography -</p><p>Schrieffer explains theory (BCS) below the critical that – etals X and superconducting electrical materials,zero with resistance a certai below tain repeating simple unit cells. — Cooper metallicconductorscaused is collisions by between electrons </p><p>–</p><p>Superconductivity is electrical zero and resistance</p><p> h the superconductor. science: idea: Materials : ray diffractionray can to analyse be used structures of and ionic metallic - Superconductors are materials that offer no resistanceelectriccurrents to below a critical temperature. MeissnerThe effect the is ability of a superconductor image a mirror to create magnetic field offield, thus an external it. expelling Resistance in and positive ionslattice. of the BardeenThe electronstemperature in superconductors pairs form Cooper freely which move throug 1 superconductorsType have sharp transitions to superconductivity whereas 2 superconductorsType gradual have more transitions. X compounds. Crystal lattices con on facesAtoms of and edges cells unit are shared. numberThe of nearest neighbours of A.8 SuperconductingA.8 m ofNature ofImportance theories to fit new data.to understand It is important the basic scientific instruments. behind principles (2.2) modern Understandings: • • • • • • • • • Additional higher level topics level higher Additional Essential Essential Option A</p><p>118 Chemistry guide Additonal higher level topics</p><p> not required. , in metallicstructures. 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2</p><p>= not be assessed. 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ray crystallography - s temperature data for 1s 2 Type and Type</p><p> ray crystallography are - etals X and</p><p> the density of its from density the metal pure atomica crystalradii and </p><p> the Bragg equation,</p><p>A second is attracted electron to thisslight deformation and a positive</p><p> ray crystallographyray but these will - Analysis of resistance versu superconductors. Explanationsuperconductivity in ofterms of pairs Cooper moving through a positive ion lattice. Deduction construction or unit cell of crystal structuresfrom structure information. Application of Determination of packing structure. a simpleOnly explanation ofwithBCS Cooper theory pairs is required. At low temperatures the positive ions in the lattice are distorted slightlya passing by electron. coupling of these occurs. two electrons principlesOperating of X pure Only metals with simple cubiccells, centred body cubic cells and (BCC) facecentred cubic should cells (FCC) be covered. Perovskite crystalline ofsuperconductorsstructures many can be analysed by X Bragg's equation will be applied only to simple cubic structures. A.8 SuperconductingA.8 m andApplications skills: • • • • • Guidance: • • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 119 Additonal higher level topics es for to manipulate matter </p><p> polymers?</p><p> curricular links: curricular - mindedness: - addition and condensation reactions synthesis techniques Synthesis of nylon could be performed.</p><p>: — polymers — — A.5</p><p>Does science, economicspolitics or essential play the most role in research, such as ofnew the development Aim 6 International • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 10.2 Topic 20.2 Option Aims: • </p><p> uric acid. uric f sulfur ic </p><p>The hydrogen The ps on eachps monomer. on</p><p> strength and its in solubility concentrated sul</p><p>O are possibleO products reactions. of condensation 2</p><p> skills: (1.5)</p><p> of Kevlar ®’s ?</p><p> e have had thee have Stone Age, Age Iron Age. and Bronze Is it possible today’s age that is asPolymers, science the Age of continu Condensation polymers by are formed the losssmall molecules of functional as monomers from groupsjoin. </p><p> is with a polyamide a strong structure. and ordered :</p><p>— w ® cience: ea</p><p> s</p><p>, HCl and H i d 3 Condensation require polymers two functional grou NH Kevlar bonds and between N can O be broken with the use of concentrated Distinguishing between addition and condensation polymers. Completion and descriptionsof equations to show how condensation polymers are formed. Deduction ofstructures the of polyamides their andfrom polyesters respective monomers. Explanation Consider polymers.chemistry green acid. A.9 CondensationA.9 polymers ofNature Speculation desired purposes Understandings: • • • andApplications • • • • Guidance: • Essential Essential </p><p>120 Chemistry guide Additonal higher level topics</p><p>. sp . (4.8) K ous oxidation states and act as ous oxidation statesas and act ecosystems investigations of </p><p> include </p><p>Investigations of waste treatment. water curricular links: curricular : : - — impact of on humans edge:</p><p> transition complexes metal and 8 Experiments could </p><p> redox reactions : — —</p><p>What responsibility do scientists for have the impact of endeavours on the their planet? 1 Aims Aim 6 Theory of knowlTheory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 9.1 Topic 13.2 Biology option C.3 Aims: • • </p><p> catalysed - acts hexadentate as - 4</p><p>Weiss reaction mechanism.</p><p>– dicals naturally in biological </p><p>Haber as an applicationas metals ofsolution. removing in heavy metals </p><p> sp — K</p><p> data booklet in sectiondata booklet in 32. </p><p> the scientific research often proceeds perceived benefits with but the risks in mind, and also implications need to be considered through various mechanisms.</p><p> in —</p><p>Weiss free generates reaction ra diamine acts as a bidentate ligand and EDTA Transition metalsTransition can catalyse the reaction the iron with -</p><p> are –</p><p>Toxicity and carcinogenic properties of heavy metals are the result of their ability to form coordinatedform to ability compounds, vari carcinogenic have metals of their are the result Toxicity and heavy properties of</p><p>: 1 , 2 -</p><p> cience:</p><p> s i dea values sp and problems ligand. Toxic doses of transition metals can oxidation/reduction disturb the normal balance in cells Some methods of removing heavy metals are precipitation, adsorption, and chelation. Polydentate ligands stable more form complexes monodentate than similar ligands due to the which chelate effect, can considering beby explained changes.entropy Explanation ofsubstances how chelating can heavy be usedmetals. to remove Deduction of of the number coordinate bonds a ligand form with can a central ion.metal Calculations involving Compare and contrast the Fenton and Ethane Haber The processes. (Fenton) reaction being the mechanism for generating reactive hydroxyl radicals. K</p><p>A.10 EnvironmentalA.10 impact ofNature Risks Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Guidance: • • • Essential Essential catalysts inbody. the human</p><p>Chemistry guide 121 Core topics 15/25 hours 15/25</p><p> significant agriculture.</p><p>As technologies developed, data have more has and light absorption</p><p> metal complexesmetal and light absorption</p><p>— conjugation curricular links: curricular - ption B.9 reactions (condensation and hydrolysis) O</p><p>N mindedness: -</p><p>— electronic — S Metabolic reactions body are dependent in on the human the supply of nutrients through a regular balanced diet. there are Globally differences inoffood, the availability and diverse major nutritious which have impacts health. on human Biochemistryfundamental is to the study subjects, ofother many including genetics,immunology, pharmacology, nutrition and International • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 10.2 Topic 13.2 and Option C.8 in theplace time. same at the same</p><p> g energy for cells. he atmosphere. ses providin ses rich molecules carbonfrom dioxide hotosynthesisare not required. -</p><p>: Metabolic reactionsinvolve a complex interplay between differentmany components in highly controlled environments.</p><p> biochemical systems have a large have numberbiochemical systems of different reactions occurring cience: —</p><p> s Biochemistry idea: : The diverse The functions of biological molecules depend on their structures and shapes. Metabolic reactions in take highly place controlled environments. aqueous Reactions of breakdown called are catabolism and reactions ofsynthesis are called anabolism. Biopolymers form by condensation reactions down by and are broken hydrolysis reactions. Photosynthesis the is synthesis of energy and water using light energy. Respiration is a complex set of metabolic proces Explanation of the between difference condensationhydrolysis reactions. and useThe of equations summary of photosynthesis and respiration to explain the potential balancing of oxygen and carbon dioxide in t Intermediates of aerobic respiration and p</p><p>B.1 Introduction to biochemistry ofNature Use of data been collectedleading discovery of to the patterns of reactions in (3.1) metabolism. Understandings • • • • • • andApplications skills : • • Guidance: • Core topics Core Option B Essential Essential</p><p>122 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p>. ®</p><p>, or gel bioinformatics concentration studies for </p><p> accessible data on protein romatography</p><p>, protein sequencing is a routine and </p><p> values b mides. Examples include nylon and Kevlar K quality and freely </p><p>-</p><p> and p a K — proteins and enzymes eriments involving absorption/</p><p> ensive, high — pH and p curricular links: curricular - mindedness: that took over ten years.ten tookthat Today over - condensation polymers chromatography Experiments could hydrolysis involve ofseparation a protein, and Data logging exp</p><p>: : — — — stereoisomerism</p><p>The UniversalThe Protein Resource (UniProt) is a consortium of institutes. Its as is mission a resource for to act by the scientific community providing compreh sequencefunctional and information. syntheticMany materials are polya Electrophoresis is inmedical used some diagnosticsidentify to patterns of unusual or urine. protein contentserum in blood firstThe protein to be sequenced was insulin Frederick by Sanger in 1951, in a process efficientvery of process, part a major is the study known and as proteomics. Aim 6 identification acid of amino mixturespaper ch by electrophoresis of proteinsDNA. and Aim 7 protein content using reagent. the Biuret o the conclusion and not thatprotein DNA, as originally thought, carried the International • Utilization: • • • Syllabus and cross Topics8.3 and 18.2 Topic 20.3 Option A.9 Option B.9 Biology topics 2.4, 2.5 and 8.1 Aims: • • </p><p> sses. can existcations zwitterions, as and anions.</p><p> amino acids,amino links amide joined by known (also as several different experiments on several continents t led </p><p>- —</p><p> dimensional shape determines its structural role in pH and the presence of ions. metal heavy -</p><p> the solubilities and melting pointsthe ofacids ofin terms amino </p><p> and</p><p> graphy separation is based on different and chemical physical Proteins diverse are the most of the biopolymers responsiblefor and structural of metabolism integrity living organisms.</p><p> cience: s idea: Proteins of are polymers 2 peptide bonds). acidsAmino are amphoteric and Protein structures are diverse and are described secondary,at the primary, and quaternarytertiary levels. A protein’s three components or in metabolic proce enzymesMost are proteins that act as catalystsbinding specifically by to a substrate at the active site. activityAs depends enzyme on the conformation, itsensitive is to changesin temperature Chromato principles. Deduction of offormulas structural the reactants and productscondensation in reactions acids, of amino hydrolysis reactions and of peptides. Explanation of zwitterions. Application of the relationships between charge, pH and isoelectricfor point acidsamino and proteins. B.2 Proteins andB.2 Proteins enzymes ofNature Collaboration and peer review information for inheritance. (4.4) Understandings: • • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 123 Core topics</p><p>Simulations can be used for gel electrophoresis. : : Aim 7</p><p>• and types </p><p> values and locating values agents and should be f</p><p> are not required. max</p><p> s with exampless of each.</p><p> and V</p><p> m K</p><p> acid and protein and separation identification.</p><p>Descriptionfour of the of levels protein structure, the including origin of bonds and interactions involved. Deduction and interpretation of activity involving graphs of enzyme changes in substrate concentration,and temperature. pH Explanation of of the processes paperand chromatography gel electrophoresis in amino and names structuralThe formulas of acids the amino given in the data are booklet in section 33. Reference should to alpha be made helix sheet, and and betato pleated fibrous and globular protein chromatographypaper In the use of R covered. kineticsIn enzyme </p><p>B.2 Proteins andB.2 Proteins enzymes • • • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>124 Chemistry guide Core topics fat. - trans Public </p><p> making, known as - reedom. How do we know reedom.</p><p>Whatknowledge should be universally </p><p> ts infat, cholesterol, high saturated and </p><p> functional groups, hydrogenation of alkenes</p><p>— especiallysports, in and for methods detection. </p><p> curricular links: curricular , - — lipids</p><p> mindedness: - free radical mechanisms configurational isomerism</p><p>— — the negative effects ofnegative the effects die There are large are There global and cultural sources differences of in the dietary lipids and usedmethods to prevent rancidity. Different very countries have different standardsfood labelling. towards Is access to information a human right? available? What industry, are the different responsibilities of government, the medical profession and the individual in making healthy choices diet? about bodies can protect but also the individual their f limit what isfor best and society the individual? Alkalinefats hydrolysisusedis ofin the processsoap of saponification. Steroid abuse of International • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Topics 10.1 and 10.2 Topic 10.2 Topic 20.3 Biology topic 2.3 d therefore insoluble in water.</p><p> polar an - tructures. three fatty acids term studies led have to knowledgeterm - of lipid soluble vitamins and as </p><p> ers — long transport</p><p> as </p><p> itions.</p><p>Lipids are a broad group of biomoleculesthat are largely non </p><p> d. cience: nes.</p><p> s ize idea:</p><p> hormo Fats reduced are more than carbohydrates and so energy yield more when oxid Triglycerides are producedcondensation by of with glycerol and contain ester acids links.can Fatty be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Phospholipids are derivatives of triglycerides. Hydrolysis of triglycerides phospholipids and can or in enzymes occur using alkaline acidic or cond Steroids a characteristic have fused ring structure, as known a steroidal backbone. Lipids as act structuralcomponents ofcell instorage, energy membranes, and electricalthermal insulation, Deduction of offormulas structural the reactants and productscondensation in and hydrolysis reactions glycerol between and fatty acids and/or phosphate. Prediction of the relative melting pointsfats theirfrom s of and oils Comparison of of the processes hydrolytic and oxidative rancidityfats in with respect to the site in the ofmolecules reactivity and the conditionsfavour that the reaction. B.3 Lipids B.3 Lipids ofNature Significance ofexplanations science to the public This hasfood led to new products. (5.2) Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 125 Core topics</p><p>Experiments could include the calculation of of the number <a href="/tags/Iodine/" rel="tag">iodine</a> fats to : or the separation of from common food lipids sources using different , </p><p>Aim 6 degreemeasure of unsaturation, calorimetric experiments on differentfats and oils solvents and a separatingfunnel. Aims: • </p><p>- of a high</p><p> ned. cholesterol, ) LDL fats are not required. -</p><p> ipoprotein ( and trans cis - density l fat and the use of andsteroids. abuse - - trans</p><p> and low ) fatty acidsfatty in are given the datasection booklet in 34. </p><p>HDL some</p><p>Application of the conceptiodine to determine of the number unsaturation Comparison ofcarbohydrates and lipids asstorage molecules energy with respect to theirdensity. solubility energy and Discussionimpact of of the on health, lipids the including roles of dietary density lipoprotein ( saturated, unsaturated and structuresThe of Specific examples named offats do notto be lear have and oils structuralThe differences between fat.</p><p>B.3 Lipids B.3 Lipids • • • Guidance: • • • </p><p>126 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> jections help from sugar from cane s come</p><p> ly investigated.ly Should scientists be</p><p> of production ates.</p><p> quarters - tion projects that deaths from diabetes will double </p><p> iza</p><p> nd 2030. jor internationaljor and is commodity produced in about 130 different spartame asspartame an artificial sweetener controversial has been for a mindedness: and galactose. lactose It is Globally intolerance norm. an is the -</p><p>Sugar is a ma countries. Approximately three in tropical and subtropical comes from sugar and regions the remainder beet whichcultivated in is temperate clim Diabeteschronic is that a occurs disease when cannotthe body effectively regulate blood sugar, due to a failure in thefunctioning production or of insulin. World The Health Organ between 2005 a Lactose intoleranceconditionis in a which the individual not is able to digest lactose,sugar found the in milk products. and to dairy a failure It is due to produce sufficient levels ofthat lactase, hydrolyses the enzyme lactose into glucose Westernexample of a invading perspective science. useThe of yearsmany as the side effects are not ful held responsible morally consequences adverse for the their work? of</p><p>International • • • of knowledge:Theory • </p><p> s </p><p> bon and hydrogen implicit. (1.10) bon and hydrogen</p><p>. y O) 2</p><p>(H x consider the structural role ofcarbohydrates. (1.8) in solution in ringform structure to rich biomolecules, which a central play role in metabolic transfer. reactions of energy - — ize</p><p> understanding the stereochemistry of carbohydrates is to understanding essential their structural rolescells. in Haworth pro </p><p>—</p><p>OH groups.OH tions –</p><p> iza</p><p>Carbohydrates are oxygen</p><p> cience: s idea: Carbohydrates the general have formula C Haworth projections represent the cyclicstructures of monosaccharides. Monosaccharides an aldehyde containgroup either (aldose) a ketone or group (ketose) and several Straight chainforms of cycl sugars containing an ether linkage. Glycosidic betweenform monosaccharides bonds forming disaccharides and polysaccharides. Carbohydrates are used assources energy and energy reserves. Deduction of offormulas structural the disaccharidespolysaccharides and from given monosaccharides. Relationship and offunctions the properties and of monosaccharides polysaccharides chemical structures. to their B.4 Carbohydrates ofNature Construct models/visual focus on the nature and position of groups making attached by car Obtaining evidence for scientific theories Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 127 Core topics ert food “ preparations reducing sugars or using iodine -</p><p>Benedict’s or Fehling’s solution tests to</p><p> cane.</p><p> the presence ofthe presence starch. — organic functional groups </p><p> curricular links: curricular -</p><p>— carbohydrates debate refers to the controversies arising from developments that div developments from arisingcontroversies debate refers to the organic reactions Experiments could include using</p><p>”</p><p>: : : The production cropsfrom of raises biofuels questions many about — biofuels — stereoisomerism — 0.3</p><p>Carbohydrates are used in the pharmaceutical industry to bind into tablets. Ethanol is produced a biofuel from the as fermentation ofcarbohydrates in crops such corn sugar as or Aim 6 distinguish between sugarsreducing and non solutionfor to test Aim 8 related issues such deforestation, as soil erosionsustainability. The and agriculturalinto crops biofuel production. vs fuelvs Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Topics 10.1 and 10.2 Topic 20.1 Topic 2 Option C.4 Biology topic 2.3 Aims: • • not are</p><p> specific and the linkage disaccharides </p><p> forms and the structure of cellulose </p><p>- </p><p> and - ring forms offructose glucose andare given in the - α</p><p>The straightThe chain and data booklet in 34. section component The monosaccharides of details ofnot polysaccharides required. are distinctionThe between required. B.4 Carbohydrates Guidance: • • • </p><p>128 Chemistry guide Core topics tion of the s that claim Public bodies can amin pills, amin has become</p><p> structure and physical properties</p><p>—</p><p> human human nutrition and health curricular links: curricular - — mindedness:</p><p>- organic functional groups configurational isomerism Experiments could include the DCPIP determination of C levels vitamin s. 4.2 and 4.3</p><p>: ucrative in countries. many — — umed foods,umed iodine to water or fluoride as such to salt? </p><p> very l The foodThe supplements especially industry, the sale of vit Vitamin D deficiency increasing, is as partly a result of greater protec skin from sunlight. What are the ethical considerations in adding supplements to commonly cons protect the individual limit their freedom. but How doalso we know what is best for and society the individual? Linus Pauling is man to win two individual the only Prizes. NobelHi C supplementsvitamin could diseases prevent cold common such the led as to Whattheir widespread use. is the role of in authority communicating scientific knowledge to the public? Aim 6 in food International • • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topics 4.1, Topic 10.1 Topic 20.3 Biology option D.2 Aims: • ) is an example is ) ofseeking scientists a causefor This specific observations. resulted in </p><p> d by d by ize vital amines</p><p> nd affect millions of </p><p> ot be synthes vitamins (</p><p> the discovery of — the discovery</p><p> fdiseases deficiencyand scurvy beriberi). (eg (1.8) Vitamins are organic micronutrients with diverse functions be obtained that must the from diet.</p><p>: cience:</p><p> s structures of C and D are provided vitamins A, in the data booklet section i dea</p><p>Vitamins are organic micronutrients cann which (mostly) but body the obtainedbe must suitablefrom foodsources. solubilityThe fat) or (water of can a vitamin be predicted from its structure. vitaminsMost are sensitive heat. to Vitamin deficienciesin cause the diet a particular diseases people worldwide. Comparison ofstructures of the vitamins A, C and D. Discussioncauses of effects the and deficiencies of vitamin in different countries andsolutions. suggestion of The 35. Specificfood sources or names of of vitamins diseases deficiency do not have to be learned. B.5 Vitamins B.5 Vitamins ofNature Making observations and evaluating claims the explanation o Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 129 Core topics</p><p> and green chemistry in general., and lls</p><p> the science of has raised green chemistry </p><p> biodegradable plastics in the environment. -</p><p> and to break up oil spi</p><p> forces lic challenge. health s could include the comparison ofbreakdown of the </p><p> environmental impact ofenvironmental plastics — curricular links: curricular -</p><p> biotics i</p><p> mindedness: - natural and syntheticcompounds organic Risk assessment, including the risksis to the environment, an essential developmentThe of </p><p> intermolecular : Experiment: : : — ant — — ilosophy has in led education to developments and legislationin many </p><p>The term green chemistryThe was first coined in 1991, and acceptance of its ph countries. Use ofbanned the in DDT ispesticide countries most due to its toxic effects and biomagnification. continues, Its in use countries however, where malaria a remains pub major Aim 6 biodegradable and non Aim 6 part of all work. experimental Aim 8 awareness of the environmental and ethicalofimplications using science and technology. International • • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 4.4 Topic 10.1 Options A.5 and A.7 Option D.2 Aims: • • • </p><p> substancefood in a is the responsibility ofscientistsconsider to which the ways in products and of findings their research negatively </p><p>— it the production and release to ize</p><p> organisms. developed to help in the breakdown of oil spills and other</p><p>Our increasingOur knowledge has of led to several environmental biochemistry problems, while alsohelping to solve others.</p><p> sionincreasing of of the problem xenobiotics as antibiotics such in cience:</p><p> guest involves chemistry the creation of synthetic molecules host that s – idea: Xenobiotics refer to chemicals that are found that are not in an organism presentnormally there. Biodegradable/compostable plasticsconsumed broken canor down by be bacteria or other living Host of some mimic the enzymesactions by performed in cells, selectively by binding to specific guestsuch species, asmaterials in toxic the environment. been have Enzymes industrial wastes. inEnzymes biological detergents energy can efficiency improve enabling by effective cleaninglower temperatures. at Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of a chemistry,Green also calledsustainable isapproachchemistry, to chemical an research and engineering that seeks to minim the environment of hazardous substances. Discus plants.sewage treatment Description of the role in of starch biodegradable plastics. chain.</p><p>B.6 Biochemistry and environment the ofNature Risk collaboration, assessment, ethical considerations impact the environment, and to find example, the useFor ways to counter of this. in enzymes biological detergents (4.8) Understandings: • • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • Essential Essential</p><p>130 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p>-</p><p> of a ”</p><p> omy. greenness “</p><p> guest should chemistry be on non –</p><p> such not solvents expected. as are ” biomagnification, including chemical the source of </p><p> guest chemistry to the chemistry removal ofguest a specific pollutantin the green chemicals – “</p><p>Application of host environment. Description of an example of the substance. Examples could include heavy metals or pesticides. Discussionchallenges and criteria of the in assessing the substancein used biochemical research, econ including the atom Specific of names emphasisThe in explanations of host covalent bonding within the supramolecule.</p><p>B.6 Biochemistry and environment the • • • Guidance: • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 131 Additional higher level topics is a is a 15/25 hours 15/25</p><p> es</p><p> making are oftenmaking are associated with particular -</p><p> base calculations and pH curves</p><p>– the pH scalepH the conjugateand acids bas and key” iskey” an effective but the metaphor “induced fit” model a wide range of a wide range conditions.</p><p>— in — acid ow are metaphors and models used in the construction of and - - curricular links: curricular - . </p><p> es based on enzyme activityes go back based on enzyme to ancient parts times in many ? lock “ mindedness: -</p><p> chemical kinetics</p><p>— astics. engineering Advancesin protein led have to the synthesis of enzymes Technologi of the world. Brewing and cheese place names termThe model.better H knowledge are widelyEnzymes used in industrial and domestic applications. Examples includefoods textiles,biological detergents, and beverages, and biodegradable pl that are effective International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • Syllabus and cross Topic 6.1 Topics 8.1, 8.3 and 8.4 Topics 18.2 and 18.3</p><p> model for model (1.9) enzymes. ”</p><p> to synthesize new enzymes and to control desired reactionscontrol). (ie waste (4.5) </p><p> induced fit “ and the value of and the value the )</p><p> max V ncentration key are areas of biochemical research. hypothesis to competitive inhibition ofwith enzymes -</p><p>— scientists collaborate vis spectroscopy and a calibration curve -</p><p> ffer solutions,ffer such in as used protein those analysis lock and key ” ly usely UV for by graphical an enzyme means, and explanation of — “</p><p>) Lambert law. m – K</p><p>( the maximum rate of rate reactionthe maximum (</p><p>:</p><p>Analyses ofprotein activity and co</p><p> science idea: significance.</p><p>Inhibitors role play an important in regulating the activities of enzymes. acidsAmino and proteins act can assolution. buffers in Protein assays common based on known standards. Determination of Michaelis constant its Comparison ofcompetitive and non reference to protein structure, the active site and allosteric site. Explanationconcept product of the inhibition of in metabolic pathways. Calculation of the pH of bu and in reactions involving acids amino in solution. Determination of of the concentration a proteinsolution in a calibrationfrom usingcurve the Beer Additional higher level topics level higher Additional Option B: BiochemistryOption B: B.7 Proteins andB.7 Proteins enzymes ofNature Theories can be superseded Collaboration and ethical considerations Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Essential Essential</p><p>132 Chemistry guide Additional higher level topics –</p><p> leather, paper and oil industries. iments or with pH temperature probes to investigate </p><p> logging exper - Many enzyme technologiesMany environmental help mitigate damaging Experiments could activity include measuring enzyme with changing : : Data : </p><p>Aim 6 conditions pH and heavy metal of temperature, ion concentration. Aim 7 activity underenzyme different conditions; modelling or computer of enzyme substrate interactions. Aim 8 effects of chemicals, from as such Aims: • • • </p><p> values max and V m K competitive inhibitors on -</p><p>Hasselbalch equation is given in booklet the data in section 1. –</p><p> vis spectroscopy, knowledge of particular reagents and wavelengths is -</p><p>UV The effectsThe competitive and non of should be covered. HendersonThe For not required. B.7 Proteins andB.7 Proteins enzymes Guidance: • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 133 Additional higher level topics . whose </p><p> me</p><p> ight of personal to access information. of genetically modified (GM) foods in greatly vary roject was an international program research</p><p>P</p><p>"for their "for discoveriesmolecular concerning thestructure of </p><p> enome G</p><p> mindedness: - tores but information not knowledge. uman ffraction provides explanationforfunctions knownof DNA. (3.7) H hat is the role ofin collaboration advancinghat knowledge? W The The goal was to complete the mapping and sequencing genes ofin the all the genome. human policiesThe on the labelling different countries. ofMost the genetically modified organisms are protected internationalby Whatpatents. on effectthe have global does and scientific this economy community? DNA s What are the differences information between and knowledge? NobelThe in Prize Physiology or Medicine 1962 was awarded jointly to Crick, Watson and Wilkins nucleic acids andsignificance its for transfer information living in material" existenceThe of DNA databases opens up questions of individual and privacy the extent to which has government the r Who the right to has knowledge access ofindividual’sDNA? an ray di ray International • • • of knowledge:Theory • • • • </p><p>— double helix from X -</p><p> is a goodis example of approaches different to solving problem. Scientists the same models and diffraction used </p><p> ansferring between species. DNA xyribose.</p><p> negative charge on DNA and its association adenine cytosine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T) (C), or —</p><p> the discovery of the structure of DNA </p><p>— d by the celld by using a triplet code, knowngenetic as the code, which</p><p>DNA is the genetic that material expresses controlling itself by the synthesis of proteins the cell. by</p><p> ize</p><p> science: idea: Nucleotides are the condensation products of a pentose phosphoric sugar, acid and a nitrogenous base uracil (U). Polynucleotides condensation by form reactions. DNA is a doublepolynucleotide helix of two strands hydrogen together by held bonds. RNA is usually a single polynucleotideuracil chain that contains in place of thymine, and a sugar ribose in place of deo sequenceThe of determines the primary bases in DNA structure of proteins synthes is universal. Genetically modified genetic have organisms material that has been altered by genetic engineering involving techniques, tr Explanationstability of DNA of of in the terms the interactions between its hydrophilic and hydrophobic components. Explanation of of the origin the with basic in (histones) proteins chromosomes. Deduction of sequence the innucleotide a complementary strand of DNA or a molecule of a givenfrom RNA polynucleotide sequence. B.8 Nucleic acids ofNature Scientific method experiments to develop the structure of DNA. (1.3) Developments in scientific research follow in improvements apparatus Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Essential Essential</p><p>134 Chemistry guide Additional higher level topics</p><p>. of effective sed in investigation </p><p> scientific activities. scientific</p><p> and model building model and exercises DNA structure, of , — DNA and RNA structure curricular links: curricular - base interactions – tabases exist differentfrom of genetic sequences organisms The storyThe of between the different the rivalry in involved teams the Experiments could include DNA extraction cellsfrom and bonding,hydrogen intermolecular interactions : : : Da : : Many ethical: Many questions are raised our knowledge by of the human — — acid</p><p>Knowledge of has DNA sequencing transformed several aspectslegal of includingenquiry, forensics paternity cases. and It iswidely u also studies and human migration. of ancestry DNA sequencing aspect is an important of the study of evolution. biochemical Aim 5 elucidation ofstructure in DNA the 1950s is offailure an example a collaboration and communication during Aim 6 of physical its properties including the specific pairings between base a purine and a pyrimidine. Aim 7 Aim 8 includinggenome, cloning, genetic and engineering, so on. gene therapy, Utilization: • • Syllabus and cross Topic 4.4 Topic 8.1 Biology topics 2.6 and 7.1 Aims: • • • • </p><p> ription and translation are unit base code adetermining - pairing between bases enables DNA to</p><p> ection 34.</p><p> unit amino acid sequence. Details of transc -</p><p>Explanation of how the complementary replicate itself exactly. Discussion concerns of the benefits and of using modifiedfoods. genetically Structures of the nitrogenous bases and ribose sugars and deoxyribose are given in the data booklet in s Knowledge of of forms the RNAdifferent is not required. Details of the process of DNA replication not are required. Limit expression concept offour DNA to the of a not required. twenty</p><p>B.8 Nucleic acids • • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 135 Additional higher level topics</p><p> on an interaction </p><p> occursiron ion as becomes the sensitized solar cells - n. </p><p> only added during the commercial preparation and which was previously subjective and difficult to</p><p>. . urricular links:urricular c 3+ - red colourred of is meat largely due to the presence of myoglobin. - mindedness: - electronic conjugation and dye d to Fe</p><p>— — complex ions ize — indicators Artificial colours are comm processingfood. of food The list of approved country, colours varies by greatly which raisesinternationalfor questions trade. Experiments show that appreciation our food of is based between senses. our How do the different sensesin interact giving us empirical knowledge about the world? Different hair tones colour of skin, and the eye result are of differences in the concentration of melani the pigment People whose lived ancestors at high generations altitudefor have have many developed hemoglobin with a higher affinity for oxygen. purplishThe changeThe in colour to brown on cooking Anthocyanins and carotenoids visible provide signalsfor to attract plants insectsfor and birds and pollination seed dispersal. also They protect plants caused damage from by UV light. oxid International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: • • • • Syllabus and cross Topic 8.2 Topic 13.2 Option C.8 d ize</p><p> rphyrin grouprphyrin </p><p> containing macrocyclic -</p><p> ariety ofariety chemical structures with diverse functions which absorb specific wavelengths oflight. hemoglobin’s oxygen dissociation curve soluble pigments widely distributed in plants. - of oxygenfoetal for hemoglobin. absorption bands in the visible region.</p><p> soluble pigments, andsoluble in are involved harvesting light in </p><p>-</p><p> fic colour on metal ions depends and pH. Biological include pigments a v</p><p> quantitative measurementsquantitative of a reliable absorbance are of means communicating data basedcolour, on </p><p> cience: — s idea: Biological pigments compounds are coloured produced by metabolism. colourThe of pigments isto highly conjugated due systems with delocal electrons, which intense have compounds,Porphyrin suchas hemoglobin, myoglobin, chlorophyll and many cytochromes are chelates ofmetals with large nitrogen ligands. Hemoglobin and containmyoglobin groups with heme the po ion. bound to an iron(II) Cytochromes contain heme groups in which between theinterconverts iron ion and iron(III)iron(II) during redox reactions. Anthocyanins water are aromatic, Their speci Carotenoids are lipid photosynthesis. are susceptible They to oxidation, light. catalysed by Explanationsigmoidalshape of the of ofin terms the cooperative binding of hemoglobin to oxygen. Discussionfactors of that the influence oxygen saturationof hemoglobin, including pH temperature, and carbon dioxide. Description of affinity the greater B.9 Biological pigments ofNature Use of data replicate. (3.1) Understandings: • • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Essential Essential</p><p>136 Chemistry guide Additional higher level topics</p><p> funneluse of or the anthocyanins loggers for collectingloggers absorption data.</p><p>: Use of data : Experiments could include the extraction ofisolation from and pigments</p><p>Aim 6 plant sources using solvents and separating as pH indicators. Aim 7 Aims: • • </p><p> or of chromatography. a competitive inhibit</p><p> binding in hemoglobin shouldbe limited to </p><p> planation of the of anthocyaninsability to actindicators as based on their Explanation ofmonoxide the ofaction carbon as oxygen binding. Outline offactors the the thatstabilities affect of anthocyanins, carotenoids and chlorophyll in relation structures. to their Ex sensitivity to pH. Descriptionfunction photosynthetic of the of pigments light in trapping energy during photosynthesis. Investigation of through paper and thin pigments layer structuresThe B of and specific heme chlorophyll, of examples anthocyanins and carotenoids in are given the data booklet in details section 35; of other namespigment and structures are not required. Explanation of cooperative conformational changes in one polypeptide occurring when it becomes oxygenated. Knowledge of changesspecificcolour with changing conditionsis not required.</p><p>B.9 Biological pigments • • • • • Guidance: • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 137 Additional higher level topics fats, - trans</p><p>:</p><p> ns food industry. - curricular linkscurricular -</p><p> mindedness: - intermolecular/London forces organic functional groups Ethical questions through the use arise of and saturated</p><p>: : — — — organic reactio — stereoisomerism</p><p>Different very countries have differentfood standardslabelling of with respect to its chemicalcontent, includingof thefats type present. Aim 8 particularlyfast in the International • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 10.1 Topic 20.1 Topic 20.3 Option A.4 Aims: • living matter. living (2.2) -</p><p>-</p><p> and trans od - cis configuration is - biochemistry involves chiralmany molecules with biologicalspecific activity enantiomer. Chemical to one — form, butform, fo cis cis ing of the roles opsin, rhodopsin </p><p> form. form.</p><p> trans fats, the advantages and andof a discussion - e light interconversion activated of trans t act as a guiding distinction between living and non</p><p> retinal. -</p><p>Most biochemicalMost processes are stereospecific and involve only moleculescertain with configuration of chiral carbon atoms.</p><p> and trans -</p><p> cience: s</p><p> idea: and cis With one exception, acids amino and are chiral, only the L found in proteins. Naturally occurring unsaturated fat in is mostly the processingcan convert the it into D and L stereoisomers of refer sugars to the configuration of the chiral carbon furthestatom from the aldehyde ketone or group, and D forms occur most frequently in nature. Ring forms ofknownsugars as isomers, have α depending and β, on whether the position of group at carbon the hydroxyl 1 (glucose) or carbon 2 (fructose) lies above the (α) or plane below the planeof the ring of ring (β). the Vision involveschemistry th isomers of retinal. Description of the hydrogenation and partial hydrogenation offats, unsaturated including the production of disadvantages of processes. these Explanationstructure of and properties the of comparison cellulose,with and starch. Discussionimportance of the of andmaterial cellulosestructuralin as the a diet. Outline of the Arole of in vitamin vision,includ B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules ofNature Theories used to explain phenomena/evaluate natural claims reactionschiral in a environmen Understandings: • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Essential Essential</p><p>138 Chemistry guide Additional higher level topics</p><p> unsaturated fatsshould be - / trans cis -</p><p>Names ofNames involved in the enzymes the visual cycle are not required. Relative melting points and ofsaturated covered. B.10 Stereochemistry in biomolecules Guidance: • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 139 Core topics 15/25 hours 15/25 n’s If energy. </p><p>. </p><p> tion based in Paris iza , based in Abu Dhabi, (IRENA) What is the influence of political </p><p>3.2, 3.3, 3.5 and 3.6 — 3.2, 3.3, 3.5</p><p>. In what ways social,might political, cultural and )</p><p> curricular links: curricular -</p><p> energy density— energy ? mindedness: - as founded increasedin 2009 to promote adoption and sustainable use the combustion of hydrocarbons </p><p>Lord PorterGeorge enthalpies of combustion — ( , w International Renewable Agency Energy — UAE The InternationalThe Agency Energy is an autonomous organ which works affordable to ensure reliable, for and clean energy its 28 member countries and beyond. The of sources renewable energy geothermal (bioenergy, energy, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy). no doubt have that we “I willbe successful in harnessing su the sunbeams were weapons of war we would had solar have centuries energy ago.” religiousfactors affect the types offinanced research that and are undertaken, or rejected are There ethicalmany issues generation raised energy by and its consequent contributions climate to pollution change. and pressure on different areas of knowledge? pic 5.1 International • • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 10.2 systemsEnvironmental and societies topics 8.1 topic Physics To</p><p> us potentialfrom result and kinetic changes energy at the molecular level. The quantityThe of is energy conserved in conversion any but the quality is degraded renewable </p><p>-</p><p>. renewable energy -</p><p>100%</p><p> x</p><p> energy</p><p> energy</p><p> output input</p><p> total useful — energy changes in the world around</p><p>. . </p><p>= fuel fuel</p><p> from from</p><p> consumed</p><p> consumed</p><p> transfer</p><p> fuel</p><p> fuel</p><p> of</p><p> degraded as heat is to transferred the surroundings. released released of releases at a reasonable energy rate and produces </p><p> energy</p><p> mass volume energy</p><p> energy</p><p> an</p><p>= </p><p>=</p><p> of </p><p>Societies completely dependent on energy are resources. </p><p> energy</p><p> density</p><p> cience: s rmination of density the energy and specific offuel energy the from a effeciency Energy </p><p> idea: : Energy Specific The</p><p>A useful source energy pollution.minimal qualityThe of is energy and Energy materials go from a concentrated into a dispersed form. The quantity of available the energy for doing work decreases. Renewable sources energy are naturally replenished. Non sources are finite. Discussion sources of of the use of different non renewable and Dete enthalpies of combustion, densities andmass the molar offuel. Discussion offuel how the choice influencedis density or its by energy specific energy. energy. C.1 Energy sources C.1 Energy sources ofNature Use theories to explain natural phenomena hasEnergy both quantity and quality. (2.2) Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Core topics Core Option C Essential Essential</p><p>140 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> be investigated de in have this and ethicalmoral area implications.</p><p>Discussions sources ofenergy the possible opportunities provide for energyThe density of differentfuels could Databases of statistics energy on a global and national scale can be productionEnergy has global dimensions. economic and environmental : : : : </p><p>Aim 1 scientificstudy and creativity within a globalcontext. Aim 6 experimentally. Aim 7 explored here. Aim 8 choicesThe ma Aims: • • • • </p><p>Determination of of the efficiency transfer an energy appropriate from process data. Discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the different energy sources in C.2 through to C.8.</p><p>C.1 Energy sources C.1 Energy sources • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 141 Core topics</p><p> renewable -</p><p> distillation and catalytic cracking </p><p>These abundant resources are non</p><p> and oil internationaland spills are issues that demand </p><p>— global warming hydrocarbons and isomerism</p><p> experiments experiments include fractional</p><p>— enthalpy changesenthalpy of combustion </p><p> curricular links: curricular - —</p><p>— carbon cycling</p><p> mindedness: - Many online calculatorsMany are available to calculate footprints. carbon d here. Databases of statistics energy on a global and national scale can be Consideration ofadvantages and disadvantages the fuels offossil </p><p>: Possible: : : : — solar cells</p><p>The choiceThe fossil different offuel by used countries on availability, depends and economic, societal, environmental and technologicalfactors. Differentfuel systems (RON, or PON) MON are rating used in different countries. Ocean drilling, oil pipelines cooperation and agreement. Aim 6 reactions. Aim 7 explore Aim 7 Aim 8 illustrates the environmentaleconomic implications and using of science and technology.</p><p>International • • • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topics5.1 and 5.3 Topics 10.1 and 20.3 Topic 10.2 and option C.5 Option C.8 Biology topic 4.3 Aims: • • • • </p><p> in a car engine, oal gasification </p><p>” c</p><p> knocking “ tillation.</p><p> the use offuelsfossil has of had a key development role in science the technology. and (4.1)</p><p>— ignite, which leads to e and measured the octane by number. -</p><p> sulfur and oxygen. ergy due to the natureergy of chemical bonds in hydrocarbons. total amount of amount total greenhouse gases produced during </p><p> is the is</p><p>The energyThe offossilfuels from originates solar whichenergy has been chemicalstoredby time. processes over</p><p> cience: s idea: carbon footprint</p><p>Fossilfuels the by were formed reduction ofcompounds that biological contain carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, isPetroleum a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that can be splitinto different partscomponent called fractionsfractional by dis oilCrude needs to be refined before use. The different fractions are separated a physicalby processin fractional distillation. tendencyThe of a fuel to auto is related to molecular structur performanceThe of hydrocarbons byfuels as improved isthe cracking and catalytic reactions. reforming Coal gasification and chemical liquefaction are that processes convert coal to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons. A activities.human It is expressed generally in equivalent ofcarbon tons dioxide. Discussion oflengthchain the effect and chain on of the octane branching number. Discussion and cracking of the reforming reactions of hydrocarbons and explanation the octane how these number.improve processes Deduction offor reactions, equations cracking and reforming and liquefaction. C.2 Fossil fuelsC.2 Fossil ofNature Scientific andcommunity collaboration Understandings: • • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Essential Essential largebut provide amounts of en</p><p>142 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> impact </p><p> their </p><p> on offootprints carbonfor activities. different vantages and disadvantagesfuels.fossil of the different eterminati</p><p>Discussion of the ad Identification offractions the various their of petroleum, relative volatility and their uses. Calculations of the carbon dioxide added to the when atmosphere, different fuels burn and d costThe of and production availability of (reserves) fuels fossil and should be considered.on the environment </p><p>C.2 Fossil fuelsC.2 Fossil • • • Guidance: • </p><p>Chemistry guide 143 Core topics</p><p> ernational collaboration.</p><p> enhouse gas emissions.fission Nuclear</p><p> collaboration between countriescollaboration many and aims to a </p><p> curricular links: curricular - — nuclear fusion e that fusion is an energy sourcee that fusion of energy the future. is an</p><p> mindedness: - Computer animations and simulations decay, of and radioactive nuclear </p><p> the emission of spectrum hydrogen : energy particleenergy research involves physics int</p><p>- — isotopes —</p><p>The useThe of is nuclearinternationally energy monitored the by International Atomic Agency. Energy High accelerator are There facilities at CERN, SLAC, DESY, Fermi lab and Brookhaven. Results are disseminated and shared scientists by in many countries. ITER projectThe is demonstrat useThe of carriesWho nuclear energy risks well benefits. as as should ultimately be responsiblefor assessing these?know what How dois we best for and society the individual? ation: Aim 7 fusionfission and reactions. International • • • of knowledge:Theory • Utiliz Syllabus and cross Topic 2.1 Topic 2.2 7.2 topic Physics Aims: • the splitting of a large unstable into nucleus smaller stable nuclei.</p><p>-</p><p> lives.</p><p>- . U by neutronU by 238</p><p> un is the source of of much the energy needed forlife on Earth.There are technologicalmany challenges in replicating s as this increases the binding energy</p><p>, is produced from</p><p> idespread useidespread offissionfor nuclear production energy would lead to a reduction in gre the composition of stars ion se — w ly</p><p>→ X → X + Y + neutrons. U sion of nuclei hydrogen in the s 92 236</p><p>→</p><p> n The fu The 1</p><p>0 cience: + s life is the time it ishalflife takesfor the time of the number to decay. atoms - idea: U U undergoes a fission chain reaction: chain fission a undergoes U Pu, usedfuel as reactors” in a “breeder 92 235 capture. Light nucleican undergo fusion reactions as the binding this increases energy per nucleon. Fusion reactions source are a promising energy as the fuelinexpensive is and waste isabundant, and no radioactive produced. Absorption spectrato ana are used nucleiHeavy can undergo fission react per nucleon. 235 criticalThe is offuel the mass mass for needed to the reaction be self sustaining. 239 Radioactive contain waste may isotopes long half with and short Half C.3 Nuclear fusion and fission ofNature Assessingscientific the ethics of research is the process taking and nuclear the atomic placebomb in fusionin the thathydrogen (4.5) bomb. Understandings: Nuclear fusion • • • Nuclear fission • • • • • • </p><p> this process on Earth but it would offer Fissionsource a rich of involves energy. Essential Essential</p><p>144 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p>Consideration ofenvironmental impact the of nuclear energy illustrating : Aim 8 the implications ofscience and using technology.</p><p>•</p><p> lives. -</p><p> binding energy per nucleon. are given in section 1 of the data 𝜆𝜆 ln2</p><p>=</p><p>2 1 and 𝑡𝑡</p><p>𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 r power plantr not are required. − equations forequations fusion reactions. 𝑒𝑒 0 𝑁𝑁 and the possibility that nuclear fuels may be used in may and the fuels possibility that nuclear </p><p>, =</p><p>𝑁𝑁 f a nuclea</p><p> booklet. Construction of nuclear Explanationfusion of reactions of in terms binding energy per nucleon. Explanation of the atomic spectra absorption and <a href="/tags/Helium/" rel="tag">helium</a>, of hydrogen including the relationships lines between the transitions. and electron Deduction of nuclear equationsfission for reactions. Explanationfission ofreactions of in terms Discussionstorage and of disposal the of nuclear waste. Solution of decay radioactive problems involving integral of numbers half Students are not expected recallfission to specific reactions. workingsThe o Safety and riskissues health, include: problems associated with nuclear waste and core meltdown nuclear weapons. equations,The C.3 Nuclear fusion and fission andApplications skills: Nuclear fusion • • • Nuclear fission • • • • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 145 Core topics</p><p> multiple bonds. Solar energy nowledge? k reactions reas of a</p><p> were dismissedare not reproducible.were as the results </p><p>” , consumers companies and energy are being </p><p>However curricular links: curricular</p><p>- esterification reactions,oil, withcooking waste could reduce waste — photosynthesis ys possible to obtain replicable possibleys to obtain results in sciences? the natural Are mechanism ofmechanism nuclear substitution </p><p> bond enthalpies : Trans : The conversion is of energy solar important ofin a number different : Experiments could include those involvingfermentation photosynthesis, — —</p><p>The claimsThe fusion of “cold Is it alwa reproducible results in other possible Aim 2 technologies. Aim 6 and transesterification. Aim 8 and produce excellent biofuels. Theory of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 5.3 Topic 20.1 Biology topic 2.9 Aims: • • • </p><p> s are converted</p><p> an alternative source.energy (5.2)</p><p>OH</p><p> ecules that allow to absorb them visible light. 1</p><p>+ R 2 2</p><p>2 + 6O</p><p>6 O 12 RCOOR</p><p>H 6 harnessingsun’s theof area is energy a current research and challenges remain. still OH + 2CO 5 C — H</p><p>2</p><p>OH s converts light energy into chemical energy: i 2</p><p> mainly comprisingmainly of esters alkyl but with and glycerol, fatty some O O 2C 2 Visible light can be absorbed by molecules that have a conjugated structure with an extended system of alternating singlesystem extended and with conjugated structure an can molecules that a by have be absorbed Visible light</p><p>+ R 1 6</p><p> cience: O + 6H s producesyst ester: a different 2 12 idea: H 6 C Fermentation of glucose produces ethanolused can which as be a biofuel: contentEnergy of vegetable oilsis to that of similar fuel diesel are not but they used in internalengines combustion as are too viscous. they Transesterificationan ester betweenand an alcohol a strong withacid or base catal transesterificationthe In process, involving alcoholan reaction a with in the presence ofstrongbase, acid the triglyceride a or vegetable oil to a mixture acids. Transesterification with produces or methanol ethanol oils with lower viscosity that can be used in diesel engines. Light can be absorbed chlorophyll and by pigments other with a conjugated electronic structure. Photosynthes Identification offeatures mol of the 6CO</p><p> c understanding RCOOR</p><p>• • • • • C.4 Solar energy ofNature Publi encouraged use to make of as solar energy Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • Essential Essential can be converted to chemical in photosynthesis. energy </p><p>146 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> d disadvantages of of biofuels. the use</p><p>Explanation of of the reduced viscosity methanol and esters produced with ethanol. Evaluation of an the advantages Deduction offor equations transesterification reactions. a conjugated systemOnly with alternating double bonds to be covered. needs</p><p>C.4 Solar energy • • • Guidance: • </p><p>Chemistry guide 147 Core topics</p><p> entering and entering and</p><p> the ace temperature oface temperature the een radiation</p><p> ternational working community together to research </p><p> libria i</p><p> equilibrium systems— equilibrium curricular links: curricular thermal energy transfer energy thermal - base equ — climate change— climate</p><p>– e equilibrium between aqueous and gaseous dioxide carbon could be mindedness: 8.1 - infrared spectra transition complexes metal </p><p> d cross : Th — — and 17.1 — acid topic </p><p> ntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Kyoto Protocol This issue involves the in and reduce the effects Such of global warming. attempts include which was extended in Qatar. peopleSome question the reality ofclimate change,question and the motives of scientists “exaggerated” the who have problem. How do we assess the evidence collected and the models used to predict of the impact human activities? Aim 6 experimentally investigated. I International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus an Topics 7.1 Topic 8.2 Topic 11.3 Topic 13.2 Biology topic 4.4 Physics Aims: • arth average arth average showtemperature clear correlation but wide variationsthe surf in E eports of Panel the Intergovernmental on Climate Change (IPCC). (5.2) — r wavelength </p><p> levels and 2 of carbon dioxide of carbon </p><p>CO</p><p>—</p><p> wavelength radiation from ofthe Earth. Some </p><p> radiated back to Earth. - equilibrium between concentration of atmospheric </p><p> of explanations science public to the</p><p> global warmingglobal </p><p>—</p><p> ion is re</p><p> the molecule stretchthe molecule and bend. </p><p> the study of encompasses global warming a broad range of concepts and ideas and transdisciplinary. is (4.1)</p><p>— heterogeneous Gases in the atmosphere that are produced by human activities are changing the climate changingasupsetting are the activitiesclimate balance they betw that produced atmosphere are human are the by the Gases in</p><p>: cience: s i dea Greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar short radiation but absorb the longer the absorbed radiat isThere a carbon dioxide andcarbon aqueous dioxide in the oceans. Greenhouse gases absorb IR radiation as there is in a change dipole moment as the bonds in Particulatessuch smoke and dust as cause as reflect globalthey dimming sunlight, as do clouds. Explanation whichmechanisms of by the molecular greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation. Discussion offor the relationship the evidence between the increased concentration of gases and global warming. Discussionsources, abundance of the relative and effects of different greenhouse gases. Discussion approaches of the different to the control emissions. C.5 Environmental impact ofNature Transdisciplinary Collaboration and significance Correlation and cause and understanding ofscience occurredEarth have frequently in the past. (2.8) Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • Essential Essential leaving the atmosphere.</p><p>148 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> greenhouse effect. </p><p>Computer modelling is a powerful tool whichknowledge can by be Discussions change of climate and green chemistry raise awareness of : : Aim 7 gained about the Aim 8 ethical,the implicationseconomic environmental and science ofusing and technology. </p><p>• • . . 2 O and COO 2 , H , 4</p><p> global warmingglobal —</p><p>Discussion ofthe ocean pH changes in due to increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases to be considered are CH</p><p>C.5 Environmental impact • Guidance: • </p><p>Chemistry guide 149 Additional higher level topics</p><p> acid battery 15/25 hours 15/25 –</p><p> s equivalent in differentareas of the globe? me</p><p>:</p><p> curricular linkscurricular the relationship between electrical voltage, resistance power, and - muscle and nerve cells nerve muscle and discussed in are concentration biology — — mindedness: he conversion ofchemical to electricity energy in important is a - electrochemical cells</p><p> redox reactions : T : : The factors the thatvoltage affect of lead a cell and the be investigated experimentally. — al energy. —</p><p>Are battery battery Are recycling program Does scientific have languagevocabulary primarily and a descriptive or an interpretative function? “electric terms and current” the Are “internal resistance” accurate descriptions or of reality metaphors? Aim 2 ofnumber different technologies. Aim 6 could </p><p>International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 9.1 Topic 19.1 Biology topic 6.5 cells 5.3 topic Physics current Aims: • • </p><p> waters as the waters fuel. conditions. ted by itsby internalted </p><p> ersed using electricity. standard -</p><p> can be used to calculate the potential of a</p><p>, Q m itdepends m on their quantity. ln</p><p> tes present in waste ) nF RT (</p><p>- 0 s for the electrodes reactionsa fuel incell. E</p><p> depends primarily on the nature of the materials used while </p><p>= redox reactionscan be used a source as of electricity but disposal of batteries consequences. environmental has (4.8) E</p><p>—</p><p> a battery</p><p>Chemical from redox reactions energy be used can as a portable source of electric</p><p> cience: s cell in an electrochemical cell, under non idea: - electrochemicalcell resistance internal has finite due it to the time takesfor Energy : half An ions of current to diffuse. The maximum a cell limi is resistance. The voltage of the total work that can be obtained fro cellIn a primary the electrochemical reaction is not reversible. Rechargeable cells involve redox reactionsthat can be rev A fuel cellchemical can beconvert used contained to energy, fuel in a that is consumed, directly to electrical energy. Microbial fuel are cells a possible (MFCs) sustainable source energy using different carbohydrates or substra The Nernst equation, electrodesThe in a concentration cell but are the same concentration of the electrolyte solutions at theand anode cathode are different. Distinction between fuel cells. and cells primary Deduction of equation half</p><p>C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells ofNature problemsEnvironmental Understandings: • • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • Essential Essential Additional higher level topics level higher Additional Option C</p><p>150 Chemistry guide Additional higher level topics impact of al especially , especially</p><p>Appreciation of the environment mic and environmental implications of using</p><p>, could be discussed. clean up the environment. clean up the to r pollutionr problems. isposal batteries of primary and the chemicals use can introduce they Bacterial substrates fuelfound cells use inwater as waste the fuel and : D : : : Consideration ofadvantages and disadvantages the of the different Aim 8 sourcesenergy shows the econo science and technology. The environmental aspectsfuel cells of with regard to methanol Aim 8 land and wate and lead <a href="/tags/Cadmium/" rel="tag">cadmium</a> pollution. Aim 8 so can be used </p><p>• • • d the</p><p> equations and </p><p>-</p><p> a fuel cell. ) of H in series.</p><p>/Δ G cadmium (NiCad) an cadmium battery</p><p>– ) under anaerobic) conditions. - COO 3 exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. -</p><p> alvanic) cells connected g th protonth equations. - species of for bacteria, example, can in be used cells some to</p><p> acid storagethe nickel battery, – ion should battery be considered. the ethanoatethe ions (CH </p><p>–</p><p>Geobacter ize alculation of the efficiencythermodynamic (Δ Comparison between fuelcells and rechargeable batteries. Discussion of the advantages of of types of different terms insize, cells mass and voltage. Solution of problems using Nernst equation. the C Explanationof of the workings rechargeablefuel and including cells diagrams halfand relevant shouldA battery be considered as a portable electrochemical sourceup made of voltaic one or more ( NernstThe equation is given in the data bookletsection in1. Hydrogen and methanol should be considered as fuels for fuel cells. The operation of cells the under acid and alkaline conditions should be considered. Students wi be familiar should The oxid leadThe Students shouldfamiliarwith the anode be and cathode half uses of the different cells. lithium</p><p>C.6 Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells • • • • • Guidance: • • • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 151 Additional higher level topics and</p><p>Should eir discoveries? are anomalous and 6 strives to limit the spread peaceful purposes. Agency -</p><p>How reliable are these predictions? </p><p> experts in knowledge?experts thefor search ntermolecular forces in UF peaceful or non</p><p> advances. I There are disputes are There countries about whether some are</p><p> curricular links: curricular - — structure and bonding — nuclear fusion mindedness: - the different polices are and attitudes to nuclear energy discussedin first reactions order</p><p>— — re isre no likelihood that will humans tap the power ever of the atom.” 4.1 and 4.3</p><p> s There are only are There smalla very of number countries developed that have nuclear weapons and the International Atomic Energy of this technology. developing nuclear for energy Nuclear incidents a global have effect; the Island Mile accidents at Three andChernobyl the problems at Fukushima caused a tsunami by could be discussed the potential to illustrate dangers. “The (Robert Millikan, Physics Nobel Laureate How can 19231928). quoted inthe impact of new technologies predicted? be areHow important the opinions of releaseThe of during fission energy reactionscan in be used times of peace to energy,generate but also can lead to destruction of in war. time scientists responsible morally be held for the applicationsof th Is area of there any scientific knowledge the pursuit ofis which morally unacceptable?</p><p>International • • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic Topic 16.1 7.2 topic Physics Geography resources sections in the guide leus energy energy – life relatedlife to - tein mass</p><p>Eins</p><p> the ng nature of the radiation it </p><p> izi ion . 2 1 2 𝑡𝑡 ln</p><p> energy required toenergy separate a nuc = proportional to the square of root the</p><p>). ). These free radicalscan initiate chain 𝜆𝜆 · . 2 ) is) the</p><p>E ifference of between the mass the nucleus and 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚</p><p>. =</p><p>𝐸𝐸</p><p> our understanding of processes nuclear from both came theoretical and experimental ) is) the d — m ), and hydroxyl), (HO -</p><p>2 Graham’s Law)</p><p>: Large quantities can ofbe energy obtained smallfrom quantities of matter. cience: s i dea The mass The defect (∆ ofthe sum the masses ofindividualits nucleons. nuclearThe binding (Δ energy into protons and neutrons. energyThe produced in a fission reactioncan be calculated from the mass difference between the products and reactants using equivalence relationship differentThe isotopes in hexafluoride of uranium can be separated, using diffusion centrifugation or causingfuel enrichment. effusionThe is rate of a gas inversely molar mass ( <a href="/tags/Radioactive_decay/" rel="tag">Radioactive decay</a> is kinetically a first process order half with the the decay constant the equation by dangersThe of nuclear are due to the energy produces whichproduction leads to the of free radicals oxygen such as superoxide (O reactions that canDNA inand enzymes damage living cells.</p><p>C.7 Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission ofNature Trends and discrepancies trends.do not follow (3.1) the normal Understandings: Nuclear fusion: • • Nuclear fission: • • • • • Essential Essential</p><p>152 Chemistry guide Additional higher level topics</p><p>Computer animations and simulations decay, of and radioactive nuclear Consideration ofadvantages and disadvantages the offusion nuclear : : </p><p>: Aim 7 fusionfission and reactions. Aim 8 illustrates the environmentaleconomic implications and using of science and technology. The use offusion reactions can in also bomb the hydrogen be discussed. Aims • • , to , 2</p><p>𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚</p><p>= 𝐸𝐸 , ,</p><p>1.</p><p> in terms of inbonding terms and </p><p>6 life. - and UF 2</p><p> energy equivalenceenergy relationship energy equivalenceenergy relationship to determine – –</p><p> nuclear power plant not are required. </p><p> of the Einstein mass</p><p> and skills:</p><p>Calculation of and the bindingmass defect of energy a nucleus. Application of the Einstein mass the energydetermine produced in a fusion reaction. Application produced energy the in fissiona reaction. Discussion properties of the different of UO structure. Solution of problems involving radioactive half Explanation of between the relationship Graham’s law ofeffusion and the kinetic theory. Solution of problems on the relative rate of effusionGraham’s law. using Students are not expected recallfission to specific reactions. workingsThe of a Safety and riskissues health, include: problems associated with nuclear waste, weapons. be used fuels in nuclear and the possibility that nuclear may Graham’s law of in the effusion data is given booklet in section Decay relationships in are given the data bookletsection in 1. A binding is curve energy given in the data bookletsection in36. </p><p>C.7 Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission Applications Nuclear fusion: • • Nuclear fission: • • • • • Guidance: • • • • • •</p><p>Chemistry guide 153 Additional higher level topics</p><p> loggers. </p><p> cells were produced both of these processes</p><p> sensitized solar cell and - photovoltaic</p><p> e first </p><p> illustrates the transdisciplinary of nature , nderlying reasonsWhat forsimilarities? these </p><p> synthesis</p><p> nanoparticles 2 curricular links: curricular - d solar cell (DSSC). — photo mindedness: - The propertiesThe of can DSSCs beusing best investigated data</p><p> patterns in ionization energy redox reactions : : Students could buildan inexpensive dye — — sensitize -</p><p>The harnessingThe ofsolar could energy change thefortunes economic of countries with good suppliesof sunlight andland. unused A conjugated has system similarities some withHow useful a string. violinis Whatthis metaphor? the are u role do models and metaphors play in the acquisition of knowledge? Aim 6 investigate their photovoltaicproperties. Aim 7 International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 3.2 Topic 9.1 Biology topic 2.9 Aims: • • -</p><p> and the</p><p> type and p type -</p><p> ncreases the effective sensitized solar cell. semiconductor. - 2 </p><p> absorbing i dye -</p><p> sensitized solar cells (DSSC) -</p><p> converted to electricity in a photovoltaic cell. sensitized solar cell, whosemimics photosynthesis operation and makes use of TiO</p><p>- lar energy isenergy convertedlar to electrical the light energy be absorbedmust and charges bemust separated. In a photovoltaic cell</p><p>— a dye When so</p><p> cience: s the level offunding and the source offunding is the crucial of inthe type decisions regarding research to be conducted. Th idea: — Molecules with longer conjugated systems absorb light oflonger wavelength. electricalThe conductivitya semiconductor of increases an increase with in whereastemperature the conductivity of metals decreases. conductivityThe of be siliconincreased can doping by to produce n semiconductors.type Solar can be energy DSSCs in imitate the way which plants harness Electrons energy. solar are "injected" from an excited molecule into directly the TiO useThe of nanoparticles with coated light surface area and allows light more a wider of over range the visible to spectrum be absorbed. Relation between the degree of conjugation in structure the molecular wavelength of the light absorbed. Explanation of the operation the photovoltaic and dye Explanation of how nanoparticlesincrease the efficiency of DSSCs. C.8 Photovoltaic cells C.8 Photovoltaic and dye ofNature Transdisciplinary science and the link between chemistry and biology. (4.1) Funding NASAby for space were only later probes used and on Earth. (4.7) Understandings: • • • • • • andApplications skills: • • • Essential Essential occur in the <a href="/tags/Silicon/" rel="tag">silicon</a> semiconductor, whereas these processes occur in separate locations in a dye</p><p>154 Chemistry guide Additional higher level topics are type type based - -</p><p> s separated s in the tzel DSSC should be </p><p>ä . ─ Gr ions to I newer ─ 3 /I</p><p>2 I</p><p> type semiconductors inclusion of a - d solar cell. sensitized solar cells (DSSC) </p><p>- ize 3 element. In n 3 element.</p><p> sensit -</p><p> conductor. The processesconductor. The separation and of absorption charge e of a group An example is the reduction of </p><p> lative conductivity ofmetals and semiconductors should be related to 5 element provides5 element extra electrons.</p><p>Discussion of the advantages of to the compared the DSSC silicon photovoltaic cell. re The ionization energies. a simpleOnly treatment of the operation ofis the In p cells needed. semiconductors, electron holes in the crystal introducing are created by a small percentag photovoltaica In cellis light the absorbed theand charge semi silicon separated in a dye Specific redox and electrodereactions in the covered. group </p><p>C.8 Photovoltaic cells C.8 Photovoltaic and dye • Guidance: • • • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 155 Core topics</p><p> ceuticals, but 15 /25 hours 15</p><p> names. Are names simply labels Are names names. Whoshould be responsible ultimately made commerciallymade available. When isacceptable it ethically to deceive </p><p> tests.</p><p> blind</p><p> mindedness:</p><p>The developmentThe of new medicines is in collaboration often done with - : : There haveThere been advances in of thepharma development </p><p>: :</p><p>In some countriesIn some certain drugs are only available with prescription while in countriesother these drugs same are available the counter. over drug can same The be identified different by influenceor do they ways of other our knowing? Drugs trials use double people? All risks drugs carry well benefits. as as for assessing these?bodies Public can protect but also the individual their limit freedom. How do we know what isfor best and the society individual? Aim 9 limitationsthere are many their impact and reach. to 10 Aim biologists and physicists. International • of knowledge:Theory • • • Aims: • • </p><p> a drug for of 50% of he drug and the site a drug for of 50% the</p><p> ctive dose for of 50% the of ges between the minimum the minimum ges between </p><p> variety of different effectsfunctioning of on the the body. administered reaches dosage that the target </p><p>) divided the ) by effeminimum addiction and side effects are considerations of drug</p><p>, ). ). ) divided) by effective the minimum dose for of 50% the LD50 medicines and drugs go through a variety of tests their effectiveness to determine before andare safety they</p><p>—</p><p>ED50 TD50 ED50</p><p>Medicines and drugs a have</p><p> rapeutic window is range of the dosa cience: receptor interactions are based on the structure of t s – Medicinal chemistry the idea: : In animal studies, the therapeutic indexislethal the dose populationthe ( population ( In humans, the therapeutic index is the toxic dose population ( population ( The ofamounts the drug that produce the desired effect medically and a unacceptable effect. adverse Dosage, tolerance administration. Bioavailability isfraction of the the part of body. the human steps main The in of the development synthetic drugsidentifying include the synthesis,need and structure, and extraction. yield Drug of activity. D.1 Pharmaceutical D.1 Pharmaceutical products and action drug ofNature Risks and benefits Pharmaceutical products are classifiedfor their use potential. and abuse (4.8) Understandings: • • • • • • • Core topics Core Essential Essential Option D</p><p>156 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> index and therapeutic </p><p> l and human testsl and human of drugs (for s, anima</p><p> respectively) should respectively) be kept to a minimum. 50</p><p>/ED 50 and TD 50</p><p>/ED 50 LD Discussion foundations offor experimental therapeutic window through both animal studies.and human Discussion of methods. drug administration Comparison offunctional groups, how polarity and medicinal administration can affect bioavailability. ethicalFor and economic reason D.1 Pharmaceutical D.1 Pharmaceutical products and action drug andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • </p><p>Chemistry guide 157 Core topics and how</p><p>. Fleming’s discovery )</p><p> experts. Whatinfluence an does - Louis Pasteur (</p><p> missed non by</p><p> sources. example, salicylic For barkfrom of acid willow </p><p> curricular links: curricular - defence against infectious disease — mindedness: - functional groups yield of reaction</p><p> minded attitudeminded have on perceptions? our — - —</p><p>Aspirin differentin is used many ways across the globe. firstThe changed antibacterial that the disease way was treated across the globe. Different painkillersin ways. How do we actdifferent perceive pain, perceptionsare our influenced the waysother by of knowing? “Chance favours only the prepared mind.” ofis penicillin as often described serendipitoussignificance but ofthe his observations would been have open nternational I • • of knowledge:Theory • • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 1.3 Topic 10.2 Biology topic 6.3</p><p> that cause pain, swellingthat cause or</p><p> linking of the bacterial cell walls. - many drugsmany need to be isolated, and modified identified naturalfrom in prevention of the recurrence, in of prevention of the </p><p> fungi. — the discovery of penicillin Sir by Alexander(1.4) Fleming.</p><p>—</p><p> chain results in penicillins thatresistant are more to the -</p><p>Natural products with useful medicinal can properties be chemically altered to produce potentmore or safer medicines.</p><p> lactam ring is of a part the core structure penicillins. of - cience:</p><p> s</p><p> idea: :</p><p>: Mild analgesicsfunction intercepting by the pain stimulus at the source, often interferingby with the production ofsubstances Aspirin from salicylic is prepared acid. Aspirin can as be used an anticoagulant heart attacks and strokes as a prophylactic. and Penicillins are antibiotics by produced A beta antibioticsSome cross preventing work by Modifying the side penicillinase enzyme. fever. Aspirin and penicillinAspirin D.2 ofNature Serendipity and scientific discovery Making observations and replication of data fortree relieffever. of pain (1.8) and Understandings: Aspirin • • • Penicillin • • • • Essential Essential</p><p>158 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p>Experiments could include the synthesis of aspirin. Discuss of the use/overuse for antibiotics animals. : : :</p><p>Aim 6 Aim 8 Aims: • • </p><p>-</p><p> the over</p><p> chain of penicillins. - and the effectsand the of lactam ring on the action of penicillin. - chemically modified into a saltincrease to </p><p> for example for soluble aspirin. , </p><p> s</p><p> penicillin.</p><p>Description ofsalicylic the use of acid and derivatives its as mild analgesics. Explanationsynthesisof ofsalicylicfrom the aspirin acid,including yield, purity recrystallizationby and characterization using IR and melting point. Discussionsynergistic ofeffects the of aspirin with alcohol. Discussion can of how thebe aspirin its aqueous and solubility how thisfacilitates its bioavailability. Discussion of the effects of chemically modifying the side Discussionimportance of the ofcompliance patient prescription of Explanationimportance of of the the beta Students should be aware of the ability of acidic and (carboxylic) basic (amino) groups to form ionic salt Structures of aspirin and penicillin booklet are available in the data in section 37. Aspirin and penicillinAspirin D.2 andApplications skills: Aspirin • • • • Penicillin • • • Guidance: • • </p><p>Chemistry guide 159 Core topics tions of iza D visual -</p><p> world.</p><p> ionsfor the investigation of 3</p><p> curricular links: curricular - mindedness: - functional groups Use animat computer</p><p>: : —</p><p> painkiller offorms in a variety for of One thousands these of years. derivatives Many illegalMany drugs or produced are cultivated in a small of number countries viewpoints differ globally.and then sold Cultural and economic and distributed opiates the on the production and sale around of Cultures oftenclash perspectives different over and ideas. Is there any knowledge which of is independent culture? Aim 7 drugs and receptor sites. International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 10.2 Aims: • </p><p> ressing system. nervous central the </p><p> brain depends barrier on itschemical – opium and opium its derivatives many have been used as a</p><p>—</p><p> de effects and addictionde effects and tocompounds. opiate </p><p> e natural narcotic analgesics from that the are derived opium poppy. Potent medical chemical drugs by prepared modification of natural can products be addictive andsubstances become of abuse.</p><p> cience:</p><p> iptionof and explanation strong the useanalgesics. of s idea: klet in section 37. The abilityThe of a drug to crossthe blood structure and solubility in and water lipids. Opiates ar and codeineMorphine used are as strong analgesics. Strong analgesics work temporarily bondingby to receptor sites in the brain, preventing the transmission of pain impulses without dep Medical use and addictive properties of compounds opiate are related to the presence ofin opioid receptorsthe brain. Explanationsynthesisof of the codeine and diamorphine from morphine. Descr Comparison ofstructures of codeine the morphine, (heroin). and diamorphine Discussion of the advantages and disadvantages and its of using morphine derivatives as strong analgesics. si of Discussion Explanationincreasedpotency of the diamorphine compared to morphine based on their chemical and solubility. structure Structures of codeine morphine, and diamorphine can be found in the data boo D.3 Opiates ofNature Data and its subsequent relationships is diamorphine. (3.1) Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • • Guidance: • Essential Essential</p><p>160 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> educing its secretion.</p><p> curricular links: curricular - — neutralization — digestion 8.4</p><p> mindedness: - amino acidamino buffers functional groups Experiments could include titrations to test the effectiveness of various calculations involving solutions : : — — — enantiomers — y of knowledge:y</p><p>Different cultures (ie diet,etc) and geneticsaffect lifestyle, can for the need pH regulation ofstomach. the we utilizeSometimes different approaches problem. to solve How do the same we decide between competing evidence and approaches? Aim 6 antacids. nternational I • Theor • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 1.3 Topics 8.2 and Topic 10.2 Topic 20.3 Option B.7 Biology option D.1 Aims: • </p><p> receptor antagonists pump or proton inhibitors which the production prevent of stomach acid. (2.8) - 2 , or H Hasselbalch equation. –</p><p> neutralization reactions and the d sodium bicarbonate. one of the symptoms dyspepsia overproduction is the ofstomach acid. of Medical treatment this condition often includes — neutralize the acid</p><p> omeprazole can be found data booklet in the in </p><p> and</p><p>Excess acidstomach problem is that can a common be alleviated compounds by that increase the neutralizing stomach pH by r or tion of the stomach the of tion</p><p> cience:</p><p> s specificsuchas the reactions,use of antacids, are those that work to anation of how compounds (Prilosec) like omeprazole and esomeprazole - idea: ve metabolitesve are the active forms of a drug after been itprocessed has by Non reduce the excessstomach acid. Acti body. the Explanation of how excessin acidity the stomachreduced the canuse by of be different bases. Construction and balancing offor equations stoichiometric application of equations. these Solving buffer using the problems Henderson Explanation of how compounds such ranitidine can as be used (Zantac) to inhibitstomach acid production. Expl can (Nexium) be used to suppress acidsecretion stomach. in the Antacid compounds shouldinclude <a href="/tags/Calcium/" rel="tag">calcium</a> hydroxide, <a href="/tags/Magnesium/" rel="tag">magnesium</a> hydroxide, hydroxide,aluminium carbonate an sodium Structures for ranitidine section 37. D.4 pH regula ofNature Collecting data through sampling and trialling the prescription instantly of antacids to Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential </p><p>Chemistry guide 161 Core topics</p><p>What is the global impact of </p><p> ase?</p><p>— proteins and enzymes curricular links: curricular</p><p>- vaccination — vaccination mindedness: - The controlThe and treatment of HIV is the high exacerbated by price of </p><p>: retroviral agentsretroviral and socioculturalissues. -</p><p>How has the AIDS epidemic changed sinceits in the1980s? early discovery Whatis of needed spread to stop the dise this disease? Aim 8 an ti International • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Options B.2 and B.7 Biology topic 11.1 Aims: • understanding of invade (4.1) our systems. how viruses</p><p>S problem.</p><p> ffer from bacteria.</p><p> recent research inrecent the has scientific our improved community — the different ways in ways the different which antiviral medications work.</p><p>Antiviral medications recently have been developed for viral infections some othersbeing while are still researched. </p><p>: use it they to multiply. Alternatively, preventmay the viruses from cience:</p><p> s i dea Virusescellstructure lack a and so difficult are more with drugs than to target bacteria. Antiviral work drugs by may altering the cell’s geneticso material that the virus cannot multiplying blocking activity by within the enzyme host cell. Explanation of Description of how viruses di Explanation (Tamiflu) of how oseltamivir (Relenza) and zanamivir as work a agent againstpreventative viruses. flu Comparison ofstructures of and zanamivir. the oseltamivir Discussionassociated of with the difficulties solving the AID Structures for and oseltamivir zanamivir can be found data booklet in the in section 37. D.5 Antiviral medicationsD.5 Antiviral ofNature Scientific collaboration Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Guidance: • Essential Essential </p><p>162 Chemistry guide Core topics</p><p> drug </p><p>Do standards </p><p> therapy</p><p>.</p><p> design (synthesis) of drugs? the tic waste).tic 4.8) (</p><p> typically involvestypically a number of different organic reactions.</p><p> e safely dispose of medicinal nuclear waste? mindedness: - The PacificThe tree which yew issource of the the chemo Solvent disposalgrowing environmental a problem is : How do w : : : pharmaceutical a responsibility have companies to do research on rare</p><p>Consider how pharmaceutical companies how determine to spend research funds to develop new medications. Do diseases with that will significant them not provide financial profit? Production of a drug What are the ethics governing and countrypractices by and region? vary How do we balance ethicalconcerns that appear to be at odds with each other to when trying formulate a solution to the problem? Aim 8 Aim 8 Taxolfacing is extinction. Aim 8 International • • • of knowledge:Theory • Aims: • • • </p><p>. precursor for </p><p> over solvents over -</p><p> the scientific community considermust both the side effects of medications on the patientside and the effects of the — organisms become resistant to antibacterials. - antibiotic waste, from improperfrom antibiotic waste, disposal drug and </p><p> risks and problems risks e occurs when micro when e occurs</p><p>The synthesis,The isolation, and administration of medicationscan an effect have on the environment.</p><p>: cience:</p><p> level waste (HLW)is that gives waste offlarge amounts ofionizing s level waste (LLW)is that gives waste offsmall of amounts ionizing - - i dea High radiation for a long time. Low radiation for a short time. Antibiotic resistanc Describe impact the of environmental medical nuclear disposal. waste Discussion issues of environmental related to left Explanation of the dangers of animal waste, of and the development antibiotic resistance. processes. chemistry) chemistry basics ofof(sustainable green the Discussion Explanation was used of to how green chemistry develop the Tamiflu (oseltamivir). structureThe of oseltamivirin provided is the data booklet in section 37.</p><p>D.6 Environmental impact someof medications ofNature Ethical implications and productiondevelopment, and use of (ie disposal medications on the environment of nuclear waste, solvents and antibio Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • Guidance: • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 163 Additional higher level topics 15 /25 hours 15</p><p>(3.7)</p><p> quantities to satisfy quantities to the demand.</p><p> curricular links: curricular - mindedness: - Consider the ethical implications of using synthetic drugs instead of </p><p>: </p><p>— synthetic routes — stereoisomerism</p><p>There isThere an unequal availability and distribution ofdrugs certain and medicines around the globe. Aim 8 natural sources. International • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 20.2 Topic 20.3 Aims: • </p><p>.</p><p> forms of cancer. enantiomer so that it so canout that be carried</p><p> the data bookletdata the section37. in </p><p> ol (paclitaxel)ol is as and obtained used a many of many these natural substances can now be producedlaboratories in in high enough organic synthesis</p><p>— the demand forthe demand certain drugs has exceeded the supply of natural substances needed to synthesize these drugs. (4.8)</p><p>—</p><p>Chiral auxiliaries allow the productionindividual of enantiomers ofchiral molecules. </p><p> a chiral auxiliary case study cience:</p><p> s — Medicinal chemistry idea: : Taxol is a drug that used commonly is to treat several different Taxol naturally occurs trees but is synthetically in now commonly yew produced. A chiral is active auxiliary an optically substance that temporarily is incorporated into an asymmetrically with the selective formation ofsingle a Explanation of how tax chemotherapeutic agent. Description ofchiral auxiliaries the use enantiomer. the form desired of to Explanation of of to identify the use a polarimeter enantiomers. structureThe of in taxolis provided D.7 Taxol ofNature Advances in technology Risks and problems Understandings: • • • andApplications skills: • • • Guidance: • Additional higher level topics level higher Additional Option D Essential Essential </p><p>164 Chemistry guide Additional higher level topics</p><p> that can </p><p>?</p><p>)</p><p> life -</p><p> edical imaging. nuclear reactions and half — NMR — curricular links: curricular , can also, can be used and cure to both diagnose diseases. - — m mindedness: -</p><p> option C.4 option The useThe of in nuclear technology medical is treatments not consistent across the globe. Culture, cost, availability and beliefs factors are some influence use. its isThere often no reference the term “nuclear” in MRI. to simply names Are labels influence or do they other ways of our knowing? does public How perception influencescientific progress and implementation</p><p>International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topics 11.3 and 21.1 Options C.3 and C.7 Physics</p><p>212. 212.</p><p> used for all </p><p>131 Pb- 131 and - life equation.life - 90, I -</p><p>177, Y</p><p>-</p><p>90 are isotopes common used for - 99m, Lu 99m, - life, and emission chemistry. type - and <a href="/tags/Boron/" rel="tag">Boron</a> Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) 99m is the common most radioisotope used in - 177 and <a href="/tags/Yttrium/" rel="tag">yttrium</a> -</p><p> it is important to try and to try important is balanceit the risk of exposure to radiation with the benefit being of the considered.technique (4.8</p><p>—</p><p> icine based on half its Nuclear radiation, whilst dangerous to its owing cells ability to damage and cause mutations</p><p> ulation of and ofamount the percentage radioactive material decayed and idea: Alpha, proton, beta, gamma, and neutron positron emissions are medical treatment. Magnetic resonance is imaging (MRI) an application technology. of NMR Radiotherapy can be internal and/or external. AlphaTargeted Therapy (TAT) are two whichmethods are used in cancer treatment. sideDiscussion common of effects radiotherapy.from Explanation <a href="/tags/Technetium/" rel="tag">technetium</a> of why nuclear med Explanation <a href="/tags/Lutetium/" rel="tag">lutetium</a> of why basedradiotherapy on the type of radiation emitted. Balancing nuclear equationsinvolving alpha and beta particles. Calc afterremaining a certain period of using time the nuclear half Explanation of TAT and how it be used might to treat diseases spread that have throughout the body. Common side effects discussed should include hair loss, nausea, fatigue and sterility. tissue. regenerating or growing and DNA to damage the include should Discussion Tc including; medicine nuclear in used Isotopes ance: </p><p>D.8 Nuclear medicine ofNature science: Risks and benefits Understandings: • • • • andApplications skills: • • • • • • Guid • • Essential Essential</p><p>Chemistry guide 165 Additional higher level topics to identify newly </p><p> ces ofces people being</p><p> purification. (3.7) substances. technology How do changesin influence </p><p> curricular links: curricular - mindedness: - functional groups A variety of techniques spectroscopy can be used Computer databases with spectroscopy data could be used to confirm Developments in technology increased have the chances of people </p><p>: : : : —</p><p>The misuseThe ofsport drugs is in an international problem. Developments in technology increasedhave the chan caught using illegal substances. How do changes in influence technology our ethical choices? Aim 4 developed molecules. Aim 7 the identity of newly synthesized molecules. Aim 8 being caught usingillegal our ethical choices? International • of knowledge:Theory • Utilization: Syllabus and cross Topic 10.2 Aims: • • • </p><p> r.</p><p> lyse</p><p> r. the data booklet.the lyse the properties on which, the </p><p> for detection,identification,isolation and analysis of medicines and drugs. section 34 in f the data booklet) data. NMR (section 27 of data booklet) the and</p><p>H 1 xtraction and an purificationorganic of product.</p><p> of steroid detectionof sport in utilizing chromatography advances in technology and NMR) MS assisted (IR, have in drug detection, isolation and </p><p>—</p><p> oxa fuel reaction ofcell type or breatha</p><p>A variety ofA variety analytical techniques used is</p><p> idea: Organic structures can be analysed and identified the use of through infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy and proton NMR. presenceThe of alcoholsample of in a breath can be detected through the use of either a red Interpretation of of a variety analytical to determine spectra an organic structure including infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopyproton NMR. and Description e of the process of Consider the use offractional distillation, Raoult’s law extractions are based and explaining the relationshiporganic between structure and solubility. Description of the process and mass spectroscopy. Explanation of how alcohol be detected can withof the use a breatha Students should organic beidentify able functional common to groups in a given compound by recognition structures of drug common and from IR (section 26 of the data booklet), mass spectralfragment (section 28 o steroidA structure common is in provided D.9 Drug detectionD.9 Drug and analysis ofNature science: Advances in instrumentation Understandings: • • andApplications skills: • • • • Guidance: • • Essential Essential</p><p>166 Chemistry guide</p> </div>
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Syllabus
Syllabus outline
Syllabus component Recommended teaching hours
SL HL
Core 95 1. Stoichiometric relationships 13.5 2. Atomic structure 6 3. Periodicity 6 4. Chemical bonding and structure 13.5 5. Energetics/thermochemistry 9 6. Chemical kinetics 7 7. Equilibrium 4.5 8. Acids and bases 6.5 9. Redox processes 8 10. Organic chemistry 11 11. Measurement and data processing 10
Additional higher level (AHL) 60 12. Atomic structure 2 13. The periodic table—the transition metals 4 14. Chemical bonding and structure 7 15. Energetics/thermochemistry 7 16. Chemical kinetics 6 17. Equilibrium 4 18. Acids and bases 10 19. Redox processes 6 20. Organic chemistry 12 21. Measurement and analysis 2
Option 15 25 A. Materials 15 25 B. Biochemistry 15 25 C. Energy 15 25 D. Medicinal chemistry 15 25
20 Chemistry guide Syllabus outline
Syllabus component Recommended teaching hours
SL HL
Practical scheme of work 40 60 Practical activities 20 40 Individual investigation (internal assessment—IA) 10 10 Group 4 project 10 10
Total teaching hours 150 240
The recommended teaching time is 240 hours to complete HL courses and 150 hours to complete SL courses as stated in the document General regulations: Diploma Programme (2011) (page 4, Article 8.2).
Chemistry guide 21 Syllabus
Approaches to the teaching of chemistry
Format of the syllabus The format of the syllabus section of the group 4 guides is the same for each subject physics, chemistry and biology. This new structure gives prominence and focus to the teaching and learning aspects.
Topics or options Topics are numbered and options are indicated by a letter. For example, “Topic 6: Chemical kinetics”, or “Option D: Medicinal chemistry”.
Sub-topics Sub-topics are numbered as follows, “6.1 Collision theory and rates of reaction”. Further information and guidance about possible teaching times are contained in the teacher support materials.
Each sub-topic begins with an essential idea. The essential idea is an enduring interpretation that is considered part of the public understanding of science. This is followed by a section on the “Nature of science”. This gives specific examples in context illustrating some aspects of the nature of science. These are linked directly to specific references in the “Nature of Science” section of the guide to support teachers in their understanding of the general theme to be addressed.
Under the overarching Nature of Science theme there are two columns. The first column lists “Understandings”, which are the main general ideas to be taught. There follows an “Applications and skills” section that outlines the specific applications and skills to be developed from the understandings. A “Guidance” section gives information about the limits and constraints and the depth of treatment required for teachers and examiners. The contents of the “Nature of Science” section above the two columns and contents of the first column are all legitimate items for assessment. In addition, some assessment of international-mindedness in science, from the content of the second column, will take place as in the previous course.
The second column gives suggestions to teachers about relevant references to international-mindedness. It also gives examples of TOK knowledge questions (see Theory of knowledge guide published 2013) that can be used to focus students’ thoughts on the preparation of the TOK prescribed essay. The “Links” section may link the sub-topic to other parts of the subject syllabus, to other Diploma Programme subject guides or to real-world applications. Finally, the “Aims” section refers to how specific group 4 aims are being addressed in the sub-topic.
22 Chemistry guide Approaches to the teaching of chemistry
Format of the guide Topic 1: