'" ':'.e·, . -.-'. HEROINE ;-::'" '. '. ' OUT OF Focus: media images of Florence Nightingale
. - ; ~ ~I.« \1',', PART I: POPULAR BIOGRAPHIES AND STAGE PRODUCTIONS
BEATRICE J, KAUSCH and PHI UP A, KAUSCH
Florence Nightingale ( 1820-1910). Covrtesy of the His tory of Nvrslng Collection, University of M ichigan.
he legend of Florence Nightingale (1 820-19101, slender, graceful lady walking through miles of dark Tthe reclusive Victorian reformer known primarily as ened wards full of wounded soldiers, carrying a lantern to the founder of modern nursing, continues to exercise a dispel the gloom; soldiers kissing her shadow as she powerful hold on the popular imagination 12 decades passes by; Florence easing pain by her gentle manner, aher her retirement from public life. transforming morbid, filthy barracks into a clean hospital; The legend recalls a series of specific images. all of and championing the cause of the British soldier in the which originated during her 21-month mission in the guise of his beloved, determined lady-in-Chief. During Crimea, 1854-1856. These images include visions of a her lifetime, these images reverberated in hundreds of songs and poems, depicting her as an angel incarnate. Beatrice J. Kalisch. AN. EdD, FAAN. is Titus Professor of nursing and Since her death, biographers have sought to discover the c;h ! irperson, parl!!nl-child nursing; Phi lip A. Kalisc:h. PhD. is professor of woman behind the legend, while dramatists have mined history. pOlitics. and economICS 01 nursing, both III the UnivOBrty 01 both the legend and the revelations of Nightingale's real Michigan, Ann Arbor. This study was sUCPOl1ed by II research gr Apt11198J1181 the tim training school for professional nurses and her Manning, Dr. Thomas Arnold, and General Charles Gor work in improVIng the valua of well-educated nurses are don; and in 1951, Cecil Woodham-Smith publishea well documented and universally recognized_ Yet, the Florence Nightingale: 1820-1910 ['-31. None of these continuous popularization of Nightingale's image in ar studies is a scholarly, properly documented biography, tistic productions has also made a contribution to nursing and it might be noted here that Nightingale's life and by renewing and reinforcing the public's association of career cry out for professional evaluation. Cock's work, Florence Nightingals with all thot is c!eemed important in intimidating in its length and often excessive quotation, the nursing profession_ The treatment of Florsnce remains the c!osest approximation of a definitive, Nightingale as a dramatic persona, comprising elements authoritative biography of Nightingale. Strachey''l erlort, of legend, of history, and of the playwright's craft, popular for its style and brevity, offers only a summariza demands attention from those inttlrested in the current tion of Coo!,\' s narrative, with a distinctive interpretation evaluation of nursing's popular image, especially upon of Nightingale's personality. Woodham-Smith claims to realization of just how many dramatizations of have written an original study, but her product appears Nightingale's life have been undertaken. Between 1915 more a reworking of Cook's familiar territory, with yet and 1965, 10 separate productions-two stage plays, another view of Nightingals's character brought forward. three films, and five 'radio and television plays-have All three biographers agree in their appreciation of made Florence Nightingale the most dramatized woman Nightingale's achievement, but divergent and often in history (see Table 1). Each of these productions has troublesome views of her personality and her relations drawn to some extent upon the historic record of with other people distinguish these biographers from Nightingale's life. Not surprisingly, the Nightingale each other. Perhaps because the challenge of com biographers, by emphasizing certain events and char prehending the vast range and depth of Nightingale's acter traits, have hsloed to shape the way in which work remains so difficult, biographers since Cook have playwrights have drawn their characterizations. concentrated upon refinements-or what they con· sidered refinements-in explaining her motives and man The Contribution of Biography to ners. Most troublesome of all have been attempts to ex Dramatic Fiction plain Nightingale-lhe-woman in the masculine world of politics and war. The concern with personality instead of Three English biographers dominate the field of accomplishments and the problem of addressing Nightingale's history, which includes scores of popular Nightingale's feminine identity infect dramatic produc and usually sentimental books. All the known dramatic tions and often obscure any understanding of treatments of Nightingale's life have been based upon Nightingale's historic significance. Cook devoted more the research and interpretations offered in these three effort than the others to cataloging and describing the works. In 1914, Sir Edward Cook wrote a two-volume various projects undertaken by Nightingale: nursing study entitled The Ufe of Florence Nightingale; Lytton reform, military organization, hospital and barracks co n $trachey included a biographical sketch of her in his Emi struction, workhouse re form, sanitary and military reform nenr Victorians (19181. which also featured Cardinal in India, all facets of public sanitation, and the articula- Table 1. Dramatizations of the Life of Florence Nightingale Title Author/ Director Date Madium Length Source Actress Florence Nightingale Maurice Elvey 1915 Film 25 min. Cook Elizabeth Risdon Florence Nightingale Edith Gittings Reid 1922 Stage 3 Acts Cook [unidentified] The Lady with a La mp Reginald Berkeley 1929 Stago 4 Acts Strachey ~ Edith Evans The White Angel William Dieterle 1936 Film 90 min. Strachey Kay Francis "Lady with a Lamp" on Radio Helen Hayes Theetre Thiro Higley 1941 (CBS) 30 min. Berkeley Helen Hayes "Lady of the Lamp" on Jerome Larwence; Radio Favorite Story R.E. Lee c. 1946 (syndicatedl 30 min. Berkeley' Edna Bes t "Ufe of Florence Nightingale" Radio on HallmBrk Playhouse [unidentified l 1950 (CBSI 30 min. Cook Irene Dunne Berkeley Th e Lady with e Lump Herbert Wikol( 1952 Film 110 min. Strachey ' Anna Neagle "Angel of the Crimea" on Radio Your Story Hour [unidentified ] n.d. {syndicatedl 30 min. Strachey· (unidentified] "The Holy Terror" on Television Woodham- Ha llmark Hall of F8me James lee 1965 (NBCI 90 min. Smith · Julie Harris ' Soulce metenel unidenlliled by euthor/director, oot presumed based on content end interpretation. 18 21Nuf~mli;: & Hedl/h Care tion of a new religious ethos-to name the most promi qualities not often found in the same man or woman. nent. But even Cook was daunted at the prospect of She was not a sentimentalist; '(et she was possessed evaluating and placing her work in the context of other by an infinite compassion . she had an equal significant VictoriAn reform efforts. measu re of cleverness and charm. She had a olln<;ent Sir Edward Cook, a journalist and biographer. under wit but also a loving heart ... masterful in action, she took the official biography at the request of Nightingale's was humble, even to the verge of morbid abasements, heirs. Although he had access to many, if not all, of his in thought. She was at once Positive and Mystic [41. subject's private papers, he wrote under either express or implied constraints to exclude information that might Cook accepted that his subject did not fit into easy embarrass Nightingale's surviving family and friends. For categories; she exhibited many seemingly contradictory example, he never identified Miss Nightingale's most impulses and prejudices. She worked with the energy of serious romantic attachment (R ichard Monckton a megalomaniac, yet never concerned herself with per Milnes), although he discussed the romance-and Miss sonal reward and never sought an official outlet for her Nightingale's final decision to remain single-with all the natural leadership. She inspired her allies with such devo attention and seriousness due this important episode. In tion that they worked for her to the detriment of thair light of subsequent revelations, it appears that Cook own health, but she rarely thanked them or compli underplayed the harshness of feeling befV.Ieen Miss mented their efforts. Her religious beliefs motivated her, Nightingale and her mother and sister. He never denied but her beliefs were unorthodox, composed of bits and the friction that existed among.the women, but took care pieces from different sects as well as original observa to emphasize the positive fea tures of both Mrs. tions, making her spi ritual life important to her but dif Nightingale and Pcrthenope and to prove that Florence ficult for others to understand. Nightingale's particular never lost her basic regard and concern for her family's talents lay in the prosaic field of administration and welfare, despite their phYSica l separation. systematization, yet her fame emerged from an un!:mtici Cook's fea r of giving offense mOly have soitened cer pated misullderstanding of the nature of her ;)chieve tain rough edges of the truth, but does not appear to ment, which resulted in the creation of a sentimental have misrepresented Nightingale altogether. Cook recog heroine. nized that Nightingale could be demanding and often in It would be impossible to overestimate the impact of tolerant of the weaknesses of others, but he placed these Cook's study on later biographers or dramatists of faults in the context of her frantic efforts to bring about Nightingale's life. To be sure, few mhers attempted to complicated reforms. In addition, Cock continually present Cook's broad, balanced, judicious portrait of reminded his reader that harsh remarks found in private Florence Nightingale; however, everyone ever involved in notes and intimate correspondence had no counterpart presenting Nightingale's story has plundered Cook for in Nightingale's conversation; those who knew Nightin pertinent quotations and for the chronological outline of gale personally never fa iled to mention her charm and un Nightingale's life and work. Cook's account of her life failing anention to her guests' comfort. Cook's Nightin· served as the direct source for three dramatic accounts: gale may have ra nted and raved in leners to close the 1915 silent film starring Elizabeth Risdon, an ooseurs associates, but in person she treated even her opponents play wrinen in 1922 by Edith Gittings-Aeid, and a With all the politeness one would expect from a woman 3O -minute radio dramatization produced in 1950 for raised in Victorian high society. Furthermore, Cook Hallmerk Playhouse. Since Cook was the primary source presented Nightingale's enemies as human beings act of Lytton Strachey's essay on Florence Nightingale, ing, for the IllOSt part, out of honestly held opinions, and perhaps the most influential interpretation of her allies as intelligent. talented, strong individuals in Nightingale's cha racter, Cook can take credit for yet their own ri ght, who willingly sacrificed much of their other dramatizations based on Strachey. private time to assist her work. Cook always gave credit Lytton Strachey, a weU-known English literary figure to Florence's allies for their role in her successes and of the first part of the fV.Ientieth century, professed a never exaggerated the ach ievements of his most ac distaste fo r Victorian sentiment. He began his sketch of complished subject. Nightingale's life in Eminent Victorians: Cook's Nightingale was a woman who combined "in Everyone knows the popular conception of Florence tense feeling" with profound "intellectual grasp" of the Nightingale. The saintly, self-sacrificing woman, the problems that she sought to solve. He recounted much delicate maiden of high degree who threw aside the evidence of Florence's natural sympathy for the down pleasure of a life of ease to succour the afflicted, the trodden, her inspirationOl1service among the wounded at lady with the Lamp, gliding through the hotTors of the Scutar;. Apri11983/18J unconventional depiction of her personality. Without enormous reliance on Cook for the organization of ever detracting from her enormous achievement, material and the selection of pertinent documents for Strachev insinuated the dark side of her character, em quotation. Far more damning, Woodham-S:-r.'th "lp phasizing her growing lack of consideration for others, pea red to exercise too little care in transposing direct which began to appear during her tenure in the Crimea. quotations, occasionally so altering a given source as to He insisted that, during her most active phase, she change the meaning entirely. Too, she often ignored bullied and drove both friends and enemies into doing her documentary evidence readily available to her-either in bidding, without any regard for their personal problems Cook or other sources-that contradicted her conclu or weaknesses. Strachey placed the blame for Sidney sions. Notably. she painted Nightingale's opponents as Herben's death squarely upon Miss Nightingale's unfeel· totally benighted souls who acted out of venal or base ing use of him. motivation. On the one hand, Strachey showed the darker side of As far as her subject's personality is concerned, Nightingale's nature; on the other, he unnecessarily ex Woodham-Smith interpreted Nightingale's written notes aggerated the nature of her achievement (6). Although and letters as if they were indicative of her spoken word, he relied on Cook's. narrative to supply the facts. thus presenting Florence as a short·tempered, arrogant Strachey's editing and reinterpretation of these facts pro woman. The relationship depicted among the Nightin duced significant changes in the tone of the Nightingale gale women- Fanny, Parthenope, and Florence-should story. For example, Strachey, as if to heighten Nightin trouble anyone who has read Cook. Fanny and Parthe's gale's power and determination, would have his reader objections to Florence's work have long been known; in believe that she superimposed her will over the medical Woodham-Smith's version, Fanny and Parthenope acted authorities of the Crimea and that she had an adversarial out of selfish disregard for Florence's feelings and did aU relationship with the medical officers. As Cook's more they could to thwart her every move. Perhaps Cook aid detailed account proved, Nightingale continued, gloss over many family problems, but Woodham-Smith's throughout her tenure in the Crimea, to be sensitive to correction seems to have gone too far in presenting Fan the authority of the medical officers and, in tact, often ny and Parthe as insipid and selfish. Woodham-Smith praised their effons amidst appalling conditions. never acknowledged the great aid rendered Florence by The Strachey essay has the unmistakable advantage her mother and sister throughout her life, from assisting over Cook of brevity and a more vibrant style. Not su r her Crimean venture from their london residence to pro prisingly, Strachey's contribution to the dramatic per viding fresh food and flowers for her personal comfort. sona of Florence Nightingale has exceeded that of Sir Ed Furthermore, Woodham-Smith, while citing numerous ward. Strachey provided two elements that have proven examples of Florence's disgust and antipathy for her useful to playwrights: first, he distilled the most dramatic mother and sister, ignored equally numerous records of and visual episodes of Nightingale's life into a short nar her love and concern for them throughout her life. rative and, second, he simplified Nightingale's complex In this general harshening of our understanding of personality into the vivid, single-minded posture of a Nightingale's life, as presented by Woodham-Smith, fierce crusader. Although only one property cited there did emerge some documentary support for Strachey as its sou rc e, his influence can be identified in Strachey's earlier views of Nightingale as something of several other productions. William Dieterle's 1936 film, a tyrant, not a little intolerant of others. However. while The White Angel, with appropriate citation, relied on citing convincing examples of Florence's relentless Strachey for the suggestion of episodes to be included; disregard of Sidney Herbert's health and her constant indeed, the screenwriter appears to have lifted his plot push for action, Woodham-Smith chose not to include directly from the essay. Dieterle, however, did not make letters in which Miss Nightingale expressed deep con use of Strachey's more controversial interpretation of cern for her friend's health and happiness. In the same Nightingale's personality. Reginald Berkeley. who wrote respect, Woodham-Smith documented countless ex a stage play in 1929, The Lady wirh a Lamp, did utilize amples of Florence's unfeeling use of her family and the Strachey interpretation of Nightingale's character friends: Arthur Clough, Dr. Sutherland, Aunt Mai, (without citing his debt), but he invented his own Cousin Harriet, Uncle Sam, and the Bracebridges all scenario. served Florence in some respect or another, with few The most recent important biography of Nightingale words of thanks. Yet Nightingale held no powerful lever has been Cecil Woodham-Smith's Florence Nightingale, to require their service, and Woodham-Smith never ad which came out in 1951, too late to influence most dressed the fact that these friends worked for Florence dramatizations except for James Lee's teleplay, "The because they wanted to and found satisfaction in serv Holy Terror," produced for Hallmark Hall of Fame in ing even so ungrateful a taskmaster. Woodham-Smith's 1965. IWooaham-Smith sold the film rights to her book Florence was a woman with a wide circle of aqua in to an American producer, who planned to star Katherine tances but with few true friends. This view of Florence Cornell in the lead; the project never came to fruition 17] .} emphasized the "hard coldness of steel" that lay Woodham· Smith's study of Florence Nightingale has beneath the surlace of Nightingale's personality and become the accepted standard, but it has not escaped chilled her relationships with others. serious criticism by professional historians [8]. Furthermore, Woodham-Smith introduced puzzling Woodham-Smith suggested that she reviewed all the suggestions about Florence's romantic life. Her relation primary source material on Nightingale's life- a for ship with Richard Monckton Milnes received no sustained midable task; perhaps she did, but her work reflected analysis, and Woodham-Smith described Florence as be- 1641Nurslng & He Apn11 98J/185 dience's perception of her difficulties. However, her manner with the officers-deference to their medical authority and a good-natured challenge to their estab lished routines - does reflect the way in which Florence often worked and accomplished her goals. Perhaps most interesting of the views put forward by Reid is her understanding of the nature of Nightingale's nursing endeavor in the Crimea. Florence insists to Sidney Herbert that she have unquestioned control over the nurses because "We must make this very critical ex periment of women nurses on a small scale at first." When Herbert disregards her instructions and brings out another group of nurses without her request, she la ments the position he has put her in: , have toiled my way into the confidence of the medical men by keeping my hand on every nurse; to have 47 untrained women scampering about means disaster. Every nerve has been strained to reform shocking abuses. We are "'.:laki ng a delicate experi ment. Thus, Florence realizes that her mission is more than a work of chari ty; it is her ooportunity to prove by con trolled experiment that properly orga nized and disciplin ed women could make excellent military nurses. Florence, as a nurse, is also a scientist who understands the nature of experimentation - a rare insight into the founoation of modern nursing . Reid's Nightingale also shows the loving warmth for which she became famous: she cradles the head of a dy ing boy and dips a little of his hair to send to his mother. Yet, th e overall impression of Reid's Nightingale is that of an enthusiastic and efficient organizer who disdains pointless sentiment, although she knows how to use it to her advantage. She answers leners from a rich admirer who writes a series of sentimental poems in her honor because she realizes that a flutter of her angelic wings Act II, Scene 2 - Barracks hospital, Scurari. Turkey, in will induce a contribution of funds fo r her new hospital Reginald Berkeley's 1929 The Lady w ith a Lamp featured project. Dame Edith Evans. as Florence Nightingale, giving orders to Without ever tarnishing the legend, Mrs. Reid made purveyors of the hosp/tol. Oespite the play's mle, the em her audience aware of the legend's limitations. The next phasis in this play remains on Florence the administrator and playvvright to tackle the Nightingale story set about to discounts her role in rendering direct nursing care to the sick. topple the legend entirely. In 1929, Reginald Berkeley's The Lady With a Lamp opened in London, starring Edith and intolerant tones and reveals an acidity and bitterness Evans as florence Nightingale [10]. Well-received in not even suggested in Stra chey ..Edith Evans, one of the England, the play traveled to New York for a Broadway most accomplished actresses of the English stage, did run in '1931, again w ith Evans in the starring role (11]. imbue the character with dignity and strength, yet she This play represents the first important dramatic treat could not overcome the discrepancy between Florence's ment of Nightingale's life to receive sustained popular supposed romantic inclinations and her iron-willed and critical attention. As a playvvright, Berkeley sur obstinacy-the flowery language spoken by Florence in passed Reid in most respects: the play established a love simply did not fit the reSt of her cha racterization. variety of conflicts emanating from within and without Florence's relationships with men in the Berkeley play the central character, and developed Florence through aU suffer from ambivalence, as if the plaYWright could not four acts, changing her in response to her experiences. understand a wo'man dealing with men without romantic Although he did not make an attribution in his production or sexual tensions, yet was determined to so present his notes, Berkeley built his image of Florence Nightingale heroine. He did this by turning Florence Nightingale into on the suggestions made about the heroine's darker side an inse nsitive and sha rp -tongued shrew who bullies the in Stracheys essay. Berkeley, however, created his own men around her. Perhaps most telling of Berkeley's view explanation for Nightingale's character transformations: point is his handling of the Scutari episode (in Act II, a thwarted desire for romantic and domestic fulfillment Scene 21. Although he enlitled his play The Lady with a results in Florence's turning to work and to sarcasm for Lamp, it was an intentional misnomer, as his dra matiza relief. In Berkeley's hands, Florence speaks in demanding tion never indudes a sce ne of Florence tenderly minis- tering and monitoring her patients through the night. of base emotions. Berkeley's last transformation of Flor Aside from the brief scene of Henry Tremayne-an alias ence from a frustrated. bitter virago into a benign old lady for Florence's true love-dying in her arms, there are no sinking into senility also follows Strachey's suggestions. other scenes of Florence actually delivering nursing care. Berkeley uses Florence's prolonged old age and gradual Offering comfort is made to appear atypical of Nightin debilitation as a sort of punishment for her sins of in gale's role; her real job lies in purveying the hospital and tolerance. In one of the last scenes between Liz and overseeing the personnel of the hospital. Her handling of Florence, many yea rs after Sidney's death. Liz warns Bamford. the recalcitrant purveyor, exemplifies Berkeley's Florence that the Lord might have his own plans for her. Florence in the Crimea. Miss Nightingale (with some Florence clarifies the threat: "Do you mean one might justification, no doubt) bullies and blackmails the purvey live on and on-unable to work and unable to die?" liz or into doing her bidding; by threatening to have him agrees that it might be her "purgatory. Which we must fired, she finally wins his grudging cooperation. From all endure. " Bamford, she turns her anention to a nurse who has in To fulfill this prophecy. Florence does live on and on, advertently provided information for an article in the unable even to fully comprehend the honors done to her Times on the doctors' failures, The nurse, frightened and throughout the world. In the finale, unable to do more penitent, begs to stay: but Florence insists upon a than sit in her chair, Florence is surrounded by dignitaries dismissal. The dismissal itself can be comprehended, but from around the world gathered to recite the litany of her Florence's abrupt, unfeeling handling of it cannot; she achievements and to shower her with tributes. )n an al orders the nurse to leave, without even a word of thanks ternative ending, the playwright revealed his own pur for the work she has already done. Although the historic pose more clearly. Florence, lying in her bed a few hours Florence was strict, demanding, and tenacious in pursu before her death, is tended by two nurses. The older ing her goals. she was also aware that gentle words and nurse represents the popular attitude toward the legen charm had their place. Berkeley does present to the au dary heroine: "She's a saint." The younger nurse per dience Nightingale's formidable obstacles and her iron haps voices the author's own opinion: "Saint! Oh, I will, but he renders her unlikeable in the process. know these saints. They're usually sinners who've gone Florence's relationship with Henry Tremayne (the alias soft on it ... I don't believe in making idols of people. for Richard Monckton Milnes) is perhaps the weakest They've got their faults like you and me. Why not be point in the entire play, for it undermines the aud ience's frank about it?" The older nurse simply responds, "I understanding of Nightingale's ability to make a decision never heard anyone say before that Florence Nightingale and remain true to it. The love scene in the first act had Apli/198lfT87