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Home , Bismuth oxychloride, Group 5 element, Oligodynamic effect

The nitrogen group is a group consisting of nitrogen ( N), (P), ( As ), ( Sb ), ( Bi ) and ununpentium ( Uup ) (unconfirmed. In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 15 . In the old IUPAC, it was called Group VB and Group VA , respectively (pronounced "group five B" and "group five A", because "V" is a Roman numeral. In the field of semiconductor physics, it You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You is still universally called Group V . It is also collectively named the .The "five" ("V") in the historical names comes from the fact that these elements have five electrons. Like other groups, the members of this family Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please show patterns in its , especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior Z Element No. of electrons/shell

7 nitrogen 2, 5

15 phosphorus 2, 8, 5

33 arsenic 2, 8, 18, 5 You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You 51 antimony 2, 8, 18, 18, 5

83 bismuth 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5 Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please

115 ununpentium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 5 • This group has the defining characteristic that all the component elements have 5 electrons in their outermost shell, that is 2 electrons in the s subshell and 3 unpaired electrons in the p subshell. They are therefore 3 electrons short of filling their outermost in their non-ionized state. The most important You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You element of this group is nitrogen ( N), which in its diatomic form is the principal component of air. Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please • Binary compounds of the group can be referred to collectively as pnictides . The spelling derives from the Greek to choke or stifle, which is a property of nitrogen.The name pentels (from the Latin penta , five) was also used for this group at one time, stemming from the earlier group naming convention (Group VB). • A collection of nitrogen-group samples. • These elements are also noted for their stability in You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You compounds due to their tendency for forming double and triple covalent bonds. This is the property of these elements which to their potential toxicity, most evident in phosphorus, Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please arsenic and antimony. • When these substances react with various chemicals of the body, they create strong free radicals not easily processed by the liver, where they accumulate. Paradoxically it is this strong bonding which causes nitrogen and bismuth's reduced toxicity (when in molecules), as these form strong bonds with other atoms which are difficult to split, creating very unreactive You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You molecules. For example N 2, the diatomic form of nitrogen, is used for inert atmosphere in situations where or another Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please would be prohibitively expensive. • The nitrogen group consists of two non- , two , one , and one synthetic (presumably metallic) element. All the elements in the group are a solid at room temperature except for Nitrogen which is a gas at room temperature. Nitrogen and bismuth, despite both being part of the nitrogen group, are very different in their You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You physical properties. For example, at STP nitrogen is a transparent nonmetallic gas, while bismuth is a brittle pinkish metallic solid Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please • Arsenic is the chemical element that has the symbol As , 33 and atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250. Arsenic is a notoriously poisonous with many allotropic forms, including a yellow (molecular non- metallic) and several black and grey forms (metalloids). Three metalloidal forms of arsenic, each with a different crystal structure, are found free in nature (the minerals arsenic sensu stricto and the much rarer arsenolamprite and pararsenolamprite). However, it is You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You more commonly found as arsenide and in arsenate compounds, several hundred of which are known. Arsenic and its compounds are used as , , and in variousamedical Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please applications. • Chemical properties. • The most common oxidation states for arsenic are −3 (arsenides: usually alloy-like intermetallic compounds), +3 (arsenates(III) or arsenites, and most organoarsenic compounds), and +5 (arsenates: the most stable inorganic arsenic oxycompounds). Arsenic also bonds readily to itself, forming square As3−4 ions in the arsenide skutterudite. In the +3 , the stereochemistry of arsenic is affected by the presence of a lone pair of electrons. • Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor in the Periodic Table, phosphorus. Like phosphorus, it forms colourless, odourless, crystalline oxides As 2O3 and As 2O5 which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You a weak acid. Like phosphorus, arsenic forms an unstable, gaseous hydride: arsine (AsH 3). The similarity is so great that arsenic will partly substitute for phosphorus in biochemical reactions and is thus poisonous. However, in subtoxic doses, soluble arsenic Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please compounds act as stimulants, and were once popular in small doses as medicine by people in the mid 18th century. • When heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide; the fumes from this reaction have an odour resembling garlic. This odour can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer. Arsenic (and some arsenic compounds) sublimes upon heating at atmospheric pressure, converting directly to a gaseous form without an You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You intervening liquid state. The liquid state appears at 20 atmospheres and above, which explains why the melting point is higher than Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please the boiling point. Compounds • Arsenic compounds resemble in many respects those of phosphorus as both arsenic and phosphorus occur in the same group (column) of the periodic table. • The most important compounds of arsenic are arsenic(III) oxide, As 2O3, ("white arsenic"), the yellow sulfide orpiment (As 2S3) and red realgar (As 4S4), Paris Green, arsenate, and arsenate. The latter three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons. • Whilst arsenic trioxide forms during oxidation of arsenic, arsenic pentoxide is formed by the dehydration of arsenic acid. Both oxides dissolve in strong alkaline solution, with the formation of You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You arsenite AsO3−3 and arsenate AsO3−4 respectively. The protonation steps between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid. However, arsenite and arsenous acid contain arsenic bonded to Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please three and not hydrogen atoms, in contrast to phosphite and phosphorous acid (more accurately termed 'phosphonic acid'), which contain non-acidic P-H bonds. Arsenous acid is genuinely tribasic, whereas phosphonic acid is not. • Other arsenic compounds include arsenide, arsenide, and lead Hydrogen arsenate. Arsenic has been linked to epigenetic changes which are heritable changes in gene expression that occur without changes in DNA sequence and include DNA methylation, histone modification and RNA interference. You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You • Toxic levels of arsenic cause significant DNA hypermethylation of tumour suppressor genes p16 and p53 thus increasing risk of Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please carcinogenesis. • A broad variety of compounds of arsenic are known, As 4S3, As 4S4 As 2S3 and As 4S10 . All arsenic(III) compounds (except with ) are known and stable. For the arsenic(V) compounds the situation is different: only the arsenic pentafluoride is stable at room temperature. Arsenic pentachloride is only stable at temperatures below −50 °C and the pentabromide and pentaiodide are unknown. • Arsenic is used as group 5 element as part of the You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You III-V semiconducting compounds. Gallium arsenide, arsenide and arsenide are used as semiconductor material when the properties of are not suitable for Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please the application and the higher price of the compounds is acceptable. • Medical use. • During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines, including arsphenamine and arsenic trioxide. Arsphenamine as well as Neosalvarsan was indicated for syphilis and trypanosomiasis, but has been superseded by modern antibiotics. Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 500 years, but most commonly in the treatment of cancer. The US Food and Drug Administration in 2000 approved this You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You compound for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to ATRA. • Recently new research has been done in locating tumours using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter. Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please • Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits lipoic acid which is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase; and by competing with phosphate it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy-linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration, and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased, which might form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. These metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system organ failure, You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You probably from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis. A post mortem reveals brick red coloured mucosa, owing to severe haemorrhage. Although arsenic causes toxicity, it can also play a protective role Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please • Bismuth • Bismuth is a chemical element that has the symbol Bi and atomic number 83. This trivalent poor metal chemically resembles arsenic and antimony. Bismuth is heavy and brittle; it has a silvery white color with a pink tinge owing to the surface oxide. Bismuth is the most naturally diamagnetic of all metals, and only has a lower thermal conductivity. It is generally considered to be the last naturally occurring stable, non-radioactive element on the periodic table, although it is actually slightly radioactive. Bismuth You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You compounds are used in cosmetics, medicines, and in medical procedures. As the toxicity of lead has become more apparent in recent years, alloy uses for bismuth metal as a replacement for lead have become an Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please increasing part of bismuth's commercial importance. Applications • Bismuth oxychloride is sometimes used in cosmetics. Bismuth subnitrate and bismuth subcarbonate are used in medicine • Health • (the active ingredient in Pepto-Bismol and (modern) Kaopectate) is used as an antidiarrheal and to treat some other gastro- intestinal diseases (oligodynamic effect). The means by which this appears to work is still not well-documented. It is thought to be some combination of: • Killing some bacteria that cause diarrhea • Reducing inflammation/irritation of stomach and intestinal lining • Retarding the expulsion of fluids into the digestive system by irritated tissues, by "coating" them. • The product Bibrocathol is an organic molecule containing Bismuth and is used to treat eye . You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You • Bismuth subgallate (the active ingredient in Devrom) is used as an internal deodorant to treat malodor from flatulence (or gas) and faeces. • Historically Bisthmuth compounds were used to treat Syphilis and today Bismuth subsalicylate and Bismuth subcitrate are used to are used to treat the Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please Peptic ulcers. Antimony • Antimony is a generally blue-white chemicalelement with the symbol Sb (Latin: stibium ). It has an atomic number of 51. As a metalloid, antimony has four allotropes. The stable form of antimony is a blue-white metalloid. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Elemental antimony and its compounds are used in many areas, You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You including electronics, flame-proofing, paint, rubber, ceramics, enamels, drugs to treat Leishmania and a wide variety . Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please • As its compounds • Antimony compounds may be used in medications such as antiprotozoan drugs; in the heads of some safety matchesin the past to treat Schistosomiasis (today Praziquantel is universally used); in nuclear reactors together with in startup neutron sources; in the form of antimony oxides, antimony sulfides, and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, ceramic enamels, glass, paints, and pottery. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame-retardant You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You formulations. These flame-retardant applications include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. It is also used in the fiberglass composites industry as an additive to polyester resins for Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please such items as light aircraft engine covers. • Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic. Clinically, antimony poisoning is very similar to arsenic poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes headache, dizziness, and depression. Larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in a few days. • Inhalation of antimony dust is harmful and in certain cases may be fatal. Prolonged skin contact may cause dermatitis. It causes damage to the kidneys and the You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You liver. Avoid contact with eyes, skin, or clothing. Do not breathe dust. Keep in tightly closed container. Use with adequate ventilation. Wash thoroughly after handling. • Antimony is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please strong acids, halogen acids, , or . • The natural sulfide of antimony, stibnite, was known and used in Biblical times, as a medication and in Islamic/Pre-Islamic times as a cosmetic. • Stibnite is still used in some developing countries as a medication. Antimony has been used for the treatment of schistosomiasis. Antimony attaches itself to sulfur atoms in certain enzymes which are used by both the parasite and human host. Small doses can kill the parasite without causing damage to the patient. • Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations like anthiomaline or antimony thiomalate, which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Tartar emetic is another antimony preparation which is used as an anti-schistosomal drug. Treatments chiefly involving You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You antimony have been called antimonials. • Antimony-based drugs such as meglumine antimoniate, is also considered the drugs of choice for the treatment of leishmaniasis in domesti animals. Unfortunately, as well as having low therapeutic Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please indices, the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow, where some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside, and so cure of the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult. Phosphorous • Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15 . A multivalent of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly found in inorganic phosphate rocks. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms – white phosphorus and red phosphorus. Although the term "phosphorescence", meaning glow after illumination, derives from phosphorus, glow of phosphorus originates from oxidation of the white (but not red) phosphorus and should be called chemiluminescence. • Due to its high reactivity, phosphorus is never found as a free element in nature on Earth. The first form of phosphorus to be discovered (white phosphorus, in 1669) emits a faint glow upon exposure to oxygen – hence its name given from Greek mythology, meaning "light-bearer" (Latin Lucifer ), referring to the "Morning Star", the planet Venus. You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You • Phosphorus is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and also the phospholipids that form all cell membranes. It is, thus, an essential element for all living cells. The most important commercial use of phosphorus-based chemicals is the production of fertilizers. • Phosphorus compounds are also widely used in explosives, nerve Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please agents, friction matches, fireworks, pesticides, toothpaste, and detergents. Physical properties. • The phosphorus had been produced from inorganic phosphate, which is a significant component of dissolved urine solids. White phosphorus is highly reactive and gives off a faint greenish glow upon uniting with oxygen. The glow observed by Brand was caused by the very slow burning of the phosphorus, but as he neither saw flame nor felt any heat he did not recognize it as burning. • It was known from early times that the glow would persist for a time in a stoppered jar but then cease. Robert Boyle in the 1680s ascribed it to "debilitation" of the air; in fact, it is oxygen being consumed. By the 18th century, it was known that in pure oxygen, phosphorus does not glow at all there is only a range of partial pressure at which it does. Heat can be applied to drive the reaction at higher pressures. • In 1974, the glow was explained by R. J. van Zee and A. U. Khan.A reaction with oxygen takes place at the surface of the solid (or liquid) phosphorus, forming the short-lived molecules HPO and P 2O2 that both emit visible light. The You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You reaction is slow and only very little of the intermediates are required to produce the luminescence, hence the extended time the glow continues in a stoppered jar. • Although the term phosphorescence is derived from phosphorus, the reaction that gives phosphorus its glow is properly called chemiluminescence (glowing Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please due to a cold chemical reaction), not phosphorescence (re-emitting light that previously fell onto a substance and excited it). Allotropes • Phosphorus has several forms (allotropes) that have strikingly different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus . Red phosphorus is an intermediate phase between white and violet phosphorus. Another form, scarlet phosphorus, is obtained by allowing a solution of white phosphorus in disulfide to evaporate in sunlight. Black phosphorus is obtained by heating white phosphorus under high pressures (about 12,000 You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You atmospheres). In appearance, properties, and structure, it resembles graphite, being black and flaky, a conductor of electricity, and has puckered sheets of linked atoms. Another allotrope is diphosphorus; it Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please contains a phosphorus dimer as a structural unit and is highly reactive. • Phosphine, diphosphine and phosphonium salts

• Phosphine (PH 3) and arsine (AsH 3) are structural analogues with ammonia (NH 3) and form pyramidal structures with the phosphorus or arsenic atom in the centre bound to three hydrogen atoms and one lone electron pair. Both are colourless, ill-smelling, toxic compounds. Phosphine is produced in a manner similar to the production of ammonia. Hydrolysis of calcium phosphide, Ca 3P2, or calcium , Ca 3N2 produces phosphine or ammonia, respectively. Unlike ammonia, phosphine is unstable and it reacts instantly with air giving off phosphoric acid clouds. Arsine is even less stable. Although phosphine is less basic You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You than ammonia, it can form some phosphonium salts (like PH 4I), analogues of ammonium salts, but these salts immediately decompose in water and do not yield phosphonium (PH +) ions. Diphosphine (P H or H P-PH ) is Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please 4 2 4 2 2 an analogue of hydrazine (N 2H4) that is a colourless liquid that spontaneously ignites in air and can disproportionate into phosphine and complex hydrides. • Halides

• The trihalides PF 3, PCl 3, PBr 3 and PI 3 and the pentahalides, PCl 5 and PBr 5 are all known and mixed halides can also be formed. The trihalides can be formed simply by mixing the appropriate stoichiometric amounts of phosphorus and a halogen. For safety reasons, however, PF 3 is typically made by reacting PCl 3 with AsF 5 and fractional distillation because the direct reaction of phosphorus with fluorine can be explosive. The pentahalides, PX 5, are You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You synthesized by reacting excess halogen with either elemental phosphorus or with the corresponding trihalide. Mixed phosphorus halides are unstable and decompose to form simple halides. Thus 5PF 3Br 2 Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please decomposes into 3PF 5 and 2PBr 5. • Oxides and oxyacids

• Phosphorus(III) oxide, P 4O6 (also called tetraphosphorus hexoxide) and phosphorus(V) oxide, P 4O10 (or tetraphosphorus decoxide) are acid anhydrides of phosphorus oxyacids and hence readily react with water. P 4O10 is a particularly good dehydrating agent that can even remove water from nitric acid, HNO 3. The structure of P 4O6 is like that of P 4 with an oxygen atom inserted between each of the P- P bonds. The structure of P 4O10 is like that of P 4O6 with the addition of one oxygen bond to each phosphorus atom via a double bond and protruding away from the tetrahedral structure. • Phosphorous oxyacids can have acidic protons bound to oxygen atoms and nonacidic protons that are bonded directly to the phosphorus atom. Although many oxyacids of phosphorus are You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You formed, only six are important (see table), and three of them, hypophosphorous acid, phosphorous acid and phosphoric acid are particularly important ones. Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please Oxidation state Formula Name Acidic protons Compounds

hypophosphorous +1 H PO 1 acid, salts 3 2 acid

(ortho)phosphorou +3 H PO 2 acid, salts 3 3 s acid

metaphosphoric +5 (HPO ) n salts (n=3,4) 3 n acids You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You

+5 H5P3O10 triphosphoric acid 3 salts

pyrophosphoric +5 H P O 4 acid, salts 4 2 7 acid Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please (ortho)phosphoric +5 H PO 3 acid, salts 3 4 acid Applications

Widely used compounds Use

Ca(H 2PO 4)2·H 2O Baking powder and fertilizers

CaHPO 4·2H 2O Animal food additive, toothpowder

H3PO 4 Manufacture of phosphate fertilizers

PCl 3 Manufacture of POCl 3 and pesticides You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You POCl 3 Manufacturing plasticizer

Manufacturing of additives and P S 4 10 pesticides Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please

Na 5P3O10 Detergents • Phosphorus, being an essential plant nutrient, finds its major use as a constituent of fertilizers for agriculture and farm production in the form of concentrated phosphoric acids, which can consist of 70% to 75% P 2O5. Global demand for fertilizers led to large increase in phosphate 3– (PO 4 ) production in the second half of the 20th century. Due to the essential nature of phosphorus to living organisms, the low solubility of natural phosphorus- containing compounds, and the slow natural cycle of phosphorus, the agricultural industry is heavily reliant on fertilizers that contain phosphate, mostly in the form of superphosphate of lime. Superphosphate of lime is a You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You mixture of two phosphate salts, calcium dihydrogen phosphate Ca(H 2PO 4)2 and calcium sulfate dihydrate CaSO 4·2H 2O produced by the reaction of sulfuric acid and water with calcium phosphate. Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please • Phosphoric acid made from elemental phosphorus is used in food applications such as some soda beverages. The acid is also a starting point to make food grade phosphates. • These include mono-calcium phosphate that is employed in baking powder and tripolyphosphate and other sodium phosphates [Among other uses these are used to improve the characteristics of processed meat You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You and cheese. Others are used in toothpaste. • Trisodium phosphate is used in cleaning agents to soften water and for preventing pipe/boiler tube Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please . Biological role Phosphorus is a key element in all known forms of life. Inorganic 3– phosphorus in the form of the phosphate PO 4 plays a major role in biological molecules such as DNA and RNA where it forms part of the structural framework of these molecules. Living cells also use phosphate to transport cellular energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Nearly every cellular process that uses energy obtains it in the form of ATP. ATP is also important for phosphorylation, a key regulatory event in cells. Phospholipids are the main structural components of all cellular membranes. Calcium phosphate salts assist in stiffening bones . You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You Every cell has a membrane that separates it from its surrounding environment. Biological membranes are made from a phospholipid matrix and proteins, typically in the form of a bilayer. Phospholipids are derived from glycerol, such that two Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please of the glycerol hydroxyl (OH) protons have been replaced with fatty acids as an ester, and the third hydroxyl proton has been replaced with phosphate bonded to another alcohol. • An average adult human contains about 0.7 kg of phosphorus, about 85-90% of which is present in bones and teeth in the form of apatite, and the remainder in soft tissues and extracellular fluids .The phosphorus content increases from about 0.5 weight% in infancy to 0.65-1.1 weight% in adults. Average phosphorus concentration in the blood is about 0.4 g/L, about 70% of that is organic and 30% inorganic phosphates. A well-fed adult in the industrialized world consumes and excretes about 1-3 g of phosphorus per day, with consumption in the form of inorganic phosphate and phosphorus- containing biomolecules such as nucleic acids and You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You phospholipids; and excretion almost exclusively in the form of urine phosphate ion. Only about 0.1% of body phosphate circulates in the blood, but this amount Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please reflects the amount of phosphate available to soft tissue cells. • In medicine, low-phosphate syndromes are caused by malnutrition, by failure to absorb phosphate, and by metabolic syndromes that draw phosphate from the blood or pass too much of it into the urine. All are characterized by hypophosphatemia which is a condition of low levels of soluble phosphate levels in the blood serum, and therefore inside cells. Symptoms of hypophosphatemia include muscle and neurological dysfunction, and disruption of muscle and blood cells due to lack of ATP. Too much phosphate can lead to You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You diarrhoea and calcification (hardening) of organs and soft tissue, and can interfere with the body's ability to use , calcium, , and Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please • Organic compounds of phosphorus form a wide class of materials, some of which are extremely toxic. Fluorophosphate esters are among the most potent neurotoxins known. A wide range of organophosphorus compounds are used for their You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You toxicity to certain organisms as pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, , etc.) and weaponised as nerve agents. Most inorganic phosphates are relatively Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please nontoxic and essential nutrients. Orthophosphoric acid chemistry • Pure anhydrous phosphoric acid is a white solid that melts at 42.35 °C to form a colorless, viscous liquid. • Most people and even chemists refer to orthophosphoric acid as phosphoric acid , which is the IUPAC name for this compound. The prefix ortho is used to distinguish the acid from other phosphoric acids, called polyphosphoric acids two(ii) . Orthophosphoric acid is a non-toxic, inorganic, rather weak triprotic acid, which, when pure, is a solid at room temperature and pressure. The chemical structure of orthophosphoric acid is shown above in the data table. Orthophosphoric acid is a very polar molecule; therefore it is You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You highly soluble in water. The oxidation state of phosphorus (P) in ortho- and other phosphoric acids is +5; the oxidation state of all the oxygen atoms (O) is −2 and all the hydrogen atoms (H) is +1. Triprotic means that an orthophosphoric acid + Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please molecule can dissociate up to three times, giving up an H each time, which typically combines with a water molecule, H2O, as shown in these reactions: + − H3PO 4(s) + H 2O(l) H3O (aq) H2 PO 4 Ka1 = 7.25×10 −3

− + 2− H2PO 4 (aq) + H 2O(l) H3O (aq) + HPO 4 (aq) Ka2 = 6.31×10 −8 You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You 2− + 3− HPO 4 (aq) + H 2O(l) H3O (aq) + PO 4 (aq Ka3 = 3.98×10−13 Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please − • The anion after the first dissociation, H 2PO 4 , is the dihydrogen phosphate anion. The anion after the 2− second dissociation, HPO 4 , is the hydrogen phosphate 3− anion. The anion after the third dissociation, PO 4 , is the phosphate or orthophosphate anion. For each of the dissociation reactions shown above, there is a separate acid dissociation constant, called Ka1 , Ka2 , and Ka3 given at 25 °C. Associated with these three dissociation constants are corresponding p Ka1 =2.12 , pK =7.21 , and p K =12.67 values at 25 °C. Even You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You a2 a3 though all three hydrogen (H ) atoms are equivalent on an orthophosphoric acid molecule, the successive Ka values differ since it is energetically less favorable to Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please lose another H + if one (or more) has already been lost and the molecule/ion is more negatively-charged • Because the triprotic dissociation of orthophosphoric acid, the fact that its conjugate bases (the phosphates mentioned above) cover a wide pH range, and, because phosphoric acid/phosphate solutions are, in general, non-toxic, mixtures of these types of phosphates are often used as buffering agents or to make buffer solutions, where the desired pH depends on the proportions of the phosphates in the mixtures. Similarly, the non-toxic, anion salts of triprotic organic You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You citric acid are also often used to make buffers. Phosphates are found pervasively in , especially in the compounds derived from phosphorylated sugars, Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please such as DNA, RNA, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Medical use

• Phosphoric acid is used in dentistry and orthodontics as an etching solution, to clean and roughen the surfaces of teeth where dental appliances or fillings will be placed. Phosphoric acid is also an ingredient in over- the-counter anti-nausea medications that also You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You contain high levels of sugar (glucose and fructose). This acid is also used in many teeth whiteners to eliminate plaque that may be on Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please the teeth before application Preparation • Phosphoric acid can be prepared by three routes - the Thermal Process, the Wet Process and the dry Kiln Process. • Thermal phosphoric acid • This very pure phosphoric acid is obtained by burning elemental phosphorus to produce phosphorus pentoxide and dissolving the product in dilute phosphoric acid. This produces a very pure phosphoric acid, since most impurities present in the rock have You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You been removed when extracting phosphorus from the rock in a furnace. The end result is food-grade, thermal phosphoric acid; however, for critical applications, additional processing to remove arsenic compounds Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please may be needed. • Wet phosphoric acid • Wet process phosphoric acid is prepared by adding sulfuric acid to tricalcium phosphate rock, typically found in nature as apatite. • The reaction is:

• Ca 5(PO 4)3X + 5 H 2SO 4 + 2 H 2O → 3 H 3PO 4 + 5 CaSO 4 · 2 H 2O + HX where X may include OH, F, Cl, and Br The initial phosphoric acid solution may contain 23-33% P 2O5, but can be concentrated by the evaporation of water to produce commercial- or merchant-grade phosphoric acid, which contains about 54% P 2O5. Further evaporation of water yields superphosphoric acid with a P 2O5 concentration above 70%. • Digestion of the phosphate ore using sulfuric acid yields the insoluble calcium sulfate (gypsum), which is filtered and removed as phosphogypsum. Wet-process acid can be furthered purified by removing fluorine to produce animal-grade phosphoric acid, or by solvent extraction and arsenic removal to produce food-grade phosphoric acid. You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You Kiln Phosphoric Acid • Kiln phosphoric acid (KPA) process technology is the most recent technology. Called the “Improved Hard Process ,, his technology will both make low grade phosphate rock reserves commercially viable and will increase the P 2O5 recovery from existing phosphate reserves. This may Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please significantly extend the commercial viability of phosphate rese Glycerol phosphate

• Glycerol 3-phosphate is an organophosphate derived from phosphoric acid and glycerol. • It is a component of glycerophospholipids. • It should not be confused with the similarly named glycerate 3-phosphate or glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You • The L-configuration is the active enantiomer. It also called Glycerophosphate orα- Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please glycerolphosphate • Glycerol-3-phosphate.png You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please • Function. • Glycerol 3-phosphate is produced from glycerol, the triose sugar backbone of triglycerides and glycerophospholipids, by the enzyme glycerol kinase. Glycerol 3-phosphate may then be converted by dehydrogenation to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) by the enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. DHAP can then be rearranged into glyceraldehyde You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You 3-phosphate(GA3P) by triose phosphate isomerase(TIM), and feed into glycolysis. • The glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle is used to rapidly regenerate NAD + in brain and skeletal Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please muscle cells of mammals. • An organophosphate (sometimes abbreviated OP ) is the general name for esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates are probably the most pervasive organophosphorus compounds. Many of the most important biochemicals are organophosphates, including DNA and RNA as well as many cofactors that are essential for life. Organophosphates are widely employed both in natural and synthetic applications because of the ease with which organic groups can be linked together. Being a triprotic acid, phosphoric acid You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You can form triesters whereas carboxylic acids only form monoesters. Esterification entails the attachment of organic groups to phosphorus through oxygen linkers. Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please The precursors to such esters are alcohols. • The phosphate esters bearing OH groups are acidic and partially deprotonated in aqueous solution. For example, DNA and RNA are - polymers of the type [PO 2(OR)(OR') ]n. Polyphosphates also form esters; an important example of an ester of a polyphosphate is ATP, which is the monoester of triphosphoric acid (H 5P3O10 ). • Alcohols can be detached from phosphate esters You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You by hydrolysis, which is the reverse of the above reactions. For this reason, phosphate esters are common carriers of organic groups in Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please biosynthesis. Organophosphate poisoning.

• Many organophosphates are potent nerve agents, functioning by inhibiting the action of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in nerve cells. They are one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide, and are frequently intentionally used in suicides in agricultural areas. Their toxicity is not limited to the acute phase, however, and chronic effects have long been noted. Neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You (which is affected by organophosphate pesticides) are profoundly important in the brain's development, and many OPs have neurotoxic effects on developing organisms, even from low levels of exposure. Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please . • Many coinage metals are from Group 11 of the Periodic table; however there are some exceptions. Precious metals are used in bullion coins and some collectable coins. Coins not intended for circulation or for intrinsic value have also been made experimentally using an even larger variety of metals. • Coins that are intended for circulation have some special requirements based on the conditions they will encounter. For example, a coin may be in circulation for up to 30 years, and so must have excellent wear resistance and anti- You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You corrosion properties. Achieving this goal necessitates the use of base metal alloys. Some metals like have occasionally been used in coins, but suffer from making the coins too hard to take an impression well (or metals apt to Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please wear out stamping machines at the mint). • is a chemical element with the symbol Au (from Latin aurum , "shining dawn", hence adjective, aureate) and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought- after for coinage, jewelry, and other arts since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Gold is one of the coinage metals and has served as a symbol of wealth and a store of value throughout history. Gold standards have Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please provided a basis for monetary policies. • Pure metallic (elemental) gold is non-toxic and non-irritating when ingested and is sometimes used as a food decoration in the form of gold leaf. Metallic gold is also a component of the alcoholic drinks Goldschläger, Gold Strike, and Goldwasser. Metallic gold is approved as a food additive in the EU . • Although gold ion is toxic, the acceptance of metallic gold as a food additive is due to its relative chemical inertness, and resistance to being corroded or transformed into soluble salts (gold compounds) by any known chemical process which would be encountered in the human body. • Soluble compounds (gold salts) such as gold chloride are toxic to the liver and kidneys. Common cyanide salts of gold such as You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You gold cyanide, used in gold electroplating, are toxic both by virtue of their cyanide and gold content. There are rare cases of lethal gold poisoning from potassium gold cyanide. Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please Medicine • gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something that rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy. Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power ] Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions.However, only salts and radioisotopes of gold are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) gold is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body. In modern times, injectable gold has been proven to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis. • Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges. The gold alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others. You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You • Colloidal gold preparations (suspensions of gold nanoparticles) in water are intensely red-colored, and can be made with tightly controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nanometers across by reduction of gold chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal gold is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science. The technique of immunogold labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal gold Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells.In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immunogold labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen. • Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag (Latin: argentum , from the Indo-European root *arg- for "white" or "shining") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous , it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal. The metal occurs naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a by-product of , gold, lead, and zinc refining. • Silver has long been valued as a precious metal, and it is used to make ornaments, jewelry, high-value tableware, utensils (hence the term silverware ), and currency coins. Today, silver metal is also used in electrical contacts and conductors, in mirrors and in of You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You chemical reactions. Its compounds are used in photographic film and dilute solutions and other silver compounds are used as and microbiocides. While many medical antimicrobial uses of silver have been supplanted by antibiotics, Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please further research into clinical potential continues. Medical uses of silver • Silver ions and silver compounds show a toxic effect on some bacteria, viruses, algae and fungi, typical for like lead or mercury, but without the high toxicity to humans that are normally associated with these other metals. Its germicidal effects kill many microbial organisms Silver is widely used in topical gels and impregnated into bandages because of its wide-spectrum antimicrobial activity. The anti-microbial properties of silver stem from the chemical properties of its ionized form, Ag +. This ion forms strong molecular bonds with other substances used by bacteria to respire, such as molecules containing sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen.When the Ag + ion forms a complex with these molecules, they are rendered unusable by the bacteria, depriving them of necessary compounds and eventually leading to the bacteria's death. • Silver compounds were used to prevent infection in World War I before the advent of antibiotics. Silver nitrate solution use continued, then was largely replaced by silver sulfadiazine cream (SSD Cream ,which generally became the You are using demo version You are using demo version demo are using You "standard of care" for the antibacterial and antibiotic treatment of serious burns until the late 1990s.Now, other options, such as silver-coated dressings (activated silver dressings), are used in addition to SSD cream. • Silver is commonly used in catheters. Silver alloy catheters are more effective than standard catheters for reducing bacteriuria in adults in hospital having Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com Please purchase full version from www.technocomsolutions.com from version full purchase Please short term catheterisation. • High doses of colloidal silver can result in coma, pleural edema, and hemolysis