Transnational Modernization and the Gendered Built Environment in Iran: Altering Architectural Spaces and Gender Identities in the Early Twentieth Century (1925-1941) A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Architecture and Interior Design of College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning By Armaghan Ziaee Bachelor of Architecture, 2009 Master of Architecture, 2013 Master of Arts, 2018 2018 Committee: Amy Lind, Ph.D. (Co-chair) Adrian Parr, Ph.D. (Co-chair) Edson Cabalfin, Ph.D. Abstract When Reza Shah Pahlavi (1925-1941) came to power in Iran in 1925, he initiated a rapid and irreversible process of change that began in the public domain of the city and filtered into the private domain of the home. During this era of accelerated, westernized modernization, gender- segregated private housing, including courtyard houses, and gender-exclusive, masculine public spaces were repurposed relatively quickly and/or were replaced by modern villa-style houses/apartments and gender-inclusive public spaces. Over the years, as Reza Shah’s policies of western-style modern houses, urban spaces, fashion, and design grew, he intensified his support for gender desegregation, most notably through banning women’s use of the Chador (the traditional Iranian veil) in public spaces. In this sense, the first Pahlavi modernization project of the built environment was constructed through a gendered lens of progress, in which physical structures, public and private spaces, and women’s (and men’s) very senses of embodiment and identity – in their homes, in public spaces, in regard to their dress – became a contested battleground at the center of broader struggles concerning modernity and westernization in Iran. This dissertation utilizes an interdisciplinary transnational feminist approach, rooted in qualitative research methods including archival and primary sources such as floor plans, architectural drawings, historical photographs, newspaper publications and popular magazines. I analyze how modern architectural, spatial, and social reforms during this period created tensions amongst women and men, leading both some to embrace the reforms as emancipatory and others to resist them in defense of “Iranian” tradition. My conceptual framework draws from architecture history; comparative studies of modernization and nationalism; studies of gender, space and architecture; and transnational feminist theory. It develops a transnational feminist historiography of Reza Shah’s modernization of the built environment, focusing on four key ii aspects of this historical process: (1) The history of the modernization of architecture and urban space in Iran, also known as the “modern moment;” (2) modern urbanism and gender desegregation of the built environment; (3) the transition from courtyard to “modern” houses; and (4) the modernization of the ideal Iranian woman through Reza Shah’s laws and policies focused on domesticity, dress, and fashion. Ultimately this dissertation argues that Reza Shah’s project of modernization of the built environment is incomplete and contradictory at best: This process is best understood as a societal negotiation of modernization, westernization, secularization, traditionalism, and nationalization, including the proper “place” of women (and men) in public and private spaces in Iran. iii © 2018 Armaghan Ziaee ALL RIGHTS RESERVED iv Dedicated To my husband, Kianoosh Zarnegar, who believed in me and supported me all the way through to this level of achievement. v Acknowledgements Indeed, I cannot summarize all my feelings, experiences, accomplishments, and acknowledgments during this long journey here. This dissertation benefitted from the generous support of many individuals and institutions. I am grateful to all of them for having faith in my work: First, a Doctoral Scholarship from the School of Architecture and Interior Design at the University of Cincinnati (UC) made it possible for me to begin my journey in the United States. Several grants allowed me to conduct primary archival research in the United States: A UC Graduate Student Governance Association Research Grant made possible my archival research at the United States Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. in December 2017. UC’s Department of Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies (WGSS) awarded me a WGSS Graduate Student Research Award to conduct archival research at Middle East Documentation Center in Chicago in Fall 2017. I am thankful to the staff of these and additional archives and institutions both in Iran and the U.S. for their assistance. A National Women’s Studies Association (NWSA) 2017 Honorable Mention for my graduate research in November 2017, demonstrating their faith in my work, motivated me to move forward with this project. I owe a very special thanks to friends and professors at UC and other institutions who read and provided feedback on portions of my dissertation, offered valuable advice, and generally helped in so many ways. My dissertation committee co-chairs, Dr. Amy Lind and Dr. Adrian Parr, read, listened, supported, and offered excellent criticism and comments throughout the process. Dr. Amy Lind was also my thesis advisor in my WGSS master’s degree program; she was there for me rain or shine and I especially thank her for believing in me, supporting me, and encouraging me to find my voice. Indeed, her inspiration, wisdom, and willingness to help in every sense throughout the years is overwhelming. Dr. Adrian Parr supported and guided me vi throughout my time in the Architecture History, Theory, and Criticism doctoral program. I learned so much from her invaluable theory courses. I appreciate all of her feedback on my work. Dr. Edson Cabalfin, with his unique pedagogy, suggested many valuable sources and materials during the writing of this dissertation. I thank him for serving on my doctoral committee. Dr. Patrick Snadon provided invaluable historical architecture perspectives and generous input on my dissertation proposal. During my time studying in the WGSS department, I gained invaluable insights from a course on transnational feminisms that I took with Dr. Ashley Currier. Her course introduced me to major contemporary debates within transnational feminist theorizing, including how transnational feminist theorists work to decenter hegemonic western cultural referents. I also appreciate the invaluable interdisciplinary insights I learned in my Feminist Methodology course with Dr. Michelle McGowan. This course helped me realize how to apply feminist research into traditional disciplines and help transform them. I am also indebted to Mrs. Jamie Pandey, a very supportive friend, for her editorial remarks and for her sage advice on different stages of my writing. I also thank Dr. Rebecca Williamson and Mrs. Kim Lawson for their help in navigating administrative aspects. Finally, I thank my other half and life partner, Kianoosh Zarnegar, for his unconditional support and for accompanying me during archival research, sometimes for hours and hours, in many cities including Shiraz, Tehran, Chicago, and Washington, D.C. My sister, Azadeh, with her Master of Architecture background, provided intellectual support and helped me with numerous library and archival investigations, particularly in Shiraz. She assisted me with my research and in finding primary and secondary sources in many more ways than I can begin to list here. My parents, Ziaeddin and Shahin, encouraged me and openly let me choose my path in life and offered emotional support day and night. I am so grateful to them for their support. My vii brother, Ardalan, has always cheered me up since our childhood. Wherever I am today is because I have all of these wonderful people in my life. viii Table of Contents Page Abstract ii Dedication v Acknowledgements vi List of Illustrations 3 Introduction: Understanding the “Modern Moment” in Early Twentieth- Century Iran • Reflecting on my Grandmother’s Memories 5 • Methodological Approach 12 • Archives and Collections 14 • Significance of the Research 17 • Chapters Outline 20 Chapter One: A Transnational Feminist Historiography of Reza Shah Pahlavi’s Modernization Project: Theory, History, Context • Introduction 24 • Historiography of Reza Shah Pahlavi’s Modern Urban and Architecture Development 25 • Review of the Interdisciplinary Literature and Theoretical Framework o Postcolonial and Transnational Feminisms 31 o Transnational Modernization 33 o Nationalism and National Identity 37 o Gender, Space, and Architecture 40 o On the Origins of Domestic Design and Domesticity 43 Chapter Two: A Country in Transition: Modernizing Space, Gender, and Nation • Introduction 51 • Iran as an “Imagined Community,” Nationalism, and National Representation 52 • The Debates on Urban Changes and National Reforms 59 • Spaces of Domination and Resistance 76 • Conclusion: Transnationalism Within: Modernization, Nationalism, and Women’s Emancipation 86 1 Chapter Three: Redomestication: From a Traditional Courtyard House to a Modern House • Introduction 89 • Courtyard Houses, the Veil, Privacy, Visibility, and the Gaze 91 • Courtyard Houses, Social Hierarchies, Gendered Elements 100 • The Emergence of Modern Housing in Iran 109 • Women’s Role in her Modern Domicile 120 • Women as Active Users of Modern Houses 122 • Conclusion: Redomestication and Women’s Resistance 130 Chapter Four: Negotiating Space: Women’s Embodied Experiences of Western-oriented