The Songs of the Harpers Author(s): Miriam Lichtheim Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies , Jul., 1945, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Jul., 1945), pp. 178- 212 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/542776

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MIRIAM LICHTHEIM

I. THE DISCUSSION OF HARPERS' Bethink thee of joys SONGS SINCE THEIR Till that day has come of landing DISCOVERY At the land that loveth silence the heart of the son-whom-he-loves O N THE north wall of the passage does not weary. leading from the outer hall of his Make holiday, Neferhotep the justified! tomb (No. 50 at Thebes) into the Thou good priest pure of hands. inner shrine the priest Neferhotep is I have heard all that happened to the shown seated at a table piled high with Their buildings have crumbled, food offerings. His wife sits at his side, and Their dwellings are no more; in front of him squats a harper (now de- They are as if they had not come into being stroyed). The words which he sings to the Since the time of the god. accompaniment of his harp are engraved It was this song which, having been pub- above the group (P1. VII). The first part lished by Diimichen2 in 1869, received, in of the song, which contains its chief bur- 1873, its first translation and commen- den, runs as follows: tary at the hands of Stern3 and, together How reposed is this righteous lord! with the "Antef" song published in the The kindly fate has come to pass. following year,4 formed the basis for all Bodies pass away since the time of the god, subsequent discussion of "The Harper's New generations come in their place. Song." According to Stern, the harper Re shows himself at dawn, sang at a mortuary feast celebrated in the Atum goes to rest in the Western Mountain. Men beget, tomb in honor of the deceased. His song Women conceive, urged the survivors to enjoy life while it Every nostril breathes the air, lasts. And it is such a mortuary feast Dawn comes and their children have gone to which Herodotus had in mind when he their tombs. wrote that in their festival gatherings the Make holiday, 0 priest! Egyptians passed a wooden image of a Put incense and fine oil together to thy nos- dead man around in a coffin and exhorted trils each other to drink and make merry.5 And garlands of lotus and rrmt-flowers upon These views of Stern are important as a thy breast; statement of the problems, not as their While thy sister whom thou lovest sits at thy side. solution. All his conclusions need to be re- Put song and music before thee, vised, but they aptly indicate the ques- Cast all evil behind thee; tions which the song raises and which can 1 I acknowledge in profound gratitude the many be stated as follows: (1) What is the na- valuable suggestions and critical observations made ture and purpose of the song? (2) At what by Professors John A. Wilson, Henri Frankfort, and Keith C. Seele. I am especially indebted to Pro- occasion or occasions was it performed? fessor Seele, who has generously placed at my dis- 2 Historische Inschriften altaegyptischer Denkmdler, posal his hand copies and photographs of the two II, 40. hitherto unpublished harpers' songs from the Theban tombs of Paser and Piay and additional hand copies 3 ZAS, XI (1873), 58-63 and 72-73. and photographs of several of the other harpers' 4 TSBA, III (1874), 380-81 and 385-87. texts. 5 Herodotus ii. 78.

178

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At the time of Stern's writing the Antef and Neferhotep songs,8 which in- Egyptian literary and archeological ma- cluded two additional harpers' texts from terial which has a bearing on the prob- Neferhotep's tomb, which, though pub- lems of harpers' songs was not sufficiently lished,9 had remained untranslated, the known. Hence too much weight was ac- pendulum swings back from the worldly corded to the observations of the Greek banquet of Goodwin to the funerary ban- writers led by Herodotus. Ever since quet of Stern. In addition, Maspero is the Stern, the "banquet" of Herodotus has first to acknowledge the existence of a loomed large in the discussion, although problem in the fact that the "make- the Greek writer had made no mention merry" advice of the Neferhotep song is of harpers and although we have no addressed not to the guests attending the Egyptian evidence to bear out his descrip- funerary feast but to the deceased him- tion of Egyptian banqueting custom. self. This difficulty, however, he quickly Thus the application of this Herodotus resolves by telling us that the Egyptian passage has prejudiced the inquiry into dead were not dead in our sense of the the nature of the feasts at which the word.'0 Maspero believed that the harp- harpers' songs were supposedly performed ers' songs were sung in the tomb at funer- -an inquiry which can have results ary only feasts over which the deceased were if based on Egyptian, not on Greek, felt to preside, that the songs contain a sources. carpe diem message which is addressed Goodwin in his publication toof all the attendants Antef of the banquet, the liv- song6 also referred to Herodotus ing and thebut dead, dif- and that this message fered from Stern in believing originated that in worldlythe feast songs as part feast in question is the worldly, of a custom not intended the as a reminder of funerary, banquet. According death. to Againhim, thethe argument is clinched by theme of the song "is the thewords Herodotus which passage. Herodotus tells us were pronounced Maspero's ideas at were adopted by feasts when a mummied image Benddite, was carried who re-edited the three Nefer- round and presented to each of the hotep texts in his publication of the whole guests." He further remarks that the song tomb." fle, too, affirms that the harpers' is "one of those solemn and lugubrious songs were sung at mortuary feasts in the compositions by which the Egyptians intombs, having been adapted from worldly the midst of their feasts were reminded of drinking songs whence they derive their the shortness of human joys." With this praise of life, which, though originally shifting of the scene from the tomb to conceived as advice to the living, is not the banquet hall, the character of the song out of place in the funerary context, appears in a different light: What for since, in the Egyptian mind, there is no Stern was merriment in the midst of sharp distinction between life and death. gloom is for Goodwin a solemn note intro- Hence these songs are well within the duced at a merry occasion.7 boundaries of Egyptian religion. With Maspero's new edition of the Similar opinions were voiced by

6 See n. 4 above. 8 Etudes tgyptiennes, I (1886), 162 if. The objection might be raised that the Antef 9 Dilmichen, Hist. Inschr., II, 40a. song which Goodwin deals with is different in spirit from Stern's Neferhotep text. This difference, how- o10 Etudes 6gyptiennes, I (1886), 171. ever, was not taken into account by the early com- mentators. 11 Memoires de la Mission Frangaise, V, 489-540.

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Brugsch"2 and by Wiedemann,13 that both "Maneros" mak- was the opening phrase ing light of the incongruity ofof a recordingbanquet song urging enjoyment of carpe diem songs in the tombs. the pleasures of life.5 The many scholars The anticlimax to these harmonizing who have used the term "Maneros" for interpretations is provided byone Maxor another Mtl- of the harpers' songs have ler's comments to his edition unsuccessfully of harpers' striven to discover the songs (Antef and Neferhotep Egyptian I),14 where, etymology of the word.16 In with more erudition than sympathy, spite of the complete he failure of these ef- dwells on what he considers their forts, brazenly some recent commentators con- heretical character, their closeness to tinue to use it."7 Toward an understanding Epicurean songs from all over the world, of harpers' songs the label has contributed and the illogicality and superficiality of nothing except confusion. the Egyptian mind as apparent in the The skeptic or agnostic character of use of such songs for funerary purposes. the songs, which Milller was the first to Thus MUiller inaugurated the view that emphasize, now begins to hold the atten- the Antef and Neferhotep songs are dis- tion of the commentators. Breasted at- tinctly heretical and hedonistic drinking tached the two songs (Antef and Nefer- songs. He treats the two texts as being hotep I) to a skeptic movement in the essentially one and the same song, the First Intermediate Period and the early Neferhotep variant having been expanded Middle Kingdom. But whereas Milller re- by pious interpolations in order to render garded them as secular drinking songs, the heresy harmless. The original song Breasted believed them to have been from which they derive he equates with songs of mourning sung at funerary feasts the "Maneros" song mentioned by Herod- in the tombs.'8 Summarizing the content otus (ii. 79). of the Antef song, he concludes that the The introduction of this Herodotus song reveals a passage is as unfortunate as the use made scepticism which doubts all means, material or of Herodotus' banquet. For there exist otherwise, for attaining felicity or even sur- various Greek explanations of the word vival beyond the grave. To such doubts there "Maneros," none of which is bjorne outis no answer; there is only a means of sweeping by Egyptian sources. According to Herod- them temporarily aside, a means to be found otus, "Maneros" is a song of mourning in sensual gratification which drowns such lamenting the death of the son of the first 15 Sitzgsber. Bayer. Ak., 1869, pp. 163-94. king of Egypt who bore that name. But 16 Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Plutarch (De Iside et Osiride 17) gives Egyptians (1st ed.), II, 252; Brugsch, Die Adonissage, p. 24; Moret, La Mise 4 mort du dieu en Egypte, p. three different explanations of the word, 22; Mariette, Le Serapgum de Memphis, p. 125; one of them being that it is an Egyptian Miller, Liebespoesie, p. 37; Moller, ZAS, LVI (1921), formula of greeting uttered by drinkers 78; atGressmann, Tod und Auferstehung des Osiris, p. 20. For a refutation of Mb1ler's etymology, which had feasts. Miller's equation of the harper's been adopted by Gressmann, see Scharff and Heng- song with the Maneros was foreshadowed stenberg in ZAS, LXXII (1937), 143. 17 Notably Kees in Totenglauben und Jenseitsvor- by Lauth, who, as early as 1869 (i.e., fourstellungen der alten Aegypter, p. 451, and ZAS, LXII years before the publication of the first (1927), 77. For an energetic protest against the use of the term see Rusch's article on Maneros in Pauly- harper's song), claimed to have proved Wissowa, Real- Encyclopadie der classischen Altertums- 12 Die Aegyptologie, p. 162. wissenschaft (1927). 13 Herodots zweites Buch mit sachlichen Erldute- 18 Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient rungen, p. 331. Egypt, pp. 181-82; The Dawn of Conscience, pp. 162- 14 Die Liebespoesie der alten Agypter, pp. 29-37. 63.

This content downloaded from 88.103.232.111 on Mon, 30 Nov 2020 14:22:40 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms THE SONGS OF THE HARPERS 181 doubts in forgetfulness. "Eat, drink, and be heretical bent; and (4) funerary laments merry, for tomorrow we die.""'9 born of skepticism. Finally, they have A hitherto neglected aspect was been divided into two classes, one skeptic, brought to the fore when, in 1913, Gar- pessimistic, and primarily secular; the diner re-edited and translated the second other pious, optimistic, and primarily Neferhotep song under the title "In praise funerary. of death."20 It could then no longer be II. THE ORCHESTRA SONGS OF THE overlooked that this song contains no EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY AND skepticism and no "make-merry" advice THEIR SIGNIFICANCE AS PART OF but that, quite on the contrary, it praises THE DECORATED TOMB death as the blessed eternal existence. In consequence, most subsequent comments The seemingly simple term "harper's on harpers' songs tell us that there exist song" for a song accompanied by the harp two types of harpers' songs, the one- is ambiguous; for it neither includes, nor skeptic-hedonistic-urging enjoyment of outrightly bars admittance to, the many life, the other piously praising death. Ac- little songs recorded chiefly in private cording to Erman, the pious song from the tombs of the Eighteenth Dynasty which tomb of Neferhotep was intended as a are either sung in unison by several musi- protest against its impious counterpart.21 cians playing various instruments of And for Kees the two Neferhotep songs which the harp is one or divided among reflect the struggle between the forces of the different musicians, each singing his skepticism and those of traditional faith.22 part. On the whole, these little songs have When, in 1935, Varille published three been excluded from the discussion of harpers' songs of the Nineteenth Dynasty, harpers' songs and have not been looked which are wholly devoted to the praise of upon as possibly having a bearing on the death, he fitted them into the schematism question of origin, purpose, and content of the two-type theory: They represent of those songs which are recorded with the pious attitude which exalts the here- the figure of a single harpist or attributed after, in contrast to the pessimism of the to a harpist by means of an introductory Antef-Neferhotep class of song which phrase and which alone have come to be urges enjoyment of life while it lasts.23 known as "harpers' songs." To sum up the main viewpoints which In this section we propose to deal with we have encountered in our review: The these short songs from Eighteenth Dynas- songs of the harpers have been interpreted ty tombs, and we shall call them "orches- as: (1) secular drinking songs developing tra songs" as distinct from "harpers' a "make-merry" motif combined with songs." a We shall discuss them from two reminder of death; (2) mortuary songs angles: (1) their literary affinities and (2) derived from secular drinking songs andtheir pictorial context. When their place fitted to religious belief and practice; in the scheme of the decorated tomb has (3) secular drinking songs of skeptic- thus been outlined it will be possible to

19 The Dawn of Conscience, p. 165. define their relation to "harpers' songs." 20 PSBA, XXXV (1913), 165-70. A scene in the hall of the tomb of I.ena- 21 The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians, trans- mun (No. 93 at Thebes; north side of lated into English by A. M. Blackman, p. 253. west wall) shows Amenhotep II as a 22 ZAS, LXII (1927), 77; also Totenglauben, p. 451. 23 BIFAO, XXXV (1935), 153-60. See also Weill, young prince sitting on the lap of the Egyptian Religion, III (1935), 127. royal nurse Amenemopet, who is .I ena-

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mun's mother.24 Two officials with drink approach by his wife, who says: "Take, him and are followed by two drink, girls and makecarrying holiday within thy wine cups and a third playing house of aeternity!" lute. TheAbove the man's head legend above the girls reads: is written: Diverting the heart and seeing good Sitting down to divert the heart by a holi- things, song, dance, and music; rejoicing and day in the interior of his house of the west, gladness of heart when [the troupe of] his his abode of eternity, which is in the precinct majesty is seen in the pleasure-ground ofof Hathor, mistress of Djesrut. May she give Peru-nufer; perfumed with myrrh, anoirited thee leave to come up to earth and to the with oil, making holiday (irt hrw nfr); decked open forecourt of the tomb so that thou with garlands from thy plantation, lotus mayestat see the sun when he rises. thy nostril, O king Amenhotep. Make for us b) In the banquet scene from the tomb an eternity of [years]. How fair is thy face in of Amenhotep-si-se (No. 75 at Thebes; royal appearance when thou art seated on main hall; west side of north wall)27 the the great throne ..... He who rejoices over master and his wife are seated in front Re when he sees him has life so that he does not [die]. of the offering table with musicians and guests attending. The legend above the This representation of the entertainments man's head reads: provided for the young prince is a purely Sitting down in the hall to divert the heart secular scene, free from all funerary allu- according to the practice of existence on earth, sions. Both picture and text invoke the perfumed with myrrh, adorned with garlands, hrw nfr, the "holiday" or "feast day," making [holiday] in his house of justification with its standard paraphernalia of wine, which he made for himself in the west of music, flowers, and ointment. Secular as Thebes. the occasion is, the gods are not forgotten, c) The tomb of Nebamun (No. 90 at for they are the bestowers of all life and Thebes)28 contains two parallel banquet happiness. scenes on the east wall of the hall, in both In the following we shall study the ap- of which the deceased is seated with his plication of that same "make-holiday" wife and receives the cup from a daughter. phraseology to a funerary25 context, i.e., In the south scene the daughter addresses to wishes for, and descriptions of, the life her father thus: "For thy ka! In life, in after death. The setting for these texts is health, thou praised of Amun, in thy either the simple daily meal of the dead, beautiful house of eternity, thy dwelling the "offering-table" scene, or the more of everlastingness." The legend above his elaborate "banquet" scene, the signifi- head in the north scene reads: cance of which we shall discuss later. Diverting the heart and passing a happy a) The banquet scene in the hall of the moment in [his] beautiful [house] of eterrfity tomb of Ipuki and Nebamun (No. 181by theat one - of favor, great in the palace; Thebes; west side of south wall)26 heshows is happier today than yesterday. the deceased Nebamun being presented d) In one of the two banquet scenes in 24 See Davies, The Tomb of Jen-Amifn at Thebes, the tomb of Haremhab (No. 78 at Thebes; P1. IX. 25 The term "funerary" as used here does not ap- main hall)29 two women present cups to ply to every inscription or representation recorded 27 Davies, The Tombs of Two Officials, Pls. IV, V, in a tomb but only to those dealing with the burial XVIII. rites or with the life after death. 28 Ibid., Pls. XX-XXIII. 26 Davies, The Tomb of Two Sculptors at Thebes, 29 Bouriant, M'moires de la Mission Frangaise, Pls. V-VI. Vol. V, Fasc. III, P1. I.

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the deceased. Behind them are three main hall)3" the master and his wife sit in women musicians. The legend above front the of a flower stand. Two daughters two serving women reads: present flowers and drink. Behind them For thy ka! Make holiday in thy beautiful are seven women musicians and a dancing house of eternity, thy dwelling of everlasting- girl. The daughters express the familiar ness. Thy face is turned to Re, thy good wish: "For thy ka! Make holiday, 0 lord who loves thee .... Receive garlands, scribe of the grain, in thy house of justifi- anoint thyself with fine oil. Take part in cation, a which thou hast made for thyself holiday in the favor of that good god of theon the side of the City." As in the case of west of Thebes. Amenhotep-si-se, the feasting in the here- e) Two parallel scenes on the north and after is expressly stated to be a replica of south walls of his shrine depict the de- the earthly custom; for the legend above ceased User (owner of tomb No. 21 at the seated pair reads: "Sitting down in the Thebes)30 seated with his wife in front of hall to divert the heart as was his wont the offering table. A daughter presents while being on earth." As to the song of the cup and says: the musicians who play harp, lute, For thy ka! Drink, be happily drunken, and double-flute, and lyre, it runs thus: make holiday! ... Thou shalt never cease Holiday! One constantly recalls the beauty to enjoy thyself within thy beautiful house. of [Amun]. The heart is glad and praise is given These samples should suffice to make to the height of heaven unto thy exalted face. it clear that there exists a certain class of Hearts say at the sight of it: Do it, 0 measurer of the grain [of Amun], every day! tomb texts which apply the "make-holi- day" motif to the deceased's existence in b) In the banquet of Rekhmire (tomb the hereafter. The texts name the tomb No. 100 at Thebes; north wall of pas- as the place in which the dead man will sage)32 two orchestras, one consisting of enjoy the "holiday"-"house of eternity" men, the other of women, entertain the and "house of justification" are, in this large gathering of feasters. The songs are context, quite unambiguous terms for the divided among the various musicians, tomb-and the feasting which is the chief each singing a part. The male harper content of the "holiday" is described and sings: depicted in the manner of the feasts ac- How prosperous are they, these years which tually celebrated in life. Thus a secular the god decrees for thee! Thou passest them phraseology is consciously applied to endued with blessing, healthy and happy. strictly funerary wishes, which conjure Thou existest, thy voice being justified and up the happiness of the life after death by thine enemy fallen, in thy house united with picturing it in terms of earthly joys. eternity, partaking of everlastingness. So far the "holiday" has been invoked The lute player sings: through speeches of those participating in the feasting or through descriptive legends. Thou hast life endued with blessing, thou It remains to be seen how the orchestra hast holiday .... making holiday, 0 prefect. songs recorded with the banquet scenes Thy goodness is remembered ..... compare with these two forms of prose. 31 Scheil, Memoires de la Mission FranCaise, V, a) In the banquet scene from the tomb 571-79, P1. II. For the texts see BIFAO, XXI, 128. of Djeserkerasonb (No. 38 at Thebes; 32 Virey, Memoires de la Mission Frangaise, Vol. V, Fase. I, Pls. XL-XLIII; Davies, The Tomb of Rekh- 0o Davies, Five Theban Tombs, Pls. XXV-XXVI. mi-R?c at Thebes, Pl. LXVI and p. 61.

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The three men who beat the rhythm In the lower sing: register a male orchestra con- North wind sweet to thy nostril, sisting breath of a harpist,of a lutist, and a blind what thy nose loveth. Partake of singerthe offering who beats the rhythm accompany which the king gives which has gone the preparationup on the of food with their song: altar of the lord of eternity, that thy Incense, ka finemay oil, oxen, the best of what be satisfied by it, 0 prefect blessed belongs of Amun. to Amun, the morning of his rising c) Some painted blocks from when a heSaqqara appears in Karnak to receive the tomb of the late Eighteenth Dynasty33good things which are received from the hand show a group of four women of musicians, the blessed royal scribe every day. To thy beautiful face, lord of food! thou hast reached one of them a harpist, standing behind a the land of the god. girl who presents drink to the deceased, who is seated beside his wife. Above the e) At a banquet in the tomb of Amen- musicians is written: emhet (No. 82 at Thebes; north wall of Thy ka is upon thee, thou who hast spent passage)6 a male harper sings: thy lifetime in happiness, (though now) thou How well it goes with the temple of Amun, art consigned to the west. How prosperous even she that spendeth her clays in festivity are thy (things), 0 lord of eternity! ... Thy with the king of the gods within her house stands firm bearing thy name. The chil- She is like to a [woman] drunken, who sitteth dren of thy children rcarry thy &ierl.34 outside the chamber, with loosened rhairi and upon her beauteous [rbreast'], d) The arrangement of the figures in the and she possesses .37 banquet scene on Wall D of the hall in f) In another banquet scene from the the tomb of Haremhab35 is slightly dif- same tomb (hall; south side of west wall)38 ferent from that of the parallel scene pre- a male harper and two women who beat viously described. In this scene the text does not end above the head of the second the rhythm sing: serving girl but continues above the two How well it goes with the temple of [Amun] women lutists who stand behind them. on New Year's Day, at the renewal of - all Hence it is difficult to decide whether we in its entirety, when he receives its good things, and its oxen are slaughtered by hundreds, its are dealing with a speech or a song-or a wild game of the mountains by thousands, combination of both. The text runs thus: even for A[mun as his due off]erings at the For thy ka! Make holiday in thy beautiful festivals of the seasons. house of eternity, thy dwelling of everlasting- g) The song from the banquet scene ness .... decked with garlands, anointed on the British Museum fragment No. with fine oil, taking part in a holiday. Thy 3798431 runs thus: heart is glad, thy heart is in joy. Thou seest Amun; he accords thee to be among mankind, [Flowers of sweet1] odor rgivenl by Ptah and blessed in the land of the living. Mut has come planted by Geb. His beauty is in every body. Ptah has made this with his hands to enter- .... in order to give rwhat is asked of her1 tain his heart. The canals are filled with water and to carry the sistrurm and mix the drink in anew, and the earth is flooded with his love. the cup of gold ..... 36 Davies and Gardiner, The Tomb of Amenemhet, 34 Quibell and Hayter, Teti Pyramid North Side, Pl. XV, p. 63. P1. XV. 37 This is Gardiner's translation except for the 3' For the word ifd.t see Davies and Gardiner, The initial words, for which see Gardiner, Egyptian Gram- Tomb of Amenemhet, p. 56, and Peet, The Great Tomb mar, ? 141, n. 6. Robberies (Text), p. 174. 3s Davies and Gardiner, op. cit., PI. V, pp. 40-41. '3 Bouriant, Mimoires de la Mission Franqaise, "9 See Wreszinski, Atlas zur altadgyptischen Kultur- Vol. V, Fasc. III, P1. II, p. 426; Wreszinski, Atlas zurgeschichte, I, 91; Davies and Gardiner, Ancient altdgyptischen Kulturgeschichte, I, 39a, c. Egyptian Paintings, II, 70.

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The comparison of these ary funerary songs and prospective with significance the speeches and legends owing toreveals the Egyptian's their hope that after similarity. Sometimes death it heis wouldonly continue the to posi-enjoy earthly tion of the text in relation pleasures. Thisto secondarythe figures significance which marks the distinction between the caused the intrusion of funerary elements song of the musician and the speech of the in the depiction of the secular biographical cupbearer. Whenever the text is not dis- feast. tinctly assigned to one or the other class The fundamental distinction between of persons, we cannot be sure about the these two types of banquets, the funerary manner of its delivery-or rather about and the biographical, has generally been the intention of the decorator. We have adopted. But their respective meanings encountered this ambiguity in the case have of been interpreted in various ways. An the banquet of Haremhab. However, a eloquent statement of one point of view, certain amount of difference between the which is related to Gardiner's, is provided songs and the prose texts is recognizable: by Davies' interpretation of banquet The "holiday" motif, although it occurs, scenes: is not the chief subject of the songs. In- We may gather from the pictures and ac- stead, references to the gods and to the companying texts that bright hours spent in offering 'ceremonies are prominent. In the midst of family and friends might be other words, the orchestra songs are more looked forward to by the happy dead. But ritualistic than the other banquet texts. we should be much mistaken if we supposed In spite of this difference, however, it can that it was a prospect clearly envisaged and be said ini summary that all banquet texts, provided for by rite, by prayer, or by magical whether orchestra songs or speeches or de- aids, pictorial or otherwise .... Egyptian scriptive legends, belong to the same basic faith knew when to eschew system and dogma repertoire the purpose of which is to in-and pass to unoutlined dreams .... The pictures, then, that we meet with in the outer voke the pleasures of the "holiday" as halls of tombs do not definitely represent or they apply to the existence in the here- after. secure such a reunion ..... The scenes are primarily memories of the part which the The nature and significance of the ban- dead might enjoy beyond cavil, and hopes quet scenes, from which our texts derive, surpassing these are only disclosed by a phrase, have been much discussed, but no unity an epithet, an exaggeration which, being of opinion has been reached. Gardiner hasscarcely applicable to life here, might be re- distinguished between two types of ban- garded as hyperbole or as prophecy ..... quets, the funerary and the biographical, Such scenes of feasting occur more than once the former being "the depiction of the in different parts of one tomb, and a distinction funerary rites of offering together with needs to be made between them, even when the ancients failed to observe it and added the banquet that they aimed at securing elements of confusion. Three separate classes for the deceased,"40 while the latter is the of banquets are perhaps depicted; one is the representation of an earthly feast and thus regular meal of the dead, which he would a scene of daily life. The difficulty of dis- hope to enjoy daily, but which, for the com- tinguishing between the two types is, ac-mon man at least, could only be so provided cording to Gardiner, due to the fact that pictorially or by written spell .... The sec- the worldly feast had acquired a second- ond depiction reflects an actual presentation of 40 Davies and Gardiner, The Tomb of Amenemhet, food and a real assembly of living relatives p. 38. on the occasion of the New Year, or some

This content downloaded from 88.103.232.111 on Mon, 30 Nov 2020 14:22:40 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 186 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES other anniversary. Here, too, also the case food in the was banquet of Nebamun ritually offered to the dead; with not which in Davies privacy deals. To quote from and silence, however, but in Davies' the description:company "The of ridiculous trun- friends and to music and laughter. cheon which The he [Nebamun]third carries, kind of meal is such as we are now to con- against all earthly habit, gives a sepulchral sider. Placed in the chamber of records it heaviness little befitting the scene." commemorates primarily the pleasures of the Describing the relatives participating in past. No priest needs to intervene here .. The daughters of the house come forward thewith feast, Davies says: the cup, the garland, the ointment, the joy In the uppermost row a young woman bringing emblems of Hathor . . . . The offersmeat the menat and symbolical flowers to a and drink are material things . . .. and if theymarried pair, and by this attention betrays a are offered to the ka, that anima blandula rank which they had probably won by age or was a familiar spirit that began its protective death . . . . Both are given the epithet ma- or other offices with birth not death. The dis- kheru commonly applied to the dead, and in tinction between these occasions of feasting agreement with this their table is of the form was, however, not observed strictly by reserved the for mortuary feasts.43 decorators. The actions and words proper Has to Nebamun then invited the dead to his the one crept often into the other. The shadow house? of death naturally stole over the happiness of It seems to us entirely unconvincing earth; on the other hand the familiar realities of the known world pleasantly tinged theto assume that all these funerary texts monotonous expanse of eternity. With andthis elements of representation are out of word of warning against too rigid an interpre- place and merely the outcome of confu- tation of words and details, we may turn sion. to In other words, we believe that a the picture itself and enjoy its very incon- banquet which has explicitly funerary gruities.4A legends is a funerary banquet. When the We are not in agreement with this presence or absence of such legends is point of view. In the first place, the ban- made the criterion for the distinction of quet which Davies treats as an example the funerary from the worldly biographi- of the worldly biographical type contains cal banquet, it becomes apparent that the explicitly funerary legends which we the overwhelming majority of banquets have discussed.4 Refusal to accept the in tombs belongs to the funerary class. literal meaning of those "holiday" wishes Such literal approach to the material may which place the "holiday" squarely in the be rigid but is not arbitrary. It further- hereafter could be justified only if they more results that all texts gathered in this were isolated remarks cropping up errati- chapter, legends, speeches, and songs, with cally in an otherwise distinctly worldly the exception of the legend from the context, but not when they are so per- "holiday" scene of Amenhotep II,44 sistently used and echoed in song and which was chosen as an example of a secu- prose as to constitute a definable part of lar entertainment, derive from strictly the funerary repertoire. Moreover, all the funerary feasts. In other words, the back- banquets from which the funerary "holi- ground for the orchestra songs recorded day" texts derive exhibit one or more than in the private tombs of the Eighteenth one funerary element of representation, Dynasty is the funerary banquet. usually the ritual offering table. This is It remains to inquire into the meaning 41 The Tomb of Two Sculptors at Thebes, pp. 51-53. 43 The Tomb of Two Sculptors at Thebes, p. 55. 42 See above, p. 182 (tomb of Ipuki and Nebamun). 44 See above, p. 181 (tomb of IKenamun).

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of the funerary banquet. texts whichIt is deal commonly with the burial cere- assumed that this banquet represents a monies proper or with the deceased's family celebration which took place in the journey into the beyond, nor do they rep- tomb on certain days of the year for the resent biographical reminiscences. Their purpose of offering food to the deceased phraseology is to a large extent derived with which to satisfy his needs in the here- from secular speech, but their purpose is after. However, another possibility is sug- funerary throughout. This transposition gested in a recent study in which it is of secular terms to funerary purposes is maintained that, besides the biographical particularly clear in the case of the "holi- banquet, there exist two different kinds of day" motif. funerary banquet scenes, the one being Against the background of the orches- the depiction of what a chapter of the tra songs we shall now view the composi- Coffin Texts describes as the reunion of a tions which are harpers' songs in the nar- man with his family in the hereafter,45 rower sense, beginning with those which while the other represents the constitu- antedate the New Kingdom. tion of the mortuary endowment.46 Fou- III. THE HARPERS' SONGS OF THE cart's study which was to furnish the evi- MIDDLE KINGDOM AND THE dence for this view is not available, hence DEPICTION OF HARPERS we are in no position to comment on it. But it seems desirable, pending a solution, Old Kingdom representations of harp- to indicate the problems posed by the ers are numerous, but with the exception funerary banquet scenes. of one Sixth Dynasty tomb at Meir47 Summing up, it seems to us that the their songs are never recorded. The con- orchestra songs of the Eighteenth Dynas- texts in which they appear are varied and ty are part of a certain class of tomb lit- not well defined Usually a harper and a erature which is devoted to invoking the few other musicians are tucked away in a holiday to be enjoyed in the hereafter, cornerto among scenes of agriculture or do- praising the lasting and vigorous life mestic labor. Sometimes a row of dancers which the deceased will lead in the beyond, is depicted in the vicinity of the musi- and to extolling the gods. These songs cians. These scenes are not explicit. They occur in scenes of funerary feasting ormerely indicate that the harpers were part with the simple daily meal of the dead. of the nobleman's household. Women They can be found in any of the accessible harpists appear as early as men; and play- parts of the tomb, the hall, the passage, ing the harp is not only a paid profession or the shrine. Their peculiar character butis an art with which a lady might enter- that they are funerary without being tain her husband.48 strictly ritual and that they make use of a In the Middle Kingdom the reliefs sug- secular phraseology without being secular gest that the function of the harpers is or biographical. In other words, they areprimarily funerary. They now appear in not in the nature of spells, as are those the funerary offering-table scene on the 45 See De Buck, The Egyptian Cofin Texts, II, 180 private mortuary stelae, and in the tombs, (Spell 146) and ibid., II, 151 (Spell 131); also Lacau, too, they are more closely connected with Textes religieux, II and LXXII. Perhaps this is repre- sented in the banquet of Amenemhet which depicts ritual scenes. This funerary function is the dead ancestors (see Davies and Gardiner, The 47Blackmah, The Rock Tombs of Meir, Vol. IV, Tomb of Amenemhet, P1. XVI). Pls. IX-X. 46 Foucart, "Le Tombeau D'Amonmos" in 48 See The Mastaba of Mereruka, Vol. I, Pls. 94-95 M~moires de l'Institut Frangais, LVII, 225, n. 2. ("O.I.P.," Vol. XXXI).

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borne out by the character ofmusicians, the harpers' such as flutists and lutists, are songs, for which we now have several not depicted as blind. Furthermore, if examples. such practical consideration had been Before discussing these texts, a word so important as to dominate the mode of should be said about a peculiarity of representation, it is surprising that it representation, namely, the habit of de- should not have been reflected in the very picting male harpers as blind. This mode numerous Old Kingdom depictions of of representation is fairly common in the harpers but that it should have been left Middle Kingdom and very widely applied for the more refined Middle Kingdom to in the New Kingdom. Knowledge of the emphasize such primitive precautions.53 social standing of harpers would help Whateverto the origin of the practice, it is determine the reasons behind this prac- likely that in the course of time it became tice. But we have little information about an artistic formula of characterization the harper's profession and his standing. and, as such, independent of observed Max Miiller has made much of the demot- reality or of a specific meaning. ic satirical poem which describes him asThe harpers' songs of the Middle King- lowly and despicable.49 But, being meant dom, by which we understand songs re- as a satire, that description has little cordedin- on monuments dating from the formative value. What evidence we have Middle Kingdom, come from private would indicate that there were the tombs as well as from funerary stelae. honored and well paid as well as Theirthe numberhum- is small, and they are short ble and poor.50 If we assume that and the simple rep- compositions. We possess the resentation of harpers as blind following:was based on observed reality-blind men would 1. Stela be in Cairo from Abydos likely to turn to the musical profession 2. Leyden as Stela V 68 the most adequate means of livelihood- 3. Leyden Stela V 71 we would have to ask ourselves whether 4. Tomb of Senbi at Meir this constitutes a departure from the tend- 5. Tomb of Antefoker, No. 60 at Thebes54 ency prevailing in Egyptian art to omit The Cairo stela from Abydos is a sim- from the depiction any physical deformity ple round-topped one with the customary of the model. The answer to this might pair be of magic eyes near the top.5 Under that this tendency does not necessarily them in horizontal lines is the text. In the apply to the minor personages who appear left corner the deceased sits at the offer- on another man's monument.51 It has been ing table. In front of him the harper suggested that blind harpers were wel- squats on the ground. This is the song: come because they could not see the (1) The singer Tjeniaa says: women of the house.52 However, if that How abiding art thoua in thy abode (2) of were the case, one may wonder why other eternity, 49 Miller, Die Liebespoesie der alten Aegypter, p. 2. 50 For a royal harpist see Kuentz, Recueil Champol- 53 For the truly barbaric custom of blinding the lion, pp. 602-10. harpers, practiced by some of Egypt's African neigh- 51 When the owner of a tomb himself is depicted bors, in see Roscoe, The Baganda, p. 35. all his deformity, it surely represents an exception 54 The songs from this tomb have not been in- and must be due to his personal insistence. See, for cluded in this collection, for they are very fragmentary instance, the Cairo statue of the dwarf Senb and the and obscure. The reader is referred to the tomb pub- reliefs in his tomb; the latter are published in Anzeiger lication: Davies, The Tomb of Antefoker. der Kaiserl. Akad. der Wissenschaften (Wien), Vol. LXIV (1927), P1. V. 55 Peet, The Cemeteries of Abydos, Vol. II, P1. XXIII, 5. Sethe, Aegyptische Lesestiicke, p. 87. 52 Blackman, The Rock Tombs of Meir, II, 12-13. Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar, p. 421.

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In thy tomb of everlastingness! passing the monument. The praise of the It is (3) filled with offerings tomb, of with food,b which the song begins, is a It contains every (4) good distinctive thing feature not common for the Thy ka is with thee,c funerary stela but recurring in another It does not part from thee,d harper's song from the stela next to be 0 chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, considered. Great steward (5) Nebankh, Thou hast sweet breath of the north wind. Leyden V 681, is a stela in form of a (6) So says his singer who keeps his name alive, door which is divided into three registers. (7) The praised one, the singer Tjeniaa, In the upper register the deceased is (8) Whom we loved, seated at the offering table. His wife Who sings to his ka every day.56 stands behind him, and an exceedingly a mnt.wy tw apparently stands for mn.wy tw. fat harper squats in front of him. Above b htp.w.t df'.w can be a compound term mean- the heads of man and wife is the htp-di- ing "food-offering," so in Sethe, Urkunden dernsw.t prayer and the names of the pair. In 18. Dynasty (hereafter cited as "Urk. IV"), pp. front of and above the harper is his song. 227, 112, 467, and in Louvre C 1. But it can also In the two lower registers sons bring offer- represent two parallel terms as in h' m htp.w.t h3ni df3.w, Louvre A 134 (PSBA, XXII, 35). ings. The harper's song is quite laconic: r k3.k hnc.k is a well-known funerary formula; (1) O tomb, thou hast been built for festivity, see, e.g. Urk. IV, pp. 499 and 1222; parallel to (2) Thou hast been founded (3) for goodliness! ib.k n.k in Sethe, Die altagyptischen Pyramiden- (4) The singer Neferhotep born of Henu. texte (hereafter cited as Pyr.), ? 1869, a. d The negation- is intended. For tsi r see The similarity between the two songs Urk. IV, p. 38. is obvious. Both texts occur in the simple offering-table scene and are purely funer- This song is a distinctly funerary ary.com- But whereas the harper's song was position which exhibits some of the typical the only text on the Cairo stela and had re- mortuary commonplaces, such as the placed the offering formula, the Leyden offering of food and other good things, the stela has a separate offering text and also presence of the ka, the sweet breath of depicts the presentation of food by mem- the north wind, and the perpetuation of bers of the family. Hence the harper with the name. With the essential safeguards his song is an additional nicety rather for survival thus named, the song is no than a necessity. It is also noteworthy less efficacious than the htp-di-n8w.t for- that in the praise of the tomb, which is mula of offering which it has replaced on the theme of the song, it is the tomb, and this stela. In other words, instead of using not the deceased, which is directly ad- the stereotyped offering formula, this dressed. stela fulfils its funerary function by Leyden V 7158 is a large family stela means of a more original composition. with a small and inconspicuous harper And the greater freedom of content is and a harper's text which seems to have supplemented by a more intimate form escaped attention. In the upper half of of delivery: it is the song of a harper di- the stela two couples facing each other rectly addressing his dead master and are seated at a central offering table. not the impersonal offering formula 57 Boeser, Beschreibung der aegyptischen Sammlung which can be spoken by any stranger ... in Leiden, II, 33; Sethe, Aegyptische Lesestilcke, p. 87; Steindorff, ZAS, XXXII, 123. 56 The numbers in parentheses refer to the lines of 58 Boeser, Beschreibung der aegyptischen Sammlung the text, the superior letters to our notes on the trans- .... in Leiden, II, 9. It is numbered "V 3" in Boeser's lation,. bibliography, op. cit., p. 5.

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Above their heads are their respectiveof Senbi at Meir occurs in a scene which offering prayers, names, and Blackman titles. Thehas described as a Hathor lower half is divided into two ceremony: registers filled with numerous small figures Senbi of the fam- justified stands facing a company ily members and priests performing of musicians, offer- male and female dancers, and ing rites. Among them, in the wrestlers,left corner arranged in two lines and headed by of the bottom register, squats the the steward harper Khnum and a harper. Khnum is in front of a heap of food. Above offering the hisheap master a gorgeous necklace ap- in four vertical semi-hieratic propriate columns, to the isceremony and festivities in his song (see Pls. IV, b and VI, which b):5 he is about to participate ..... The dancing girls ere they begin to dance, and (1) 0 Osiris this Siese,a awake thou!b while the harper sings the opening song .... Geb has brought thee Horus, hold out toward Senbi their menats and sis- (2) And he recognizes thee, trums. "For thy kas!" says the first, "the Horus has found thee, menats of Hathor."61 to him through The harper's song is as follows: (3) In thy name of r"He who awakes well,"1l Great Steward Siese, justified! Exalted is Hathor (goddess) of Love, 0 Ihuyu, 0 Ihuyu, (4) The singer Iker bornd of S.-t-nt-hty-htp. a The deceased Siese, whom the harper When she ad- is exalted on the holiday, 0 I.uyu, dresses, is the chief personage of the On stela. the holiday, 0 Senbi, 0 JI.uyu!62 b The whole text is based on Pyr. ? 612, This a-b. harper's song is a ceremonial 0Apparently m rn.k n rs wd3. hymn. As such it is related to the hymns d The mistake ir.t.n for ir.n also occurs in one of the texts in the upper half of the stela.' recorded in the Eighteenth Dynasty ban- quet scenes and also to the hymns in- This text, too, is a simple funerary scribed on temple walls.63 On both occa- prayer for the benefit of the deceased. It sions-the banquet of the private tomb differs from the preceding harpers' and songsthe temple ceremony-it is usual that inasmuch as it is an adaptation of a pyra- there should be dancing in addition to the mid text and not an independent music. compo- This is also the case in our relief sition. from the tomb of Senbi, which depicts a In the tombs of the Middle Kingdom group of dancers and three singers in addi- representations of harpers are not un- tion to the harper. Senbi's harper thus oc- common, but their songs are very rarely cupies a minor position, reminiscent of recorded.- The harper's song in the tomb the harpers in the banquet scenes of the 59 With the exception of the Song of Piay, the New Kingdom tombs. It can therefore be original disposition and appearance of the hiero- glyphs have not been retained in-our hand copies. said that this harper's song is on the

60 Middle Kingdom tombs depicting harpers are: 81 The Rock Tombs of Meir, I, 22-23, Pls. II-III. I. Meir: 62 The wording is rather obscure, and the transla- 1. Tomb of Wahhotep (Blackman, The Rock tion, which is Blackman's, is by no means certain. Tombs of Meir, Vol. II, Pls. XV, XXXII, 3), The word wir presents a problem, and so does ibwyw, west wall, with two short very damaged lines which, according to Blackman, refers to the two men of text with castanets who also appear in the tomb of Amen- 2. Same tomb; north wall (ibid., Pls. III, XXI, emhet (see Davies and Gardiner, The Tomb of Amen- XXII) emhet, Pls. XIX-XX). See also Peet, JEA, VI, 57. II. Beni Hassan 63 Harpers" hymns on temple walls form a class 1. Tomb of Amenemhet (Newberry, Beni Has- apart inasmuch as, being part of the temple cere- san, Vol. I, P1. XII) monies, they are not connected with, and not ad- 2. Tomb of Baqt (ibid., Vol. II, P1. IV) dressed to, private individuals. They have not been 3. Tomb of Khety (ibid., Pl. XIV) included in this study.

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border line between harpers' records of harpers songs and in their the songs reveal, strict sense and orchestra on the onesongs. hand, an established tradition Summarizing the character of funerary of and the ceremonial harp- harpers' songs ers' songs of the Middle and, on Kingdom, the other hand, we point forward to would say that they theare development of two ofkinds. the orchestra song, Those on mortuary stelae which becomesare funerary, a prominent feature of invoking the dead and the hereafter. the banquet scenes of the New Kingdom. Those in private tombs either are cere- What we lack completely is any trace or monial hymns which may or may not echo on any Middle Kingdom monument have funerary. implications64 (tomb of of the famous worldly and hedonistic Senbi; also tomb of Antefoker)65 or are Antef song, believed to be a Middle King- purely funerary invocations and thus in dom composition. line with those on mortuary stelae (tomb IV. THE HARPERS' SONGS OF THE of Antefoker). 6 Where Middle Kingdom NEW KINGDOM stelae depict harpers without recording their songs, the standard funerary repre- The harper's text known as the song sentation of the offering-table scene from the tomb of King Antef exists in two leaves no doubt as to the funerary function copies, both of which date from the New of the harper.67 Kingdom: Papyrus Harris 500, which On the pseudo-stela, Louvre C 17,6s gives the complete text, is a Nineteenth the mortuary banquet is represented: A Dynasty manuscript, and the fragmen- female orchestra of one harpist and three tary copy in the Memphite tomb of Paa- singers and a dancing girl provide the tenemheb, now in Leyden, belongs to the entertainment to the meal which is at- Amarna period. Nevertheless, the song is tended by guests. This scene recalls usuallythe believed to be a Middle Kingdom banquets from the tombs of the Eight- composition. The reasons for this belief eenth Dynasty. And a transition to thesecan be stated as follows: (1) The introduc- New Kingdom banquets, foreshadowed tion, extant in the papyrus copy, relates by this relief, is provided by the tomb that of the song was recorded "in the house Sebeknekht at Elkab, which dates from of King Antef." This king must be one of the Second Intermediate Period and the Antefs of the Eleventh or of the Seven- which depicts an orchestra singing teenth a Dynasty. (2) The language is clas- "holiday" song.69 sical Middle Egyptian. (3) The pessimistic It results that the Middle Kingdom tone of the song suggests its relation to a skeptic-pessimistic movement resulting 6e4 According to Blackman (The Rock Tombs of Meir, I, 25, n. 6), the Hathor ceremony from the from the upheaval of the First Intermedi- tomb of Senbi has funerary significance; according ate Period and reflected in a number of to Gardiner (Davies and Gardiner, The Tomb of Amenemhet, p. 96), the scene refers to the annual Middle Kingdom compositions such as Hathor festival as celebrated during the tomb- the "Dialogue of the Man Weary of Life." owner's life. The evidence, indeed, points to a Mid- 65 Davies, The Tomb of Antefoker, Pl. XXIX, p. 24. dle Kingdom origin. However, as already 66 Ibid. Pl. XXVII, pp. 24-25. indicated, no Middle Kingdom monu- 67 See Cairo stelae Nos. 20121, 20257, 20732 (Lange and Schffer, Grab- und Denksteine desment mittleren or record reveals a trace of the song. Reiches). Instead, it has come down to us in the two 68 Boreux, BIFAO, XXX (1930), 45, Pls. I-III. New Kingdom copies. Furthermore, and 69 Tylor, The Tomb of Sebeknekht, Pls. VIII-IX. this is most important, it is the New King-

This content downloaded from 88.103.232.111 on Mon, 30 Nov 2020 14:22:40 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 192 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES dom which furnishes a number heads of of an harpers'officiating priest-and a group songs which are closely related of four musicians to the led by a blind harpist. Antef song. These are good They indicationsface the deceased and his wife, who not only that the song was are popularseated at the in offering the table. The tomb New Kingdom but that it datesactually from the started reign of Amenhotep IV, a literary fashion. And it Akhenaten. is in order This is the to song: point to its literary affinities with the (2) Song which is in the housea of King Antef New Kingdom, and not in order to deny the justified its Middle Kingdom origin, (And) thatwhich is inwe front have of the (3) harpist. placed the Antef song at Flourishingthe head indeedb ofis this our good lord! list of harpers' songs of the A kindlyNew fate Kingdom. has come to pass.c These are the texts: (One) generation passes away 1. The Antef Song: Papyrus Harris 500 and And others (4) remain (in its place) Tomb of Paatenemheb Since the time of the ancestors. 2. Song from the Tomb of Neferhotep, The gods that were aforetime Thebes No. 50, north wall of- passage; Rest in their pyramids; Nobles (5) and glorified likewise hereafter called "Neferhotep I" (P1. VII) 3. Song from the Tomb of Neferhotep, Are buried in their pyramids. Thebes No. 50, left rear wall of hall; They that built houses, hereafter called "Neferhotep II" Their places are no more; 4. Song from the Tomb of Neferhotep, Whatd (6) has been done with them? Thebes No. 50, left rear wall of hall; I have heard the sayings of Imhotep and following on Neferhotep II; hereafter Djedefhor,e called "Neferhotep III" (Pls. I, II) With whose words men (still) speak (7) so 5. Song from the Tomb of Khai-Inheret, much;f Der el Medineh No. 359, second chamber What are their places? 6. Song from the Tomb of Paser, Thebes Their walls have crumbled, No. 106, on pillar in hall (Pls. III, V) Their places are no more, 7. Song from the Tomb of Piay, Thebes No. As if they had never (8) been. 263, left door reveal (Pls. IVa, VIa) None cometh from thenceg 8. Song from the Tomb of Neferrenpet, That he might tell their circumstances, Thebes No. 178, south wall of hall That he might tell their needs 9. Song from the Tomb of Penniut, Thebes And content our heart No. 331, left door reveal Until we have reached (9) the place 10. Song from the Tomb of Tjanefer, Thebes Whither they have gone. No. 158, left door reveal7" May thy heart be cheerful To permit the heart to forget 1. THE ANTEF SONG The making of (funerary) services for thee. Follow thy desire while thou livest! The text occupies columns VI, 2, to (10) Put myrrh upon thy head, VII, 3, of Papyrus Harris 500 (Brit. Mus. Clothe thyself in fine linen, Pap., No. 10060) and also exists, in a Anoint thee with the genuine wonders fragmentary state, in the tomb of Paa- (11) Which are the god's own. tenemheb from Saqqara, now in Leyden. Increase yet more thy happiness, The tomb copy was engraved on the And let not thy heart languish ;h right-hand wall of the hall above the Follow thy desire and thy good,

70 For the bibliography of these songs see the Ap- (12) Fashion thine affairs on earth pendix. After the command of thy heart.i

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That day of lamentation will SOr "words come related to as thee, their own utterances- When the Still (1) of Heart very does much." not hear their lamentation, g Apparently for bw ii.tw. The Leyden variant And mourning does not deliver a man from bn ii im, "nonexistent is one who comes from thence," is better. the netherworld.) rRefrain':k (2) Make holiday! h imi h.w nfr.w.k, etc. The usual procedure is Do not weary thereof! theto interpolate negative imperative the preposition m before hr big3y.after h.wBoth and Lo, none is allowed to take his goods with emendations are based on the Leyden text; see him,I also Neferhotep I, line 28. Lo, none that has gone has (3) come back! im wd ib.k iw n.k hrw, etc. The Leyden text a The "house of King Antef" is, of course, the has m hd ib.k r iw n.k hrw. Both readings provide royal tomb. an adequate meaning. When the reading wd of Harris 500 as against hd of Leyden is retained, b wid pw: the writing is clearly wad, and the the phrase "after the command of thy heart" meaning of wd suits the context. The dead are is the conclusion of the preceding sentence; and often referred to as being flourishing and pros- then the interpolation of the preposition r before perous, cf. w-d.wy nn 6pr n.f (Davies, The Tomb iw n.k to obtain the meaning "until that day of of Neferhotep at Thebes, P1. XXIII); w-d.wy st n3 lamentation comes to thee" is unwarranted. n rnp.w.t wd ntr hr.k (Virey, Le Tombeau de Rekhmara, Memoires de la Mission Frangaise, i The Leyden text gives the correct reading for this phrase. Vol. V, P1. XLII with wd for w3d; see also Leyden Hymn to Amon, VI, 10 (ZAS, XLII, 41). k The Wbrterbuch (Erman and Grapow, S3w nfr hdy: Ow nfr clearly is a euphemism for Wirterbuch der agyptischen Sprache) has adopted death, but hdy presents a problem, since no the translation "refrain" for m3wt, basing it on satisfactory meaning can be obtained from it. We m wt.f m h.t.f of P. med. London, 16, 4; 17, 5; have adopted the attitude of previous translators 18, 5, 11; but it remains guiesswork. who have treated it as a corruption and substi- I A very similar saying is sm s im bt.f, "when tuted kpr from the parallel phrase in Neferhotep man goes his belongings go" (Lefebvre, Le Tom- I, line 2. beau de Petosiris, II, 90). d ptr here and in line 7 seems to be the inter- rogative pronoun "what" rather than the im- The opening phrase of the song has a perative "behold," despite the wrong determina- twofold intention. On the one hand, it is a tive in the first occurrence; so also Sethe, Im- simple statement of the fact that the per- hotep der Asklepios der Aegypter, p. 10 (Unter- son in whose honor the harper sings is suchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde dead; on the other hand, it is an affirma- Aegyptens, II, 4). tion, made with exclamatory emphasis, eThe recently published fragment of the that the state of death is one of prosperity teachings of Djedefhor (Brunner-Traut, ZAS, LXXVI, 3-9) perhaps suggests that the two Old and happiness. As indicated by the paral- Kingdom sages are introduced here not merely lels quoted above, the terms "to flourish" because of their general fame but because of a and "to be happy" are commonly applied more specific connection between their teachings to the dead man's existence in the here- and the musings of the harper. For the Djedefhor fragment recommends the traditional provisions after, and the exclamatory form is often for survival: "Make excellent thy dwelling place used as a greeting extended to the dead of the west .... the house of death is for life." upon his arrival in the beyond. The harper, however, reflects on the vanity of The theme of death having thus been these efforts. See ibid., p. 7, on the reading introduced is now further elaborated: "Djedefhor" instead of previous "Hordedef." On the two wise men see also Gardiner, Hieratic The singer points to the transitoriness to Papyri in the British Museum (3d ser.), Vol. which I: all life is subject, and this, in turn, Text, pp. 39-40. leads him to observe that all-embracing

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death treats kings and commoners What alike; further limits the value of the for both "lie buried in their pyramids." comparison with the carpe diem advice At this point a new line of as thoughtexpressed in other literatures is the fact begins. Death, first viewed positivelythat this advice does not spring from one and described objectively, suddenly particular be- attitude. There is, for instance, comes the object of anxious questions a considerable and difference between the mel- laments. Confidence and tranquillity low cheerfulness are of Horace and the brood- replaced by doubt and disbelief. ing Whatmelancholy of Omar Khayyam. There- traces do men leave on earth, and fore, how unless do one is willing to engage in a they fare once they are dead? "Theyseries of leavedefinitions concerning the various no trace at all," is the answer; and kinds of oftheir carpe diem advice, it is preferable existence beyond the grave nothingaltogether to is avoid this terminology, even known, for none has ever come backthough to the re- "make-holiday" phrase of the port. Now, then, if complete oblivionAntef song isso readily lends itself to the man's fate, it is best to forget translationall sadness into carpe diem. An additional and enjoy to the full the pleasures reason of life.for avoiding the term lies in the Make the best of all good things, fact forthat theyou "make-holiday" motif is not cannot take them with you; nor peculiar can toyou this harper's song but is, as we return once you are gone. have seen, a standard figure of speech This, then, is the famous skepticism with a funerary of as well as a secular appli- the song and its equally famous cation. carpe We do not deny, however, that diem message. The surprise to findthe Antef such song a so combines the "make- skeptic and hedonistic attitude holiday" among motif with skeptic and melan- the world's most religious people cholyhas, reflectionsinter on death as to create an alia, led the commentators to attitudea diligent reminiscent of, though not identi- collecting of parallels from the literatures cal with, the classical carpe diem. of other nations in order to demonstrate We shall have to say more about the that what the Egyptians express here is, Antef song when discussing some of the after all, a very natural and common state other harpers' songs. For the moment a of mind. Doubts or disbelief regarding few points of detail need to be emphasized: immortality will easily engender a hedo- (1) The beginning of the song reveals a nistic philosophy of life. Ecclesiastes, positive attitude toward death and a Anacreon, Horace, Omnr Khayyam, and tranquil acceptance of transitoriness and others are called upon to furnish ex- thus contrasts sharply with the main amples of this attitude. body of the poem. (2) Contrary to other These comparisons, however, do not harpers' songs which use the "make- account for the circumstances which sur- holiday" motif, the advice to make merry round the conception and the recording is here not explicitly addressed to the of this song and similar harpers' songs and tomb-owner. This difference is significant, which are not easily paralleled by any- and we shall return to it later. (3) With thing we find in other literatures. But it is regard to the structure of the song it precisely these peculiar circumstances should be noted that the flow of thought which need to be investigated, for they is governed by association, not by argu- alone explain the difficulties and para- ment and deduction. It is owing to this doxes as well as the specific flavor of these loose mode of composition, which inciden- compositions. tally is typical for oral tradition, that the

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essential unity of the Putpoem song and musicis beforemaintained thee, despite the break in thought Cast (9) all evil behind and thee; mood which occurs after the Bethink first thee of fewjoys phrases. For the flow of association allows the com- Till that day has come of landing At the land that loveth silenced bination of heterogeneous elements and (10) the heart of the son-whom- gives to the individual phrase a large he-loves does not weary.e measure of independence. This technique Make holiday, Neferhotep the justified! also accounts for the fact that the motifs Thou excellent divine father, of the Antef song reappear with many Pure of hands. variations in the other harpers' songs I have heard all that happened to the where, through minor changes, they were Their (11) buildings have crumbled, stripped of their original meaning and Their dwellings are no more; used to create new songs in a new vein. They are as if they had not come into being Since the time of the god. 2. NEFERHOTEP I The The setting of this song is the offering- table scene (see above, p. 178). (12) The On the tomb shore of thy pond, dates from the reign of Haremhab. That thy soul Our may sit under them And drink their water. text (see P1. VII)7 is based on a combina- tion of photographs, previous Follow publica- thy heart wholly tions, and a photograph of Hoskins' man- uscript. (13) Give bread to him who has no field, So shalt thou gain a good name for the future (1) Thus speaks the harpist who is in the forever. tomb of the Osiris, the divine father of Amun, Thou hast observed th[ese rsem-priests Neferhotep the justified; he says: Clad1 in skins]9 (14) of the panther; How reposeda (2) is this righteous lord! They pour libation to the ground; The kindly fate has come to pass. The loaves are offering bread; Bodies pass away since the time (3) of the Songstresses rare in tears1 god, (15) Their mummies are set up [rbeforel] Re, New generations come in their place. While their people are in mourning. Re shows (4) himselfb at dawn, Thou dost not -- Atum goes to rest in the Western Mountain. (16) comes in her timeh Men beget, And Fate reckons his days. Women (5) conceive, Awaken Every nostril breathes the air, (17) Dwelling powerlessly in that which was Dawn comes and their children (6) have gone made for his shade.i to their tombs.' Make holiday, 0 pure of hands, Make holiday, 0 divine father! Divine father Neferhotep the justified! Put incense and fine oil (7) together to thy nostrils (18) No work for the granaries of Egypt, And garlands of lotus and rrmt-flowers upon While his court is rich in thy breast, (19) again While thy sister (8) whom thou lovest sits at In order to know rwhat remains over from thy side. him1. 71 A good hand copy is available in Muller's edi- Not a short moment has been left out tion, Liebespoesie, P1. I. Our plate therefore gives only a photograph of the text, which, we think, will beIn (20) deserb. welcomed, since no photograph has previously ap- Those who had granaries with bread to offer, peared. And those (21) likewise,

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They shall spend their happy Denkmdler,hour III, 237c = ZAS, XI, 74). But, In (22) time. according to the Wirterbuch, &By always precedes The day that grieves the hearts, rnnt. That puts the house in i I.e., the dead man in his tomb. (23) Think of the day when I Maspero thou read shalt Ab and restoredbe rmt on the strength of Theban tomb No. 49 (see Davies, dragged The Tomb of Neferhotep at Thebes, P1. XXIII): To the land that [rmingles people1] twk hr Smt r p3 t 3bb rmt. In view of the disposi- (24) greatly. tion of the signs, Abb is preferable to Sb. There is no coming back. k Apparently `= m3ty; see also Uric. IV, It benefits thee p. 48, 12-14. (25) Thou art one righteous and truek Whose abomination is falsehood. I A fJ A probably stands for 1f JfA; cf. Neferhotep II, line 6. When there is love of rightness (26) the weak from the strong; The opening phrases of this song follow Not tarries' he who is in the pattern of the Antef song. But the re- (27) who has no protector. mark on the transitoriness of all beings is A commander who elaborated by a new motif: the rising and (28) Increase thy happiness to perfection setting of the sun. This is a standard (29) Maat, Min, and Isis, theme of sun hymns, but in the context of The nourishment which gives (30) rshe summons thee in old age1 toharper's songs it is novel. Its use here is the place of truth significant, for transitoriness of the body Without is now viewed as an integral part of the

a wrd.wytakes the place of w3d pwof Harris 500. cosmic order which is governed by the The general pattern and meaning of the intro- cycle of decline and renewal, death and ductory formula is the same as in the Antef rebirth. This perspective does not induce song. a negative attitude toward death. And, in- b rC di.f w: the reflexive use of rdi applied deed,to the outcry against oblivion which in the sun provides an ingressive meaning and seems the Antef song follows on the theme of to be an idiomatic expression denoting the process of sunrise; cf. di.k tw dwuw (Brit. Mus. Stela transitoriness is suppressed altogether. No. 826, 5); di.k tw r ric.k (Book of the Dead, 15, Its24 place is taken by the "make-holiday" [Budge]); see also Louvre C 67, 2; Book of the motif. Dead, 15, A, 1, 12 (Naville); and Recueil de This "make holiday" is addressed to travaux, II, 72. Literally "their places." Neferhotep himself. Yet it does not refer d For the "land that loveth silence" (see ZAS, to his feasting in the hereafter, for the LXV, 122). phrase "till that day has come of landing" e Without the addition "where," or some other clearly indicates that it is the living man emendation, the phrase is incomprehensible. who is urged to enjoy himself. The mor- The "son-whom-he-loves" is Horus in his mortu- ary service for his father Osiris. tuary epithet m3c irw ("justified"), fThe only certainty about the lacuna is that which is attached to his name in the repe- it contained the word "trees" or the name of a tition of the "make holiday" (1. 10) is no particular kind of tree. proof to the contrary. It has slipped in g The restoration m inm, which had been adopt- because it was customarily used in tomb ed by Max Mfiller, is now borne out by the inscriptions, and it is no more incongruous parallel text in the tomb of Paser, line 9; see than the request for "a good old age" so p. 203. h Maspero restore1 rnnt as the subject of often included in mortuary prayers. The hr Pit, since &3y and rnnt are sometimes found song starts from the assumption that Neferhotep is dead; but the "make merry" in parallelism; so in ?3y rnnt dmd m .hf.k (Lepsius,

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as well as the moralizing All advices ye good nobles to and do the Ennead of the good are intended for the Mistress living of Lifea man. Thus the poem shares the Hear peculiarity ye (2) the giving ofof blessings to the the texts on stelae, statues, divine and father the like which face in two directions: In worshipping They his excellent all soul of a good noble, combine funerary and secular motifs in a Now that he is a god that liveth forever way which will make the prayers effective And is exalted in the West, and appropriate for life as well as for That they may become (3) a remembrance for death. posterity, After the "make merry" appear some For every one that cometh to pass by. fragments of the Antef song's description I have heard those songs that are in the tombs of the vanity of human activities. But the of old theme is so reduced as to lack all poign- And what they relate in extolling the earthlyb ancy. Then comes a long and unfortunate- And in belittling (4) the land of the dead. ly obscure discourse in which advice to Wherefore is the like done to the land of eter- live in accordance with moral and reli- nity, The just and fair that holds no terror? gious custom is mingled with the reminder of death. Strife is its abomination, There is none that girdeth (5) himself against This song of Neferhotep represents his fellow. the attempt to compose a harper's song This land that has not its opponent, which will be in harmony with traditional All our kin rest in it since the time of first belief while at the same time developing antiquity. the "make-merry" motif in the secular They that shall be born to millions upon sense in which it was known from the millions Antef song (i.e., as an exhortation toward Come to it (6) all. merriment combined with a reminder of There occurs no lingering in the land of Egypt, death). In the resulting transformation There is none that does not approach it. the skepticism of the Antef song has As for the span of earthly affairs, It is the manner of a dream. vanished and its gloom has been subdued. One says "welcome safe and sound" Thus this text is more than a mere variant To him who has reached (7) the West. of the Antef song distorted by some pious interpolations. Rather is it a transformed a Apparently nb Cnh is to be understood; for this designation of the necropolis see Gauthier, version in which the haunting "make- Dictionnaire des noms g6ographiques, III, 82. merry" motif is set into a frame of ortho- b For this nominal use of tp tB meaning "life dox concepts. This compromise naturally on earth" see also htp.w ntr hr 8 tp t'.k (Recueil affects the composition and makes the de travaux, XIV, 178). poem less unified and harmonious than This song, to which Gardiner has given might be desired. the title, 'In Praise of Death,"is, indeed, an unambiguous glorification of death and the 3. NEFERHOTEP II land of the dead and thus very different The setting of this song is the funerary from the two preceding songs. The poet banquet depicted in the hall of the is well tomb. aware of this difference; he actually The present text is based on Gardiner's engages in argument against "those songs edition and photographs. that are in the tombs of old" which dep- (1) Thus speaks the harpist of the recate divine the hereafter, and he attempts to father of Amun, Neferhotep the justified: refute their skepticism. And, yet, the

This content downloaded from 88.103.232.111 on Mon, 30 Nov 2020 14:22:40 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 198 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES hereafter which he has set Lands out on the to shore praise thereafter. emerges from his description (3) as0 divine a strange- father, what is thy good fortune, ly shadowy place, devoid of That all thou the art color-united to the lords of eternity! ful attributes which the funerary How firm is thylitera- name unto eternity And glorified in the land of the dead! ture otherwise is so intent on bestowing Every god whom thou hast served since thou on it. Its chief characteristic in the view hadst thy being, of our poet is its peacefulness. Happiness Thou enterest in face to facea (4) with them. therein is conceived in terms of calm and They are prepared to receive thy soul quietude. Although the gods are addressed And to protect thy nobility. in the opening of the song, no further They multiply the produce of thy hands, mention is made of them. Nor are there And they shall purify thy beauty. any allusions to celestial topography. TheyThe furnish the altar (5) of thy mummy, vigorous activities of life, the continua- Every god with his food-portions. tion of which man was wont to expect They say to thee: from the hereafter, are not mentioned. Welcome in peace, 0 personb agreeable to our ka! Stress is laid on the all-embracing power For the divine father of Amun, Neferhotep, of this land of the dead; in other words, Son of the honorable Amenemonet the justi- on the inescapability of death, a theme fied. which is characteristic of the songs (6)of 0 divine father, I hear the praising of thee Antef and Neferhotep I. What, then, Before is the lords of eternity; the precise nature of this poem? What One is says concerning thee: "He has drawn the its relation to the "make-merry" songs? Sokar bark." And why is it recorded in the same tomb Thou hast placed Sokar upon his sledge,c that furnishes a "make-merry" song? Thou Be- hast circled the walls in his (7) following, fore answering these questions we must 'When there is illumination for his breast1. look at the third harper's song of Hethis has erected the dd-pillar in tomb. A sem-priest at his duties,d he has grasped the hoe 4. NEFERHOTEP III On the day of hacking the earth; This song follows directly He on has recitedNefer- the liturgy of (8) Busiris. hotep II on the same wall and Good isis thypart being of with the gods! the same banquet scene. Our Thou arttext remembered (see on account of thy Pls. I, II)72 is a combination ofworth, previous editions, photographs, and Accordinga photograph as thou are one who has (right of) of Hoskins' manuscript; the latter entrance intoproved Heliopolis most valuable. This is the song: And one who knows the mysteries which are in it. (1) Beginning of song: For the lector-priest who satisfies the heart of Remember, O heart, that day of Amun,death, May it be put in the heart of him who has a Neferhotep the justified. burial, (9) O divine father, thy soul advances, Thy sarcophagus rapproaches', Because indeed there is none (2) who passes it Anubis placese his hands on thee, by, The Two Sisters embrace thee; Strong and weak are alike. Purification is done to thee anew, Whoever sails north or south during life Thou art fdesignated (10) with a work of 72 In Dtimichen's edition the text is numbered eternity, consecutively with Neferhotep II and another text on the same wall; hence our line 1 corresponds to his The stone-(image)l of a god in its exact form; line 15. Ointment from the hands of Shesmu,f

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Clothing by the work of Tayit.g Pyr. ?? 403a, 545b, 1552a; Book of the Dead, 17, The sons of Horus are thy 27 protection, (Nebseni; Budge); 153 A, 8. (11) The Two Kites sit at the g For gate Tayit, for the goddessthee of weaving who And lament over thy name, clothes the dead, see Sinuhe B 190; Pyr. ?? 738- According as thou wast beneficent 41; Coffin Texts, I, while254c; Book ofon the Dead, 82, 7. earth h Cf. h6.k m iwnw in Recueil de travaux, XIV, 178. To Amun thy lord. Read nn 4mh tw rn.k? The divine father of Amun, Neferhotep the I take to be for justified: (12) 0 divine father, thou art remembered A ; but see above, p. 193, n. k. in Heliopolis,h k Cf. Pyr. ? 122b; Davies, The Tombs of Two Thou art protected (13) in Thebes. Officials, P1. XXVI; Lefebvre, Inscriptions con- There is no searching after thee in eternity, cernant les Grands Pr'tres d'Amon, Nos. 33, 1, and 40, 1. (14) And thy name shall not be rforgottenl,i According as thou art one righteous (15) in This song, which is separated from the the house of Ptah, preceding only by the words "beginning of Entering in face to face at the great place; song," is quite different from either Nefer- It is completed with charm hotep I or Neferhotep II. The text has re- At his great (processional) (16) appearances, ceived little attention. But in the over-all rThe expanse of eternity knows its radiancel.) picture of harpers' songs it occupies an Thou hast risen and art happier (17) than thou important place. wastk Its opening theme is the inescapability 0 blessed Neferhotep, justified! of death-a theme by which this text is Thy son is triumphant, And his enemies are felled forever. linked to the preceding songs. But for the rest the trend of thought is entirely dif- aAccording to Gardiner, means "face to ferent. The dead man is praised and re- face" (see PSBA, XXXV, 170). assured about his fate in terms of the tra- b On the meaning of hm see ZAS, LXXV, 18, and JEA, XXIX, 79. ditional mortuary repertoire as embodied c The mfb-sledge is meant; cf. iw.f im n hb skr in the prayers of funerary stelae and the hrw rdit hnw hr mfh (Brit. Mus. Stela No. 155, 11. spells and invocations of the Book of the 16-17); similarly The Papyrus of Ani, Pls. V-VI. Dead. He is told that the ceremonies ac- For the drawing of the bark see Book of the Dead, companying the burial have been duly 100, 3. A Middle Kingdom occurrence of the performed, his survival in the hereafter mfh-sledge is noted in AJSL, IL, 195. Taking the Sokar-bark on a circuit of the walls is shown has been assured, and he is well received in Medinet Habu, Vol. IV, Pls. 223, 226. The by the gods, his observance of religious Sokar-bark is also depicted in Neferhotep's duties during life having secured their tomb. On the mortuary character of these cere- favor. monies, including the erecting of the dd-pillar and the hacking of the earth, see Schott in The tomb of Neferhotep thus contains Oriental Institute Communications, XVIII, 78 ff. three harpers' songs, each with its own d sm m iry.w.f is to be understood; cf. The distinctive background and tendencies. Papyrus of Ani, P1. VI, 27 ff., which enumerates Neferhotep I is a "make-merry" song of the same ceremonies as in line 7 of our text: mixed antecedents (i.e., a combination of the grasping of the hoe, the hacking of the earth, secular and funerary motifs). Neferhotep and the reciting of the liturgy; see also Book of the Dead, I, 20 ff. (Naville). II is a praise of death of an apparently eRead w.h? For this action of Anubis see also unique kind and yet, by virtue of its mel- De Buck, The Egyptian Coffin Texts, I, 223f, g;ancholy overtone, reminiscent of the la- Book of the Dead, 18, 32; 151 A, 1 (Naville). ments on death traditionally spoken by S Ssmw the god of the wine press occurs in the mourning survivors. Neferhotep III,

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with its emphasis on observance praise of deathof reli- are juxtaposed without gious custom in life and death, sign of embarrassment.stands An argumentative wholly within the tradition ofattitude the ismortu- there, but no desire to eradi- ary literature. cate one position in favor of another; The recording of three such rather songsthere is ain tendency toward com- one tomb is a unique phenomenon. promise. This Yetmay be due to a truly hu- the tomb of Nefersekhru with its laments man wavering between fear and hope. on death alongside a harper's praise of But the deeper reason for it is the peculiar death73 is indicative of a similar procedure prismatic quality of the Egyptian mind which suggests that it was not too unusual which attacks the problems of life from a to express conflicting sentiments and variety of angles, always striving toward views concerning death in one and the the center of the secret but never willing same tomb. We do not believe with Er- to discard any one approach for the sake man that the "pious" harper's song- of another. Oftentimes an organized view Neferhotep 11-was intended as a refuta- is achieved by means of a dichotomic tion of the "impious" Neferhotep scheme I.74 of things, governed by the idea Rather than being refutations of impious of the pair-a complementary and non- ideas, Songs II and III from the tomb dialectic of dualism. Then, again, no such Neferhotep reflect the mental struggles order of is achieved, and the manifold and generations of Egyptians attempting diverging to views are only superficially grasp the significance of life and death. harmonized. Such is the case in the tomb These speculative efforts reach their high- of Neferhotep: the juxtaposition of Nefer- water mark in two periods of Egyptian hotep I and II reveals the same effort at history: in the Middle Kingdom, whenharmonization that is responsible for the the "Teachings for Merikare," the "Dia- compromising character of Neferhotep I. logue of the Man Weary of Life," The and third song might be considered the similar wisdom texts were written, and solution, in inasmuch as it is the triumph of the spiritual revolution of the Amarna religion, but it makes no attempt to period. The priest Neferhotep, who refutedied the other positions. in the reign of Haremhab, must have Even the Antef song has not escaped witnessed the upheaval under Akhenaten the harmonizing tendency. The origin of as well as the subsequent restoration. this song may have been different from And both the emotionality of Akhenaten's that of the others. Its distinctly secular reign and the stern traditionalism of hedonism his would indicate that originally successors appear to be mirrored in itthe was not intended for recording in a songs of his tomb. His desire to have these tomb. Rather is it a product of the same three songs recorded in his tomb would literary tradition to which the Wisdom indicate his personal preoccupation withLiterature belongs; finally, a king Antef the problems dealt with. But we may wished also to have this poem recorded in his hold the spirit of the time rather than tomb-chapel, this for which purpose it was individual man responsible for the unique- furnished with a fittingly funerary intro- ness of the tomb. duction. Having thus become a tomb It is characteristic of the treatment of text, it interrupted the tradition of harp- these problems that there is no clear-cut ers' songs, which heretofore had been solution. Praise of life, fear of death, and strictly funerary and inaugurated a new 7 See Kees in ZAS, LXII, 73 ff. trend. But it is only in one tomb-that 7 See above, p. 181. of Paatenemheb-that the song was

This content downloaded from 88.103.232.111 on Mon, 30 Nov 2020 14:22:40 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms THE SONGS OF THE HARPERS 201 copied in its original form, (As) the waters perhaps go downstream be- cause the Amarna period, And thewith north windits goes empha- upstream, sis on the beauty of life, (So) every provided man (goes) to a his con- (appointed) hour. genial atrhosphere. And even there the Make (8) holiday, 0 Osiris, chief of the work- spirit of tradition and of compromise men in the Place of Truth, was at work; for the song is engraved Khai-Inheret, justified! above a strictly funerary Do not scene:let (9) thy heartthe be sem-weary, verily, priest administering to verily!the deceased, who is seated at the offering (Thou) andtable. thy beloved. For the rest, the forces of tradition Do not vex thy have heart while worked thou existest, upon the song itself, and (10) Make the holiday, result verily, verily! is the version of Neferhotep I Putas incense well and fineas oilthe together two beside thee songs now to be considered. (11) And garlands of lotus and rrmt-flowers upon thy breast. 5. SONG OF KHAI-INHERET The woman whom thou lovest, It is she who (12) sits at thy side. The song is recorded in the second Thou shouldst not anger thy heart chamber of a tomb (Der el Medineh No. Over anything that has happened. 359) dating from the reign of Ramses III. Put music before (13) thee, The text occupies the south wall, which Do not recall evil, abomination of the god; depicts the deceased couple seated in Bethink thee of joys, front of the squatting harpist. There is no (14) Thou righteous, thou just and true man, offering table. The song has been pub- Calm, (15) friendly, content, relaxed, lished without a translation, and no trans- Happy, not speaking evil. lation has appeared since then. The pres- Give drunkenness (16) to thy heart every daye ent text is according to the publication.75 Until that day comes in which there is landing! (1) Thus speaks the musician of the Osiris, a "Place of Truth" is a name for the necropolis the chief of the workmen in the Place of of Der el Medineh (see Gauthier, BIFAO, XIII, Truth,a Khai-Inheret (2) the justified; 153 ff.; Boreux, JEA, VII, 113 ff.). b The change from the third person into the I say:b first makes poor sense and is probably a cor- I am this lord, this man (in) truth, ruption. Through the goodly destiny' (3) which the c h3w is a corruption of I3w. god himself made. d This phrase is a distortion of lines 4-5 of the The form which appears in the body passes Antef song. In its present form it makes poor away sense. Since the time of the god; e Understand m hr.t hrw. New generations come (4) into their place. The dependence of this song on the The souls and the spirits who are in the underworld text of Antef and of Neferhotep I is ob- And the mummies likewise.d vious. But the changes are significant, and They that built (5) houses and tombs as well, the whole is not without originality. As They are the men who rest in their pyramids. usual, the dead man is introduced in the Make for thyself a tomb in the holy (6) land, beginning. Strangely enough he speaks That thy name may last in it. himself instead of being addressed by the Thy works of the necropolis shall be reckoned, harper. Then the harper speaks again, and And excellent shall be thy place of (7) the just as in the songs of Antef and Nefer- West. hotep I, transitoriness is his first theme. 75 The plates in Bruybre's edition give the correct readings, but the printed text on his p. 70 contains a In the wording he closely follows the number of errors. Antef song. The next theme, concerning

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the fate of those "that built After houses," "bethink is thee of pleasures" the also retained in the same placedrift of in thought which is entirely new and con- it appears in the Antef song. stitutes But whata pleasing our bit of originality. The harpist says about them, namely,enumeration ofthat moral qualities, which "they rest in their pyramids," here is,is mingled although with the description of the phrase is also borrowed from the personal well-being, is somewhat surpris- Antef song, the opposite of the Antef ing in this context, but the motif as such song's remark that "their places have has, of course, a long tradition, being an disappeared." important theme of the funerary stelae So far the song has retained the order and other mortuary texts. of themes as they appear in the Antef The allusion to "that day of landing" song and has changed their meaning is familiar from Neferhotep I and III, chiefly by the device of rearranging the but its use as an ending is new and very stock of phrases and by altering the sec- effective-provided that the "make-mer- ond half of each phrase. This method is an ry" advice is addressed to the living man. interesting indication of the manner in And that seems to be the case, in spite of which the old songs were remembered as the epithet "Osiris," which precedes the well as remodeled. It also shows that the tomb-owner's name and corresponds to author of this song did some direct bor- the m3c rw of Neferhotep I. rowing from the Antef song. The remarkable thing about this song Beginning with the phrase "make for is that it is wholly cheerful. A tranquil ac- thyself a tomb," our poem no longer fol-ceptance of death and a firm belief in sur- lows the Antef song. Obviously this ad-vival beyond the grave are combined vice is diametrically opposed to the letter with a healthy joy of living, which is un- and spirit of that song. The wording of thetouched by melancholy pondering. The exhortation to provide for a good burial gloom of the Antef song, already subdued is reminiscent of Merikare, lines 127-28: in Neferhotep I, has totally disappeared. "Make good thy house of the West, make One can well imagine the man Khai- excellent they dwelling-place of the Inheret visiting his tomb-and as an over- necropolis" (8ikr h.t.k nt imn.t Amnh seer .k of necropolis workers he had ample nt hr.t ntr).76 opportunity of doing so-and priding The "make-merry" motif, which be- himself on the beautiful song which gins at the end of line 7 and runs up adornsto it. And surely he could take the line 14, is closely related to Neferhotep "make-merry" I, advice to heart while hold- lines 6 ff.; but here it is even more elabo- ing none but the most orthodox opinions rate. The "holiday" as described in both about the hereafter. With the problems these songs follows the pattern of thewhich led the author of the Antef song "holiday" texts recorded with banquet to skepticism and troubled the spirit of scenes; the Antef song's description of the Neferhotep thus ignored, the song is an holiday is somewhat different. It may entirely unified and homogeneous compo- not be without significance that the "be- sition. loved woman who sits at thy side" is ab- sent from the Antef song but is almost al- 6. SONG OF PASER ways depicted in the funerary banquet and The song comes from tomb No. 106 at in the offering-table scenes in the tombs. Thebes. It is recorded on the north face

76 Cf. also the Djedefhor fragment (above, p. 193,of the third pillar from the north in the n. e) and Urk. IV, p. 123, 1. 9. hall.. The accompanying scene is pre-

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served only in part. Above, Paser [Remember] is seated thou (9) that day of "come at table; below is the harper and thou!" the song. The tomb dates from the reigns To drag of thee Seti to the I West, and Ramses II. The song is published in skins (10) of the panther,' here for the first time. The Theytext pour (see libation Pls. to the ground, Their gifts are on the offering table and on III, V) is based on a hand copy and photo- graphs. The shading gives only the ap- Make holiday, verily! proximate, not the exact, length of the (11) Increase the happiness to perfection,m lacunae, which unfortunately are con- For Fate does not cease [to reckon] his days,n siderable. And what has been summed up (12) for their (1) Thus speaks the musician of Maat who hour, is in the tomb west of Thebes of the prefect There is no adding to it. and vizier Paser the justified; he says: None that have gone have come back. [Bodies pass away]a (2) since the timeb Makeof holiday the god, Thou hast become (13) Others come in their places. Thou being in the favor of the king They that built houses and pyramids likewise - Horus Who Loves Truth. Remain in - a Restored according to Neferhotep I, 1. 2, (3) Great and excellent ones who follow and Khai-Inheret, 1. 3. Onnofris, b The writing G for rk is an error easily Turn your attention to the prefect, made when copying from the hieratic, where 05 Behold hed has come in peace. and < are similar., Give -- (4) Maat, SThe general content of the phrase is probably He offers her to you greatly, similar to Khai-Inheret, 11. 4-5: the house- She is beside his breast, builders rest in their tombs, or "in the west" She does not swerve from him any day. (imi wrt); cf. Neferhotep II, 1. 7. Make holiday, Paser! d Taking mk it to be for mk 9w; but perhaps [Do not weary thereof]e hr has been omitted after mk 9t, meaning "they [Follow]' (5) thy heart while it exists, say: welcome in peace." Make holiday, 0 lord! ePart of wrd is visible, and see Khai-Inheret, 1.8. Forget all evil, f Restored according to the Antef song, 1. 9; Bethink thee of happiness9 wnn.f might be a mistake for wnn.k. Till comes [that day of landing].h g This spelling of rsw, "happiness," occurs [Make] holi[day], thou rpraised one', elsewhere;(6) .... i see Davies, The Tomb of Neferhotep Let thy heart be glad, greatly, greatly! at Thebes, Pls. XXXVI-XXXVIII, and Louvre Anoint thee with fine oil of Heliopolis, A 74. Prime oil of the god's body. h Restored after Neferhotep I, 1. 9. The length Behold of the lacuna is adequate. Make holiday, 0 lord! I do not understand ir Swt. Lo, every good thing (goes) (7) to thy suc- SThis is a beautiful pun on m'cw, "wind," and cessor, m~ct, "righteousness"; it is also an unusual meta- (But) thou sailest with the good wind of phor for which I have no parallel. But see the righteousness) "fair wind" in Book of the Dead, 15, 45 (Budge). Make for thee Note also that the sign of the sail does double in it forever.k duty as determinative of m3c, "sail," and ideo- gram of m3Cw, "wind." Make holiday, thou just! k This phrase might be restored according to [As] (8) the god loves Truth Khai-Inheret, 11. 5-6, but the same words can And he sets her before thee, not be used because of the signs visible after Bread, beer, wine, and ointment rto[getherl] ir n.k and the im.f in place of im.&. shall be [rbefore theel] 1 Cf. Neferhotep I, 1. 14.

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m Cf. Neferhotep I, 1. 28. done so much borrowing and achieved so n Restored after Neferhotep I, 1. little 16. unity. The text is a typical latecomer In spite of its fragmentary in whichstate, the theonce fresh ideas have be- nature of this text is recognizable. come cliches. It rep- resents a striking case of patchwork, The song of an Paser is the last in the line eclectic mixture of motifs drawn from the of "make-merry" songs. The remaining various "make-merry" songs. It also bor-harpers' songs do not display the "make- rows from the other harpers' songs. holiday" or any of the motifs character- Transitoriness in the shortened version in istic of the "make-merry" songs. They which it occurs in the song of Khai-In- are devoted to reassuring the tomb-owner heret is still the first theme. The address about his fate in the hereafter and are to the gods or deified dead "who follow wholly within the tradition of mortuary Onnofris" is reminiscent of the opening literature.of Neferhotep II, while the "come-in-peace" 7. SONG OF PIAY formula recalls Neferhotep III, line 5. "She is beside his breast, etc.," here ap- The song comes from tomb No. 263 at parently said of the goddess Maat, is a Thebes, where it is recorded on the left variation of the formula concerning the door reveal, and is published here for the heart or the ka.77 The phrases "forget all first time. The scene shows the harper evil, bethink thee of happiness, etc.," are facing the seated figure of the deceased. identical with Neferhotep I, line 9, and The tomb dates from the reign of Ramses similar to Khai-Inheret, lines 13-14. That II. The reading is based on a photograph all the good things of life remain for the (see Pls. IVa, VIa). successor is a variation of Antef's "you (1) Thus speaks the master of musicians can't take it with you."78 The reminder who is in the tomb of the scribe Piay; [he of the day of burial follows the pattern of says]: Neferhotep I, line 14. The phrase "in- (2) Thou awakenest in peace in thy tomb, crease the happiness" occurs similarly Thy prayers have been heard, And thou art called. both in Antef and Neferhotep I. "None Thy son ris praised1 that have gone have come back" is famil- (3) thy house upon earth. iar from the Antef song. Additional paral- Thou followest thy god in the district of Peker lels have been listed in the notes. At his beautiful feast of the Neshmet bark.a The "make-holiday" phrase occurs There is made (4) for thee a great sacrifice seven times in this text and thus becomes rout[side]lb of thy tomb, a sort of refrain. But, of the actual de- Thy soul comes forth at the voice of the ka- scription of the holiday, only a few ele- prieste ments have remained, and they are scat- To (5) receive the things laid down for it. tered throughout the text. The mortuary motifs are more prominent here than they Thou [hear]est the prayers of the children of were in the other "make-merry" songs; thy house. (6) One who sees Re at dawn, yet the "make-merry" advice has retained Thou goest to rest when Atum is at rest. its secular meaning. Field (7) of Reeds A specific attitude or governing idea With (8) the food of the gods. which would hold the song together is not Thou minglest (9) with the Followers of Horus, discernible. No other harper's song has Thou art one of them. 77 See above, p. 189, n. c. (10) Thou hearest - on this day, 7 See Harris 500, VII, 2, and above, p. 193, n. 1. The scribe Piay.

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a Read m hb.f nfr n n'mt; the (1) Thus n ofspeaks the the genitivemusician who is in has coalesced with the n of n'mt. For the same the tomb of the Osiris, the scribe of the god's and similar cases of coalescence see Erman, income,ZAS, scribe of the treasury of the estate of LVI, 61. For the whole passage cf. sms wnn nfrAmun, m (2) Kenro the justified, he says: w pkr m hb.f nfr n n'mt, Brit. Mus. Stela No. 295, 3; also Brit. Mus., Stela No. 170, 6. The feast Thou callest to heaven, of the Neshmet bark and the district of Peker Thy voice is heard, are mentioned in countless funerary inscriptions; And Atum answers thee. e.g., Louvre C 3, C 54, C 69, C 166, C 232; Brit. (3) Thou raisest thy voice as godly (4) heron,a Mus. Stela No. 155. See also Schtfer, ZJAS, And he (5) whose name is hidden greetsb XLI, 107, for a discussion of Peker. (thee). b Read m-rw.ty? Thou turnest (6) over on thy right side, SThere is room for an f after hm-k'; so Thouper- placest (7) thyself on thy left side," haps "his ka-priest " as in Piehl, Inscr. hierogl., Thou sittest down (8) on thy seat d

I,(altering 121k: pr bi.i Piehl'shr hrw hm-k3.f to ) r 'sp h.t wh. n.f a The heron or "phoenix" of later times was believed to have power of speech; see Book of the This song shares its phraseology Dead, 77, 7;with 125, 9 (Ani); 145, 77 (Budge). the mortuary inscriptions on bstelae w'd tw hasand coalesced into w'ddw; cf. Tjane- tomb walls. Only the form of fer, 1.delivery 3. is c This motif has a long tradition in which two different. Here it is the harper ideas who seem tospeaks be combined; one is the resurrec- and affirms that the favors which the tion, the other is the deceased raising himself owner of the mortuary inscription prayed from his sleep to partake of the food offered for have been granted, while the otherhim; see Pyr. ? 730a, and Sethe's commentary class of texts gives the prayers them-to the passage; it recurs in Coffin Texts, I, 6b-c; I, 234a; Book of the Dead, 68, 13-14; 152, selves. Typical mortuary motifs are 10 (Naville).the wishes to attend, as formerly in life, d thePerhaps the "great seat," i.e., the throne of feast of Osiris in Peker, also to see the the sun gods on which the dead wishes to sit (cf. at his rising, and to become one of Pyr. the 391c); but an additional element must have followers of Horus. It is noteworthy been that present in the text, for there is too much space between it.k and the final r for wr or these particular motifs are very common wr.t alone. in the Middle Kingdom. In other words, we do not meet here with motifs character- 9. SONG OF PENNIUT istic of the New Kingdom mortuary texts. The song comes from tomb No. 331 at Thus there is the suggestion of an archa- Thebes, where it is recorded on the left izing tendency in our song. door reveal. The harper faces the de- The remaining three harpers' songs ceased couple; there is no offering table. form a closely related group and will, The tomb is Ramesside. For the text see therefore, be discussed together. Varille's publication.

8. SONG OF NEFERRENPET (1) Thus speaks the musician who is in the tomb of the first priest of Month, (2) Penniut The song comes from tomb No. 178 at the justified: Thebes. Its owner, Neferrenpet, also bears the name Kenro, and the latter How sweet is the dwelling in Thebes, The heart is in joy every day!a name is used in our text. The song is re- On the day - (3) - thy arms to him corded on the south wall of the hall. The When he comes to thee. harper faces the deceased couple, who areCome (4) to him seated in a kiosk and play a game. The When he comes to thee; tomb dates from the reign of Ramses II. So shall one say (5) [concerning thee].b For the text see Varille's edition. Thou praisest Amun,

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Thou seest Re at his rising, Thou takest thy forms (8) as thou mayest Thou givest (6) praise in the early have wished,morn, Every day without ceasing.0 Thou givest praise to the Rich-in-Forms,e Thou flyestd (7) to heaven like They the are complete noble for vul- thee, (9) all of these tures, (forms). Thou raisest thy voice like the godly (8) heron, All thy limbs are whole, Atum answers thee. Thou art justified before Re For the ka of the Osiris, (9) the first priest of And established before (10) Osiris. Month, Take the offerings of excellence (10) Penniut the justified (11) who is called That thou mayest eat as on earth. (12) Sunra. Thy heart is glad (11) in the necropolis, a For this praise of Thebes cf. w3d.wy mn m Thou joinest thy tomb in peace. hnw.4 of the Leyden Hymn to Amon, VI, 10 (ZAS, The gods of the underworld say to thee: XLII, 41), which refers to the happiness of burial "Wel[come]f to (12) thy ka in peace." in Thebes. The passage in the harper's song has All the people who are in the necropolis, the same funerary significance. They are given to thee as reward. b Restore r.k. (13) Thou art called to say the prayers of a SFor this passage cf. di.f m3 itn dgg ich nn Great One 3bw rnb, P. of Ani, P1. I, 17. So that thou mayest establish right, d Cf. 1hy.i m, bik, Book of the Dead, 17, 74 Osiris Tjanefer the justified. (Naville). a Cf. wbn r' n b pn hr ?nbt.f, Book of the Dead, 10. SONG OF TJANEFER 100, 8 (Naville); see also Coffin Texts, I, 254d-e, The song comes from tomb No. 158 at with "cheeks" instead of "breast"; Urk. IV, p. 117,1. 4; p. 148,1. 14; p. 499,1. 10. Thebes, where it is recorded on the left b I follow W6rterbuch, IV, 478, in taking mnC door reveal in front of the harper's figure. as being the verb "to sing," here referring to the For the text see the publication. Improved sound of the wind. Varille has "Le vent du sud readings, based on a hand copy and a se fait pour toi un vent du nort," which is un- photograph are given in our notes. grammatical; note also that rdw (not Wmc) is the counterpart of mhy.t in Cqfin Texts, II, (1) Thus speaks the musician who is in 389 ff.; also Pyr. ? 554. the tomb of the Osiris, the priest of Amun, o Cf. Florence Stela No. 1617; Pyr. ? 381a-d. Tjanefer the justified: dCf. Pyr. ? 1140a-b. Thou callest (2) to Re, Cf. C'8w fpr.w m pt m tl, Cairo Stela No. Khepri hears 34057, 1; C8'w pr.w c irw.w applied to Wnn-nfr And Atum answers thee. Harakhte in Book of the Dead, 15, 1 (Hymn to Osiris); see also Book of the Dead, 147, 2 (Na- The Lord of All does (3) the things which ville); and Coffin Texts, I, 324. please thee, SProbably to be read - kI.k. And he whose name is hidden greets thee. The sun shines (4) upon thy breast,a The three last songs are related to each He illuminates thy cave. other not merely through a general simi- The west wind (comes) straight to thee (5) larity of content but because they use the to thy nose, same vocabulary. The song of Piay shares The north wind blowsb for thee. their tendency but differs considerably in Thy mouth is guided to the breast of the (6) its phraseology. Thus, while all four texts Hesat-Cow,o Thou art reverent at the sight of the sun- can be grouped together when compared disc, to the "make-merry" songs, a distinction needs to be made between them. Whereas Thou cleanest thyself in (7) divine water,d Thou minglest with them who adore (the the song of Piay resembles the mortuary sun at dawn). prayers from tombs and stelae, the last

This content downloaded from 88.103.232.111 on Mon, 30 Nov 2020 14:22:40 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms THE SONGS OF THE HARPERS 207 three texts have more in common with song consists of a melancholy reflection the coffin texts and the funerary papyri. on the transitoriness of life coupled with The songs of the Antef-Neferhotep skepticism concerning immortality and type discussed problems which concerned urging enjoyment of the fleeting moment. everyone. They contain argument and Its ad- deprecation of death recurs in the vice on a scale and in a manner which sug- "Dialogue of the Man Weary of Life," gest that they represent reflections which but the situation there is quite different everybody was invited to share. Not so ourand its solution is the opposite of Antef's. last four songs. Their whole concern Nor is is the melancholy of our song akin to with the well-being in the hereafter the of lamentations of the Admonitions and the one particular individual to whom similaf prophetic writings. For there it is they address themselves. No other audi- actual social and political misery which ence is assumed. Thus the scope and pur- has led to pessimism; but the value of life pose of harpers' songs has been narrowed, as such is not questioned. As to the teach- and the songs again assume the function ings of the type of Merikare, wherever which they had in the Middle Kingdom they deal with the relation of life to death prior to the development of the "make- their attitude is positive and pious and merry" songs: They are mortuary texts. thus contrary to the Antef song. Life on However, the "make-merry" songs earth of is short, says the sage who instructs the kind represented by the songs of King Merikare, but existence in the be- Khai-Inheret and Paser, that is, the late yond is eternal.79 Nevertheless, in content type which has been purged of reflective as well as in form, the Antef song is related skepticism, continue alongside the mortu- to these reflective writings known as wis- ary songs. And it is still possible to have dom literature; but its attitude is unique more than one song in one tomb; for the and its advice runs counter to the letter tomb of Tjanefer contains a second harp- and spirit of that literature. er's song, and this one displays the "make- The "make-holiday" motif did not holiday" motif. The text is a hopeless originate with, and is not peculiar to, the fragment; but it must have been a "make- Antef song. It is the main theme of the merry" song. banquet texts, orchestra songs as well as prose speeches and legends, which are re- V. THE PLACE OF HARPERS' SONGS corded in the tombs.8s Although most of IN EGYPTIAN LITERATURE this material comes from the Eighteenth It will have become clear that harpers' Dynasty, there is sufficient evidence to songs cannot simply be classified showas being that the motif antedates the New of two kinds, worldly and funerary, Kingdom. as has There is the "make-holiday" been done in the past. The situation song isfrom the tomb of Sebeknekht of the much more complicated. The different Second Intermediate period8l and, in addi- songs have different antecedents tion,and, thein "holiday" without "make" fre- addition, they have an internal develop-quently occurs in Middle Kingdom in- ment. 79 Merikare, 11. 55-57; ibid., 11. 123-24 (transitori- The development of the "make-merry" ness of the body). 80 so I do not know of any such "make-holiday" songs can be summarized as follows. They texts with scenes other than of feasting. But these begin with the Antef song, which, though scenes are not restricted to tombs; they occur even on objects of daily use, as, for instance, on a little extant in New Kingdom copies only, toilet box in the Brooklyn Museum. originated in the Middle Kingdom. That 81 See above, p. 191.

This content downloaded from 88.103.232.111 on Mon, 30 Nov 2020 14:22:40 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 208 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES scriptions in a manner which revealsthe Antef that song brings about a broadening it was a fixed topos. The term ofhrw the nfr repertoire had of harpers' songs, which a wide range of meaning. In heretofore addition had to been simple mortuary "holiday" or "feast day," it couldtexts. But denote although the Antef song is the any kind of day considered modelpleasant for all orharpers' songs of the "make- beneficial. In the tomb of Paheri merry" hrw type, nonenfr of them has retained refers to a day of fine weather,8 its skepticism. while The in very fact that harpers' the mortuary literature the songsterm are istomb used songs accounts for the euphemistically to designate transformation the day ofin the course of which the death83 or the day of judgment "make-merry" in the here- songs become pretty songs after.4 But the more specialized without meaning problems. As such they could "holiday" is the most common.85 linger on indefinitely and could survive It is by virtue of the "make-holiday" any amount of bigotry. motif that the orchestra songs areThe tombrelated of Neferhotep represents to the harpers' songs. But in the the orchestraculmination in the development of songs the "make holiday" is harpers'not the songs. re- Three lines of development sult of any melancholy contemplation meet here. Three of different songs, each death, for the simple reason with thatits own thedistinctive background, set "holiday" has been transposed forth their to interpretationsthe of death. Nefer- hereafter: it is in the beyond hotep Ithat is a "make-merry" the song which still feast takes place. In the Antef shows song, some how- of the original skepticism. ever, and in those harpers' songsNeferhotep which III is wholly pious and tradi- follow the same pattern, tional.the "make-Neferhotep II praises the might merry" advice is addressed toand themajesty living of death in a manner remi- and is based on fear of death. niscent of the laments on death and thus The worldly spirit of the Antefreveals that song, it is embedded in yet another its relation to didactic literature, literary tradition. and, For such laments are finally, the fact that it has a funeraryattributed either in- to mourning relatives86 troduction which does not harmonize or to the dead with who himself bewails his lot.87 the main body of the text-all In theselead lamentsto the the region of the dead is conclusion that at the time of describedits inception as a land of darkness and silence. the song was not intended for But a Neferhotep tomb. Its II sings the triumph of recording in the tomb-chapel death of in a aKing more positive spirit: life is Antef was secondary. At that short time and fleeting the as a dream; death is in- mortuary introduction, "Flourishing escapable. But in-existence in the beyond is deed is this good lord, etc.," eternal. was added.These motifs, which are set out Prior to its recording in the calmly,royal recur tomb- in the same sober spirit in chapel the song may have been the didactic sung literature.8 at Thus Neferhotep secular banquets, as is so often II with assumed; its multiple literary tradition con- but there is no shred of evidence tributes for a thatnew note to harpers' songs.89 assumption. Having become a tomb86 Tomb of text, Nefersekhru, ZAS, LXII, 73 ff. 87 Book of the Dead, chap. 175; cf. Kees, Toten- 82 Tylor and Griffith, The Tomb of Paheri, P1. III. glauben und Jenseitsvorstellungen der alten Aegypter, 83 Book of the Dead, 178, 11; with nfr as verb: p. 307; see also ZAS, LV, 55. Florence Stela No. 1774. 88 Merikare, 11. 55-57; Max. d'Anii, 4, 2 (ZAS, 84 Coffin Texts, I, 10f; 19a. LXXII, 76). 85 Some Middle Kingdom examples are: Brit. Mus. 89 The description of the might of death on the Stela No. 1049,'1. 4; Eloquent Peasant, 1. 111; Lebens- Louvre stela C 218 (Pierret, Recueil d'inscriptions, I, miider, 1. 68. 137; especially 11. 4-5) could be considered as depend-

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Lastly, there exist in Texts,the CoffinNineteenth Texts, and the Book of the and Twentieth Dynasties Dead. harpers' songs which are related to the mortuaryThe language of litera- the Middle Kingdom ture of the type of the harpers'Book ofsongs, the including Dead. the Antef song, They guide and console isthe classical dead Middle who Egyptian. be- The few gins his journey into the Late beyond Egyptian forms and in as-the Antef song, sure him of the exalted suchdestiny as the negation which bw inhe Harris 500 and was anxious to secure by bn prayer in the Leyden and text, spell. cannot be used to They are a kind of liturgic assign response the song to theto Seventeenththe rather mortuary prayer. This thanpurely to the Eleventhfunerary Dynasty,93 for they function relates them to canthe have early been substituted harpers' by the New songs of the Middle Kingdom. Kingdom scribes Thus who madeharp- the two copies. ers' songs end where they In the began. later harpers' songs the language Some of the motifs of is theharpers' peculiar petrified songs Middle Egyptian linger on in various contexts with its sprinkling throughout of Late Egyptian spell- the late period. Transitoriness ings and idioms of which life was and in use for reli- of material monuments, describedgious and official in monuments direct throughout allusion to the Antef song, the New is Kingdom. contrasted with the durability of literary In setting fame and in generalin the purpose harp- very remarkable passage ers' of songs the are Ramessideuniform. The tomb or the papyrus Chester Beatty mortuary IV, verso stela is their 2,5.90 place and death is Reference to transitoriness their theme. is Their coupled pictorial context is in with the "make-merry" advice in the most instances either the ritual offering- Ptolemaic tomb of Petosiris,"1 where the table scene or the funerary banquet. In exhortation is, of course, conceived in the the few instances in which a different pious spirit of the late "make-merry" scene is depicted the funerary nature of songs. And, finally, at the very end of the song makes the mortuary character of Egyptian history, there is the mortuary the context a certainty. Hence the func- stela of Taimhotep with a "make holiday" tion of the harper in all the contexts which followed by a lengthy lament on death we have is clearly funerary. This does not and the land of darkness.92 mean that secular harpers' songs did not There are then four distinct literary exist. But the songs that we possess can- strata which underlie the development of not be claimed for the secular repertoire.94 harpers' songs: (1) mortuary prayers from The outstanding characteristic of harp- stelae and tombs, including laments; (2) ers' songs is the diversity of content with- reflective and didactic wisdom literature; in the uniformity of setting. Contrary to (3) orchestra songs employing the "make- other classes of Egyptian literature, they holiday" motif; and (4) funerary spells 9 Erman, The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians, and invocations as embodied in Pyramid p. 177, assigns it to the end of the Middle Kingdom for just that reason; so also Kees, Totenglauben, ing on the same sources from which Neferhotep II p. 414. Gardiner calls it an Eleventh Dynasty text has drawn; but it is more likely that the text is directly (see Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum [3d ser.], dependent on Neferhotep II. Vol. I: Text, p. 41). o0 Of. Gardiner, Hieratic Papyri in the British 94 The harp was the religious instrument par ex- Museum (3d ser.), Vol. I: Text, pp. 38-41. cellence. A few instances where this is evident are Recueil de travaux, XIII, 1; Urk. IV, p. 174; Papyrus 91 Lefibvre, Le Tombeau de Petosiris, II, 90, and I, 161. Chester Beatty, No. IV, recto 7, 3. See also Schott, Der Gott des Harfenspiels in M6langes Maspero, pp. 92 Brit. Mus. Stela of year 42 B.c., Brugsch, 457 ff. But the harp also occurs as a secular instru- Thesaurus, p. 926. ment (see Piankhy Stela, 1. 134).

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were not bound to adhere to one standard sufficiently close to Egypt in time and repertoire. This freedom they owe to the space to make the comparison fruitful. fact that a harper's song was always an These are the passages that can be adornment, never a necessity. The success considered parallels to the Antef song: of the journey into the beyond did not de- Gilgamesh seeking eternal life after having pend on the song of the harper in the man- witnessed the death of his friend Enkidu is ner in which it depended on the prayer counseled by one of the deities: and the spell. Hence the songs could "Gilgamesh, whither runnest thou? branch out and develop in different di- Life, which thou seekest, thou wilt not find. rections. Thus they became the re- When the gods created mankind ceptacles of various trends of thought and They allotted to mankind Death, came to reflect the changes in concepts But Life they withheld in their hands. So Gilgamesh, fill thy body, and beliefs which took place in the Make merry by day and night, course of time. They mirror the simple Keep each day a feast of rejoicing! belief in survival as well as the most Day and night leap and have thy delight! elaborate concepts of eternal bliss. They Put on clean raiment, reflect the orthodox and the rebellious, Wash thy head and bathe thee in water, the pious and the skeptic, trends of Look cheerily at the child who holdeth thy thought. Love of life, fear of death, and hand, confidence in immortality all find their And may thy wife have joy in thy arms!" " expression in the songs of the harpers. At first sight this is a close parallel. Yet the differences are considerable. The Gil- EPILOGUE gamesh passage says that it is by will of It has been customary to compare the gods the that death has been allotted to "pessimism" or "skepticism" of the man. Antef In the Antef song the gods are ig- song to similar attitudes expressed nored. in theSecond, and this is most important, literatures of other peoples.95 References for the Gilgamesh epos life after death is a are made to Ecclesiastes, Epicurus, reality, Hor- though an unpleasant one:the dead ace, Omar Khayyam, and others. Itlead is anat- dreary life in the netherworld. The ural that such parallels should occur Antef to song has doubts about any form the mind. For we have in the Antef of survival. song These two instances should one of the oldest treatments of the themes suffice to show that the resemblance, of death and transitoriness, viewed from a though remarkable, is by no means close purely human standpoint without refer- enough to establish any claim of influence ence to superhuman powers and without of the one composition upon the other or faith in survival. But there is little value even of spiritual kinship. (besides the purely subjective satisfaction As to Hebrew literature, several verses gained from the play of association and of Ecclesiastes offer parallels, especially comparison) in quoting poets as remote verses 1-12 of the first chapter. The re- from the Egyptian scene as Horace and marks on the succession of generations Omar Khayyam. For their contemplation and on the rising and setting of the sun of death contains so many new elements (vss. 4 and 5) are strikingly similar to lines of thought and mood that the comparison 2-4 of Neferhotep I, and the theme of with the Antef song is bound to be ex- total oblivion to which all human activi- tremely vague, if not misleading. Only ties are doomed (vs. 12 ) recalls both Antef Mesopotamian and Hebrew literature are 96W. E. Leonard, Gilgamesh Epic of Old Baby- 95 See above, p. 194. lonia, p. 49.

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and Neferhotep I. Furthermore, for skeptic and pessimistic we thought have com- in Ecclesiastes the exhortation parable to Egypt, we to find theenjoy following: the good things of life (2:24, 5:18-19, There is no Babylonian counterpart to 9:7-10). But, of these three "make-mer- the skepticism of the Antef song. Gilga- ry" passages, only the last comes close to mesh is not a skeptic. The poem of the the Antef song, for only there is the "make- Babylonian Job, ludlul bel nemeqi, is a merry" advice directly linked to the idea refutation of skepticism and pessimism- of death and the emptiness of the grave. a theodicy.97,The same is true for the Furthermore, when one views Ecclesiastes Babylonian "Dialogue of Two Friends."" as a whole, one cannot fail to realize that However, there exists, just as in Egypt, its spirit is entirely different from that of one composition which expresses a true the Antef song. The Preacher's theme is pessimism, that is the so-called "Dialogue not death, but the injustice, the folly, and of Pessimism.""99 Here we have pessimism the misery of which life is full. Neverthe- in its purest form, more comprehensive less, his faith is unshaken, and it is and more radical than in the Egyptian through his faith that he arrives at a work- "Dialogue of the Man Weary of Life." For ing solution in his attitude toward life. in the Egyptian text the pessimism is per- Ecclesiastes is, therefore, not a pessi- haps the result of some specific personal mistic book. And, as in the case of the misery or grievance. But the Babylonian, Gilgamesh epos, the resemblance of in- who has come to weary of life, is a noble- dividual passages to the songs of Antef man who has access to all its riches and and Neferhotep should not be unduly satisfactions. stressed. Our intention in making this rapid, and IThe attitude of the Antef song is one of necessarily superficial, comparison of cer- melancholy skepticism rather than pessi- tain aspects of Egyptian, Hebrew, and mism. For pessimism is a negative atti- Mesopotamian thought was to point out tude toward life, whereas the Antef song the differences rather than the similarities. is concerned with death and the shadow For our concern is not with the general it casts upon life, which in itself is good. resemblances of these three cultures but Therefore, although we have classed the with the specific character of one branch Antef song as belonging to the pessimistic of Egyptian literature and hence with the wisdom literature of the Middle Kingdom, distinctive voice of ancient Egypt. we should not overlook the different atti- tudes within this group of texts. There is APPENDIX one, and only one, Egyptian text which BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HARPERS' SONGS reveals a clear, sustained, and radical FROM MONUMENTS OF THE pessimism; that is the "Dialogue of the NEW KINGDOM

Man Weary of Life," which rejects life 1. THE ANTEF SONG and glorifies death. The Egyptian pro- phetic literature and the teachings ofa) Papyrus Harris 500, VI, 2-VII, 3 (Brit. Mus. Pap., No. 10060). Egypt's sages and kings are shot through Published: with pessimistic remarks. But these re- Goodwin, TSBA, III (1874), 380-81 and marks are due to the observation of spe- 385-87. cific social and political miseries and do not amount to any rejection of life as "9 Cf. Langdon, Babylonian Wisdom, pp. 3 ff. 9 Landsberger, Die babylonische Theodizee, ZA, such. XLIII (1936), 32. If we turn to Babylonia in our search 99 Langdon, op. cit., pp. 67 ff.

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Budge, Facsimiles of Egyptian Hieratic 3. NEFERHOTEP II Papyri in the British Museum Published: (2d ser.), Pls. XLV-XLVI, pp. 23-24. Diimichen, Historische Inschriften, II, 40a. Maspero, Etudes egyptiennes, IMaspero, (1886), Etudes egyptiennes, I (1886), 178-84. 164-66. Miller, Die Liebespoesie der alten A'gyp- Benedite, MIm. Miss. Fr., V (1894), ter, PIs. XII-XV, pp. 29-30. P1. II, pp. 505-7. Translations (selected): Gardiner, PSBA, XXXV (1913), 165-70. Maspero, Etudes de mythologie, III Translations (selected): (1898), 407-8. Erman, Literatur, pp. 316-17. Erman, Die Literatur der Aegypter, pp. Roeder, Urkunden zur Religion, pp. 60- 177-78. 61. Kees, Totenglauben und Jenseitsvorstel- Weill, Egyptian Religion, III (1935), 130. lungen der alten Aegypter, pp. 414-15. Breasted, Development of Religion and 4. NEFERHOTEP III Thought in Ancient Egypt, pp. 182-83. Published: , The Dawn of Conscience, p. 163. Diimichen, Historische Inschriften, II, Weill, Egyptian Religion, III (1935), 40 a. 127-28. Maspero, Etudes igyptiennes, I (1886), b) Tomb of Paatenemheb from Saqqara now 167-71. in Leyden. Ben6dite, Mem. Miss. fr., V (1894), Published: P1. II, pp. 507-10.

Leemans, Monuments egyptiens du Musde 5. KHAI-INHERET d'antiquites des Pays-Bas & Leide, Published: Vol. III, P1. XII (No. K 6). Boeser, Beschreibung der aegyptischen Bruyere, Fouilles de l'Institut Frangais, Sammlung .... in Leiden, IV, P1. VI. VIII (1930), Fasc. III, Pls. XXII, 3 and XXIII, p. 70. MiAller, Liebespoesie, P1. XVI. Translation: None. 2. NEFERHOTEP I 6. PASER Published: Previous publication: None. Dtimichen, Historische Inschriften alt- dgyptischer Denkmdler, II, 40. 7. PIAY Stern, ZAS, XI (1873), 58-63 and 72-73. Previous publication: None. Maspero, Etudes egyptiennes, I (1886), 172-77. 8. NEFERRENPET Benedite, Memoires de la Mission Fran- Published: raise, V (1894), P1. IV, p. 529. Varille, Trois nouveaux chants de har- Miller, Liebespoesie, P1. I, pp. 31-33. pistes, BIFAO, XXXV (1935), P1. III, Translations (selected): pp. 157-58. Brugsch, Die Aegyptologie, p. 162. Maspero, Etudes de mythologie, III 9. PENNIUT (1898), 405-6. Published: Erman, Literatur, pp. 314-15. Varille, op. cit., P1. III, pp. 158-59. Breasted, Development, pp. 185-87. , Dawn of Conscience, pp. 166-67. 10. TJANEFER Weill, Egyptian Religion, III (1935), Published: 129-30. Varille, op. cit., P1. I, p. 154-57.

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TEXT OF NEFERHOTEP I: TOMB OF NEFERHOTEP, THEBES No. 50, NORTH WALL OF PASSAGE (PHOTOGRAPH BY K. C. SEELE)

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