$9.95 VOLUME 67/3 SEPTEMBER 2015

FEATURE TOO

AUSTRALIAN? PULLING DOWN THE ANZAC BOOK REVIEW ANZAC AND ITS ENEMIES 6 THE END OF HISTORY 10

THE BEGINNINGS OF LIBERTARIANISM IN AUSTRALIA 28 BOOK REVIEW: RUSSEL BRAND’S REVOLUTION 32

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 3 15/09/2015 12:45:51 PM R FROM THE EDITOR Volume 67 I 3 Too Australian?

deem valuable to future generations. example environmental history— The important part of this exercise rather than presenting a bigger is that judgement isn’t necessary. picture of history. That isn’t to say ALINE LE GUEN There isn’t any need to condemn that specialisation in and of itself is Editor of the IPA Review past generations for not meeting a problem. Some subjects require it. our modern-day standards and But there is a problem with t’s often said that those who fail expectations—nor does it require overly filtering the events of the past to learn from their history are that we engage in endless self- without providing the bigger picture doomed to repeat it. There is recriminations. Nothing exemplifies which allows for perspective and perhaps a greater potential for this better than slavery. context, both of which are necessary Irepeating mistakes if the record of Slavery did not end with the for studying history. As Chris Berg history is inaccurate. And while 1948 UN Declaration of Human points out in ‘The End of History’, the first draft of history may very Rights. The battle to end slavery all of Australia’s institutions were well be written by the victors, it began in eighteenth century imported from Britain, yet our doesn’t often remain so. Time England with William Wilberforce universities offer few opportunities passes, questions are asked and who spent his entire political career to study British history. This may historians seeking a more complete bringing about the abolishment not seem overly worrisome except understanding of past events will of this practice. So much have we that, as Chris explains, ‘origins search for those records that will come to abhor the idea of slavery, m a t t e r ’. help open up the past and shed light so ingrained is our objection Events like the Eureka Stockade on all of it—not simply those parts to this practice that it is easy to are part of our Australian history, we prefer, or are allowed, to see. wonder how it could have ever been but are also part of the continuing There is, though, a massive condoned. But this entirely misses struggle for property rights, a difference between trying to the point. concept which can be traced back to create as complete a picture of the The miracle is that it only took Medieval England. past as possible and redrawing it twenty years to legally abolish the Likewise, free speech began its entirely, starting with building a British slave trade and a further long journey from ancient Athens, new canvas. And this is what has twenty years to abolish slavery in and despite the many gains made been happening with respect to most of the British Empire at a since then, it is still under threat Australian history. time when slavery was so common today and even in Western countries This year marks the 100th a practice it existed in nearly all is still misunderstood. Indeed, anniversary of the Anzacs role cultures world-wide. Chris Berg explores free speech in in Gallipoli. The debate in recent This edition of the IPA Review his excellent article on Flemming decades on the Anzacs, the First explores history in greater detail Rose’s decision, ten years ago, to World War, and Australia’s role over three articles, two of which publish cartoons which depicted within it form part of the larger comprise our feature. The book Muhammad, and the politics behind discussion on history itself—on review of Mervyn F. Bendle’s Anzac the protests against this publication. what is taught, how it is taught, and and its Enemies details the century- No nation has a perfect history. even to some extent who should long attempt to discredit the Anzac No nation or culture has gotten write about it. It is a question of tradition. And in ‘The End of ‘it’ right every step of the way—no identity and whether celebrating History’ Chris Berg discusses what more than any individual can claim the good things in our history is history is being taught at Australian a faultless past. We are defined as perhaps now ‘too Australian’ for universities and how it is being much by our mistakes as by our some. taught. successes. And the modern practice What we teach of our history These pieces highlight the of judging the past by the standards highlights what we value of our past. problems with reducing history of the present is not an effective way It also emphasises what lessons we subjects into a specialisation—for to understand or teach the past. R

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 1

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 1 15/09/2015 12:45:52 PM Editor-in-Chief: Chris Berg Editor: Aline Le Guen Executive Director: John Roskam Too Australian? Printed by: Contents Cover: Ligare Ligare.com Published by: Institute of Public Affairs 1 EDITORIAL 4 THE LATEST FROM THE IPA 64 STRANGE TIMES Ltd (Incorporated in the ACT) ALINE LE GUEN PETER GREGORY ACN 008 627 727 Level 2, 410 Collins Street, Melbourne Victoria 3000. Phone: (03) 9600 4744 Fax: (03) 9602 4989 Email: [email protected] FEATURED Editorial Design: Charles Elena Design charleselena.com.au LOST IN COAL WILL Reproduction: 18 TRANSLATION 34 CHANGE LIVES The IPA welcomes It has been 10 years since the Australian coal could lift nearly 82 reproduction of written The end of history 10 material from the publication of the Danish cartoons million people out of dire poverty IPA Review, but for that sparked a riot BRETT HOGAN copyright reasons the CHRIS BERG Australia’s political and social institutions were imported from Britain. But editor’s permission must first be sought. undergraduate history degrees do not teach fundamental aspects of Australian Views expressed in this publication are those of FOCUS ON history or explain how Australia came to be a liberal democracy the authors and do not THE SHARING POVERTY, NOT necessarily reflect the 38 CHRIS BERG views of the Institute of 24 ECONOMY Public Affairs. POLLUTION Political entrepreneurs are The Pope’s encyclical has stressed For all the latest news finding ways to break the strong the importance of tackling and information, visit us relationship between regulators online at: pollution to help the world’s poor. and industries, and in doing so are www.ipa.org.au But reducing poverty is the best Crossing the Line 14 paving the way to a freer market way to help the poor, and providing Cover Photo by : DARCY ALLEN cheap electricity has the best track Australia’s National Curriculum is politicising education, and its cross-curriculum Chris Phutully/flickr.com record in lifting poverty Melbourne Anzac Day priorities detract from the essence of education Parade, 25 April 2015. FATHER JAMES GRANT LIBERTARIANISM HANNAH PANDEL AND STEPHANIE FORREST 28 IN AUSTRALIA For forty years, libertarianism has ECONOMIC been an important aspect of public debate 40 FREEDOM IS RICHARD ALLSOP TOLERANCE The free market is both tacit acknowledgement that tolerance is necessary in human relationships DRAWING LINES and also a mechanism to facilitate it 32 AROUND FREE PETER GREGORY SPEECH The attacks on Charlie Hebdo THE MAGNA and in Garland Texas have once again ignited the debate on free 44 CARTA STILL speech and whether the right to be MATTERS offended trumps the right to free This excerpt from the IPA’s new expression book, Magna Carta: the tax revolt ELI BERNSTEIN that gave us liberty, explains why it is important to understand that the Magna Carta was born out of a tax revolt CHRIS BERG AND JOHN ROSKAM

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STRANGE TIMES Pulling down the Anzac 6 PETER GREGORY For nearly one century, there has been a concerted effort to discredit the Anzac tradition. Mervyn F. Bendle’s book explores the origins of this thinking BOOK REVIEW ANZAC AND ITS ENEMIES ALINE LE GUEN The end of history 10 Australia’s political and social institutions were imported from Britain. But undergraduate history degrees do not teach fundamental aspects of Australian history or explain how Australia came to be a liberal democracy CHRIS BERG Crossing the Line 14 Australia’s National Curriculum is politicising education, and its cross-curriculum priorities detract from the essence of education HANNAH PANDEL AND STEPHANIE FORREST

BOOKS AND ARTS

46 REVOLUTION 48 THE42 CHURCHILL FACTOR by Russell Brand by Boris Johnson REVIEWED BY JAMES BOLT REVIEWED BY STEPHANIE FORREST

52 DICK HAMER: THE LIBERAL LIBERAL 56 THE LIBERTARIAN MIND 60 THE AGE OF CRYPTOCURRENCY by Tim Colebatch by David Boaz by Paul Vigna and Michael J. Casey REVIEWED BY RICHARD ALLSOP REVIEWED BY DR MIKAYLA NOVAK REVIEWED BY DARCY ALLEN

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 3 15/09/2015 12:45:55 PM R THE LATEST PUBLICATIONS

THE LATEST FROM THE

IPATo see more of the IPA’s publications go to www.ipa.org.au

IPA EVENTS

YOUNG MEMBERS— Brisbane event On 12 May 2015, the IPA hosted more than 60 Young members in Brisbane to watch Treasurer Joe Hockey hand down the 2015 Federal budget. John Roskam and Simon Breheny both spoke to the gathered crowd who appreciated the opportunity to discuss the importance of a budget that controls debt and what that will mean to future generations of Australians. HON. SCOTT MORRISON On 22 July, the IPA was honored to host a discussion from the Hon. Scott Morrison MP, Minister for Social Services. In his presentation, to over 100 members and supporters of the IPA, Mr Morrison outlined the problems with our current welfare system, and its future.

GREG SHERIDAN’S BOOK LAUNCH—When we were young and foolish On 3 August, the IPA launched Greg Sheridan’s book When we were Young and Foolish in Melbourne. The crowd of nearly 150 guests heard speeches from Michael Kroger and Greg Sheridan and participated in a lively Q&A after their speeches.

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The end of history... in Australian universities The life saving potential of coal Unions in Labor Stephanie Forrest How Australian coal could help 82 million Indians access electricity A handbrake on reform Research Scholar, Foundations of Western Civilisation Program Patrick Hannaford Chris Berg Research Fellow Senior Fellow Brett Hogan Director, Energy and Innovation Policy James Paterson Hannah Pandel Deputy Executive Director Research Fellow

July 2015 June 2015 July 2015 www.ipa.org.au www.ipa.org.au www.ipa.org.au THE END OF THE LIFE SAVING UNIONS IN LABOR HISTORY POTENTIAL PATRICK HANNAFORD AND STEPHANIE FORREST, CHRIS OF COAL JAMES PATERSON BERG AND HANNAH PANDEL BRETT HOGAN The right to join a union is a Undergraduate history degrees in Affordable electricity powers the fundamental principle for any Australia fail to teach fundamental increased production and safe storage free and democratic country. aspects of Australia’s history. Instead, of food, clean drinking water, the But it is unhealthy for an interest they offer a range of disconnected mass manufacture of clothing, the group representing 8 per cent of subjects on narrow themes and ability to heat and cool our homes the Australian population to have issues. A new generation of and businesses, a better quantity and such an unprecedented level of Australians will have a narrow and quality of housing, access to and safe influence over Australian politics. fragmented understanding of our storage of medicine, and the ability to This paper outlines the extent of heritage, and lack an understanding transport ourselves around our local union influence in the ALP, and over of the institutions that have made neighbourhoods, cities, countries and Australian politics more broadly. Australia free and prosperous. internationally. Supplying coal to India And how this has led to the Unions would permanently improve the lives disproportionate influence over of millions of people—a goal worthy of Australian public policy. public and policy-maker support. IPA BOOKS MAGNA CARTA: Eight centuries after its signing, it has never been more important to THE TAX REVOLT THAT Eight centuries after its MAGNAGAVE US LIBERTY CARTA: In this understandi that our liberties came THE TAX REVOLT THAT sealing, it has never been more accessible and engaging book, Chris from a revolt against oppressive GAVE US LIBERTY importanttaxation to understand that InBerg this and accessible John Roskam and engaging explain our libertiesAvailable came in paperback from a revolt or for book,what the Chris Magna Berg Carta and is,John where it againstKindle, oppressive iBooks and taxation Kobo. Roskamcame from, explain and why what it thematters. Magna Available in paperback or Carta is, where it came from, and download the ebook for Kindle, why it matters. iBooks and Kobo.

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ANZACFor decades, left-wing historians have persistently maintained that the Great War was a series of mistakes and was ultimately meaningless. Author Mervyn F. Bendle’s latest book explores the origins of such thinking, writes Aline Le Guen

Anzac Cove after the landing in 1915. Image: Wikimedia.Commons

Australian critic claims that the day that didn’t encourage hierarchy celebrates ‘slaughter’. or servility, but bred instead the In his new book Anzac and stoicism, egalitarianism and mateship its Enemies, Mervyn F. Bendle that Bean was to locate at the core of thoroughly explores the origins of the the Anzac spirit. ALINE LE GUEN assault on the Anzac tradition. He These qualities were memorialised Editor of the IPA Review dissects historical arguments made in the Anzac and led Bean to believe over the last 100 years that attempt to that Australia’s defining moment was invalidate the Anzac tradition. in the Great War because it was the here has been much The Anzac tradition is moment when we became ‘known to debate about the essence most associated with the war ourselves’. of Australian culture. correspondent Charles Bean. Bean Anzac stood, and still stands, for TAnd no part of Australian had worked as a journalist and had reckless valor in a good cause, for history has come under more attack travelled around rural Australia enterprise, resourcefulness, fidelity, from left-wing commentators and where he had seen those qualities comradeship and endurance that will historians than the Anzac tradition. that would later form the core of the never own defeat. The Anzac is both a symbol Anzac legend, as described by Bendle: Bean didn’t accept that the only that many have come to embrace [M]en and women had to stand relevant information about the as uniquely Australian and a target firm before adversity, work hard, battles came from the dispatches of of political scorn. While thousands make sacrifices, cooperate and help High Command. He sought to get attend Anzac Day services, an each other…it was an environment to the experience of the men on the

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IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 6 15/09/2015 12:46:04 PM front lines. He wanted his readers elimination of social distinctions.’ to understand that the Australian It is ironic that the left-wing soldiers were a fair cross-section historians determined to diminish of Australian society, ‘…that the the Anzac tradition either ignore or company commander was a young discount the work of an author with lawyer and his second in command such an egalitarian streak. most trusted mate a young engine But such irony is hardly driver …’ surprising, Bendle notes, and Anzacs This egalitarianism wasn’t and its Enemies is full of them. something that Bean simply wrote Bendle puts the assault on the Anzac about. He saw himself as ‘a plain tradition into context with the end of Anzac and its Enemies: Australian’, and practiced what the Great War, the rise of the Soviet The History War on Australia’s he preached. Bean was offered a Union. The view of the ‘left’ then— National Identity knighthood three times, in part for under instruction from Moscow— By Mervyn F. Bendle his work on The Official History of was to argue that the Great War Quadrant Books, 2015, 344 pages Australia in the War of 1914-1918, was a battle between two capitalist, of which he wrote six of the twelve imperialist forces. This was consistent volumes and edited them all. He with Lenin’s 1917 essay Imperialism, view toward the Anzac, especially in turned down each offer stating the Highest Stage of Capitalism. the post 1917 era. that ‘In Australia the interest of the Bendle quite aptly demonstrate The October Revolution had nation would be best served by the the ever shifting position of the left’s unleashed a world-wide movement

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Dawn Service at the State War Memorial in Kings Park Western Australia. Image: Photo by Gnangarra/Commons.wikimedia.org

CONTINUED End of the Myth, the historian Robin promoting communism, and did ATTEMPTS TO Prior argued that the Gallipoli so in the form of their idea of the DISCREDIT THE ANZAC campaign ‘was fought in vain. It ‘Socialist Man’. In Australia, various > TRADITION HAVE did not shorten the war by a single INSTEAD RESULTED left-wing groups—busy positioning day, nor in reality did it ever offer IN A RESURGENCE OF themselves as the champions of COMMEMORATION TO IT. that prospect.’ It’s easy to look the proletariat—faced genuine back in hindsight and make such competition in the emerging Anzac assertions, Bendle rightly points out, spirit and the genuine bonds of Great War has remained consistently especially given that a different kind friendship formed by the soldiers at nihilistic—essentially, it was one of speculation—what would have the front. series of mistakes after another, it was happened if they had won—clearly The initial goal of these groups meaningless. Likewise, the view of outlines the strategic importance of was to preserve the Anzac tradition the Anzac soldier itself has changed the campaign at Gallipoli. Namely, to and then transform it into a to fit this nihilistic view. free up a sea route to Constantinople component of the Marxist-Leninist While there is usually some that would allow supplies to flow identity. They failed spectacularly. acknowledgement of the Anzac’s to England’s ally, Russia. And with And soon after, these same groups bravery, nonetheless the Anzacs the war on the Western Front going began to promote the Anzac tradition were—with respect to the First World badly for the Allies, a successful as a conservative ploy to mislead War—slaughtered, betrayed by the campaign at the Dardanelles would the workers. Bendle pinpoints this British, betrayed by their Australian have allowed Britain and her allies moment as the one when the left leaders, their elders, the men were to establish a southern front against turned against the Anzac, and have ‘sacrificeden masse’. And this is their enemies. been discrediting the Anzac tradition best epitomised by the Dardanelles By December 1915 the Gallipoli ever since. campaign—Gallipoli. campaign was over. Nearly 9000 Since 1960, the left’s view of the In his 2009 book, Gallipoli: The Anzac troops were dead, with

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some 17,000 wounded. It was a so with cultures, they expressed their the unity and identity of the nation’, shattering loss. loyalty and affection in ways that including the national flag and the That the Gallipoli campaign were distinctly cultural. It was this Anzac tradition. failed—and failed with such that Bean recognised as distinctly In 1988, Baker made the losses—is tragic. But does that Australian. And so the legend of the following point as editor for the IPA invalidate the attempt? Life itself, as Anzac was born. Review: in war, is never straightforward, and Other historians go further and A people’s sense of their own success is never guaranteed. None claim that the Anzac legend itself is history can unify them or it can of this takes away from the glaring nothing more than ‘the resurgence in divide and demoralize them. The errors made in the campaign— the memory of war in both popular new Australian historian rejects starting in part with bad intelligence culture and official commemoration the notion of a national interest regarding the troop strength of [is not] an organic and spontaneous (nothing overrides the divisions of the Ottoman Empire—errors that occurrence [but] has been class, sex and race); he rejects the resulted in thousands dead. But this carefully orchestrated by federal existence of an Australian culture is all the more reason to honour governments [and implemented] by (which, in the singular, is seen as the courage and bravery of those government agencies.’ Bendle quite an expression of an Anglocentric men who, in terrible conditions, elegantly points out that the Anzac ideology of cultural imperialism). nonetheless refused to give up and commemoration is a response from Revisionist attempts to rewrite would not let each other down. government to the public’s desire for history do nothing to help current This is the mateship which forms such a ceremony. and future generations understand the heart of the Anzac tradition and the past. If Bendle’s book is dismissed by most of its critics. ONE OF THE MAJOR demonstrates anything, it is that Indeed one of the major criticisms CRITICISMS LEVELLED it is far too simplistic to break the levelled at the Anzac tradition is that > AT THE ANZAC past down and view it through the it is itself a social construction ‘bent TRADITION IS THAT modern ‘isms’ that have exploded on commemoration, veneration, and IT IS ITSELF A SOCIAL onto the stage since the end of capturing the essence of idealised CONSTRUCTION ‘BENT the Great War. History cannot be “Australian” virtues.’ ON COMMEMORATION, viewed and judged through the According to some academics, VENERATION, AND singular lens of feminism, racism, these ‘values’ embodied in the Anzac CAPTURING THE post-modernism, post-colonialism, ESSENCE OF IDEALISED tradition either never existed, don’t or environmentalism—or any other “AUSTRALIAN” apply, are exclusive, sexist, or are the VIRTUES.’ ‘ism’ for that matter—as it fractures minority experience and don’t reflect and distorts the way we look at our the true character of Australians. history, and even potentially the way Bendle cites Peter Stanley who To some left-leaning historians, we regard ourselves as a nation. This maintains that the Anzac ‘brand’ any expression of sentiment to the is the essence of Bendle’s book as he ‘unfairly favours “old Anglo- Anzac is emotional and therefore attempts to confront the century- Celtic families who [have] direct misguided. long attack on the Anzac tradition. connections with those who served in But then the Anzac Day and the It’s hardly surprising that and lived through the Great War”.’ Dawn Service are not the first of attempts to discredit the Anzac But the loyalty and mateship so Australia’s celebratory anniversaries tradition have instead resulted in epitomised by the Anzacs is an idea to have been subjected to this kind a resurgence of commemoration that transcends cultures and isn’t of assault. Writing in the IPA Review to it. Both the Anzac Day parade limited to those of a certain criteria— in 1985, Ken Baker outlined that the and the Dawn Service are seeing it is an idea that can be embraced Australian Bicentennial Authority record crowds of attendance. With by anyone. This is also part of the —specifically created to plan the all the confusion wrought by the objection some critics rally to—that commemorations—attempted to use deconstruction of our history loyalty and mateship aren’t distinctly the Bicentennial as an opportunity and the assault on our national Australian. Certainly other men in to ‘relegate to the margins of identity, the simple promise, ‘lest we battle responded to the stresses of history or even ignore altogether, forget’, has never before been more war in similar bonds of loyalty to many of the very things that most poignant or necessary. R each other. But as with individuals, Australians would view as central to

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IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 9 15/09/2015 12:46:09 PM The end of history in Australian universities We are constantly looking for our origins, in the hope they will hint at our future. It should be a concern that few Australian universities offer British history to undergraduates, writes Chris Berg

Salisbury Cathedral. John Constable/ Wikimedia Commons

the 1890s, the austerity of the Great era Labor prime minister whose Depression, and so on. economic failings made his a one- CHRIS BERG This populist historical awareness term government. Senior Fellow at the has practical consequences. How Likewise, the place of Gallipoli in Institute of Public Affairs Australians understand, for instance, the national mindset is an ongoing the causes and significance of contest that implicitly relates to very country has national the Great Depression has shaped our modern debates about foreign myths and legends—vague how they understand the modern policy, our alliances, and military memories of the past economy. There is a good case that commitments. Ethat add up to a sense of Kevin Rudd and Wayne Swan were History matters, not just for its national identity. For Australia driven in 2008 by a fear of becoming own sake but for the way it reflects think Gallipoli, the union strikes of James Scullin, the Depression- back to the present. We are constantly

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looking for our origins, in the hope institutions that make Australia and sexuality matters. The history they will somewhat hint at our future. what they are today were imported of film is fascinating. But is it In July 2015, the IPA released wholesale from Britain. We inherited proportionately more important than a major report, The End of History our liberal democracy, our market Australia’s institutional history? … in Australian Universities. The economy, our emphasis on individual British history is worth dwelling goal was to understand how history rights, the common law, and our on for no other reason than its role is understood by looking at what public ethic of toleration from in the establishment of Australian academic historians pass on to the Britain. What institutions we did not institutions. Its absence says perhaps next generation. Few undergraduate directly get from Britain we adopted less about the interests of students history students go on to be academic from other British colonies—for and teachers at universities than historians, of course. But many instance, Australian federalism about the way we understand the role become secondary school history was modelled on the American and of the history and our relationship to teachers, and the rest constitute a Canadian examples. Yet British the past. cohort of formally trained historians, history is in precipitous decline in Some clue to this is found in regardless of whether they practice Australian undergraduate history the fact that history courses were the profession of history writing and faculties. overwhelmingly dominated by research after graduation. subjects on twentieth century history. Underpinning this report was Of 739 subjects, fully 308 focused HISTORICAL our creation of the first complete EVENTS SHOULD on the twentieth century. Just 189 database of history subjects taught at > BE UNDERSTOOD covered the later modern period, the undergraduate level in Australian IN THEIR OWN which we define as 1788 to 1900. colleges and universities in 2014—all CONTEXT, AS THEY Indeed, if we exclude ancient history 739 subjects, taught at 34 separate WERE UNDERSTOOD subjects, which in many institutions institutions. We categorised the AT THE TIME AND, are offered in separate courses, then subjects according to their geographic AT LEAST IDEALLY, there are more discernibly twentieth focus, the historical period they WITHOUT IMPORTING century subjects than the rest of the looked at, and their ‘theme’. ANACHRONISTIC historical periods combined. Indeed, this is something that FRAMES OF One of the most influential books REFERENCE FROM the historical profession itself should in the study of history was published OUR OWN AGE. be, and has been, interested in. Our by the University of Cambridge research was based substantially on historian Herbert Butterfield: The the work of a report last published So what has replaced it? For a long Whig Interpretation of History, in 2004 by the Australian Historical time undergraduate history subjects published in 1931. Butterfield’s Association (AHA). The categories have tended towards specialisation. book—more of an essay—is often were largely theirs, and the Rather than broad, ‘survey’ overviews cited but rarely read. Butterfield notion of a traditional canon was of historical periods of nations and criticised what he called ‘Whig likewise derived from the AHA. civilisations, even many first year history’, which, as it has come to be Thus we could make some useful subjects direct their focus to narrow, popularly understood, implicitly comparisons not just about the state thematic topics. For instance, it is depicted history as a series of of undergraduate history today, common to find the history of human progressive advances giving us the but how it has changed. rights, or environmental history, world we are today. Our most dramatic finding was or genocide. To be certain, many The Whig Interpretation of History that out of 739 undergraduate history survey subjects remain. But the era of is stirring polemic but it sparked a subjects, there were just fifteen that systematic historical undergraduate small cottage industry of work which specifically focused on British history. knowledge is largely over. More has been trying to determine the Those fifteen subjects were spread universities teach popular culture specific nature of this Whig history between just ten different institutions. than intellectual history. Film history that Butterfield wished to avoid. For In other words, there are 24 history is offered at more universities than instance, the only ‘Whig’ historian he faculties in Australia that do not offer British history. mentioned was the conservative Lord any British history to undergraduates. Specialist subjects are necessary Acton. This is quite striking. It is not and valuable. Indigenous history is In fact, Butterfield’s argument an exaggeration to say that the important. The history of gender was much bolder. He is critical of

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all history that interprets the past in modern historical practice: ‘It OUR INSTITUTIONS, the light of the present. He is critical can easily be demonstrated that OUR IDEAS, OUR of abridgement and short-cuts in these traits—what we will call > ATTITUDES, OUR historical narrative—indeed, in discontinuity, empiricism, and CULTURE, ARE ALL Butterfield’s opinion the more history neutrality—are indeed not specific to HISTORICAL, IN THAT is condensed for the reader’s benefit, Butterfield’s thought, but are in fact THEY ARE DERIVED the more Whiggish it inevitably the most basic ontological, epistemic, FROM THE PAST, BUT becomes. and ethical standards of modern ARE NOT OF THE PAST. It is hard to disagree with the historical writing.’ claim that historical events should By empiricism, Poe means some historians have said, that be understood in their own context, the commitment to sources and such a description is anachronistic. as they were understood at the evidence on which historians rest To call these payments ‘taxes’ is to time and, at least ideally, without their judgment. Neutrality refers to apply modern ideas about citizen- importing anachronistic frames research objectivity—in practice, an government fiscal relations in an era of reference from our own age. Yet ethical ideal to strive for. where they not apply. In thirteenth Butterfield flirts with the notion Of the three, discontinuity has century England, the state did not of history as being almost entirely the most significance. The lesson here levy taxes for public goods. disconnected from contemporary is that there are so many differences Yet acknowledging the conceptual concerns. The historian should look between our time and the past, that distinctions between tax in our for discontinuities. The study of to compare the present to the past time and the network of levies and history is the practice of alienating is to mislead. For instance, in our charges of eight hundred years ago oneself from the present, searching book Magna Carta: the Tax Revolt does not preclude us from identifying for distances, not closing gaps. that Gave us Liberty, we describe relationships between our system In many ways, as the historian the complex mixture of thirteenth and the past, and between medieval Marshall Poe writes, Butterfield’s century fees and charges and England and other medieval societies. argument is a neat polemical financial payments between vassals A more radical position which summary of the almost always and lords and barons and kings, as can be drawn out from Butterfield’s unstated philosophy that underpins taxes. It might be said, as indeed anti-Whig philosophy is a rejection of the notion of ‘origin’ stories in history. When discussing the Magna A list of all 15 British history subjects offered in Australian universities in 2014 Carta, perhaps more consequential ENGL2074 Jane Austin History and Fiction (Australian National University) generalisation concerns the origins Tudor-Stuart England, c. 1485-1714: Politics, Society and Culture HIST2219 of parliament. One Chapter in the (Australian National University) Magna Carta prohibited the king HST303 Literature and Society (Charles Sturt University) from imposing ‘scutages’ and ‘aids’ The Rise of Britannia’s Empire and the Colonial Experience HIST2002 without the common counsel of the (Flinders University) The Fall of Britannia’s Empire and the Postcolonial Experience kingdom. Over time, this evolved into HIST3004 (Flinders University) parliamentary control over taxation. HIS1MLH Myth, Legend and History (La Trobe University) But in its specific, discontinuous Little Britain: Culture, Society and the end of the Empire context it does not. Is it right to say HIS2LBR (La Trobe University) that this was the origin of parliament Twentieth-century Britain: Rule Britannia to cool Britannia ATS2590 as we know it today? There were so (Monash University) many specific and diverse inputs HIST2078 Britain 1700-1830: Power, Sex and Money (University of Adelaide) into the evolution of parliament that The Swinging Sixties: The 1960s in America, Britain and Australia HIST368 (university of New England) perhaps to do so is an anachronistic Churchill’s Britain: Crisis and Conflict (1875-1945) (University and ahistorical confusion, imposing HIST2405 of Queensland) categorisations where none can apply. CLAN3008 Roman Britain (University of Western Australia) Butterfield clearly did not hold HIST3004 Twentieth-century Britain (University of Western Australia) fully to the philosophy expressed in Crime and Punishment in Britain 1600-1900 (University of HIST3007 his most famous book. One of his Western Australia) other books was titled The Origins 102079.1 Britain in the Age of Botany Bay, 1760-1815 of Modern Science. But the approach

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IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 12 15/09/2015 12:46:14 PM ISTOR IN AUSTRALIAN H UNIVERSITIESY

BRITISH TOTAL HISTORY SUBJECTS OFFERED 15 HISTORY BY HISTORICAL PERIOD ACROSS ALL YEAR LEVELS, 2014 308

739 189 TOTAL 144 HISTORY 39 32 46

2% MEDIEVAL EARLY 20TH OF THE HISTORY SUBJECTS MODERN CENTURY OFFERED COVERED BRITISH ANCIENT RENAISSANCE/ LATER HISTORY REFORMATION MODERN

MORE UNIVERSITIES OFFERED SUBJECTS ON FILM IN 2014 (13) THAN ON BRITISH HISTORY (10)

MORE UNIVERSITIES OFFERED SUBJECTS ON POP CULTURE IN 2014 (8) THAN ON INTELLECTUAL HISTORY (6)

he counselled—to seek alienation to of no consequence whether British other form of government, they are understand the past—has, it seems history is taught or not. But the implicitly engaged in a dialogue left its mark. historian lives in the present. History with Australia’s liberal democratic While it is true that much students live in the present. We are past, where those liberal democratic university history teaching is interested in history because of the institutions came from, and the value about the acquisition of profession present. Origins matter. we put on them. skills—assessment of evidence, The anniversary of the There are reasons to be optimistic. scholarly writing and so forth—the First World War has sparked a The popularity of history in our bulk is about passing on knowledge broad cultural conversation in bookshops, the engagement with the of history. And while professional Australia about the meaning of its Anzac tradition, and the increasing historical practice does require the participation in that conflict, the localised historical awareness historian to try to place themselves Anzac legend, and the nature and (symbolised by the explosion in in a world different to their own, symbolic representation of Gallipoli. family histories) shows an Australian the task of teaching history is That conversation is happening in public desperate to understand their different from ‘doing’ history, just as public. When young people flock to roots. The history profession is keenly expression is different to thought. the Dawn Service or travel to that aware of this popular demand. Yet We do not make the world anew famous Turkish peninsula, they are that demand is about origins, not every generation. Our institutions, participating in a debate about the discontinuities. our ideas, our attitudes, our culture, meaning of Australia’s past. As Edmund Burke wrote, ‘People are all historical, in that they are And when 49 per cent of will not look forward to posterity derived from the past, but are not Australians between 18 and 29, who never look backward to their of the past. If every past culture is when asked by the 2015 Lowy ancestors.’ But then again Burke alien—if the discontinuities of the Institute poll, cannot agree that was, as A.J.P. Taylor put it, a corrupt past outshine all else—it might seem democracy is preferable to any ‘Whig hack’. R

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IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 13 15/09/2015 12:46:14 PM CROSSING THE LINE Australia’s National Curriculum is a political exercise, write Hannah Pandel and Stephanie Forrest

n his book People Puzzle, The second stage—the Modelling sociologist Morris Massey Period—is between the ages of eight outlined a values development and thirteen, when we continue HANNAH PANDEL spectrum in which a person’s to copy others but rather than Research Fellow at the I Institute of Public Affairs core beliefs and values are blindly accepting their values, we developed during three distinct try them on to see how they feel. periods of their life. It is at this stage that we are most The first stage is between the impressed by religion and teachers. age of zero and seven, and is known The final period occurs between as the ‘Imprint Period’. We blindly the ages of thirteen to twenty-one, STEPHANIE FORREST accept everything around us is the ‘Socialisation Period’. Here, we Research Scholar at the Institute of Public Affairs almost entirely true, especially are largely influenced by our peers, when it comes from our parents. our schools and the media, turning

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to those around us whose values exercise, it is these three priorities. The effect of this priority is resonate with our own. They clearly reflect the values that key knowledge is crowded out According to Massey, almost of the authors of the National and schools are required to teach the entire crucial period in which Curriculum. They do not reflect the ‘content’ that may be irrelevant to a person’s values are formed, values of every school in Australia. the subject area. developed, and cemented occurs And they certainly do not reflect The second priority, ‘Asia and when a child is at school. So when the values of every parent in Australia’s Engagement with Asia’ education in schools becomes Australia. aims to reflect ‘Australia’s extensive less about learning the basics— The first priority, ‘Aboriginal engagement with Asia in social, reading, writing, numeracy, and Torres Strait Islander histories cultural, political and economic critical thinking—and more about and cultures’, concerns ‘Aboriginal spheres’, build ‘understanding of instilling values, there is cause for and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ the diversity of cultures and peoples concern. unique sense of identity’ and living within Australia’, and foster Looking at the federally- is ‘approached through the ‘social inclusion and cohesion’. mandated Australian National interconnected aspects of Country/ This priority is similarly Curriculum, it is clear that most Place, People and Culture’. It superficial in its nature and detracts of the content is moulded to fit a emerges in virtually all parts of from key curriculum content. certain political agenda. And by the curriculum. In the Year 8 History far the most concerning aspect curriculum—which deals with the of the National Curriculum is ALMOST THE ENTIRE medieval and early modern periods the controversial, government- CRUCIAL PERIOD IN –it is mandatory for students to mandated ‘cross-curriculum > WHICH A PERSON’S take a unit on one Asian civilisation priorities’. VALUES ARE FORMED, throughout the period. They have to On the surface, the cross- DEVELOPED, AND choose between the Angkor/Khmer curriculum priorities appear CEMENTED OCCURS Empire, Japan under the Shoguns, harmless. Yet they promote a WHEN A CHILD IS AT or Polynesian expansion across one-sided view of current affairs SCHOOL. the Pacific. that is not universally accepted by Yet so far as Australia’s political all Australians. Furthermore, they The curriculum suggests heritage is concerned, the Year 8 are pushed upon children at a point that in the Foundation Year for curriculum contains absolutely in their lives where, according Mathematics, for example, students no mention of two of the most to Massey, they are at their most use ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait important events of that period, vulnerable. Islander methods of adding, namely the Battle of Hastings and If many children gain most of including spatial patterns and Magna Carta. The significance their understanding of society, reasoning’. In Year 4, it suggests of these absences cannot be environment, and politics in that students study the symmetry understated enough. The long general from school—through the in Aboriginal rock carvings. history of the development of cross-curriculum priorities—then Likewise, the Year 8 Business property rights and individual they could leave a powerful and and Economics curriculum rights began with the Magna Carta, potentially dangerous impact on includes content on ‘the traditional and yet it is not even addressed in future generations. markets of Aboriginal and Torres the history curriculum. The ‘priorities’ are key themes Strait Islander communities and The final and perhaps most that must be embedded in every their participation in contemporary pervasive priority is ‘Sustainability’. learning area and year level of the markets’. And in a spectacular Among other things, this curriculum. They are: ‘Aboriginal example, though each year of priority addresses ‘the ongoing and Torres Strait Islander Histories the Drama curriculum fails to capacity of Earth to maintain all and Cultures’, ‘Asia and Australia’s mention Shakespeare—only the life’ and focuses on ‘protecting engagement with Asia’, and most influential playwright of environments and creating a ‘Sustainability’. the English language—they do more ecologically and socially If there is any aspect of include at least one core ‘content just world through informed Australia’s National Curriculum description’ on Aboriginal and action’. The decision to prioritise that proves it is a political Torres Strait Islander drama. sustainability—as opposed to

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The old city of Rome, the Roman Forum.

CONTINUED curriculum. There are more than curriculum priorities means that another topic such as economic 126 references to sustainability other important content and development—is inherently and many more allusions to knowledge is ‘crowded out’. ideological. environmental matters. And In their review of the National In the Year 6 Civics and there are 159 references to Asia, Curriculum, Dr Kevin Donnelly Citizenship curriculum, it is compared to just 56 mentions of and Professor Wiltshire pointed suggested students identify ‘the Europe and less than 40 mentions out that, ‘No attempt seems to obligations people may consider of America. have been made ... to conceptualise they have as global citizens, This is not education. This is the cross-curriculum priorities in such as an awareness of human educational terms.’ Much of the rights issues, concern for the THE CROSS- content relating to the priorities environment and sustainability, CURRICULUM has little educational value, and > PRIORITIES DETRACT and being active and informed so distorts the purpose of a FROM THE ESSENCE about global issues’ OF EDUCATION. THEY National Curriculum. The most damning example, TAKE FROM PARENTS For example the Year 5 however, is the inclusion of an THE POWER TO INSTIL Mathematics curriculum suggests entire unit on the history of the IN THEIR CHILDREN THE that students should spend a whole environment movement in the VALUES THEY BELIEVE class counting bugs. It advises that Year 10 History curriculum. The ARE IMPORTANT. they should pose ‘questions about unit traces the growth of the insect diversity in the playground, environment movement, touches values-driven schooling designed collecting data by taping a one- on ‘the notion of “Gaia”, “limits to by social elites who seek to metre-square piece of paper to the growth”’ and the concept of “rights indoctrinate Australian children playground and observing the type of nature”.’ under the guise of education. and number of insects on it over Overall, there are 280 examples There are at least two negative time.’ This activity is totally devoid of Aboriginal and Torres Strait consequences of the imposition of any educational value, taking Islander histories and cultures in of these priorities. First the time away from activities that may the content and elaborations of the sheer quantity of content in better promote key numeracy skills. the curriculum on the cross- Examining the cross-curriculum

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William Shakespeare—absent from the drama National Curriculum Depiction of the Battle of Hastings in the Bayeux tapestry

priorities in isolation does nothing Rather, each discipline should have National Curriculum. The cross- to reveal the true state of education its own priorities. Mathematics curriculum priorities detract from in Australia. These three priorities should be about mathematics; the essence of education. They draw must be considered in conjunction English should be about English. attention to value-laden themes, with the fact that there is mounting The recommendation by Dr Kevin and dilute content that should be evidence that Australian students Donnelly and Professor Kenneth key to the subject. They encroach are leaving school with inadequate Wiltshire—that these value-laden on the ability of schools to offer a literacy and numeracy skills. themes have ‘no educational basis’ curriculum or education experience The 2012 Programme for and should be removed—is welcome. that reflects the values of their school International Student Assessment community. (PISA) found that Australia’s THESE ‘CROSS And most significantly, they take rankings fell across the board since CURRICULUM from parents the power to instil in 2009—from fifteenth to nineteenth > PRIORITIES’ HAVE their children the values they believe in mathematics, tenth to sixteenth INEVITABLY RESULTED are important. in science, and ninth to fourteenth IN THE POLITICISATION Martin Luther King Jr said, ‘The in reading. OF EDUCATION. function of education is to teach one The second negative, and to think intensively and to think potentially worse, consequence of Plato said that the ‘direction critically. Intelligence plus character these priorities is that it has inevitably in which education starts a man - that is the goal of true education.’ resulted in the politicisation of will determine his future in life’. Our schools are entrusted with education. By placing government- In essence, a person’s life journey the responsibility to open a child’s mandated values in the curriculum, or success is dependent upon the mind, fire their ambitions, and equip these priorities have altered the education they receive. them with the skills they need to purpose of schooling. Instead of This is why schools must give succeed in life. teaching children ‘how to think’, their students the knowledge and In trying to use schools to shape schools now teach them ‘what to think’. skills they need, instead of being the values and beliefs of children It is not the place of the forced to focus on irrelevant and schools—as an institution—are failing government to highlight key themes politicised themes. at their primary purpose: to educate. R as priorities for all disciplines. Ideology has infected the

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FREE S EECH

L ST IN TRANSLATI N Chris Berg on Flemming Rose’s ‘controversial’ stand for free speech

CHRIS BERG In 2005 Rose was the culture The Jyllands-Posten editorial team Senior Fellow at the Institute of Public Affairs editor of Jyllands-Posten. He were interested in the fact that a commissioned and published the Danish children’s author, Kåre cartoons in his section of the paper. Bluitgen, had only been able to get en years ago in And it was Rose who, more than an illustrator for his book on the life September 2005, the anyone else, bore the brunt of the of Muhammad if the illustrations Danish newspaper backlash—as well as being the most were done anonymously. In the T Jyllands-Posten published prominent defender of the decision to middle of a Danish debate on self- twelve cartoons and sparked what publish. First published in Denmark censorship, this was an opportunity the Danish prime minister described in 2010, his book was written at first for the paper to take a stand: not as the worst crisis in Danish foreign to justify his actions and respond to a stunt, or an experiment, but a policy since the Second World War. critics. It has just been republished by statement of principles. In his book, The Tyranny of the American free market think tank Most strands of Islam are Silence: How One Cartoon Ignited A the Cato Institute, but developed into aniconic: that is, they oppose the Global Debate on the Future of Free a longer discourse about free speech depiction of images of their god Speech, Danish journalist Flemming and censorship. and their Prophet Muhammad. Yet Rose compellingly outlines what The purpose of the cartoons the question facing Jyllands-Posten happened, and what the events was to take a position in favour of was not whether Islam, as practiced meant for the fight for liberty in free free expression, and to editorialise in by Europe’s muslim migrant and unfree countries. against self-censorship in Denmark. communities or the Islamic world,

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THE PURPOSE OF was aniconic. Rather it was whether THE CARTOONS WAS portraits. One showed a cartoonist the prohibition on depicting > TO TAKE A POSITION looking over his shoulder as he IN FAVOUR OF FREE Muhammad was to be applied to nervously drew the Prophet—also EXPRESSION, AND TO non-Muslims in a non-Muslim EDITORIALISE AGAINST a comment on the Jyllands-Posten country. Some potential illustrators SELF-CENSORSHIP commission about free speech. All for Bluitgen’s book had contacted IN DENMARK. the cartoons were printed around a Islamic religious and academic comment piece by Rose discussing authorities in Denmark, who had the cartoons’ publication as a given the project an all clear (at of a school child going by the statement against self-censorship least one of those authorities, name of ‘Mohammed’—implicitly and in defence of freedom of speech. Rose notes, took a lead in the mocking Jyllands-Posten. But In 2015 political backlashes are anti-cartoon reaction). the most provocative cartoons almost instantaneous. The cycle The twelve cartoons were directly connected Muhammad of outrage, counter-outrage and published on 30 September with terrorism. One—possibly resolution can be completed within 2005. Not all of them depicted the most iconic—was a picture of 24 hours. Ten years ago—that is, Muhammad. At least two Muhammad’s face with a lit bomb before social media drowned out caricatured Kåre Bluitgen, in his turban. On the bomb was the the public sphere—political suggesting the whole affair was Islamic creed ‘shahadah’. Others outrage took more time to build up. a publicity stunt. Another was cartoonists offered more neutral Some newspaper sellers declined

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Iranian protestors and policeman at the gates of the Danish embassy in Tehran. Image: AAP/Behrouz Mehri

CONTINUED IN DENMARK, ROSE In December 2005, they travelled to sell the issue of Jyllands-Posten AND THE CARTOONIST to Cairo armed with a dossier that on the day. A few days after the > KURT WESTERGAARD included the cartoons. publication, a group of Muslim WERE THE SUBJECT The imam’s dossier—all 43 leaders and activists agreed to take OF NUMEROUS pages of it—was probably the political and legal action against the DEATH THREATS AND most inflammatory part of the paper. Two weeks later 3,500 Danish ASSASSINATION PLOTS. entire affair. It included not just Muslims peacefully protested the the cartoons and translations of cartoons’ publication. And there a diplomatic issue with the Danish Jyllands-Posten’s editorials on Islam the reaction stalled. As the Danish government. In October 2005, a and self-censorship, but other scholar Jytte Klausen writes, ‘there diplomatic protest was lodged by the material as well. There were abusive was no groundswell of support for ambassadors of eleven countries, letters which the imams said had the mosque activists and imams who including Turkey, Saudi Arabia, been sent to Muslims in Denmark. led the charge against the newspaper Iran and Indonesia. Their protest There were clippings from other and the government in Denmark.’ was acknowledged by the Danish papers, images completely It was the international events government. But the Prime Minister unrelated to Denmark and that brought the crisis to a head. Anders Fogh Rasmussen, head of Jyllands-Posten, unsubstantiated As part of their political a centre-right coalition, affirmed and inaccurate claims about the campaign against the paper, the the paper’s right to free expression. relationship between Denmark Danish imams had petitioned the Feeling themselves unsupported, the and its Muslim community, and ambassadors of Muslim countries imams decided to directly appeal a host of other material designed in Denmark to raise the cartoons as to Middle Eastern governments. specifically to rile up Muslim

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Protesters display banners at a demonstration supporting freedom of expression, London, March 2006. Image: AAP/Matt Dunham

readers. According to the secretly sentiment contained within. The attempts to attack the offices of recorded statement of one of the Danish embassy in Damascus was Jyllands-Posten—a disturbing Danish clerics, the dossier was stormed. The European Union foreshadowing of the devastating intended to ‘create a climate of offices in Gaza were stormed. Riots Charlie Hebdo attack earlier this year. hate against the newspaper, occurred in Iraq, Afghanistan, and The Danish cartoons crisis God willing’. Pakistan. In Nigeria, protestors has, in light of subsequent events, In this, the dossier was a attacked and burned down local taken on a deeper meaning. But in great success. The result of the Christian churches. Some estimates 2005 the political undercurrents fundamentally political decision suggest that globally 200 people lost of clerical aniconism seemed to to create a dossier that exaggerated their lives in the aftermath of the be at the forefront. The Danish and distorted the actions of Jyllands- cartoons’ publication. imams were playing Danish politics Posten was devastating. Throughout In Denmark, Rose and the when they compiled their dossier February 2006—more than four cartoonist Kurt Westergaard were the of grievances. One cleric had been months after the publication of subject of numerous death threats and particularly incensed with Jyllands- the cartoons—protests and riots assassination plots. One particularly Posten for publishing details of a erupted throughout the Muslim close call occurred when a Somali sermon he had given in which he world. The targets of ire were not man invaded Westergaard’s home described women as the devil’s just symbols of Denmark but with an axe and a knife. Westergaard work. He saw the cartoons as an other countries whose newspapers hid in a panic room until Danish opportunity for some payback. either reprinted the cartoons or police shot and wounded the man, Likewise, the governments of were generally presumed to be who was linked to a radical Islamist Saudi Arabia and Iran had their in league with the anti-Muslim group. Other plots disrupted include domestic audience in mind when

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Journalist Flemming Rose, author and cultural editor of Jyllands Posten, discusses terror issues at the Danish Publicist Club, March 2015. Image: AAP/Mathias Bojesen

CONTINUED PERHAPS WHAT their views on the non-political they lodged their Danish protests. THE WORLD SAW IN scandals of the hour, but the Danish The violence emanated primarily > 2005 AND 2006 WAS imams and the eleven Muslim from within Muslim countries AN INTERNATIONAL governments were after more than and not from Muslim migrants CLASH BETWEEN just a side-comment by Prime in Denmark. Local riots always TWO SOCIETIES—THE Minister Rasmussen. They wanted a have local causes. Attacks on VIRTUES OF FREE legal and political response. Christians in Muslim-majority EXPRESSION WERE The principle of a free press countries were as much driven by LOST IN TRANSLATION. not subject to direct controls by local prejudices as anything else. the government of the day is a In some countries—such as India crisis is the relationship between liberal one. Yet this liberal idea is and Pakistan—extremists used the Jyllands-Posten’s decision to publish not internationally unanimous. existence of the cartoons as a way the cartoons and the blame laid by The countries that protested so to destabilise domestic regimes. critics on the Danish government. vigorously against the cartoons do Other protests were sponsored by How does a feature in an not share the ethos of the free press. the governments of Iran and Syria independent newspaper so quickly Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Pakistan, to underline their own regimes’ become a question of diplomacy Iran impose the death penalty for religious piety. between national governments? We blasphemy. Turkey, Indonesia, Libya One notable aspect of the Danish are used to political leaders sharing and Morocco also impose judicial

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punishment for blasphemy. Perhaps or expressions of blasphemous or and whistle blowers for criticising what the world saw in 2005 and 2006 discriminatory nature. The offended the government. was an international clash between party may bring such acts or Even Western, liberal leaders like two societies. The virtues of free expressions to court, and it is for the David Cameron and Angela Merkel expression were lost in translation. courts to decide in individual cases. preside over laws that prohibit and And yet this explanation is too Pleading the fundamental right punish hate speech. And Australia, of simple. Freedom of speech is hardly to freedom of expression simply course, has section 18C of the Racial an overriding concern in the West looks false when blasphemy and hate Discrimination Act. After the Charlie either. One need only look at the speech laws are sitting on the statute Hebdo killings Tony Abbott argued repeated legal actions taken against books, waiting to be used. rightly that ‘from time to time people Charlie Hebdo to see that. Or indeed, In the wake of the Charlie will be upset, offended, insulted, against Jyllands-Posten. Denmark Hebdo massacre in January 2015, humiliated … but it is all part of a has a blasphemy law which prohibits world leaders, foreign ministers, free society.’ Yet our legal system does the public ridicule of a religious ambassadors and other dignitaries not reflect this basic liberal principle. community. Denmark’s blasphemy gathered in Paris to take a stand Speech laws, we have been told law is a criminal law, rather than a against Islamist violence. Linking time and time again, play as much civil one. The committee of imams arms they walked solemnly down a a symbolic role as a practical one; complained to the police that such Parisian boulevard, looking as if they showing who we are as a nation, the a violation had occurred, but the were leading the protest marches that language and sentiments we will not outcome of the police investigation had brought more than a million tolerate. was that the cartoon publication people onto the streets in Paris that day. Rose’s Tyranny of Silence would be protected by exceptions is especially good when it covering matters of public interest. contextualises the cartoon crisis What messages do such HATE SPEECH AND in the long historical contest over laws send? They suggest that BLASPHEMY LAWS individual liberty and dissent. As religious insult is a matter for state > UNDERMINE THE a journalist, he spent a great deal supervision. Moreover, they imply LIBERAL FIREWALL of time talking to Soviet dissidents that the bounds of public discourse THAT EXISTS who wanted the same sort of liberal should be determined by legislation, BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL freedoms enjoyed in the West. EXPRESSION AND THE and that the proper response to Many Muslims now want the VIEWS OF SOCIETY offensive newspaper publications same freedoms but are prevented Journalist Flemming Rose, author and cultural editor of Jyllands Posten, discusses terror issues at the Danish Publicist Club, March 2015. Image: AAP/Mathias Bojesen AS A WHOLE. is to approach the police. No from expressing their desire by a wonder the immediate appeal stultifying public sphere in Islamic of the imams—and the foreign In fact, this was an illusion: the countries and the aggressive political governments—was directed to the famed photo-op was conducted in an dominance of radical Muslim Danish government. otherwise empty and secure side- ‘spokesmen’ in the West. Hate speech and blasphemy street, far away from the crowds. As Rose points out, Western laws undermine the liberal firewall More egregious, and more liberalism’s weak and hesitating that exists between individual suggestive, was the fact that many defence of free speech is not only a expression and the views of society of the leaders who attended the poor defence of its own values, but as a whole. Once we have established protest apparently in defence of it abandons liberals in the Muslim the principle that the nation can freedom of expression were in world who are looking for alternative prevent offensive speech, it is charge of countries that aggressively political paths. There are many unsurprising that people blame the stifled expression at home. Take, human rights activists in the Muslim nation for having failed to prevent for instance, Sameh Shoukry, the world crying out for the liberties offence. Rasmussen’s response to the foreign minister of Egypt, marching which we now bargain away in the diplomatic protest stated that: at the very time that Al Jazeera mistaken name of ‘toleration’. The freedom of expression has journalists, including the Australian Defending freedom of expression a wide scope and the Danish Peter Greste, were locked up in a is not some academic preoccupation. government has no means of Cairo prison. So too was the Russian It is fundamental to our idea of influencing the press. However, foreign minister—envoy to ourselves—to our liberties, and Danish legislation prohibits acts a country that targets journalists ultimately, to our civilisation. R

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THE SHARING ECONOMY Political entrepreneurs are finding ways to break the strong relationship between regulators and the industries controlling them, writes Darcy Allen, and in doing so are paving the way to a freer market

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While the questions are old, what is new and revolutionary DARCY ALLEN is the way these regulatory Research Fellow at the Institute of Public Affairs battles are being fought. The political entrepreneurs in the sharing economy are not seeking he sharing economy government-granted protection— is a suite of emerging they are advocating for free markets software platforms acting and deregulation. And they are not T as an intermediary achieving this by negotiation with between private buyers and private bureaucrats in Canberra. sellers, allowing them to share Their novel approach is to create their existing resources—hence, an informal yet powerful coalition a ‘sharing’ economy. The sharing with their customer base. This economy is a market catalysed provides the political leverage to tear by disruptive technologies. down the current barriers to entry, Communication technologies have which in turn promotes innovation, drastically reduced the costs of competition and choice in the coordinating resources. It is now Australian economy. marvellously cheap and simple to discover if there’s an idle car or an empty room around the corner. VOTERS ARE FAST The sharing economy does not COMING TO REALISE SHARING > THE VAST BENEFITS OF own the cars, the houses, or the FREE MARKETS AND helicopters. What the companies LOW REGULATION. own is the software—and the algorithms—that help match ECONOMY potential private buyers and sellers. In a time where the cost of living Their software models are based is on the rise, it is little surprise on self-regulation mechanisms that consumers are streaming to a such as insurance for guests and sharing economy which gives them hosts, a secure payment system, and greater choice. reputation-based accountability. Since August 2008 over 25 And these applications million guests have chosen to sleep are extremely beneficial to its in one of the 800,000 Airbnb listed consumers—giving them a way to properties. The ridesharing app escape the high costs brought about Uber is signing up over 1100 new by overly-regulated government ridesharing partners every month industries that impose unnecessarily in Australia. Zopa—a peer-to-peer high cost structures. lending application in the UK— The current valuations of these has lent over 650 million pounds peer-to-peer models are over $75 between individuals. Airtasker—an billion. Despite this, the future Australian company focusing on of the sharing economy remains utilising casual labour to complete dependent on breaking the strong tasks—has facilitated over relationship between regulators and $5.85 million in jobs between the industries controlling them. over 160,000 people. The disruption of highly regulated Another nascent Australian industries by companies, such as company, Open Shed, is sharing Uber and Airbnb, has roused old household tools—such as lawn questions of the efficacy and role of mowers and post-hole diggers— industry regulation. between over 5,000 members.

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CONTINUED Consequently, such control The uniqueness of the sharing IN A TIME WHERE makes it harder for innovators to economy is largely in its ability to THE COST OF LIVING enter the market creating barriers exchange the underutilised capacity > IS ON THE RISE, IT that restrict competition. The result of resources that individuals already IS LITTLE SURPRISE is supernormal profits for producers own. The economics of this is quite THAT CONSUMERS at the detriment of consumers. simple: we have faster, cheaper, and ARE STREAMING TO A The other side of this is the SHARING ECONOMY deeper access to knowledge that make supply of regulation by governments WHICH GIVES THEM existing resources divisible through GREATER CHOICE. and regulators. Sam Peltzman’s time and space in more efficient ways. work focuses on these motivations This is good for consumers— of regulators. What governments UberX is approximately 20-50 over largely hypothetical harms to the want is the money and votes private per cent cheaper than the taxicab public. industries can provide. alternative. It is good for producers— This pushback against the The outcome is a symbiotic such as the average $2,500 monthly emerging sharing economy can be relationship between regulators and income for twenty hours of work per understood through the economics private industry—regulators provide week for UberX partner drivers in of regulation, namely the demand barriers to entry in return for financial Sydney. for, and the supply of, regulation. resources and political votes. Seeking If the sharing economy is so The thesis of Nobel winner this relationship is often referred to good, why is there even a problem George Stigler was that regulation is as political entrepreneurship. That is, at all? The sharing economy has often acquired by an industry, rather efforts to craft a mutually beneficial disrupted the strong relationship than thrust upon it in the public exchange with governments—often between incumbent industries and interest. In reality, businesses are occupational licensing in return for their regulators. This has seen a raft acquiring the government’s most political support. of sensationalised media attention powerful resource: the legal right to Once this exchange is shaped, it pushed by incumbent industries control entry into a given market. is in the interest of both the industry

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and the government to maintain and BUSINESSES ARE strengthen this relationship. This is ACQUIRING THE Current a serious problem for entrepreneurs > GOVERNMENT’S MOST valuations of and innovators looking to compete. POWERFUL RESOURCE: When both governments and the THE LEGAL RIGHT TO peer-to-peer incumbents are benefitting from an CONTROL ENTRY INTO A GIVEN MARKET. models: exchange, entrepreneurs must offer a better deal to government. $75 bn What can entrepreneurs do while consumers enjoy the benefits about this? One common path is of increased consumer surplus. to try and negotiate to be included Entrepreneurs and their consumers within the barriers to entry. There have formed a coalition indirectly AIRBNB are two problems with this. The first seeking the same outcome: free 25 million guests have is that entrepreneurs often lack the markets. The sharing economy is used this app since 2008 money and the votes the government standing up and showing its disdain wants. They cannot provide a more for the current regulations. This is appealing deal to disrupt the current good for Australia. industry-government relationship. Entrepreneurs now have a powerful UBER The second is that this is bad for base of voters at their disposal.: voters 1100 new users sign up society. These are costly and time- who are fast coming to realise the consuming negotiations that hurt vast benefits of free markets and low every month in Australia both entrepreneurs and consumers. regulation. This has the potential for a strong free market message that comes from the public itself. ENTREPRENEURS Riding with Uber and hosting ZOPA MAKE MONEY, WHILE with Airbnb is a tangible experience a UK peer-to-peer CONSUMERS ENJOY > through which individuals can lending application has THE BENEFITS lent 60 million pounds OF INCREASED realise the immense benefits of CONSUMER SURPLUS. free markets absent from between individuals government control. What they are experiencing is the recapturing The sharing economy is taking a of the consumer surplus that had different path. Their form of political been flowing into the incumbent Airtasker entrepreneurship is not to get inside industries for many decades. has facilitated $5.85 the barriers, or to tear them down It would be overly ambitious million in jobs between with direct negotiation. Rather, they and optimistic to suggest that the over 160,000 people are ignoring current regulations and sharing economy entrepreneurs building a wide and decentralised understand the important political base of users. ground-swell they are providing. This informal relationship between In reality, what they understand entrepreneurs and their user-base is that they can provide greater good thing. It is important that these provides political leverage that makes services at lower cost and gain scuffles continue to be played out the government reconsider their market share in a free-market noisily and chaotically in the public eye. current arrangements. The result is environment of low regulation. The incumbents are currently being left the creation of a political environment Yet while their actions firmly sit scrambling for air, citing their various that is almost toxic to that government in their own private interest, they excuses for their ‘level-playing field’. which in turn seriously attempts to are more broadly providing a service Each new user of the sharing shut them down. that all Australians can enjoy—they economy is a vote for the free This relationship between the are breaking up the incumbent market, and is additional power sharing economy entrepreneurs industries-government relationship. on the side of the free market and their customers is a symbiotic This locking of horns between the political entrepreneurs. R one. Entrepreneurs make money, incumbents and the innovators is a

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 27

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 27 15/09/2015 12:46:29 PM THE BEGINNING OF LIBERTARIANISM IN AUSTRALIA For forty years, libertarianismLIBERTARIAN’S has been an important voice in public debate, explains Richard Allsop AUSTRALIAN

BEGINNINGS For forty years, libertarianism has been an important voice in public debate, explains Richard Allsop

Neville Kennard at the Workers Party Reunion in 2011. Kennard described discovering libertarian writing in the early 1970s and his joy in finding ‘fellow travellers’.

back from a multi-country tour of aggressive Malcolm Fraser. But a RICHARD ALLSOP Europe to visit post-cyclone Darwin, growing number believed that a more Senior Fellow at the Institute of Public Affairs but soon set off on his travels again. radical alternative was required. It was little wonder that he was keen The seeds of the Workers Party to get away as, apart from the cricket, had been sown a couple of years lot happened in Australia there was little good news around. earlier when a Sydney-based Ayn in the summer of 1974- Economic conditions had Rand discussion group evolved into 75. Cyclone Tracy struck deteriorated rapidly in the second the ‘Alliance for Individual Rights’. ADarwin, Hobart’s Tasman half of 1974. Inflation had spiralled In October 1973 some members of Bridge collapsed, Lillee and Thommo into double figures, unemployment this group published the first edition terrorised English batsmen, home- was rising, and day-by-day it was of a magazine called Free Enterprise, grown pop star William Shakespeare becoming more apparent that the which they sold on street corners and went to number one with ‘My Little rapidly expanding government in select bookshops. Angel’, and Australia’s first-ever spending under Whitlam was the During 1974, one of the members avowedly libertarian political party cause of—rather than the solution of the group, Maureen Nathan, was formed. Known as the Workers to—the country’s problems. decided it might be worth contacting Party, it was launched at the Sydney Many still thought that the answer leading advertising executive John Opera House on the Australia Day lay simply in returning the Coalition Singleton, who had publicly attacked weekend. to power. Others felt that this would the socialist tendencies of the Prime Minister Gough Whitlam only be effective if there was a change Whitlam Government. Nathan rang famously missed a large chunk of that of Liberal leadership from the error- his office and set up a meeting. fateful summer. He had to be dragged prone Billy Snedden to the more One of the editors of Free

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LIBERTARIAN’S AUSTRALIAN BEGINNINGS

Author Ayn Rand. The Workers Party was born out of Sydney-based Ayn Rand discussion group.

Enterprise, mechanical engineer Sydneysiders—Dr Duncan Yuille, Enterprise Party, followed for a time Bob Howard, went to the meeting economist Mark Tier, lawyer Ramon by the Independence Party. However, with copies of the magazine and a Barros and Bob Howard. an article in The Australian in early proposal that Singleton might like One obvious source of advice was January 1975 reported that the party’s Neville Kennard at the Workers Party Reunion in 2011. Kennard described discovering libertarian writing in the early 1970s and his joy in finding ‘fellow travellers’. to support the group in setting up a the recently-formed Libertarian Party name was being kept secret ahead of bookshop to disseminate libertarian in the United States. the Opera House launch. ideas. Singleton responded with When the name was revealed characteristic colour, ‘A bookshop be Whiting explained that the term ‘ALL OVER THE buggered, let’s start a political party’. ‘workers’ had been chosen, as it was WORLD, PEOPLE ARE The group involved with Free > MORE RATIONAL AND referring to ‘the productive worker, Enterprise formed the core members MUCH MORE AWARE the fellow who wants to get off his of a working group to establish OF THEIR DAILY LIVES backside’. Nathan claims credit for the party. This Sydney group was THAN YOU AND THE suggesting the name, but has since subsequently joined by individuals GOVERNMENTS disassociated herself from the way from other states, including Dr John CHOOSE TO MAKE it was launched without proper Whiting from South Australia, Viv USE SOUND.’ explanation to the public. She had Forbes from Queensland, and Ron proposed a series of teaser ads asking Manners from Western Australia. The Australians approached leading people whether they were workers Whiting, a former chairman of American libertarian Murray before revealing that the ads related to the General Practitioners’ Society Rothbard for advice and he wrote back a political party. in South Australia, had caused a stir expressing his delight that the first Prominent miner Lang Hancock in 1973 when he said he was ready libertarian party outside the United was the guest of honour at the to be jailed in defiance of a South States was being formed, although not inaugural dinner at the Opera House, Australian Government prices control offering much in the way of practical but he declined to join, as he felt the order limiting his fee increase to support. fact that he had lots of enemies would 15 per cent. Whiting became the A key decision for the founders be ‘lead in the saddlebag’ for the new inaugural president of the party, was what name the new party should party. Still his presence helped with with the other four directors being adopt. An early favourite was the Free generating publicity.

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Published in 1977, and with a foreword by Lang >Hancock, Rip Van Australia outlined the need for and merits of free enterprise. The authors acknowledged their ‘tremendous intellectual debt to such people as Murray Rothbard, novelist Ayn Rand, Nobel Prize-winning economist Professor F. A. Hayek, Professor Ludwig von Mises—arguably the greatest economist of them all, but sadly, the least recognized. Educationalists [such as] A.S. Neill and John Holt, individualist anarchists Albert Jay Nock, Herbert Spencer, H.L. Mencken and H.D. Thoreau and many more ... are currently giving this long and proud intellectual tradition new purpose and new life. Without the dedication and work of all these people, the outlook for people who believe that freedom requires economic as well as social freedom would be very bleak indeed.’

CONTINUED crossed swords with a more typical involved in the Workers Party as a The launch made the front page of Monday Conference guest, notorious favour to Singleton and recalled ‘it The Australian and was generally on prophet of environmental doom, Dr was a real pain; journalists should be page three of the other major dailies. Paul Ehrlich. She had pointed out to outside the whole political thing’. The articles were riddled with pure him that ‘all over the world people are One of the most interesting articles libertarian comments from Whiting much more rational and much more about the new party was penned such as that taxation is ‘theft that aware of their daily lives than you by the young Malcolm Turnbull in lets parasites live off the earnings of and the governments choose to Nation Review. It combined a mix productive workers’. make us sound’. of interesting insight into Turnbull’s TheSydney Morning Herald also The publicity the new party own views at the time, such as support explained that the party was strong received, and the political excitement for compulsory unionism, and on personal freedoms, ‘supporting of the times, meant that by May 1975 perceptive commentary. the abolition of all laws against drug the party had an Australia-wide Noting that previous Liberal use, censorship, gambling and any membership of 600. One high-profile administrations had often promised sexual activity’. recruit was newspaper editor Maxwell to cut the public service but never The new party’s profile was given Newton. This proved a mixed blessing. delivered, Turnbull wondered if signs a further boost when Singleton Newton made a number of of electoral support for the Workers and Howard were guests on the excellent speeches, but irretrievably Party might embolden the next first edition for 1975 of ABC TV’s spoilt one of them by making Liberal government. He also wondered Monday Conference (the Q&A of its an anti-Semitic remark about if the Workers Party’s ideas might time). Unsurprisingly, the audience Jim Spigelman, the ex-Whitlam discourage the ALP from continuing —which included Liberal wets, adviser appointed Secretary of the to create ‘an enormous middle class trade unionists and other assorted Department of the Media while public service’ and instead realise that critics—found little that appealed in still in his twenties. things like childcare centres might the party’s manifesto. Newton was not a racist, but best be delivered by local community However, viewers would not have this was a period when alcoholism activism. found the ideas completely novel. On had made his behaviour and public The first electoral test for the an episode of Monday Conference the pronouncements increasingly Workers Party was in a state by- previous November, Nathan (described erratic. Newton explained in a election in Western Australia. In the as ‘a frequent spokeswoman of the newspaper interview a couple of safe Liberal seat of Greenough, the Alliance for Individual Rights’) had years later that he had only got party’s candidate, Geoffrey McNeil,

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polled 841 votes—a very creditable 13 and efficiency are sometimes difficult supporters went on to be among the per cent of the primary vote, only just to reconcile. founding committee members of the behind the Labor candidate. In 1976-77, a series of disputes Melbourne branch of the Adam Smith The real test came a few weeks over the constitution and platform, Club, replicating a pattern around the later in the 1975 federal election, concerns about doctrinal purity and country where those who had been probably the worst possible starting ongoing argument about whether activists for the Workers and Progress point for a new minor party as, the party’s name was appropriate Parties continued to be involved in the polarised post-Dismissal eventually led to a split. Some through means other than party environment, the L-NP and ALP members remained active in a politics. between them recorded 95.8 per cent successor party, which was named the Clearly, in electoral terms, the of the national primary vote, the Progress Party. Workers Party was not a success. highest share they have secured in any The Progress Party continued to However, the history of the Workers election between the early 1950s and spasmodically contest elections for a Party is not about votes won. It is an the present day. number of years. In Western Australia, important aspect of the history of ideas Compared to other minor re-badged as the Westralian Progress in Australia. parties, the Workers Party performed Party, it contested a number of seats In his reflections on his intellectual modestly well, generally outpolling at the 1977 state election, with McNeil journey, businessman Neville Kennard both the DLP and Australia Party in again polling well in Greenough and described discovering libertarian electorates which all were contesting. the party also doing well in Kalgoorlie writing in the early 1970s. He felt alone Another problem was that many and Geraldton. in his appreciation of it until he read people—who might otherwise have an advertisement for the Workers been inclined to support the Workers Party, went along to a meeting and Party—believed that Malcolm THE HISTORY OF found some like-minded people. In Fraser was a fellow-traveller, a view THE WORKERS Kennard’s view, the success of the contributed to by his professed > PARTY IS NOT ABOUT party was that it brought together VOTES WON. IT IS AN admiration for Ayn Rand. ‘some lonely fellow-travellers and IMPORTANT ASPECT As Ron Manners explained in OF THE HISTORY OF was the beginning of the libertarian his memoir, Heroic Misadventures, IDEAS IN AUSTRALIA. movement in Australia’. ‘his [Fraser’s] election speeches were One other fondly remembered indeed refreshing and gave many of us by-product of the Workers Party the feeling that we could “pull up our Later in the year, the Westralian was the book Rip Van Australia political tent and go back Progress Party pulled off a coup when authored by Singleton and Howard, to work” as the country would be it recruited Liberal defector, Peter which provided a highly entertaining in safe hands’. Richardson, the Federal MHR for introduction to libertarian ideas. In his thoughtful 1987 work, Tangney. However, Richardson did not While many in the libertarian Libertarianism in Australia’s New recontest Tangney at the December ranks ended up believing that Enlightenment, Bill Stacey argued that election; instead the ubiquitous McNeil Singleton was not really one of them, the failure to achieve a stronger vote contested the seat. He scored 3.6 per he probably deserves the last word on was something the party ‘never fully cent of the vote, above the party’s the party he suggested forming. recovered from’. In his well-argued state-wide average of just under 3 per Reflecting on it years later, conclusion Stacey makes the point cent. Also in 1977, the Progress Party he said: ‘I knew we wouldn’t win that, as well as the usual minor party polled very well in the last Northern an election or probably even a gripes about issues like a lack of media Territory Assembly elections prior to seat, (I was dead right), but the coverage, the Workers Party had a self-government. prime objective of the party was uniquely libertarian dilemma. One of the last spurts of Progress to make people think; to become He pointed out that there are ‘two Party action came in Victoria in 1983, a tool of education and I believe rather contradictory characteristics where the party contested federal seats to that degree at least the party common in libertarian movements’, at the general election, a subsequent was successful.’ as libertarians tend to be supporters by-election and a state upper house So mark the birth of the Workers of efficiency in business activity, but by-election, where the candidate, Party down as one of the successes opposed to coercion in the political Isaac Lahav, put in a most energetic from the mixed bag that was the arena. Participatory democracy campaign. Lahav and a number of his summer of 1974/75. R

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IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 31 15/09/2015 12:46:31 PM By Angel Perez (“Je Suis Charlie” @ Kogens Nytorv - Copenhagen), Wikimedia Commons WHEN IS FREE S EECH

FShould we drawEE? lines around free speech and the truth? asks Eli Bernstein

ELI BERNSTEIN limits of free speech should be drawn, of the organisations ‘American Perth-based Libertarian or whether they should be drawn at all. Freedom Defense Initiative’ and ‘Stop It was George Orwell who said the Islamization of America’, and he recent shooting at the ‘Draw ‘If liberty means anything at all, organised the ‘Draw Mohammad’ Mohammad’ event in Texas, it means the right to tell people event. Responding to claims by the T like the Charlie Hebdo attacks what they do not want to hear.’ mayor of Garland that she [Geller] in Paris a few months back, raises Pamela Geller fits squarely into needlessly provoked the attack, important questions about where the that description. Geller is President Geller said, ‘How ridiculous. I mean,

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that’s like saying the pretty girl was and Buddha, depicted ‘engaging in that happens, there will take place responsible for her own rape.’ a lascivious sex act of considerable no purification of religion . . . This She has a point. depravity’, drew no such reaction. The is the opposite of what some people Following the attacks in France, image was aptly titled ‘No One was think, namely, that when you prevent millions pronounced ‘Je Suis Charlie,’ Murdered because of this Image.’ someone from speaking against in support of the French satirical This debate about the limits of religion, that strengthens religion. publication. Yet on the day Charlie free speech has reignited calls in That is not so, because curbing the Hebdo sold out of five million copies Australia for repealing laws that words of an opponent in religious of its latest issue, French comedian make it unlawful to ‘offend, insult, matters is nothing but the curbing Dieudonné was arrested and charged humiliate or intimidate another and enfeebling of religion itself. with inciting terrorism for posting person or group’. Australian Human John Milton extended on this the Facebook status ‘Je me sens Rights Commissioner Tim Wilson has point in his 1644 pamphlet in Charlie Coulibaly’ (I feel like Charlie stated that the Charlie Hebdo cartoons defence of free speech, Areopagitica: Coulibaly). Coulibaly was the gunman would not be allowed under the Racial ‘[W]e do injuriously by licensing who attacked the Kosher supermarket Discrimination Act, while Australia’s and prohibiting… Let [Truth] and in Paris. Days after the march, where Race Discrimination Commissioner Falsehood grapple; who ever knew pencils were held up high symbolising Tim Soutphommasane disagreed. The Truth put to the worse, in a free and freedom of speech, 54 people were Australian laws are not dissimilar to open encounter?’ arrested in France for offensive speech. the Canadian laws enforced against John Stuart Mill reiterated the In fact, Charlie Hebdo, like journalists Mark Steyn and Ezra argument in On Liberty (1859): Dieudonné, has had many run-ins with Levant for articles offensive to Islam. But the peculiar evil of silencing the By Angel Perez (“Je Suis Charlie” @ Kogens Nytorv - Copenhagen), Wikimedia Commons the law over its publications, having lost expression of an opinion is, that it is nine out of 48 trials for its boundary ‘IF LIBERTY MEANS robbing the human race; posterity as testing, according to Le Monde. ANYTHING AT ALL, IT well as the existing generation; those Let’s be clear: no one in their right > MEANS THE RIGHT TO who dissent from the opinion, still mind can defend killing someone in TELL PEOPLE WHAT more than those who hold it. If the retaliation to an offence. What is being THEY DO NOT WANT opinion is right, they are deprived of debated is whether we have the right TO HEAR.’ ‑ GEORGE ORWELL the opportunity of exchanging error to offend. for truth: if wrong, they lose, what is Pope Francis entered the debate It appears the limits of free speech almost as great a benefit, the clearer suggesting that there are limits to are being tested these days, and a perception and livelier impression of freedom of expression, stating that ‘if clear line delineating the acceptable truth, produced by its collision with my good friend Dr Gasparri says a curse from the unacceptable is still a zigzag error. word against my mother, he can expect in the making. Rabbi Sacks concludes his article, a punch.’ David Cameron then criticised Thank goodness greater men saying: the Pope, insisting it is wrong to with less malleable principles have Truth … is not served by suggest that those who mock Islam and traversed this path before us. erecting around it defensive walls other religions could expect a punch. In his article, ‘One thing a Muslim, of legislation. We honour it by It should be noted that Charlie a Jew, a Christian and a humanist can surrounding it with spacious lawns Hebdo was an equal opportunity agree on’, Rabbi Lord Jonathan Sacks of free expression and flowerbeds of offender, targeting Islam, Judaism followed the development of the idea respectful debate. and Catholicism, among many other of freedom of speech through the As for Geller—was her conduct groups. Yet, it was its depiction of the ages. In it, he cites Ibn Rushd (1126- offensive to Muslims? Of course it Prophet Mohammad which prompted 98), known as Averroës, who said was. Did she have the right to offend? the reaction, echoing the global one should always cite the views of Well, that brings us back to Orwell: protests that swept the Arab world in one’s opponents. Silencing them is an ‘Freedom is the right to tell people 2006 following the 2005 publication implicit admission of the weakness of what they do not want to hear. of Danish cartoons featuring the same one’s case. Rabbi Judah Loewe (1525- The alternative, which is to silence prophet. 1609), the Maharal of Prague, cites everyone, is to deny freedom itself.’ Notably, the 2012 publication by Averroës and adds: Modified from an article originally The Onion featuring an illustration Do not say to your opponent: published in the Times of Israel— of Moses, Jesus Christ, Ganesha ‘Speak not, close your mouth.’ If 19 January 2015. R

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Australia’s mining industry could lift millions out of poverty, writes Brett Hogan.

INDIA, COAL COAL IS RESPONSIBLE AND AUSTRALIA FOR MORE > ELECTRICITY IN INDIA India is the world’s second largest BRETT HOGAN THAN EVERY OTHER Director, Energy and Innovation Policy nation by way of population, and at the Institute of Public Affairs SOURCE OF ENERGY is currently undergoing a stunning COMBINED, AND THE electricity grid transformation. And DOMESTIC SUPPLY it is coal that is making this possible. OF COAL IS UNABLE oal is the world’s TO KEEP PACE Between 1990 and 2012, India’s cheapest and most WITH DEMAND. total electricity consumption reliable source of quadrupled and India is now one C electricity. It powered the This extraordinary achievement of the world’s largest consumers Industrial Revolution and, together has been accompanied by behind China, the United States, the with other fossil fuels, has created an commensurate improvements in European Union and Japan. economic environment that over the other major quality of life indicators Coal is responsible for more last 200 years has enabled billions of such as life expectancy, infant electricity in India than all other people across the world to achieve a mortality and literacy. sources of energy combined, and the better quality of life. Affordable electricity has powered domestic supply of coal is unable to Between 1820 and 2011, the the increased production and safe keep pace with demand. The IEA proportion of people living in storage of food, clean drinking water, believes that India will overtake the extreme poverty decreased from the mass manufacture of clothing, United States as the world’s second over 80 per cent of the world the ability to heat and cool our homes biggest coal consumer after China population to only 14.5 per cent. In and businesses, a better quantity and before 2020, and will be the world’s his 2015 report World Poverty, Max quality of housing, access to and safe largest coal importer by 2025. Roser indicates that the number of storage of medicine, and the ability to Despite India’s significant people living in extreme poverty transport ourselves around our local progress in modernisation over the halved between 1990 and 2011 alone. neighbourhoods, cities, and countries. last twenty years, the number of

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September 2008: Greenpeace activist protesting Israel’s plan to build a new electricity power plant fueled by coal. Image: Shutterstock/ChameleonsEye

CONTINUED single commodity, and significantly Queensland’s Department of State people without access to electricity ahead of the third and fourth Development claims that the state’s is still estimated to be at least 300 ranked commodities (natural gas Galilee Basin, which has one of the million. The IEA estimates that worth $16.3 billion and international world’s most promising, undeveloped around 815 million people are still education worth $15.7 billion). coal deposits, has the potential to relying on biomass (wood, crop attract some $28 billion worth of waste, dung and similar materials) THE CHANCES investment and create 28,000 jobs. for cooking. According to the OF RENEWABLES GVK Hancock (a joint World Health Organisation, over 4 > REPLACING FOSSIL consortium between Indian million people throughout the world FUELS IN THE conglomerate GVK and Australian die each year from this form of NEAR FUTURE ARE company Hancock Prospecting) is household pollution. UNLIKELY. proposing to develop three mines in India is also plagued by the Galilee Basin, with a potential insufficient electricity capacity, However, while Australian exports total of at least 8 billion tonnes of poor infrastructure planning of thermal coal—coal used for the thermal coal. The expected export and delivery, and significant purpose of electricity generation– total of the two major mines would transmission losses, which has led increased from 87 million tonnes in be 60 million tonnes per annum. to limited or zero electricity supply, 2001 to 201 million tonnes in 2014, Adani’s Carmichael Project is and regular blackouts. only 6.7 million tonnes of this was another proposed multi-billion This is where Australia could exported to India. dollar project, with the potential for be a vital partner in India’s growth. From 2017, India is expected to 11 billion tonnes of thermal coal. With a total export value of $40 be increasing its investment in newer The expected export total of this billion in 2013-14, coal is currently ‘supercritical’ coal-fired plants that mine is estimated at approximately Australia’s second largest export are better suited to Australia’s better 60 million tonnes per annum. earner, ranking only behind iron quality coal (i.e. high energy content, Just these two projects, if ore in terms of the most valuable low sulphur and low ash). realised, could add an additional

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120 million tonnes per annum to work at night or in cloudy weather, important to them that their Australian thermal coal exports. or make wind power work in calm electricity system is reliable and To assess what this would mean conditions, or hydroelectric power affordable. for people in India, one tonne of work in times of drought or in areas The things we take for granted middle grade Queensland black that lack large rivers or mountains. in Australia—that our household coal in a supercritical power plant In the absence of large scale battery heating and cooling works when we can generate around 2268 kilowatt power, the chances of renewables need it, that our meat and milk is hours (kWh) of electricity; one replacing fossil fuels in the near properly refrigerated, that our stoves million tonnes of coal generates future are unlikely. Coal-fired and ovens don’t release polluted approximately 2.268 billion power stations typically have lower smoke into our kitchen, and even kWh. Using an average yearly operations and maintenance costs, that our televisions and lights are consumption per capita of 3298 and last at least twice as long as always available for use and mobiles kWh—which is equal to current solar and wind farms. can always be charged—are just not levels in China, a reasonable short- Two metrics that don’t currently the reality in many other countries. term aspirational goal for India—an get a lot of attention in the energy Australian mines are poised to extra 120 million tonnes of coal per debate are system reliability, and be the partner to India and assist year would allow 82,522,741 Indian the morality of ensuring that people in literally changing the lives of people to have access to a regular in the developing world have the millions of people. We should be and reliable supply of electricity. same opportunities for a secure supporting the rights of the Indian and rewarding life that nations people to improve their lives, and THE MORALITY OF COAL like Australia enjoy. Electricity equally supporting those Australian Solar and wind power may very networks exist as a means to businesses who are in the position to well have a place in future world provide people with reliable and make that a reality. R energy supply, but not even the most affordable power. earnest activist can change the laws For people in India and other To download the full paper, The Life of physics and force solar power to developing nations, it is just as Saving Potential of Coal, go to ipa.org.au

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 37

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 37 15/09/2015 12:46:38 PM KEEPING THE FAI H The Pope’s recent encyclical on Climate Change is not set in stone. It can be challenged, argues Father James Grant

Pope Francis, 266th pope of the Catholic Church

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around the world, but there is still a 1.3 billion people around the world FATHER JAMES GRANT long way to go. But in a strange twist, live without access to electricity, and Adjunct Fellow at the Institute of Public Affairs and a Catholic the best method so far discovered for no climate change reduction strategy Priest reducing poverty is precisely what will provide help to these people in the the Pope believes is the reason for the way they need it. What will help them KEEPING falling state of the world: coal, and its is coal-powered electricity and access n June of this year, Pope Francis ability to provide cheap energy. to global markets through free trade. published an encyclical which The most effective method, so Coal’s ability to lift people out of said that ‘the earth, our home, is far discovered, for reducing poverty poverty is well documented. When you Ibeginning to look more and more is to ensure that people have access think of how much a modern lifestyle like an immense pile of filth’ due to electricity generated from fossil completely depends on electricity—for to man-made pollution. It has been fuels. Fossil fuels will be with us for refrigeration, heating, and medical THE portrayed as a potential turning point a long time to come, and the world’s technology to name a few—it is little in the climate debate. poor cannot continue moving out of surprise that quality of life indicators People around the world are now poverty without them. dramatically improve once countries expecting the fight against climate have access to cheap electricity. change to be a central concern of the Between 1990 and 2010, 104 Catholic Church. But what people do IT IS POVERTY, NOT million Indonesians gained access not always understand is that while POLLUTION, WHICH to electricity. More than half of this an encyclical is designed to provide > IS GOING TO BE THE was because of coal. This improved DEFINING CHALLENGE spiritual guidance from the Pope living standards in Indonesia, with OF OUR TIME. IF WE on a particular subject, in Catholic ARE GOING TO MAKE life expectancy increasing by eight doctrine, it is completely acceptable for THE WORLD A BETTER years and infant mortality dropping Catholics to disagree with the opinions PLACE, THEN WE by 45 per cent. These are staggering expressed in it. WILL DO SO BY numbers, and they demonstrate coal’s So if a Catholic does not think the REDUCING POVERTY. power to bring people out of poverty world is turning into filth, they can feel and improve their lives. comfortable being at odds with Pope Renewable energy—which Pope Francis on that subject. The spread of coal to the world’s Francis believes is the energy of the Pope Francis has often spoken on poorest can only be achieved by future—is not in a position to replicate the need to focus on poverty and help the liberalisation of the global coal those statistics. And it will not be for a the vulnerable. trade. China, India, and much of the very long time. Helping the poor and the destitute global south are currently embarking Catholic social teaching has is a central responsibility for any on a host of free trade agreements, developed substantially over the last Catholic. So we should be concerned all designed to enhance their local 100 years, but still holds centrally that about the global state of humanity, and economies. This movement is vital for ‘the creator himself has given man the this is especially important in regards improving prosperity in developing right of private ownership not only to reducing poverty. countries. that individuals may be able to provide It is poverty, not pollution, which To be fair, Pope Francis does for themselves and their families, is going to be the defining challenge of acknowledge the importance of global but for the entire family of mankind’ our time. If we are going to make the trade. In supporting this, Pope Francis (Quadragesimo Anno 45). world a better place, then we acknowledges that costs for all the The world’s poor desperately need will do so by reducing poverty. world’s poorer nations should be borne our help, and the Pope is right to And strong progress has been made. by us all, and that fossil fuels are the call on us for it. And the way to help According to The Economist, nearly a only current viable energy resource is to make sure they have access to billion people have been taken with this potential. the greatest mechanisms for poverty out of extreme poverty in the last But those using the Pope’s reduction: cheap electricity and global twenty years. statements on pollution to justify free trade. They are the cornerstones Nevertheless, the encyclical does reductions in carbon dioxide emissions of poverty reduction and give people have a strong practical layer, rightly will deprive the most vulnerable more opportunity to have some acknowledging the realities for the people of access to the most affordable control over their lives. R world’s poor. Poverty is declining energy supply: coal.

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IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 39 15/09/2015 12:46:41 PM FREE MARKETS AND TOLERANCE The free market is both tacit acknowledgement that tolerance is necessary in human relationships and also a mechanism to facilitate it, writes Peter Gregory

PETER GREGORY claiming Adam Smith was racist. predicated on voluntary exchange Research Fellow at the In the opening sentence of The and co-operation between people Institute of Public Affairs Wealth of Nations, Smith states that of different nationalities and races, nations can consume only what they rendering The Conversation piece f you’re an avid reader of the produce and ‘what is purchased with unsurprisingly absurd. IPA’s Hey…What did I miss, that produce from other nations’. It does, however, provide an you would have come across a Indeed, a major part of Smith’s amusing segue into a question I recent article in The Conversation thesis is that human prosperity is that has long preoccupied

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Industrial Economics) and Therese rule of the holy Roman emperor. A Nilsson (Lund University) that have measure of economic and political unearthed some interesting findings freedom was achieved in what regarding this connection. became known as the free cities in In short, these findings support the north. In Genoa, for example, an a positive relationship between institution known as the compagna economic freedom and tolerance. emerged in the thirteenth and Furthermore, they didn’t find the fourteenth centuries. The compagna other major themes of the ‘tolerance enforced contracts between the city’s literature’—education and income prominent seafaring merchants. inequality—to be determinants of The south, however, was subject the level of tolerance present in the to the autocratic rule of the emperor societies they examined. until 1870. This severely constrained Economic freedom’s positive economic freedom, as it disregarded contribution to tolerance is the individual as an organising unsurprising given that the purpose concept of society. Consequently, of the market existence is to satisfy the destiny of the people in southern the unique needs and wants of Italy was more heavily restricted diverse individual human beings. on the basis of their class, religion, As such, the market is both tacit gender and race. acknowledgement that tolerance is a necessity in human relationships and also a mechanism to facilitate it. THE MARKET IS BOTH TACIT The Enlightenment tradition > ACKNOWLEDGEMENT assumes that trade and exchange THAT TOLERANCE IS A between people and groups fosters NECESSITY IN HUMAN trust, co-operation and ultimately RELATIONSHIPS AND tolerance. The exposure to each ALSO A MECHANISM other through trade drives greater TO FACILITATE IT. understanding between groups and removes suspicion of the unknown. Furthermore, markets require Easterly cites studies that have trust to work. As such, the shown that people in the north of institutions that underpin markets— Italy today have greater openness the rule of law, property rights, and and trust in strangers than people in the enforcement of contracts—are the south. For example, people in the actually trust-protecting and trust- north are today more likely to donate building institutions. It is easier to their organs—an act that will benefit trust and tolerate a stranger if there someone they will never meet. Less is an effective means of recourse trust of outsiders results in a greater should the stranger break his or her importance placed on the bonds one contract with you. has with people they know—family, Development economist William friends and local community. Whilst economists—that is, whether there Easterly provides a salient example these bonds are generally a positive is a relationship between economic of this occurring in Italy where, he force, Easterly argues that in some freedom and tolerance. A piece by argues, the institutions required for circumstances these two factors economist Tyler Cowen in The New economic freedom have impacted on combined are believed to have York Times in January this year tolerance levels in different parts of contributed to the flourishing of piqued interest in this issue once the country. organised crime in the south of Italy. again. Cowen cited a recent set From the twelfth century A further component of the of studies by Swedish economists onwards, the north of Italy was Enlightenment view of economic Niclas Bergren (Research Institute of successful in resisting the autocratic freedom and tolerance is that

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CONTINUED consolidated the animosity tolerance is in people’s self-interest. THIS CONFLUENCE OF between Tutsis and Hutus. Mexican Commerce with individuals and EDUCATION AND FREER sociologist Rodolfo Stavenhagen groups outside one’s own community, > MARKETS (ALBEIT identified education being used as religion or culture has economic IN A CONSIDERABLY a tool for cultural repression by the benefits. Tolerance is required for LIMITED FORM) IS Arab elite in Sudan. Academics these transactions to take place and AS CLOSE AS MANY believe education was used in Nazi these transactions, in turn, create RESEARCHERS GET Germany to manipulate history more tolerance. Those that are TO TAPPING INTO so as to normalise the exclusion, intolerant forego these economic THE POWER OF de-humanisation, and eventual gains. Economic freedom also makes ECONOMIC FREEDOM extermination of Europe’s Jews, IN CONTRIBUTING TO people richer. The pragmatic view homosexuals and gypsies. UNICEF GREATER TOLERANCE. is that tensions between groups are has argued that the apartheid simply less fraught when there is less government of South Africa used the economic pressure on communities. which intolerance is one. However, education system to buttress racial Thus, economic freedom contributes theorists argue that education can segregation. This was accomplished to greater tolerance via communal be either a positive or a negative by teaching black South Africans prosperity. force for tolerance. that they were inferior to other In contrast to the Enlightenment On the negative side—education races whilst depriving them of the view, a significant proportion of used to promote intolerance— intellectual tools to question this the literature on tolerance focuses American academic Catharine notion. on areas other than economic Newbury has argued that the However, in terms of education freedom. Education is cited as a unequal distribution of education reducing intolerance, UNICEF panacea for a range of social ills, of in Rwanda, on the part of colonists, argues that bussing programs in

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the United States in the 1960s Tumin wrote that: Enlightenment view. They showed (where students were bussed from [T]o the extent that inequalities in that greater economic freedom, one area to create more racially social reward cannot be made fully and subsequently greater wealth, equitable classrooms), along with acceptable to the less privileged in leads to greater tolerance of gay affirmative action, helped dampen society, social stratification systems people. They found that if people are racial tensions in the United States. function to encourage hostility, accustomed to themselves and others Likewise, Tony Gallagher of Queens suspicion and distrust among the possessing choice with regards to University in Belfast believes the various segments of society, and economic activities, it follows that end of segregation in education thus to limit the possibilities of those societies would tolerate choice in Northern Ireland in 1981, and extensive social integration. in regards to individuals’ sexual more conciliatory education policies Stewart Wolf and John Bruhn behaviour. generally, helped mitigate the pointed to the example of the town Interestingly, in the Bergren and sectarian conflict there. of Roseto in Pennsylvania in the Nilsson studies, different elements of Furthermore, concepts such 1960s as an example of income what might be considered economic as linguistic tolerance, cultivating inequality increasing intolerance. freedom have varying impacts on inclusive citizenship, and using Roseto experienced rapid economic tolerance. Property rights, security history education to foster peace change at this time, leading to and low inflation are strongly in conflict-affected countries, are increased income inequality and positively correlated with tolerance all put forward by theorists as an apparent breakdown in social of gay people. ways that education challenges cohesion. A key finding was that economic intolerance. Perhaps more freedom and wealth have a more convincingly, examples of education COMMERCE WITH powerful association with tolerance that directly challenge the state INDIVIDUALS AND when societies exhibit a higher oppression of certain ethnic groups > GROUPS OUTSIDE level of trust. Cowen, like Easterly, are believed to foster tolerance. ONE’S OWN believes that trust is an underrated For example, the Roman COMMUNITY, RELIGION commodity in economics and should Catholic Church in apartheid South OR CULTURE HAS be given greater attention. Africa directly flouted the law by ECONOMIC BENEFITS. Significantly, for those mentioned allowing black and white students TOLERANCE IS above who claim education and to learn in the same classrooms. REQUIRED FOR THESE income inequality are decisive TRANSACTIONS TO Interestingly, UNICEF also factors in the level of intolerance TAKE PLACE AND argues that charter schools in the THESE TRANSACTIONS, present in any given society, Bergren United States have contributed to IN TURN, CREATE MORE and Nilsson didn’t find either to greater racial tolerance by giving TOLERANCE. have significant impact in any of the low income families a measure of cross-country data they collected. choice in education, encouraging In many ways, the question of greater parental participation. However, Richard Wilkinson the correlation, causation or This confluence of education provides a different perspective on otherwise between economic and freer markets (albeit in a income inequality. In his 1996 book freedom and tolerance is a considerably limited form) is as Unhealthy Societies: The Afflictions misnomer. close as many researchers get to of Inequality, he used the example The market is an institution for tapping into the power of economic of Britain during the World Wars in traversing our differences. It is a freedom in contributing to greater support of the argument that income mechanism through which we each tolerance. equality can increase tolerance. have the opportunity to satisfy our Some researchers argue During the World Wars, incomes in unique set of necessities, interests, that income inequality causes Britain actually compressed which, obligations, desires and dreams. intolerance. In 1953, Melvin Tumin according to Wilkinson, led to Difference is an assumption of the produced the seminal work on greater social cohesion. market—without difference, the social stratification (of which The studies undertaken by market would not be necessary. income inequality is a part) and its Bergren and Nilsson, which in turn Economic freedom, therefore, contribution to the breakdown in inspired Tyler Cowen’s New York isn’t a driver or cause of tolerance, social cohesion. Times piece, are a victory for the but a form of tolerance itself. R

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 43

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 43 15/09/2015 12:46:45 PM IN THE Beginning… In this excerpt from the IPA’s publication Magna Carta: the Tax Revolt that gave us Liberty Chris Berg and John Roskam explain why the Magna Carta still matters today

monarchs to issue charters not very The first lies in the fact that CHRIS BERG different from the Magna Carta. The England had a relatively centralised Senior Fellow at the Institute of Public Affairs best-known example is the Golden and well-regarded government. Bull of 1222, forced on King Andrew The English preferred to reform II of Hungary by disaffected nobles. their administration rather than Under its terms, nobles could legally revolutionise it. The other reason JOHN ROSKAM disobey a king who was not acting England developed as it did, according Executive Director at the according to the law. to Fukuyama, was because its society Institute of Public Affairs But as the political scientist was mobile and open to non-elites. Francis Fukuyama has noted, the Why England is different has been hy the Magna Carta? Golden Bull didn’t become the speculated upon for centuries. The question of what foundation for a political system in Montesquieu visiting England in is special about the Hungary, as the Magna Carta did in 1729 wrote ‘I am here in a country WMagna Carta goes England. From the fourteenth century which hardly resembles the rest of to the heart of any discussion about onwards, democracy was developing Europe.’ In his Spirit of the Laws, the enduring significance of what in England while royal absolutism Montesquieu noted that England happened at Runnymede in June 1215. was taking hold in the rest of Europe. was a commercial nation because The Magna Carta was not unique Fukuyama asks, ‘Why didn’t England they were a ‘free people’. When in European history. In the Middle end up like Hungary?’ He gives two Napoleon said ‘England is a nation Ages it was quite common for answers. of shopkeepers’ he actually didn’t

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mean it as an insult. He recognised Carta in 1216 gave the document a of parliament within a few years of England’s wealth was a product of its status beyond that of a mere peace becoming king because of his wars. trade, not its population or the extent treaty that, in any case, was repudiated The foreign policy of monarchs, of its territory. within three months of it being financed by taxes, were the vehicle for In his book The Origins of English agreed. the scrutiny of the king. Individualism, Alan Macfarlane noted The wars of John, Henry III, Oppressive taxes require an intriguing difference between and Edward I against France placed oppressive methods of collection. English land law in the Middle Ages huge financial burdens on all of the Taxpayers minimise, avoid, or just and land law in other parts of Europe. English population, and especially outright evade taxes that they are In England, individuals owned the the wealthy. It was to be expected that either unable to pay or consider land, and they could buy and sell hard-pressed taxpayers would seek unjust. Likewise, so much of King land as they wished—all property some protection against the increasing John’s brutality and arbitrary rule was was purchasable—a premise contrary extractions of the Crown. a consequence of his attempt to soak to law in nearly every other part of Tax was the cause of all the great up as much wealth from English lands the world. In other countries, there constitutional struggles of English as possible. Imposing harsh fines and was communal ownership of the history. It was inevitable that first great charges on traditional feudal rights land and significant restrictions on dispute about tax would become iconic. was John’s basic fiscal strategy. what could be done with the land. Both the burden of taxation and The consequence of this was, for TAX WAS THE CAUSE the methods by which he enforced example, that English agriculture OF ALL THE GREAT the taxes were brutal. And more became ‘individualistic’ while French > CONSTITUTIONAL importantly, the taxpayers felt that he agriculture remained ‘communal’. In STRUGGLES OF was violating unwritten norms that England decisions about land were ENGLISH HISTORY. IT governed the relationship between made by individuals, not the family or WAS INEVITABLE THAT themselves and the state. a set of families. The assumption that FIRST GREAT DISPUTE Indeed, the story of the Magna individuals were free to acquire and ABOUT TAX WOULD Carta tells us a great deal about this dispose of property runs through the BECOME ICONIC. financial relationship. It matters whole of the Magna Carta. how tax revenues are spent. Royal The Magna Carta was a compact The Magna Carta matters today adventures may have been important between the barons—an elite strata not because of its detailed outline of to the monarchs but it was the barons, of a few dozen people—and King feudal rights and royal limitations— not the monarchs themselves, who John. The barons’ interests were not and certainly not because the barons were asked to finance the burden. necessarily aligned with the mass of were passionate about the equal rights Over centuries, the Magna Carta people below them—the freemen and of the citizenry—but because of the became both less than the sum of its bonded peasants who ultimately bore way the charter set the development parts, and much more. The specific the brunt of political and economic of democratic liberalism in train. issues of thirteenth century taxation oppression. The campaign against The requirement that taxes could fell away. Yet the principles embodied John was a tax rebellion waged by a only be levied with the common in the Magna Carta did not disappear. highly privileged class. counsel of the realm was a crack in They were fought over for the next King John was the quintessential the heart of absolutist government. eight centuries. Bad King. His reputation is such that Not only was this power over tax a Some tax rebellions end in no other future monarch was named potent bargaining chip over the other brutal suppression. Others result in John. There were a number of Henrys, activities of the Crown, but it was civil war, revolution, and wholesale Richards, and Edwards, but he was necessary for the functioning of those regime change. Yet what happened the first and last John. In the centuries activities. at Runnymede stands apart from after Runnymede, anyone seeking a The most expensive pastime other tax rebellions. A revolt of precedent to use against a bad king of the English royalty was waging an unrepresentative elite forged or a bad government had to look no war. Indeed, it was Angevin foreign liberal democracy. And now, further than the Magna Carta. If policy that brought John’s kingship the fundamental basis of liberal the Magna Carta had not existed, to a crisis. Likewise, Henry III democracy is this: government must something else would have had to take found his reckoning over his foreign gain the consent of its citizens to take its place. The reissue of the Magna policy. Charles I lost the support taxes from them. R

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REVOLUTION REVOLUTION OR R ANTOR

able to explain anything that would has nothing to do with it. Rather than JAMES BOLT come afterwards. So Brand began displaying the problems with our Communications Coordinator at the Institute of Public writing this book. society or the benefits of the future Affairs. We have all thought of the perfect one, it is a photo of Brand, with an line we wished we’d used in an expression somewhere between evolution is Brand’s 350- argument long after the moment has brooding intensity and the standard page rallying cry for the passed. Brand has thought of several passport face. overthrow of civilisation. thousand. Well actually, there are But the front cover does speak for RBrand’s dissatisfaction with about twenty thoughts in this book, what the book is: an in-depth look the way things are came to light in the but several thousand lines. Yes: at Russell Brand. The book is chiefly now-famous Newsnight interview he shocking as it seems, this is not the filled with anecdotes, Brand’s views had with esteemed British journalist nuanced political treatise of the new on spiritualism, and the occasional Jeremy Paxman. There, what started society that Brand is calling for. complaint about capitalism to tie it as a conversation about Brand never The first warning sign of that all together. The twelve foundational having voted ended with Brand comes on the front cover. Though the principles of his new society are calling for a revolution without being book is called Revolution, the image reserved for six pages towards the end.

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Though to be fair, Brand does say wealth inequality and destroy the in the introduction that this book will planet, and they must be overcome detail what the revolution will look peacefully (although Brand at times like, not necessarily what comes after. seems excited for a fight). Once But that is not what the focus they are gone, we will create the of a book about a revolution should ideal society: a classless system of be. We all know what revolutions interlocking yet separate (it is not clear look like—history shows every type at all) groups that work for each other. imaginable. From blood-stained Sincere congratulations if you guillotines in Paris to peaceful rallies followed that. You will have also in India, there is no new ground noticed Brand has fallen victim to the Revolution to be broken on this issue. More same equation as countless political importantly, history also shows us revolutionaries before him: Bad By Russell Brand the aftermath. Many books have been situation + ? = Utopia. But how do Random House, 2014, 350 pages written of the scores of revolutionary we to get from here to the Promised Frenchmen overthrowing the ancien Land? Brand seems to suggest a The Only Way is Essex (one, and regime only to later be thrown to the universal awakening—a moment that is one too many for both of guillotine themselves. Or of Russian where the entire world rises as one and them). When you reach the chapter boys leaving their farms to overthrow says ‘no more’ to modern society. ‘Picketty, Licketty, Rollitty, Flicketty’ the Romanovs, only to return to even (cue raucous laughter), you’ll be so worse starvation. dismayed by the economic ignorance So what are those twelve principles NOTHING SEPARATES to the point you’ll find yourself we should man the barricades for? BRAND’S IDEAS FROM sighing in relief that someone serious The first—‘our common welfare > THE IDEAS OF EVERY is getting the time of day. But Picketty should come first’ over individual REVOLUTIONARY WITH is quickly shelved after one page so desires—is as stock-standard leftist AN ARTS DEGREE Brand can summarise his ‘mushroom ideology as there is. But then later guzzling space-cowboy’ friend Brand explains that, ‘Each group Daniel’s views on ‘the integration should be autonomous except in Brand sprinkles other political of science and mysticism’. It takes a matters affecting other groups or our thoughts through the book. Three special book to make someone pine organisation as a whole’, which sees ideas often brought up are: killing for more Picketty. Brand drifting dangerously close GM, a return to localised farming There has been some concern the to classical liberalism. Then there and cancelling world debt. Brand’s ideas in this book will influence the are bizarre principles like ‘the only economic illiteracy cannot be youth to violently pursue Brand’s requirement for membership is a understated. goals. Don’t worry—we are safe. There desire to stop drinking.’ Any rational economist could is nothing in this book that is actually Listing the principles that govern explain to Brand that killing GM is new. Every idea that is in this book Brand’s ideology probably will not going to severely impact the standard has been thrown out in every Socialist help convey Brand’s ideology, so after of life of GM shareholders, many of Alliance meeting there has been. And, reading the book, Brand’s overall whom aren’t the despised rich, and amidst a crowded field, that is the political views can be summed up as cancelling debt is going to hurt all central disappointment of the book. follows: Humans are innately good those who have invested in banks. Any There is a lack of imagination in and we are all spiritually connected Cambodian can tell you what cutting Brand’s manifesto, and no big new with one another thanks to a higher agriculture off from international idea that outdoes all the other big order above us. Unfortunately, thanks markets can do to a community. The new ideas before it. Nothing separates to the scheming of the wealthy problem is that no economist will Brand’s ideas from the ideas of every elite—led by the sinister Bilderberg ever tell Brand, because he has ‘no... revolutionary with an Arts degree. group—we have become disconnected intention of asking any.’ Maybe that will be the sequel: a book with each other, and are now slaves Economists certainly are missing. that meticulously details life after the to consumerism and individualism. This is a book with no mention Revolution and how the new society Corporations and the wealthy elite are of Hayek or Smith, and as many would work. That indeed would be the enemy as they promote wanton mentions of Keynes as the UK soap revolutionary. R

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 47

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 47 15/09/2015 12:46:51 PM PERSONALITY IN POLITICS In politics and history, personality does matter writes Stephanie Forrest.

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‘[THE TORIES] THINK OF [CHURCHILL] AS THE PEOPLE OF PARMA THINK OF >FORMAGGIO PARMIGIANO. HE IS THEIR BIGGEST CHEESE.’

STEPHANIE FORREST broadly chronological order. Research Scholar, Foundations So far as a collection of opinion of Western Civilisation Program at the Institute of Public Affairs pieces about Churchill goes, however, the book is an informative and enjoyable read. Like most of inston Churchill, so Johnson’s previous books, The Boris Johnson claims Churchill Factor is decidedly light- in his latest book, hearted, written in a jovial style and Wis ‘the resounding speckled with witticisms. human rebuttal to all Marxist For example, Johnson, noting historians who think history is Churchill’s description of Bolsheviks the story of vast and impersonal The Churchill Factor: How One as ‘baboons’, openly wonders what economic forces … one man can Man Made History Churchill had against baboons. make all the difference.’ By Boris Johnson He comments that Churchill had The Churchill Factor: How One Riverhead Books, 2014, 416 pages ‘stamina, power, sheer mental grunt Man Made History is, at its core, —as Jeremy Clarkson might put PERSONALITY founded on the idea that personality it’, and likens him to ‘some burly does matter. The course of history Like his earlier books, The Churchill and hungover butler from the set of is not solely dictated by impersonal, Factor is not an academic history by Downtown Abbey’. unstoppable forces; individuals can any account. Nor is it supposed to be an and do influence history. Johnson academic history—as Johnson notes in THE COURSE OF makes an entertaining case that the opening, ‘as a student of Churchill I HISTORY IS NOT IN POLITICS Churchill has had more impact on sit at the feet of Martin Gilbert, Andrew > SOLELY DICTATED the course of history than most, Roberts, Max Hastings, Richard Toye BY IMPERSONAL, and in more ways than is and many others’. Equally, this should UNSTOPPABLE commonly known. not be considered a full account of FORCES; INDIVIDUALS Known for his outlandish Churchill’s life. If you are seeking a CAN AND DO persona, Boris Johnson is currently narrative biography of Churchill which INFLUENCE HISTORY. the Mayor of London and has been chronicles his childhood, early political JOHNSON MAKES AN described as one of the most popular career, rise to the Prime Ministership, ENTERTAINING CASE THAT CHURCHILL HAS politicians in the United Kingdom. and his role in the Second World HAD MORE IMPACT Educated at Oxford University in War and beyond, you had better ON THE COURSE OF Classics, he has previously worked as look elsewhere. The Churchill Factor HISTORY THAN MOST, a journalist and the author of popular is more of a collection of essays or AND IN MORE WAYS histories —including Johnson’s Life of opinion pieces on different aspects of THAN IS COMMONLY London and The Dream of Rome. Churchill’s character, arranged in a KNOWN.

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CONTINUED the Americans would never have KNOWN FOR HIS Elsewhere, he notes that ‘[the entered the war, Hitler would have OUTLANDISH Tories] think of [Churchill] as the dominated Europe unchallenged, > PERSONA, BORIS people of Parma think of formaggio and the world of the twenty-first JOHNSON IS parmigiano. He is their biggest century would be a very different CURRENTLY THE MAYOR OF LONDON cheese.’ and very grim place. AND HAS BEEN Inadequacies and light-hearted The remainder of the book DESCRIBED AS ONE tone aside, The Churchill Factor explores various facets of Churchill’s OF THE MOST also succeeds in making a number personality and influence. These POPULAR POLITICIANS of potent points. The first chapter include the influence of his father IN THE UNITED opens in 28 May 1940—the point Randolph, his obsession with taking KINGDOM. at which Churchill, so Johnson risks such as flying, his marriage to contends, had the greatest impact on Clementine, and his writing habits. As many of his critics have the course of history. Clearly reflecting his background pointed out, there is also little The Second World War was in Classics, in chapter seven doubt that Boris Johnson—being a at a desperate low point for the Johnson also writes at length about politician himself—has written this Allies, with the situation in France Churchill’s usage of the English book to benefit his own political becoming hopeless. Churchill language, including his usage of career. He repeatedly denies that —having been Prime Minister chiasmus, or the reversal of causes he can be compared to Churchill, for less than three weeks —was (‘Now is not the end\it is not even noting in his introduction ‘I am under pressure from many of his the beginning of the end\But it is, not worthy to loose the latchet of colleagues, particularly Foreign perhaps, the end of the beginning’) his shoes’. Secretary Lord Halifax, to enter and his preferencing of ‘short Yet there are some into negotiations with Hitler and homely words’ of Anglo-Saxon unmistakeable similarities between pull out of the War. After prolonged origin over words with Latin and himself and the portrait that he meetings, negotiations, and an Greek roots in his speeches. paints of Churchill. impassioned speech, Churchill Other chapters explore the Both are notorious for their convinced his colleagues to particular areas of Churchill’s legacy eccentric personalities and public continue fighting. including his promotion of tanks personae; both were paid very well in the First World War, the welfare for their journalistic efforts and were INADEQUACIES state, the US entry into the Second widely popular with readers; both AND LIGHT-HEARTED World War, shaping the Middle managed to write volumes > TONE ASIDE, THE East, and in Cold War Europe. alongside politics. CHURCHILL FACTOR The book is certainly not devoid of Churchill was possibly Britain’s ALSO SUCCEEDS IN some careless errors —for example, in most famous Prime Minister, and MAKING A NUMBER chapter eleven Johnson dismissively though Boris Johnson has hitherto OF POTENT POINTS. notes that Croatia was ruled by ‘some not admitted it, there are rumours Ustasha creep or another’ in the that he has ambitions to become In his second chapter, ‘The postwar period. Naturally, Johnson Prime Minister himself. Does Non-Churchill Universe’, Johnson also has a tendency to over-exaggerate Boris think of himself as a bit of a enters the realm of speculation and Churchill’s achievements in some Churchill? He might well. Perhaps considers what might have happened areas. Of this, Johnson’s account of only time will tell. if Churchill had not have continued Churchill’s role in the development For all this, the essential the war or had not lived to become of the tanks is perhaps the most argument still stands. In politics and Prime Minister. obvious example. in history, personality does matter, Had Halifax got his way —so Moreover, as both a Euro- and Churchill’s life is a testament Johnson argues —Britain would sceptic and an admirer of Churchill, to this. have pulled out of the Second Johnson had to tread very carefully The Churchill Factor makes World War in 1940. He contends when dealing with Churchill’s views an entertaining read to anyone that the Nazis would have been on the European Union. There are interested in Winston Churchill free to invade the Soviet Union many who claim that Churchill was and the role of the individual without risking the western front, a proponent of ‘European unity’. in history. R

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IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 50 15/09/2015 12:46:55 PM IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 51 15/09/2015 12:46:56 PM The 1970s was a mixed bag of contradictory ideas, and Hamer’s premiership was not immune to it, writes Richard Allsop.

Dick Hamer, former Victorian Premier. Image: AAP/Julian Smith

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WHILE INCREASING FREEDOM IN CERTAIN WAYS, HAMER CURTAILED IT IN OTHERS, GOING DOWN THE ILLIBERAL PATH OF CREATING A BIGGER AND > MORE ASSERTIVE GOVERNMENT.

RICHARD ALLSOP five months later at the May 1973 Senior Fellow at the state election, Hamer’s Liberals Institute of Public Affairs managed to rack up over 55 per cent of the 2PP vote, a feat he repeated ictoria was once ‘the three years later. jewel in the crown’ of The superficial paradox of a the Liberal Party. As significant slice of voters supporting V well as providing six of Whitlam Labor federally and Hamer the first seven Federal leaders of the Liberals at state level is explained party, the Victorian Liberal Party Dick Hamer: The liberal Liberal by the fact that much of Hamer’s held power in its own right at state agenda—with its focus on issues By Tim Colebatch level for 27 years, from 1955 to 1982. Scribe, 2014, 520 pages like conservation and the arts Just as federally Robert Menzies’ —was in fact a milder form of successors are often treated as Whitlam’s agenda. footnotes to the era which bears Party as of any particular genius on Hamer epitomised the concept his name, so in Victoria there is behalf of the Victorian Liberals. The of what was called ‘small “l” a tendency to associate the era of fact that the DLP vote in Victoria liberalism’—a phrase which has been state Liberal dominance with Henry reached almost 17 per cent in 1961 more confusing than enlightening. Bolte, and overlook the significance was due to a massive transference Certainly, the Hamer government of what followed. That is a serious of previous Labor support, by way delivered some reforms which oversight. of preferences, to the Liberals. were truly liberal. It overturned The fact that this biography Moreover, the removal of the restrictions on margarine and by veteran Age journalist Tim majority of the Catholic Right from bingo, ended the death penalty, and Colebatch is the first on Bolte’s the ALP, left the ALP in the hands of initiated homosexual law reform. successor, Dick Hamer, emphasises an unelectable left-wing rump for a But while increasing freedom the neglect. Not only was Hamer couple of decades. in certain ways, Hamer curtailed it premier in his own right for nine The effects of the split were in others, going down the illiberal years, but the break between this wearing off when Hamer took over path of creating a bigger and more period and the earlier Bolte era was as leader of the opposition. Not assertive government. Public sector stark. As Colebatch writes, when only was the DLP vote declining spending, which had started to Hamer assumed the premiership rapidly, but federal intervention in increase in Bolte’s final two years, in August 1972, it was ‘as if he were the Victorian ALP contributed at exploded under Hamer. Victorian leading a new government’. the 1972 federal election to Labor government outlays as a share of It must be remembered that winning a majority of the two-party national GDP went from 2.12 per Bolte’s electoral success was as much preferred (2PP) vote in the state for cent in 1969-70 to 3.82 per cent the product of the split in the Labor the first time since 1954. Yet, just in 1975-76.

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October, 2002: Rupert Hamer (right) protesting with Joan Kirner against the plans to subdivide and develop the Point Nepean National Park. Image: AAP/Julian Smith

CONTINUED than just economic prosperity, but premiership, which were beset Just like Whitlam, Hamer’s there was the inherent risk that his with scandals over land deals and program hit the wall of economic conception of quality of life might be maverick behaviour from his own reality when the economy tanked in different from that of many citizens. MPs. 1974. Hamer became a particularly In an era of significant industrial However, at other times, the strong critic of the post-1975 attempts unrest, the key determinants author’s personal sympathy for of the Fraser federal government of quality of life for Victorians the Hamer agenda is a little too to rein in spending, regularly were often whether the electricity obvious. For Colebatch, the people complaining about the Fraser’s ‘fight workers, or train drivers, were on pushing the ‘small “l” liberal inflation first strategy’ and arguing strike or not. agenda’ in the 1970s were ‘young for a more Keynesian approach. Colebatch is astute enough to idealists’. Actually, they tended to Hamer remained determined recognise the failings of the more be political pragmatists wanting the to focus on ‘quality of life’, rather difficult later years of Hamer’s Liberal Party to always perpetually

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he observes that in the military, HAMER, LIKE MANY 1970S MODERNISERS, the need to be seen to be taking > SPENT MUCH OF some sort of positive action often HIS RETIREMENT resulted in men being sent to futile CRITICISING THE deaths for no strategic advantage. DIRECTION OF He then compares this with POLITICS AND modern executives in government SOCIET Y. AS WELL and business cutting jobs to save AS SHOWCASING money. Particularly in the case THE IRONY OF of government, this would seem MODERNISERS the reverse of a more common DISLIKING reality. More often than they cut, MODERNITY. governments spend more money on programs, not because they On the dust jacket, there is a genuinely believe they will fix quote from John Cain saying that problems, but just to be seen to this political biography is ‘do something’. ‘arguably the best produced in In fact, Colebatch himself Australia in the last 40 years’. provides a good example of how once While that claim may be hyperbole, governments become committed this book does have significant to big projects they find it hard to merits. For starters, it is an all walk away and prevent the financial too rare serious work about state bleeding. Hamer’s signature project politics. Secondly, Colebatch has was building the second stage of lived through and reported on the Arts Centre on the south bank many of the events he describes and of the Yarra River. The Builders thus avoids the sort of egregious Labourers’ Federation saw that his factual errors that have bedeviled commitment to the project made several recent Australian political him a soft touch for excessive biographies. demands for both increased pay and Colebatch’s work deserves to be ludicrously generous conditions. read, not just by Victorians but by a Rather than taking on the unions, national audience, because there is Hamer acquiesced and cost Victorian much in this book which helps the taxpayers millions of dollars. reader to understand the trajectory The author has personal of political ideas in Australia from connections with the Hamer the 1970s to the present. family, which must have made his Hamer, like many 1970s October, 2002: Rupert Hamer (right) protesting with Joan Kirner against the plans to subdivide and develop the Point Nepean National Park. Image: AAP/Julian Smith task as a biographer difficult at modernisers, spent much of times. Early in the book, some of his retirement criticising the chase the political centre to achieve Colebatch’s descriptions border on direction of politics and society. electoral success. The true idealists hagiography. Hamer is described As well as showcasing the irony of were those pushing political glowingly in almost every regard, not modernisers disliking modernity, agendas which were not so popular just for his undoubted successes as this book reminds us all what a at the time, the sort of people whom student, lawyer and soldier, but also mixed bag of contradictory ideas Colebatch badges as ‘free-market for things he could have done, such 1970s ‘small “l” liberalism’ really ideologues’. as the comment ‘he would have made was. Obviously, that was not Colebatch also draws a very a superb diplomat’. Yet, Colebatch Colebatch’s intention, but it is a odd comparison between historic does not shirk the responsibility of tribute to the overall quality of and contemporary needs to be recording some difficult personal his work that he has presented seen to ‘do something’. Citing an details in the concluding chapters, enough of the requisite raw example from Hamer’s years in the which helps reestablish a greater material to allow readers to draw army in the Second World War, sense of objectivity. their own conclusions. R

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 55

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 55 15/09/2015 12:46:59 PM BREATHING IN FREEDOM David Boaz’s new book is a welcome guide to understanding libertarianism, writes Dr Mikayla Novak

Ron and Rand Paul Kentucky, May 2010. Image: Gage Skidmore, Flickr.com

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OUR DIMINISHING ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FREEDOMS HAS LED TO AN UPSURGE IN INTEREST IN CLASSICAL > LIBERAL AND LIBERTARIAN IDEAS THROUGHOUT THE WESTERN WORLD.

DR MIKAYLA NOVAK Senior Fellow at the Institute of Public Affairs

he last few years has borne witness to an extraordinary growth in T government activities.’ Fiscal stimulus spending, the ramping up of public debt, The Libertarian Mind: A untrammelled increases in regulation Manifesto for Freedom affecting factor and product markets, By David Boaz and the burgeoning growth of Simon & Schuster, 2015, 432 pages the national security apparatus have made us feel less happy, less prosperous, and less safe. to explain the fundamentals and If there is any consolation—if applications of economic, political not a silver lining—to counter these and social freedom. trends, it is that our diminishing Among young people—who economic and social freedoms has arguably bear the greatest brunt led to an upsurge in interest in of a larger public sector and other classical liberal and libertarian ideas manifestations of diminishing throughout the Western world. freedom—there appears to be a The new libertarian wave has particular zeal in the ideas of liberty. been especially pronounced in the Organisations such as Students for United States—as epitomised in Liberty are attracting hundreds the increasing popularity of Ron of people to their international Paul and his son, 2016 presidential conferences, and surveys indicate a candidate Rand Paul—but to a new interest in classical liberal ideas lesser extent in countries such as the among the Millennial generation. United Kingdom and Australia. This renewed injection of Libertarianism’s growing enthusiasm into the libertarian fan-base is aptly reflected in the movement in the West, and indeed explosive increase in articles, blogs, worldwide, cannot be doubted, and books, social media accounts, it is certainly welcome. videos, and websites all seeking By the same token, there is

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 57

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 57 15/09/2015 12:47:04 PM David Boaz discussing his book at the 2015 International Students for Liberty conference in Washington D.C. Image: Gage Skidmore/flickr.com

CONTINUED Libertarians believe in the chooses so long as he respects the an equal need for a source to presumption of liberty. That is, equal rights of others.’ bring together all the strands libertarians believe people ought to From the likes of the English of libertarian thinking, contemporary be free to live as they choose unless Levellers and John Locke onwards, and historical, into a coherent whole. advocates of coercion can make a many of the great thinkers of An influential new book, The compelling case. It’s the exercise of liberalism have recognised that if Libertarian Mind: A Manifesto for power, not the exercise of freedom, there is any role for government it Freedom, written by Cato Institute which requires justification. If we should be ‘to protect rights, to protect executive vice president David Boaz, followed the presumption of liberty, us from others who might use force serves as the ideal accompaniment our lives would be freer, more against us.’ for those seeking to breathe the life prosperous, and more satisfying. Unfortunately, experience has of freedom into a world threatened Lest this statement be served to prove time and again—even by excessive public debt burdens, misinterpreted as an intellectual in the most horrific cases— that overbearing regulatory paternalism, sanction for licentious conduct, there is a fine line between using and rapacious surveillance. Boaz further clarifies the libertarian the fearsome coercive powers of Boaz most clearly defines framework to state that ‘libertarianism government to ensure the protection libertarianism as the philosophy is the view that each person has the of life, limb, and property for all, and of freedom, and explains: right to live his life in any way he leveraging public sector coercion to

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freedom would be well known to of individuals, and social groupings many readers of this journal, with its of individuals, to pursue their own ultimate genius resting on the fact interests in voluntary association that ‘markets are based on consent. with others. No business sends an invoice for a Boaz notes that these desirable product you haven’t ordered, like an features of civil society are income tax form’. compromised in the presence But what can a classical liberal of a large governmental welfare or libertarian say about social and state, which stifles charity and political issues which, in this country undermines those moral attributes and others, tend to be, more often necessary to maintain viable than not, detrimentally crowded communities. out by left progressive voices? The Libertarian Mind expertly A great many things, in fact, as canvasses the political basis of demonstrated by Boaz. libertarian philosophy, with an Being social creatures, human emphasis made throughout on beings invariably ‘feel a deep need the importance of the rule of law, for connectedness, for love and applicable to the most and to the least politically powerful alike, and a constitutionally constrained WE SEEK NOT ONLY TO government which is democratically MAINTAIN FREEDOM accountable to its citizenry. > OF ASSOCIATION BUT TO DISCOVER An impressive feature of OUR OWN WAYS David Boaz’s important literary OF BUILDING contribution is the breadth of MUTUAL TRUST AND contemporary issues he is prepared RESPONSIBILITY, AND to analyse and interpret through the TO EXTEND CHARITY lens of libertarian philosophy. TO THOSE LESS These include some of the FORTUNATE. more significant economic policy issues of raising growth, reducing inequality, restoring sound public friendship and community’ found finances, and ensuring less costly restrict the very liberties governments in families, churches, schools, clubs, and more responsive education, are meant to protect and preserve in fraternal societies, condominium health and welfare payments and our names. associations, neighbourhood groups, services. As stated so pointedly by Boaz, and not to mention all the myriad Boaz also delves into some of the ‘our government has become far too forms of commercial society. crucial social matters of our time, powerful, and it increasingly threatens Given the inherent yearning in including how to eliminate racism, our freedom. Government taxes too all of us, even die hard socialists, poverty and crime, and how a freer much, regulates too much, interferes to ‘connect to different people in society will uphold family values, too much.’ different ways by free and voluntary protect civil liberties, and ensure A most distinctive feature of The consent,’ we seek not only to environmental amenity. Libertarian Mind is that it forensically maintain freedom of association but The Libertarian Mind will unpacks the varying dimensions of to discover our own ways of building unquestionably come to represent a freedom into its economic, social, mutual trust and responsibility, standard bearing tract concerning and political aspects, to convincingly and to extend charity to those less the ideas of freedom and liberty for demonstrate that libertarianism is not fortunate. generations to come, and to that end merely about ensuring people are free These fruitful activities within David Boaz deserves a great deal to buy and sell commodities with civil society can only flourish of gratitude for his original insight one another. to their fullest extent when and contribution to the modern The arguments for economic governments respect the freedoms libertarian revival. R

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 59

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Digital cash—cryptocurrencies—could be the key to a decentralised currency writes Darcy Allen

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THESE NEW FORMS OF ‘DIGITAL CASH’ HOPE TO REVOLUTIONISE OUR FINANCIAL SYSTEM BY > RETURNING THE CONTROL OF MONEY TO INDIVIDUALS.

DARCY ALLEN Research Fellow at the Institute of Public Affairs

hen governments lavishly print money, citizens W are helplessly left watching their savings erode. This is the cost of centralised government The Age of Cryptocurrency: monopoly over currency. But How Bitcoin and Digital Money Are Challenging the Global cryptocurrencies, such as the Economic Order burgeoning bitcoin, have set out to solve this problem. These new forms Paul Vigna and Michael J. Casey St Martin’s Press, 2015, 368 pages of ‘digital cash’ hope to revolutionise our financial system by returning the control of money to individuals. The cryptocurrency revolution have used banks and intermediaries was launched by a group of fed up to solve the trust problem. computer scientists, mathematicians Traditionally, ledgers of ‘who owns and engineers. Their aim was both what’ have been maintained by simple and profound: eliminate banks. And thus banks became the the need for intermediaries—the trusted gatekeepers of exchange, middle-man—in the monetary holding an indispensable and exchange. Even imagining such powerful link with the money we use. a world is difficult: a world To be successful, cryptocurrencies where currency is freed from the such as bitcoin need to solve the shackles of supposedly omnipotent ‘trust’ problem. But how do we governments. Money would be generate trust in something that only transferred instantly, costlessly exists in bits and bytes? and pseudonymously. No more There are many facets to this transaction fees, clearing delays, or trust problem. The first is a technical bank holidays. one—how to create the system. The But there has always been second, and currently perhaps more one stumbling block for a digital important, is in creating a level of currency: trust. For many decades we understanding with the public.

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CONTINUED and comes across as informative, the study of techniques for secure The latter is precisely what The rather than proselytising. The communication when third parties Age of Cryptocurrency provides. Age of Cryptocurrency book are present. This new book by Paul Vigna and provides an accurate account of Bitcoin is based on a technology Michael J. Casey offers a clear and bitcoin, its potential benefits and its called the blockchain. The concise explanation of what bitcoin downfalls, as well as some clearly blockchain is a chronological, is and how it works. The authors delineated conjectures of future tamper-proof, and decentralised offer a balanced and easy-to-read cryptocurrency applications. ledger of all bitcoin transactions journalistic account of the volatile Bitcoin is a form of digital cash. in history. Before bitcoin, we rise of cryptocurrencies. It requires neither central banks went to banks to clarify previous This book is a refreshing nor trustworthy intermediaries transactions and account balances addition to the small body of to function. Bitcoin is created, (i.e. ‘who owns what’). But with work on cryptocurrency. Their exchanged, and maintained through bitcoin the intermediary is no longer prose is unashamedly neutral the mathematics of cryptography— required—all individuals consult the

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most recently updated public ledger. this, users create a unique bitcoin mechanism for exchange—whether it Rather than trusting banks to ‘wallet’—which is similar to a be contracts or currency. maintain ‘ledgers’, bitcoin users conventional bank account number. Currently entrepreneurs are trust the ‘blockchain’ ledger. But it is pseudonymous because bringing the block chain technology The blockchain is stored across a no real names are attached. The to: peer-to-peer crowd-funding, distributed network of computers equivalent of an account password escrows and trusts, public records; and is downloadable and accessible is a ‘digital signature’, created when smart contracts with self-executing to anyone. This decentralised model users combine their ‘public’ key clauses, decentralised voting makes it less susceptible to the risks and their ‘private’ key together. The platforms, and so on. of centralised control. transaction is then permanently While this book appropriately There are two main technical and publically recorded on the highlights the concerns over trust achievements that were crucial in the blockchain. and power—which are certainly emergence of bitcoin: the creation But the blockchain is not important—the authors may be of a distributed, public ledger of limited to money or currency. For obscuring a more vital point about transactions; and an incentive free markets what is most exciting the origin of money. mechanism to maintain that ledger. are additional applications of the The focus on Milton Friedman’s We are well accustomed to block chain technology. In the widely cited definition of money—as paying account or transaction fees same way that the bitcoin block a unit of account, a store of value, to banks. Banks require these often chain addresses centralisation and and a medium of exchange—begins exuberant fees to maintain up-to- trust issues in financial exchange, from the premise that money is date account balances. The bitcoin the blockchain also creates similar state-granted. In such a context, blockchain also requires continual opportunities in many institutional the idea that money could be and reliable updating, a process domains that are afflicted by created and sustained by private which uses copious amounts of over-centralisation. entrepreneurs in a market is almost expensive computing power. And impossible to grasp. therein lay one of Bitcoin’s biggest The origins of cryptocurrencies challenges: how to maintain the MONEY HAS NOT BEEN are decidedly ‘non-state’. Bitcoin blockchain in an affordable way. GENERATED BY LAW. was a surprising development to Bitcoin’s solution is ingenious: > IN ITS ORIGIN IT IS A many mainstream economists. those individuals who offer to SOCIAL, AND NOT A But the heterodox schools of STATE, INSTITUTION. maintain the ledger—individuals economic thought—such as the SANCTION BY THE known as bitcoin ‘miners’—are AUTHORITY OF THE Austrians, the institutionalists and periodically rewarded with ‘new’ STATE IS A NOTION the evolutionary economists— bitcoins for contributing their ALIEN TO IT. ‑ CARL MENGER would almost predict this to be the computing power. Therefore the case. For instance, in 1892 Carl incentive mechanism behind Menger wrote: ‘Money has not been maintaining the blockchain ledger The additional technological generated by law. In its origin it is is inexplicably linked with bringing innovations using the block a social, and not a state institution. bitcoins into circulation (the chain—known as ‘blockchain 2.0’ Sanction by the authority of the state ‘creation’ of bitcoins). technologies—are the topic of chapter is a notion alien to it.’ This incentive mechanism eight of The Age of Cryptocurrency. What is most interesting about effectively solves two problems. Here the authors describe the use The Age of Cryptocurrency is that the First, it makes the whole system of blockchain technology in any technologies described in it provide cheaper to use by avoiding expensive transaction where it is important an optimistic future for limited banks. And, second, the underlying to know who owns what, and when governments and free markets. We algorithm to create bitcoins is set ownership of a particular asset was are decidedly coming into an era and cannot be tampered with. This obtained. Having a publically stable where exchange out of the watchful makes bitcoin ‘inflation proof’ and and secure system for recording eye of the state is more possible puts it out of the hands of state this information presents enormous than at any other time in all of manipulation. potential. These all use the underlying human history. Given the ever- Anyone may buy bitcoins on technology of the blockchain as a expanding reach of the state, such bitcoin currency exchanges. To do ‘trustless’ consensus-driven proof an innovation may be priceless. R

SEPTEMBER 2015 | IPA Review 63

IPA_Review_AUGUST 2015_FINAL.indd 63 15/09/2015 12:47:09 PM STRANGE TIMES ‘A wonderfully timely and mischievous book’ Tim Wilson, Australia’s Human Rights Commissioner

in South Africa, where they packed What rankles the most is that it BLOWING 200,000 meals for delivery to requires a unique lack of perspective needy people. to argue in a public forum that the SMOKE … Chapman argues that since world’s poorest people should bear the tobacco companies kill people, then cost of rich people’s lifestyle choices. Only the ‘right’ kind charities who accept their donations Wow. of people should be are giving the tobacco companies That’s the same as saying that if I good press and distracting the have one too many on Saturday night, allowed to help others. public’s eye from this wholesale African Ebola sufferers should pay for By Peter Gregory slaughter. Charities should therefore my aspirin the next day. adopt the same stance taken What about if I go easy on the gym by many universities and stop and hard on the cheeseburgers for a “If we don’t believe our fellow citizens are intellectually capable of deciding o public health advocate accepting donations from tobacco few months? Must favela-dwellers pay what and how much to eat, whether to drink, or how to arrange their Simon Chapman reckons companies. for my Zumba classes? that charities that feed Ironically, Simon appears to When you’re in your office with a financial affairs, then why do we think they are capable of voting?” S starving people in have been smoking the other type of calculator and the back of an envelope developing countries shouldn’t accept tobacco. it’s easy to magic into being some donations from tobacco companies. It’s not just that it takes an inter- reason why charities should forsake Lol. galactic leap of logic to suggest that their constituents and reject cash A new book by Chris Berg In a recent piece in The ceasing charitable donations will from tobacco companies. But in other author of In Defence of Freedom of Speech: Conversation (unbelievable, I know) make a whiff of difference to global circumstances—which for argument’s Chapman pointed out that British tobacco consumption. sake, we’ll call the Real World— from Ancient Greece to Andrew Bolt American Tobacco South Africa Or that it really would be an charities have a responsibility only to Institute of had recently sent employees off to astonishingly cruel piece of social those they serve. Public A airs R a charity called ‘Stop Hunger Now’ engineering. Get. A. Grip. THE VOICE FOR FREEDOM ESTABLISHED− 1943

64 IPA Review | ipa.org.au Available now at www.connorcourt.com

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Join the IPA at join.ipa.org.au

Institute of Public A airs THE VOICE FOR FREEDOM ESTABLISHED− 1943

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