IWMI India's Water Economy: ------~ International Water Management Bracing Up for a Turbulent Future IWMI·TATA Institute
4th IWMI-Tata Annual Partners' 11eet February 24-26, 2005 Institute of Rural Management, Anand
Program Schedule
9:00 - 10:30
Venue 10:30 - 11:00 Tea Break Session Chair Ramaswamy Iyer SIJnIta fV8rain RaviChopra Shashi Kolavc Managing Decentralized Exploring Water Groundwater 11:00-13:30 Conflicts around Water Harvesting Issues in the Markets and Water [2] and.Recharge IS} Himalayas [4] Livelihoods [51: Venue CR Camp_ # 113 ErDa Lectu", Hall ErDC Cant. Room Lib. Basement 13:30 -14:30 Lunch Session Chair Deep Joshi Sumla Narain Ravi Chopra Shashi Kolava Understanding Oecentrallzed Exploring Water Energy-Irrigatic Culture Fisheries Water Harvesting Issues in the 14:30 - 16:00 Nexus [5b] Revolution [6] and Recharge [3] Himalayas [4] Venue CR Camp. # 113 ETDC .Lecture Hall ETDC Cont. Room Lib. Basement 16:00 - 16:30 Tea Break Session Chair Deep Joshi NOfmanUphoff Rav; Chopra Shashi KolavaJ Understanding Exploring Water Groundwater, System· of Culture Fisheries R.ic~ Issues in the Energy and 16:30 - 18:30 Intensification f81 Revolution [6] Himalayas [4] Livelihoods [5c
Venue Lib. Basement 19:00 - 20:00 Index
Nature of South Asia's Water Economy Fitting Policy 1. 3 Reform to its Context
Managing Conflicts around Water: Towards Practical 2. 21 Protocols
3. Decentralized Water Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge: Blending Hydrologic and Social Perspectives 29
Exploring Water Issues in the Himalayas: Studies from 4. 43 Kashmir, Uttaranchal and the North-East
5. Groundwater, Energy and Livelihoods 67
6. Understanding Culture Fisheries Revolution in India 83
7. Tank Rehabilitation Experience of Two Decades 99
System of Rice Intensification (SRI): Assessing the 8. Prospects 109
9. India's Water Future 2025/2050 119
Watershed Development: Strategies for Sustainable 10. Scaling Up 131
Which Water Counts? Hydrology, Water Use and Water 11. Economy in Narmada River Basin 135
Issues in Improving Water Supply Rural, Peri-Urban 12. 137 and Urban
13. Showcasing IWMl's New Global Public Goods 163 1. Nature of South Asia's Water Economy Fitting Policy Reform to its Context Tushaar Shah and Madar Samad [[email protected]] 24th February 2005 11:00 -13:30; 14:30 -16:00 Session Chair: John Briscoe India's state and central governments - and governments of many developing countries of Asia and Africa - are under relentless pressure to reform their water policies and institutions to move towards Integrated \X1ater Resources Management (I\X1RJ'v1). Governments - as in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra are making new water laws; but implementing them is proving an Achilles heell New water authorities are created; but for them to exercise their authority has become a tall order. River basin organizations are hotly debated; but getting Water User Organizations to do 0&1\1 of \vater infrastructure on a self-sustaining basis is proving a challenge. Clearly there is a problem. \\/hat should be the focus of water reform so that its policies and institutions respond to the country's here-and-now priorities? ITP researchers discuss experiences of water reforms in A frica and China, and explore what India might learn from their experiences.
Governance in the Indian \,(Tater Sector: of IRM;\ Workshop on Governance of Resources
and \' Tushaar Shah and Barbara van \\'ater Refurms to National Contnts: A Brief Koppen Report on ;\frica La,v \X'orkshop 3 management contract that embodied elements of understand the conditions that have made participatory irrigation management. Second, the contractor-based water provisioning a relative article examines the process by which several of success. We justified the use of household these policy guidelines were implemented by state endowment scores to overcome the over-reliance parastatals such as forest and irrigation on caste or land ownership as indicators of group departments. The lack of transparency and heterogeneity. We argued instead for an approach accountability in procedures of government that combines analysis of process variables (such agencies was evident from our post-project as rainfed and irrigated land and livestock analysis of earthen dam management in the composition proportionate to household size) Haryana Shiwaliks. Only eight of the 45 dams that with an analysis of socio-economic processes that were constructed were functioning when data for reflect change over time in process variables. this study were collected. The final step adopted Socio-economic processes may include by the study was to examine collective action in historically defined power and social exchange eight of the HRMS with functioning dams. In this relation, accumulation strategies of farmers and context, we found that watershed groups that differentiation in access to natural resources. In were relatively heterogeneous in distribution of the course of applying nature based water interest nature-based endowments facilitated provision of scores, we have found that increasing reliance on water from earthen dams by the contractor. We non-farm income need not necessarily pose a found - although this is not statistically proven, threat to collective action in management of a because of small sample size- that contractor common pool irrigation system. Further, in the based water provisioning tended to ensure greater course of applying nature-based household success of compliance with irrigation service rules endowment scores we emphasize the importance such as payment of user fees, conflict free water of specifying what constitutes collective action. A distribution, and routine repair of dams. This was clear specification of what constitutes collective in contrast to relatively more homogeneous action could enable the use of household watershed groups where compliance with endowment and water interest scores to predict irrigation service rules was not as successful. conflicts and indicate potential for service provision and compliance with irrigation service The construction of household endowment and rules. water interest scores was undertaken to 6 HOBBES, COASE, AND SOCIAL WELFARE: ABSTRACTION OF 'EQUITY' AND 'EQUALITY' IN SURFACE WATER DISTRIBUTION Amalendu Jyotishi1 and Sashi Sivaramkrishna2 Natural resource management may be perceived instrument to achieve a society's distributional as a search for institutions that can ensure goals. Water (except drinking water) is an simultaneous fulfilment of three goals: intermediate good in agriculture and other rural productivity (or efficiency), sustainability and activities, an input or factor of production. equity. In this paper we study the implications of Equity in water distribution then cannot be an end pursuing the goal of equity in the management of in itself; its distribution must be seen as having a surface water resources for irrigation. We do so significant effect on distribution of outcomes or with an abstract analysis of a "single-settlement output. Can we not then achieve distributional based institution and management system" using goals or social justice through direcdy taxing and Leontif-type fixed production function. redistributing output or income? With various Achieving equity through poverty alleviation of (economic and political) constraints over the core-poor has become an important objective redistribution of output, key inputs like land and of irrigation and watershed development projects. water assume importance. With land reforms In India, there are almost 300 million rural poor, reaching a dead-end, distribution of water is 70% of them being marginal farmers and landless acquiring greater importance as a "second best agricultural labourers. At the same time, as much solution" in achieving distributional objectives of as 80% of usable water resources go to irrigation, irrigation and watershed projects. Unfortunately, disproportionately benefiting the landed advocating the use of water distribution as an peasantry. With a core-poor bias becoming instrument of poverty alleviation is fraught with mandatory in development initiatives, irrigation implicit assumptions of the rural economy and and watershed projects are being forced to look uncertain outcomes. for strategies that will more direcdy enhance the Any notion of social justice must be based on a benefits that accrue to this segment of the rural clear articulation of two concepts, equity and population. One suggestion is that, by allocating equality. Not only do we need to conceptualize tradable water rights over water, a common these terms but also understand how they relate to property natural resource can be used as an inputs and outputs. Equity is a subjective or instrument to improve equity. Several questions qualitative term and what is acceptable to one need to be raised in response to any such community need not be acceptable to another, or proposal: Who must get rights over the use of even to the same community over a period of water? On what basis do these persons or groups time. On the other hand, equality is an objective claim their right over water? How do excluded or quantitative term and is taken to mean equal groups including the poor get rights from the shares of the whole related to "a direcdy present landed elite controlling the resource? measurable parameter". In the context of water What is the nature of rights that can be assigned distribution, this measurable parameter can be to landless and marginalized people? Who decides, taken as of land holding (proportionate negotiates and assigns rights over water? What are equality) or the individual; in the latter case, every the implications on social welfare by doing so? member of society irrespective of land holding While focusing our attention on these questions, and/or occupation gets an equal share of water. we may overlook a larger question as to whether Non-traditional systems usually look for equality distribution of water should at all be used as an in water distribution, rather than equity. I Corresponding Author- Assistant Professor, Gujarat Institute of Development Research (GIDR), Gota, Ahmedabad 380060 E-mail: [email protected] 2 Director, Foundation to Aid Industrial Recovery (FAIR), Richmond Town, Bangalore 7 Sharing of water equally does not mean that it is the Hicks-Kaldor criteria and even possibly by the equitable. We have also seen systems that are Pareto criterion. Such deterioration in social considered equitable even though water is not welfare will have an adverse effect on social shared equally. We can therefore say that equality justice; the purpose of equal water distribution does not imply equity or vice-versa. It is also initiatives will be self-defeating. important for planners to understand that the In this paper we attempt to understand the concepts of equity and equality are applicable to implications of equality in water distribution on both: inputs, resources or opportunities and social welfare with a simple abstract analysis. The outputs or outcomes. More often than not analysis shows the possible (theoretical) outcomes irrigation and watershed projects are clear on their of such a policy and is also intended to raise objectives regarding equality or equity in input pertinent questions and hypothesis in studying the distribution without realizing the full implications effectiveness of irrigation and watershed of such policies on output or outcomes. Social initiatives where rights over water have been justice, however, ultimately depends on the redistributed equally. It is not intended to be a distribution of outcomes, whether equitable or criticism of such initiatives. equaL For several reasons, economists believe that redistribution of income and wealth is better Some of the corollaries of the exercise are as achieved through progressive taxation rather than follows. A "reasonable" solution to the bargaining through reshuffling property rights. game depends on the existence of a water market. Even if there exists an efficient water market, One may apply the Coase theorem to argue that equal allocation of water by itself cannot bring the use of resources will be efficient regardless of about equality in income. The non-existence of a the legal rule. This theorem, however, is subject water market may mean deterioration in social to the condition that there is successful welfare under, the Pareto and the Hicks-Kaldor cooperative bargaining and transaction cost is zero criteria. High transaction cost in cooperative or low enough for it not to inhibit private bargaining in water markets could lead to loss in bargaining. In real world situations, successful social welfare. Bargaining in labour markets is bargaining cannot be taken for granted. This likely to have lower transaction costs. Forced makes Hobbes theorem relevant: the law should redistribution of water resources could have a allocate property rights to the party who values it negative impact on wage rates. When endowments the most. By doing so the law makes exchange of are not equal in more than one market, correcting rights unnecessary and saves cost of transactions. the imbalance in one market alone may not be the What do these arguments mean in the context of second best solution. The lack of water markets water distribution? Assigning equal rights over would mean that sharecropping is more likely to water will lead to an efficient solution if private be the outcome of equal sharing of water. If the bargaining is efficient. If private bargaining does transaction cost of imposing a progressive tax on not succeed, then Hobbes theorem becomes more output is more, equity is better achieved with an relevant than Coase theorem. Equity could be income or output tax. more efficiently and effectively achieved through a The abstract analysis highlights the importance of progressive tax on output rather than distributing water markets as well as the possibility of its being water rights equally. linked with other relevant markets in a rural Our concern here is not a simple equity-efficiency economy in determining equity or equality in trade-off, but the possibility that allocation of distribution of output or income. A study of property rights, without taking the complexities of water distribution initiatives would have to look private cooperative bargaining into account, could into the concerns raised in the paper. lead to a deterioration of social welfare based on WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN MUMBAI: THE NEED FOR REFORMS IN INSTITUTIONS AND GOVERNANCE Ramakrishna Nallathiga1 Water resources are increasingly becoming scarce The study uses a combination of several research across the world, particularly with respect to methods. Secondary data provides an catering to human activities. This scarcity calls for understanding of the current state of water an efficient utilization of water at all levels in resources. The plans and provisions for its order to meet sustainable development goals. management were then reviewed in order to One of the means of achieving this consumptive understand the approach laid down in them. efficiency is to promote water as an economic Literature on certain key aspects of water supply commodity with a bundle of goods and services system and its management as well as case studies attached with it. This requires making water a elsewhere helped us to set the background or priced commodity and ensuring that services context at the same time. The lacunae in current relating to its provision, monitoring and cost water supply system were better understood recovery are in place. This is the case in urban through stakeholder meetings with the service areas. Large cities, in particular, need to embark provider as well as the general public. Finally, the on such measures to meet with ever increasing reform agenda was drawn based on the situation demand in addition to the traditional method of analysis of water resource and examination of the supply expansion. Mumbai is one of the large options drawn from experiences elsewhere, and metropolises of India whose population has been an operational framework for its implementation burgeoning and water demand has been rising. was also outlined. This paper is a summary of the water resource status in Mumbai and it outlines the need for Key findings reforms in urban water resource management in Water resource requirements of Mumbai city line with the efficiency goals. The general were well planned with the systems created long emphasis is on water quantity aspects, but water time ago in order to meet with the future needs; quality aspects are also linked with water quantity. yet, the situation is fragile and it might become The objectives of the paper are as follows: grave if the water supply expansion projects do not take ofE Although there was no overall (1) understanding the current system of water deficit like situation of water in Mumbai at resource management in Mumbai, in terms of present, there is a clear lack of proper water supply vis-a.-vis demand, water tariffs and management of water, particularly in the areas of water institutions; demand management and service maintenance. (li) analyzing the adequacies/inadequacies in the The emphasis made by the MCGM earlier on current water management and shortcomings in supply expansion will not be sustainable when the the current approach towards it; population is growing; it calls for using demand (iii) overviewing and reviewing the plans and management measures as well. These can be . brought-in through water management reforms In provisions made for water management in Mumbai; its institutions and governance, which will make water an economic good, and, thereby, encourage (iv) identifying the areas wherein reforms in water water conservation efforts at consumption end on management can be undertaken and providing an one hand while providing incentives to the service argument to support them; provider for providing better service (at a (v) emphasizing the need to make a shift in the marginal price) on the other. The institutional current approach and focus on options available reforms suggested include: unbundling of service for water management. 1 Bombay First (Bombay City Policy Research Foundation), 4th Floor, Y B Chavan Centre, Nariman Point, Mumbai 400 021. e-mail: [email protected] 9 delivery and policy & regulation functions of providing water efficiently, equitably and water supply, corporatising the water supply sustainably across space, time and people. This function, outsourcing of non-core services, would require undertaking reforms on several creation of new institutions and their integration fronts, particularly in its institutions and into the overall sector. The governance reforms governance. In particular, making water as a that are required for some process changes in serviced commodity would both enhance its service delivery include budgeting reforms, economic value and encourage its conservation. accounting reforms, tariff structure reforms, and It is hoped that the decision makers and policy service and staffing reforms. makers would embark on this. The customer The study found that the current approach to focus, professional service and consumer service water resource management in Mumbai would orientation in water supply function would require a shift from embracing to enhancing water enhance the value of goods and services and its supply availability for consumption to striving for provider. 10 IRRIGATION AND WATER PdUClES IN THE MEKONG REGION: CURRENTnIsCbtJRsES AND PRACTICE Franyois Mollel In the past several years, water has moved up on reveal that some a priori desirable steps may be the agenda of most Mekong region countries. disadvantageous, or even counterproductive. This is due to several interconnected issues. First, Project timeframes are generally very short, recurring water shortages, although often local despite time being the most important factor in and temporary, have instilled a sense of successful policy processes, often resulting in the vulnerability. These shortages have typically substitution of local passiveness for strong but affected irrigation but in some cases have also short-lived external momentum. threatened urban supply (like in Bangkok, in 1999, Water policy reform processes generally which experienced temporary rationing in some contemplate a blend of the following blanket areas). These events do more to convince the recommendations and measures: urban elites that water is an important issue than climatic vagaries affecting the countryside. • Poor water distribution in irrigation networks, Second, numerous global initiatives and epitomized by classical efficiencies between 30 networking focused on water management (World and 40 percent, is addressed by trying to instill Water Forums, GWP regional activities, etc.) have greater participation from users through the also contributed to giving water issues greater design of service agreements in which agency and public salience. Third, these initiatives have been farmers act as service provider and clients, rather paralleled by persuasive insistence from than as supplier and recipients. development banks most notably ADB and World • Concern for cost-recovery and financial Bank- that borrowing countries develop sustainability generally leads to making provision regulatory frameworks, water policy, white papers, for the levying of a water charge. and water legislation. • Embracing integrated water resource Questions that lend themselves to investigation management (IWRM) leads to putting emphasis include: how pressing was the need for such on river basin management, leading to proposals reforms and how sound have the steps taken for river basin oganizations (RBOs), or other been? To what degree have national bureaucracies types of interfaces between concerned line and ruling political parties shared this concern to agencies and users. reorder the water sector and added their willpower • The need to control uses and users of both to the banks' solicitations, and how does this vary surface and groundwater typically calls for from country to country? establishing a regime of water permits, with All these policy initiatives have a lot in common, registration of users, and sometimes provisions partly because water-related problems are broadly for future formalization and trading of these similar among countries, partly because the rights. initiatives stem from the mainstream thinking and • The distinction between operation of the prescriptions and sometimes fads of the day - that hydraulic network, resource management, and come with the interventions of development policy-making/ regulation is emphasized and leads agencies. External consultants are generally faced to proposing three nested layers of institutions with a difficult task: their terms of reference with clear and distinct mandates. [ToRs] already specify by and large the path they must follow. ToRs leave little scope for It must be noted that except for this last point, adjustments, should the analysis of the situation and to some extent RBOs, policy reforms focus 1 Senior Researcher, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Email: [email protected] 11 on the distribution and allocation of water rather (I\VRM) / river basin management, with some than on the planning of water resource comments on the underpinning of these policies, development. Although this function is supposed their discursive dimension, and how they fit the to be adequately tackled by the two upper tiers of reality of the countries concerned. Its scope the above mentioned trip art structure, the remains at an exploratory level: the paper is mechanisms that preside over decision-making on intended to pave the way for further research on such issues are largely left unspecified. water governance to be undertaken by the Mekong This paper documents current irrigation and Water Governance network. Although the issue water policies in the Mekong countries. It reviews addressed here is extremely vast and complex; and successively planning issues, water policies, and would require the mobilization of a huge literature legal frameworks, the setting up of water policy to be dealt with in a comprehensive manner, it is "apex bodies", participatory policies, and hoped that this cursory birds' eye view will have Integrated Water Resource Management flagged major current issues. 12 ADAPTIVE RESPONSES TO GROUNDWATER DEPLETION AND STRATEGIES FOR MITIGATING THE ASSOCIATED IMPACTS Marcus Moenchl Groundwater overdraft, pollution and quality including or excluding conventional management g degradation are widely recognized as major - that are likely viable within that context; emerging problems in many parts of the world. • Respond to inherent limitations on scientific This recognition has not, however, translated into knowledge e equally wide management responses. The reverse has, in fact, often proved true. In parts of India, • Build off the incentives and courses of action groundwater over extraction and quality declines households, communities and regions are already have been recognized since the 1970s (United undertaking or have a strong incentive to Nations Development Program 1976; Bandara undertake in response to a given problem 1977). With a few possible exceptions, however, • Be strategic in that they focus on core little has been done to regulate groundwater objectives (livelihoods and environmental values extraction or control degradation of the resource rather than specific groundwater parameters) and base. This situation is mirrored in many parts of key points of leverage rather than attempting to the world. be comprehensive or fully integrated In this paper, I argue that the lack of progress in • Encourage evolution of strategies as conditions implementing conventional management change over time. responses to groundwater problems reflect a The above criteria suggest that adaptive combination of technical, social, behavioral and approaches can be viewed as including the full organizational limitations that are inherent array of conventional water focused management features in most contexts. Recognizing the techniques while also moving beyond them to importance of an emerging problem or the 'need' encompass a potentially very wide range of for management does not change the fundamental activities designed to reduce or eliminate the nature of these limitations. As a result, whatever impact of groundwater conditions on livelihoods the 'need' for management, alternative or and environmental values. Furthermore, the complementary approaches that are adapted to element of change is central. Approaches need to the inherent limitations present in a given context recognize and be able to respond as economic, are often essential. In many cases, such adaptive social, hydrological and other conditions change approaches will involve courses of action that fall over time. The core difference between the outside the limits of conventional groundwater approaches suggested here and most conventional management. Furthermore, at least in some cases, management is the explicit focus first on core adaptive approaches may be more productive than livelihood and environmental objectives rather even the best implemented conventional forms of than groundwater per se; second on the inclusion conventional 'water focused' management. of response strategies that do not attempt to What is an adaptive approach? Research directly influence groundwater resource conducted by ISET and our partners in India and conditions; and third on the concept and role of other locations (1-ioench 1994; Moench, Caspari adaptation - that is on the manner in which et al. 1999; Moench, Dixit et al. 2003) suggests strategies can be shaped to reflect both change that adaptive approaches need to be designed in processes and the wide array of conditions ways that: present in any given context. This last element • Reflect the social, political, economic and a tautology at present (adaptive approaches are technical context in which groundwater problems defined as approaches that focus on adaptation) are occurring and the types of response is explored in detail later in the paper. 1 Institute for Social and Environmental Transition, Boulder, Colorado, USA. e-mail: [email protected] 13 THE POLITICS OF WATER POLICY REFORMS IN SRI LANKA Madar Samad1 Few would dispute the assertion that the process NGOs, media and government. The population of policy and institutional reforms in developing was not made aware of the key provisions of the countries is political. The recent water policy water policy. Because of the failure of the relevant reform in Sri Lanka is a clear example of this authorities to educate the public, discussions phenomenon. about the water policy took on an ideological In April 2000, the Water Resources Council and stance rather than on pragmatic issues and Secretariat (\X!RS) of Sri Lanka finalized a problems relating to the water sector. An ignorant document titled National Water Resources Policy public were subjected to various distortions, and and Institutional Arrangements. The document alarmist viewpoints; this was clearly shown in the outlined the national water policy for the country diverse issues that were featured in the media and and was drafted with technical and financial the issues raised at stakeholder consultations. The assistance from the Asian Development Bank. content of the policy had key provisions that were The proposed policy had supposedly been clearly beneficial, but the public were not approved by the Cabinet of the 1VIinisters of the adequately informed of this. This is the second Government of Sri Lanka. Although the draft occasion that the national water policy has been policy was not publicly available, copies of the \\.rithdrawn in response to widespread protests. document were in circulation amongst NGOs, The reasons on both occasions are the same - no various political groups and professional bodies. stakeholder consultations. The draft policy generated widespread and often The paper maps the media cultivation of issues hostile discussion in the media and various public relating to Sri Lanka's national water policy. The fora. The most contentious issue of the draft analysis is confined to the print media and national water policy was the vesting of involves a cross-sectional analysis of about 150 ownership of all water resources \vith the state texts that appeared in all major Sinhala and "and managed by the government in partnership English language newspapers. The issues dealt in with water users" and the issue of transferable the media are compared with public perceptions water entitlements. These were seen as a strategy of issues relating to the water policy as reflected to privatize the nation's water resources. Other by the records of stakeholder consultations during allegations were that this was a plot engineered by the process of policy formulation, and the notes the Asian Development Bank to introduce free taken during the "Wari-Mandapaya" or "Water market principles to the water sector, plot by Platform" arranged by the Ministry of Irrigation foreign multinational companies to take over the at various locations in the country to enable the country's water resources, to destroy paddy farmers to discuss irrigation problems with the cultivation and so on. In the wake of intense Minister. media campaign led by certain NGOs, political The paper argues that the intense media campaign parties and some religious bodies, the government against the draft national water was led by a small at that time distanced itself from the proposed group of persons! organizations and centered policy document and denied that the cabinet mainly on political ideology rather that on approved the draft water policy. pragmatic issues confronting the water sector. The Water Policy of 2000 was suspended due to The main reason for political ideology to media campaign against the policy rather than dominate the discussion was the failure of the public outcry against the policy. The public were relevant authorities to effectively communicate virtually passive on lookers in the battle between key provisions of the water policy to the general I Theme Leader, International Water Management Institute, e-mail: [email protected] 14 public. Information asymmetries owing to the policy statements by government reiterates its lack of public consultations at the conceptual and commitment to begin implementing the National planning stage made the public gullible to alarmist Water Policy and to restructure existing viewpoints and misinterpretations of the key institutions and government organizations. provisions of the policy by vested groups. This Already, the government is working on the resulted in widespread objections to the secretive redrafting of the water policy document as well as nature of the entire process and fear among local repackaging the entire reform proposal by making 1t communities about the various clauses in the the necessary adjustments to suit the political proposed water policy document. Although there economy requirements. were some stakeholder consultations as part of The key lesson that emerges from the Sri Lankan the design process, interest groups and political experience is that not only is the content of the nt parties were reactive rather than proactive in the policy important, but also the process of policy process of defining changes. In late 2003, a water reform itself. In these cases, the work of the reforms bill that focused on reforming urban and d design teams was critical to explaining how and domestic water supply services was again why the reforms took shape they did and what withdrawn by the government in the face intense re conflicts they evoked when they were introduced media campaign against the bill. by political leaders. This paper argues that Although the reform proposal could not be constitution of the policy design teams, what implemented as a whole under the prevailing tasks they are asked to take on, and how they political environment, it has had a positive effect carry out these tasks are important determinants in the long process of institutional evolution and of the contents of reform initiatives, the kinds of change. The reform agenda is now firmly conflicts that surrounds the introduction of new entrenched in the political process. Although policies and institutions, and the destiny of there has been opposition to some of reform proposals. contentious issues, there is a widespread Finally, the paper attempts to compare the Sri convergence of the need for a comprehensive Lankan water policy with the Indian national reform for aligning water institutional water policy of 2002 and commentary and arrangement with emerging economic and water discussion in the Indian print media on the water 1 resource endowment realities. User participation, policy. The analysis reveals stark similarities in the decentralization, and basin focus are now firmly key issues discussed in the print media of both in rooted both policies and programs. The recent countries. ;n 1 15 THE NATURE OF INDIA'S WATER ECONOMY: FITTING POLICY REFORM TO THE CONTEXT Tushaar Shah 1 This paper argues that Indian discussion on engagement from activities considered reforms needed in water sector institutions and undesirable; and promote through law, subsidize policies are excessively influenced by global or undertake public management of activities catchwords, such as IWRM and IRBM, and fail to considered desirable. In industrialized countries, pay sufficient attention to India's ground reality. the State can effectively use all the six instruments Cross-country analyses suggest that economic in direct governance of water infrastructure, prosperity and HDI value of a country-rather than services and the resource because here the the magnitude of its water resources-determine informal sector, if at all, is small, and the water the water-welfare of its people. In the long run, economy is a highly formalized industry. In India, much water scarcity is 'economic'; and a key long in contrast, legislative and economic instruments term challenge is for the country to identify its will have limited use in, say, promoting water use own 'soft water path' to economic growth. efficiency or controlling groundwater overdraft, Water economies of all low-income countries are simply because target actors are in the informal notoriously informal. In India, for example, 80% sector, largely outside the purview of the IE. of rural people 'self-provide' their domestic and The nature of the Indian state also determines irrigation water requirements; recent NSS surveys how effectively IE can implement reform. China show that most rural water infrastructural assets whose rural water economy is nearly as informal are owned and operated by households. Formal as India's can do more to influence the behavior institutions-government agencies, co-ops, of its water users than India can because (a) the community organizations-touch a very small Chinese water bureaucracy has a strong presence portion of India's rural water economy. However, at the village level; (b) the Communist Party dependence on formal sector players increases provides a strong authority to back its village rapidly as rural areas prosper (as in Haryana or committees; and (c) the Chinese farmer still Goa) or urbanize.The institutional compact of a continues to pay numerous taxes and levies country's water economy obtains in two parts: including irrigation and power charges at cost, and Institutional Environment (IE) which includes pays salaries of local public functionaries. The water policy, laws and administration; and Indian state during MoghuI as well as Colonial Institutional Arrangements (IA) refer to norms, rule too had all these three features. In contrast, ruIes, and customs evolved by people to govern today (a) India's water administration has hardly their water transactions (such as water markets, any presence at the village level; (b) India's recharge movement, etc). In general, the poorer a panchayats have little coercive authority; and [c] country, the more informal its water economy, and soon after Independence, India abolished most of greater the disconnect between IE and lA, and the numerous taxes and levies the Indian farmer vice versa. In the Indian water economy, for had been subjected to by rulers for centuries; instance, law, water policy, and administration can instead, an invidious subsidy syndrome has made directly influence only those 12-20 percent of it nearly impossible to build and operate water users who are in the formal sector; infrastructure and services on a financially self governing the informal water economy is a sustaining basis. This is a society-wide syndrome; different ballgame in itself. it is a matter of debate whether it can be changed State can shape the water economy in three ways: in hurry, and, more pertinently, whether water it can reguIate (by law), tax or withdraw its sector reform can be a trigger for such change. 1 Principal Scientist, International Water Management Institute, e-mail: [email protected] 16 For a long time to come, the key water sector improving the performance of the water challenge for India will be to make meaningful economy through indirect strategic instruments. investments in creating water infrastructure and Some of this involves 'liberalizing' the water service provision. In doing this, mobilizing capital economy and harnessing the power of incentives. has been less of a problem than of evolving For instance, to improve the 0 & M and service institutional models for sustainable operation of delivery in public irrigation systems, India has these. According to the NSS 50th round data, experimented for long with WUAs and PIM but Indian people today pay just around Rs. 6000 without much success; there is need to crore/year towards securing domestic water experiment with 'bounded service providing supplies. Town people pay more than village entrepreneurs' with appropriate incentives, as in ts people. But providing 'protected', piped water China. The entrepreneurial model has worked supply to India's population may entail an well in many parts of India in dramatically raising infrastructure investment of Rs 250-300 thousand the productivity of culture fishery, in providing crore; at 10% of capital cost, operating such desalinated water in fluoride-infested North l, infrastructure would need Rs 25-30 thousand Gujarat. Similarly, in controlling groundwater crores as annual fee. In our surmise, hardly 10 overdraft in western and peninsular India, it is percent of Indians would be willing and able to doubtful if laws and water pricing can help; what pay the 0 & M costs of such infrastructure today. IE can do is support local communities in their The nature of infrastructure investments needs to effort to augment local groundwater supplies; and reflect what the market can bear. at the same time, regulate groundwater draft by Until such time as India's water economy gets manipulating energy supply. At the macro-level, substantially formalized, the key task is to manage IE needs to understand and work on broader the informal water economy where millions of agrarian and economic policies that create independent operators rule the roost. IE has perverse incentives for inefficient use. Changing largely ignored the play of the informal water food procurement and support price policies can economy; but here lie big opportunities for do more to remove national distortions in water use patterns than micro-level management. ld ,f 17 GROUNDWATER IRRIGATION AND SOUTH ASIAN AGRICULTURE: EMPIRICAL ANALYSES FROM A LARGE-SCALE SURVEY OF INDIA, PAKISTAN, NEPAL TERAI AND BANGLADESH Tushaar Shah!, 0 P Singh2 and Aditi MukherW This paper is a contribution to improving and region' in South Asia; thanks to the spread of refining our understanding of the significance and wells and tubewells, only 5% of the villages functioning of the groundwater irrigation surveyed pursued totally rainfed farming; in most economy that has emerged, during recent decades, villages, most farming households had irrigated as the backbone of South Asian agriculture and and rain fed plots in varying proportions. rural livelihoods systems. It summarizes key results At the sub-continental level, there is a north-south of a survey of 2629 well-owners from a energy divide with the groundwater economy of geographically representative sample of 278 the Indo-Gangetic basin increasingly dominated villages selected from India, Pakistan, Nepal Terai by diesel pumps and that in the south by electric and Bangladesh. For purposes of analyses, survey water extraction mechanisms (WEMs). There is villages were divided into 12 hydro-economic (H empirical support for the hypothesis that the E) zones, which in turn were further regrouped in diesel pump is the mainstay of the poor and that several different ways, depending upon the better off farmers seem better in capturing purpose on hand. electricity subsidies on groundwater pumping than The pattern of groundwater development is not in small-holders. Farmers have responded to energy sync with the regional groundwater resource pricing and supply policies on a regional scale; in position. Over 50% of groundwater structures we Bangladesh and Pakistan, where electricity came across in this random survey were built only subsidies are absent, the balance between diesel after 1993, suggesting that South Asia's and electric pumps is even; in Eastern India and 'groundwater juggernaut' is still accelerating. 55% Nepal Terai, where power supply environment is of the irrigated land in survey villages is served by poor or has deteriorated, groundwater 'pure groundwater irrigation'; counting conjunctive development has occurred primarily with diesel use of ground and surface water, tubewell pump; in the rest of India, the ratio of electric to irrigation's contribution rises to 75% of net total WEMs has been on the rise since electricity irrigated area while pure canal irrigation covers subsidies were introduced. Farmers with electric 14.5% of irrigated areas encompassed by the \XlEMs pump their wells for longer hours/year survey. For India, the share of pure groundwater everywhere compared to diesel WEM owners; irrigation to irrigated areas is higher at 76%; along however, in regions where electricity supply to with conjunctive use, groundwater share rises to agriculture enjoys real subsidy, the former group over 87%; pure canal irrigation and other sources uses significantly more energy (and likely (drains, tanks, etc.) contribute 4-6% each. Coarse groundwater) per ha compared to owners of cereals, pulses, oilseeds, and fibers are preferred diesel pumps as well as owners of electric WEMs crops in pure groundwater irrigated areas; paddy in regions where electricity supply to agriculture wheat cycle is the preferred pattern in canal and does not enjoy subsidies. Summary elimination of conjunctive use areas. electricity subsidies would likely result in reduced Unlike in many other parts of the world, such as yields of wheat but not of paddy; as such, in Africa, there is essentially no 'rainfed farming wheat irrigation, electricity subsidies are not a complete 'social waste'. I Principal Scientist, International Water Management Institute, e-mail: [email protected] 2 Consultant, IWMI-Tata Water Policy Program, e-mail: [email protected] 3 Ph. D. Scholar-Cambridge Univ., e-mail: [email protected] 18 . Despite subsidized electricity and canal irrigation, million ha of net cultivated area belonging to it is the diesel pump which by far explains the groundwater buyers. Far from an expropriating most variation in the net irrigated area among 278 'water lord', the average South Asian water seller is sample villages; its relative contribution on the a small farmer with more fragmented holdings margin to net irrigated area is twice that of electric (compared to non-sellers) who sells water to make WEMs and 3.5 times that of availability of canals his WEM viable. in a village. South Asia's informal groundwater economy Groundwater irrigation in South Asia is largely includes manufacturers of pumps, pipes and other supplemental, with tubewells providing 30-50% of components and service providers such as owners the total crop water requirements; when return of boring rigs, pump repairers, and such like most flows are accounted for, ET from groundwater of whom operate in the unorganized cottage applied is even less. This probably explains how an sector; this makes it difficult to intervene in this estimated 200-225 km3 of groundwater pumped diffuse economy. Our survey however shows that in the region is able to provide life-saving about 20 leading manufacturers of pump brands, irrigation on 65-70 million ha of gross irrigated who have penetrated the pump markets of South area. Asia, can potentially be important formal sector Pump irrigation service markets-commonly partners to improve energy and water use referred to as groundwater markets-- have efficiency in the South Asian groundwater declined in western and southern India (compared economy. to the 1980's) but continue to boom in eastern Finally, contrary to conventional wisdom, farmers India, Bangladesh, Nepal Terai, and the Pakistan surveyed were much more concerned about the n Punjab; at the sub-continental level, extrapolation high energy cost of pumping groundwater and from the survey results suggests that some 6.5 the unreliable supply of electricity than about million WEM owners irrigate an estimated 5 groundwater depletion, salinity, or reduced aquifer yields. s f 19 2. Managing Conflicts around Water: Towards Practical Protocols Rakesh Tiwary [r. [email protected]] 24th February 2005 11:00 13:30 Session Chair: Ramaswamy Iyer As water becomes scarce, conflicts around it abound. individual users. Village communities. States. N acions. An important part 'bracing up for future water scarcity' is to evolve and popularize practical protocols for managing, mediating, resolving conflicts. ITP also brings to the discussion table more case studies on managmg water cont1ict. Ramaswamy Iyer leads the discussion; Meredith Giordano, I\,\rMI's Director of Research, and Mark Giordano bring some international experience to the discussion. Author(s) Paper Meredith Giordano and ~lark Transboundary Water Conflicts: Cross Studies Presentation Only Giordano Inter-State Water Conflict: Fresh Thinking Required Dinesh K. lvlishra Breaching of Embankments or Breaching of ;\ Case Study of the Kosi Embankments FA. Shaheen Indus \X'ater Treaty: Scrapped or Abrogated? Ext. Abstract ~~~~~~~~~~~+ ...... ~~~~~ R. Doraiswamy and Biksham Levels of Conflict around Water in South India: Ext. Abstract Gujja Case Studies 21 BREACHING OF EMBANKMENTS OR BREACHING OF TRUST: A CASE STUDY OF THE KOSI EMBANKMENTS Dinesh kumar Mishra1 The Ganga, which acts as the master drain for finding no way out, the surrounding areas quickly most of the Bihar state, flows in an easterly become flooded. The situation is aggravated by direction and stretches 432 kilometers across seepage from under the embankments. Areas Bihar, bisecting the state. North Bihar, the plains outside the levees remain waterlogged for months located north of the Ganga, is interspersed with after the rainy season because this water has no eight major river basins; the Ghaghra, the Gandak, way of flowing out to the sea. Theoretically, the Burhi Gandak, the Bagmati, the Adhwara sluice gates located at these junctions should solve group of rivers, the Kamala, the Kosi, and the the problem but, in practice, such gates quickly ~fahananda. All these rivers descend down into become useless. As the bed level of the main river the plains from Nepal. rises above the surrounding land, operating the Himalayan rivers contain large amounts of gates lets water out instead of allowing outside sediment during the monsoon. Heavy downpours water in. When the sluice gates have failed, the in the mountains scour the slopes and turn the only option left is to also embank the tributary. swift waters into a muddy brew. As they reach the This results, then, in water being locked up plains and lose momentum, the rivers deposit between the embankments. Moreover, no their loads and begin to meander. embankment has yet been built or can be built in Rivers like the Kosi, 'Sorrow of Bihar' as the future that will not breach. When a breach occurs, British called the river, have been notorious for there is a deluge. changing course. Available records suggest that Proponents of embankments, however, have tried the river was flowing about 160 kilometers east of to rationalize the jacketing of rivers thus: forcing its present coursesome 200 years ago. The 'credit' the same quantity of water through a narrow area, for setting up an example of flood control in as happens in the case of an embanked river, post-independence India must go to Bihar. The increases the water velocity thereby increasing its state began a massive program to tame its rivers in eroding capacity. The increased velocity of water 1955 with the embanking of the Kosi. dredges the river bottom and transports the Embankments are earthen walls created between sediment out preventing the rise of riverbed the people and the rivers and this is an ancient levels, increasing the carrying capacity of the river technology. The first embankments that were and reducing the extent of flooding. These were constructed were probably on the Hwang Ho in the arguments put forward by engineers in China in the seventh century Be. These were independent India when they resorted to massive followed by the Yangtze in the first Century. In embanking of rivers in the Ganga and the the recent past, we had embankments on the Brahmaputra basin. Unfortunately, there has been Mississippi in the USA (18th century). Embanking little evidence to date that this theory is actually of the rivers is a controversial technology as we being substantiated anywhere on Indian rivers. see below. The technical debate, however, continues. Embankments prevent a river from overflowing Politicians take advantage of this inconclusive its banks during floods but they also prevent the debate and engineers just toe their line. It was in entry of floodwater. This leads to a major this background that embankments along the problem as the embanked river is no longer able rivers were constructed in independent India. The to fulfill its primary function draining out excess British engineers refrained from constructing water. With the tributaries prevented from embankments as this did not suit the rulers then. discharging into the river and accumulated The Kosi embankments, extend from Birpur rainwater 1 Convener, Barh Mukti Abhiyan, e-mail: [email protected] 23 (District Supaul) to Koparia (District Saharsa) on place in the Indian territory. the east (125 kilometers) and from Hanuman The policy of flood control that was adopted after Nagar, in Nepal, to Ghonghepur in Saharsa the independence was more in keeping with district of India (126 kilometers). Their providing immediate succor to the people and construction was almost completed by 1959 but there was lot of adhocism in it. Since, it was extensions were proposed on it, from Bhanthi to aimed at providing immediate relief, it resulted in Ghonghepur, on the western side by four adoption of 'outdated technologies'. kilometers and from Mahishi to Koparia, on the Much of experience of flaws and bad impacts of eastern side by 33 kilometers. This work continued embanking were known from the Mississippi in up to 1964. Thus, it took about 8~9 years to USA and the Hwang Ho basin in China but the complete the embanking part of the project. unlearnt lessons and connivance of the vested There are some 386 villages trapped within the interests forced the people to accept the results Kosi embankments that spread over four districts with a pinch of salt. Total lack of accountability in and thirteen blocks. The area of the entrapped maintenance and repairs of the embankments land is to the tune of 150,000 hectares over which have added insult to injury. The embankments a population of around 8,00,000 still lives. have become not only a source of irritation However, before the embankments could be between Nepal and India, they have also become a completed, the Kosi started attacking them and bone of contention between the people living the first breach of the embankment took place in within the embankments and those living in the so 1963, just before the work on the embankments called protected countryside. The bed levels of could be completed. The first major breach of the the rivers have gone up and the rivers are releasing Kosi occurred in Nepal (Dalwa) just across the waters into their catchment instead of draining Indo~Nepal border, in 1963, on the Nepalese side. them out, the basic function of the river. The last breach so far had also occurred in Nepal, The alternatives to construct high dams in Nepal near Joginia, in 1991. It created a political stir in are equally fraught with dangers. The time has the state of Bihar that led to the resignation of the come for an honest debate to define the Water Resources Minister of the state. One can limitations of flood control technology and see the difference in the attitude of various looking for time tested people's wisdom infused stakeholders as the Kosi posed the problems with scientific innovations. Sooner this is done, before the people, engineers and the politicians. It better it is. This article takes stock of the events is a journey from cooperation between the two before the breaches occurred and their aftermath countries to mutual suspicion as far the flood and leads one to think about the flaws in problem of the Kosi is concerned. There have controlling the rivers and their floods. been breaches in the embankments in 1968, 1971, 1980, 1984 and 1987. All these breaches took 24 INDUS WATER TREATY: SCRAPPED OR ABROGATED? F. A. Shaheenl Growing scarcity of water resources, increasing Under the treaty,J&K can use only limited waters population, and poor water management in of the Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum for power developing countries have resulted in increasing generation and lift irrigation. It cannot build demand for water resources. Increasing scarcity of reservoirs or dams on these rivers to store water water has led to the desire for control of water for irrigation and power without the prior resources, which in turn becomes a ground for approval of Pakistan. Nor can it construct any breeding conflicts. Conflicts over the use of water barrage for irrigation. The treaty imposes limits between states become severe when they are on the storage capacity that the state can create. It typically agrarian based economies. The Indus can only store 0040 million acre feet (MAF) on the Water Treaty (1960) between India and Pakistan is Indus in Ladakh, 1.50 MAF on the Jhelum in one of a few examples in South Asia of the Kashmir, and 1.70 MAF on the Chenab in settlement of a major, international river basin Jammu. conflict. The state's agricultural potential has also been The Treaty fixed and delimited the rights and worst hit. There has been only a marginal increase obligations of India and Pakistan in relation to in the irrigation infras tructure. In 1950-51, the each other concerning the use of the waters of state could irrigate 2, 61,000 ha but in 2000-01, the Indus system of rivers. Indus, an international the state irrigated only 3, 05,970 ha through river basin, is the largest, contiguous irrigation various sources. As a result, the state has now system in the world, with a command area of rationed population of 86.14lakh people about 20 million hectares and annual irrigation dependant on supply by the consumer affairs and capacity of over 12 million hectares. The Indus public distribution department which procures system of rivers comprises three eastern rivers rice from outside the state. Besides this, a good (Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi) and three western rivers percentage of population also purchases rice from (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab). Under the Indus private dealers. The foodgrain import graph of Water Treaty (IW1), waters of the eastern rivers state shows a sharp increase in overall imports. stand allocated to India and those of western J&K, according to an estimate, could have rivers largely to Pakistan. The treaty which was increased its area under irrigation by one lakh carried out in the best interest of nation has, acres had the state freedom to harness its available however, deprived Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) of water resources. In case of the Kashmir valley, using its own water resources and thereby severely only 0.5 MAF could be stored under general affecting the development process in the state. storage on the Jhelum basin and that too not The treaty made Punjab prosperous by using the directly on the waters of river but on various water of eastern rivers for agriculture and power streams that form its tributaries. And for every generation and on the same has put J&K behind new irrigation scheme, the state has to seek by an estimated Rs 6500 crore annually. The losses permission from the Indus Commission. The are not there in the agricultural sector alone but Irrigation and Flood Control Department of the on a much higher scale in the generation of state has proposed 12 new irrigation schemes for hydropower which has an otherwise estimated Baramulla, Kupwara, Anantnag, and Budgam potential of 20,000 MW The state's rightful districts on the various streams which are awaiting riparian rights have been snatched in the so-called approval. national interest without the state being consulted Being a state with a dearth of plain agricultural at the time of treaty or compensated for the land, the state would be enormously benefited by consequent loss. a proper irrigation infrastructure. This would help 1 F. A. Shaheen, Research Consultant, IWMI-TATA Water Policy Program, Elecon, Anand-Sojitra Road, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 388120. Mail: [email protected]!fashaheen@rediffinaiLcom 25 bring large acres of Karewa land (highlands buy water from India to meet the requirements of specific to the uneven terrains like that of ]&K) the province. They also demanded that the across the countryside under cultivation. This has, government should scrap the Indus Water Treaty. over the years, given rise to groundswell against On the other side, there is a growing consensus the "unjust treaty" which though has made among the political parties of ]&K to scrap or Punjab prosperous by letting that state use freely abrogate the treaty since it has over the period the water of its rivers for irrigation and power sounded a death kneel to the state's economy and production. On the other hand, these very sectors has acted as impediment to development. During have stagnated in ]&K. What is regarded as more a recent state assembly session, the People's galling is that though New Delhi compensated Democratic Party (PDP) passed a resolution Pakistan for the loss of the pre-partition canal demanding setting up the barrage and sought network of central Bari Doab and D~palpur,]&K compensation from the centre for the losses it received nothing. The Nehru dispensation gave suffered because of the Indus water treaty. The financial aid of Rs 83.3 crore to Pakistan to ]&K state assembly members also lashed out at undertake development works like building Pakistan for strangulating Kashmiri's by sticking storage reservoirs, link canals, tubewells, drainage, to the Indus Water Treaty which has taken a and hydroelectric installations. Pakistan, in heavy toll of state's economy. addition, received over Rs 300 crore at the time While the new found bonhomie between India from the United States, Britian, West Germany, and Pakistan has successfully put political issues Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and World Bank on the backburner, the fight on water rights is set as aid. to become acute in the coming year. It might even One way to compensate ]&K for losses could be surpass the political disputes between the two a favourable sharing ratio for power generated neighbors. The main reason for this is growing from centrally funded projects in the state. industrialization in both countries, coupled with However, so far the approach of New Delhi has depleting water levels and mounting power not been encouraging. For example, in the case of scarcities. The Baghliar and Wullar Barrage issues the Salal Project, experts assert that the central currendy being discussed at the expert level are, government has recovered its capital cost way therefore, just a tip of the iceberg. The recent back in 1982 but power sharing continues to be secretary level talks by India and Pakistan over the on the existing ratio. That is,]&K gets a royalty construction of Baghliar dam on the Chenab of only 12 per cent from the project. This is river ended in failure. Pakistan has now despite the fact that against the capital investment approached the World Bank for arbitration. of the central government, the state has provided With water sharing promising to be the new all important water and land resources for the international quarrel area of the 21st century, project. Moreover, in the case of the Salal project, India and Pakistan have already got a readymade one of the provisions agreed upon was that when point of friction. Because of growing population, capital cost of the project was recovered, the industrial growth, and mounting water problems power plant would be handed over to the state. accompanied by the overall fall in the waters of So there is a case for the transfer of centrally the Indus basin owing to climatic change, there is funded power projects, not only on the principle a need to either abridge or abrogate the old treaty, of complete recovery of capital investment but particularly looking to the current political and more so as a compensation for the losses economic situation in Jammu and Kashmir. The incurred by the state as a result of the treaty. time has come for a fresh look on all the water During the recent secretary level talks in sharing issues between the two nations for the Islamabad between India and Pakistan on the common benefit and put behind bars all the controversial Wullar Barrage or Tulbal navigation political issues and do justice to each and every project, political leaders from Pakistan Punjab area / region of the Indus basin in terms of demanded that the Pakistan government should equity in water resources of the Indus basin. 26 LEVELS OF CONFLICTS AROUND WATERIN SOUTH INDIA: CASE STUDIES R. Doraiswamyl and Biksham Gujja2 Water has become a vital resource for political conflicts despite regional and local specific stability, economic growth, social order and characteristics. sustainable development. Of late, water tensions This paper deals with various levels of water are brewing over shared rivers, inter-basins, intra conflicts in water bodies ranging from pipe oudet basins, tanks, big dams, canals, distributaries, sub to interstate level. The study is taken up in the distributaries and pipe outlet level. In other words wake of the widespread conflicts in water bodies water conflicts exist in different sizes of water causing negative impacts on environmental, social, bodies and at all levels of irrigation systems for political and <;cpnomic fronts. The study is various reasons. Conflicts over sharing water can initiated to give,a different dimension to be seen among individuals, individuals and state, addressing water conflict as such than merely between states and nations. Existing legal looking at specific case of water conflict. The frameworks (e.g. by allocating river water to states) available literature on wat~r conflicts to a large and the alternative practices (watershed extent focuses on sp~cific conflicts like the long development, water harvesting) are not reducing pending conflict over Cauvery waters in South the conflicts. Water conflicts in no way increase India. water resources, instead they only cause heavy This paper discusses water conflicts at various expenses on the part of individuals and state. levels of water bodies and hydro geologically They also pose serious threat to the society . includes water conflicts in tanks, major and There are serious repercussions on eco-systems. medium irrigation systems and rivers. In terms of In a way water conflicts are primarily leading to political boundaries the paper covers water more and more water withdrawn, polluted, conflicts at village, district, project, sub-basin, diverted from the natural system ,leading to less basin and interstate level. The issues documented and less water for ground water recharge, etc. include conflicts over water in terms of irrigation, Competition for water by agriculture, rural and pollution, river link, institutions and policy urban drinking, industry, eco-systems, citizens, reforms. The attempts to resolve these water fisheries, tourisms, politicians, etc. adds to the conflicts under existing social normative multi dimensions and complexity of water framework i.e. legal pluralism is given in the paper conflicts. Water conflict is increasingly becoming a to understand the mechanisms, which enables to political tool to settle scores and mislead the make policy intervention to resolve the water people from the main current issues. The conflicts. Success stories of handling water crises violation of Supreme Court order by some of the are documented to project the rule making State governments in terms of water conflict is mechanism in pvercoming scarce situations. Often becoming a fashion for various reasons. Atte~pts the cost of raising the conflict or generating the are being made by several individuals, informal conflicts (by neighboring states, for example) may and formal organizations, research institutions, be much more expensive than the benefits they NGOs, state and nation to address and resolve would have got by getting their perceived 'fair ever-increasing water conflicts through dialogues, share of the water'. judiciary, treaties, etc. However, these are found to The sample cases studied are categorized into be in piecemeal cases. Thus, there is a need for interstate, project/distributary, and tank systems. holistic understanding of nature of the water Interstate conflicts are Krishna River Basin, I R. Doraiswamy, Executive Director, Pragathi - Farmers Society for Rural Studies and Development, Bangalore. 2 Biksham Gujja, Policy Advisor, Global Fresh Water Programme, WWF -International, Switzerland. 27 ~ Mukkali Weir across Bhavani River in Kerala, another like agriculture and industries, Industries Rajolibanda Diversion Scheme and diverGlon of and environment, agriculture and environment, Mahadayee and its tributaries. The project level between government department and water users, conilicts are Paddy cultivation and migrant etc. farmers in Upper Krishna Project and Old and Analysis throws open a spectrum of reasons for New ayacut in Bhavani Sagar Dam in Tamil water conflict at various levels of water bodies. Nadu. Conilicts at tank system are Nagaram Tank Although the study has not gone into a detailed in Andhra Pradesh and deprivation in the tank analysis of each case, an attempt is made in this system in Belagumba tank and efficient tank section to highlight some of the reasons that are system in tank institution in Karnataka. responsible for the type of water conflicts. These The general characteristics of water conilicts are reasons are entidement or water rights, multi that the water conflicts exist irrespective of disciplinary approach, scarcity by design, political, administrative boundary i.e., village, mismatch between design and practice, regional MandaI, Taluk, district and State. The literature imbalance, allocation of water, centralized survey shows that conilicts exist across National authority, information and communication & International level as well. Village communities technology, big dams and other water bodies, normally referred as homogenous groups do have comprehensive water policy, agriculture strong cases of water conilicts. Water conilicts extension, weak parameters, research and exist at micro level like pipe out let level, which development, politicization of water, civil society, comprise even an area of 90 acres and at macro tribunals and dialogue, political in-equilibrium, level like interstate or river basin level. In the enforceable law, common property, technology, latter case, water conilict is more from the nature, public interest litigation and multi perspective of hydro-geological than merely the stakeholders platform. political boundary. Water conflicts arise because of number of Water conflicts are of varying nature, intensity reasons that are social, political, legal, economic, and magnanimity of the conflict from present or ecological. Water related issues are dynamic and day- petty case to long pending unresolved are influenced by spatio-temporal factors. Reasons conflicts. Petty cases are the ones, which emerge responsible for water conilicts are in most cases on the current issues influenced by the interdependent and inter related, which calls for circumstances that get resolved quickly. Classic integrated and holistic approach. It is learnt that examples of such conflicts are the violation of even when all the above reasons are well addresses rotation system in a pipe oudet or the confusion there are chances of water conilicts erupting. over opening and closing of gates in the tank Thus, there is a need to develop institutions that system. There are certain cases of water conilicts can regularly derive strategies to address the water that are more than petty cases. These water conflicts. One such effective mechanism is though conilicts take reasonably longer duration to get constructive dialogue of multi-stakeholders with resolved. an integrated approach on items like research, Water conilicts take place among users of water legal, political, social, economic, institutions for some purpose like, among farmers in environment, livelihoods, etc. agriculture and between users for one purpose to 28 3. Decentralized Water Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge Blending Hydrologic and Social Perspectives R. Sakthivadivel and M. Dinesh Kumar [[email protected]] 24th February 2005 11:00 - 13:30; 14:30 -16:00 Session Chair: Sunita N arain Community-based rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge have assumed the character of a mass-movement in many parts of western India, especially, the Saurashtra region of Gujarat. Good empirical analyses of the impact of these are, however, hard to come by. Anecdotal information galore; but we know little about the impacts of these activities on local hydrological regime or on basin water productivity. ITP presents early of a sk\v of ne,v, systematic impact studies in progress at 4 locations in India. The focus is on assessing trade offs between harvesting water at community level and maximizing its efficiency at the basin level. Sunita Narain of the Centre for Science and Environment leads the discussions; Marcus Moench of the Institute of Social and Environmental Transition and David Molden of lWMl comment. Author(s) Paper R. Sakthiyadiyel Artificial Recharging of Aquifers in India: A Synthesis ! Ext. Abstract ;VI. Dinesh Kumar, Shantanu Rainwater harvesting in India: Critical Issues for Basin i Ghosh, 0 P Singh, Ankit Patel Planning and Research Ext. Abstract and R. Ravindranath Lakshman Nandagiri and Predictions in L ngauged Basins: An Opportunity and l'\mba Shetty Challenge for Bridging the Gap between Hydrologic Ext. Abstract Science and Practice in India Himanshu Kulkarni, Uma \Vater Balance Studies from Deccan Basalts in Central- Badarayani and Vi nit Phadnis West India, with Special Emphasis on Groundwater Ext. Abstract Balance Components: Some Preliminary Observations Hiren Tilala and R. L. Shiyani Water Harvesting Structures: A Sustainable \Vay for Highlight Equity and Income Generation A. Sarangi, CA. Madramootoo Application of GIS Interface and Artificial Neural Ext. Abstract and A. K. Singh Network (ANN) :hniques in Watershed Management S. G. Mayya Water Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge in the Ext. Abstract West Coast of India: Myth and Truth Chetan A. Pandit Water Scenario in India in 2050: Triumph of Mind over Paper Only \X/ater 29 R. Sakthivadivel1 Artificial recharging is the planned, human activity the near term, rainwater harvesting and artificial of augmenting the amount of groundwater ground water recharge where people and available through works designed to increase the community can directly participate as in the natural replenishment or percolation of surface recharge movement in Gujarat must be given waters into groundwater aquifers, resulting in a thrust and focus by all concerned with India's corresponding increase in the amount of water. The gestation period for such projects can groundwater available for abstraction. In India, be a few months to a few years and, because of this method has been in use for quite some time the distributed nature of this activity, it is only and its historical evolution is briefly outlined. It through the involvement of local communities has been used for many beneficial purposes that sustainable ground water augmentation can although the primary objective of this technology take place. This strategy is also evident from the is to preserve or enhance groundwater resources. importance given by the Government of India in A variety of methods developed and applied to water conservation and use through watershed artificially recharge groundwater in urban and development. rural sectors has been reviewed. Various artificial Groundwater recharge schemes should continue recharge experiments have been carried out in to remain as peoples program. Without people's India by different organizations, and have participation, the program is unlikely to survive. It established the technical feasibility of the artificial is only peoples involvement that would ensure recharge of unconfined, semi-confined and critical components like quality of works; confined aquifer systems. However, the most preventing undesirable contractor's entry into important and somewhat elusive issue in partnership with government; sustainable determining the utility of this technology, namely maintenance and supervision; speed of the economic and institutional aspects of implementation and cost efficiencies. Intensive groundwater, has not been adequately addressed efforts should be made to elicit support from and needs further studies. The recharge process is reputed NGOs, spiritual bodies, charitable complex, and, due to the numerous factors organization, donors, industrial houses, and affecting the process is only partly understood. spirited individuals who have unquestionable Studies on artificial recharge techniques are mostly interest in the region and the well being of the site-specific and descriptive in nature, which gives people to promote, participate in and provide for little insight into the potential success of the scheme. Involvement of panchayat implementing this technology in other locations. administration up to district level is also It is estimated that by prudent artificial recharge necessary. An aggressive campaign approach is schemes and waste water recycling, about 25 % of needed to educate and motivate rural collectivities India's water requirements in 2050 can be met. using promotion tools like ]al-Yatra as was done Both measures provide water at local scale, where highly effectively in Saurashtra. people live and engage in productive activities. In 1 IW'1vH, Senior Fellow, E-mail: [email protected] 31 RAINwATER HARVESTING IN INDIA: SOME CRITICAL ISSUES FOR BASIN PLANNING AND RESEARCH 2 3 5 M. Dinesh Kumar!, Shantanu Ghosh , Ankit Pate1 , O. P. Singh4 and Ravindranath The practice of "rainwater harvesting" (RWH) The paper does not aim at analyzing the physical dates back to ancient times. It is as old as human performance or hydrological impacts of water civilization. Some of the earliest known rainwater harvesting. Instead it takes a different approach. harvesting works were practiced in the Middle The paper has the following objectives: [l] discuss East, and Egyptian and other African deserts, the critical issues in rainwater harvesting not only while recent studies correlating from a micro perspective from also macro palaeoclimatological evidences and archeological perspective; and [2] the issues for research in water and historical records show strong evidences of harvesting and recharging. The major findings are heightened human efforts for rainwater harvesting emerging from an extensive review of the research in response to climate change starting from as on water harvesting in India, and a macro analysis early as 4500 Be in ancient India. India has a long of the critical issues in rainwater harvesting from and rich tradition of rainwater-harvesting with the point of view of hydrological opportunities, different techniques practiced in different parts of economic viability and socioeconomic impacts ancient India over different time periods. The past when scale considerations are involved. [1] Macro two decades are characterized by a boom in water level hydrological analysis shows that rainwater harvesting. They are markedly different from the harvesting solutions offers extremely limited traditional ones in two ways; first from the potential in terms of its ability to reduce the context; and second from the purpose. As regards demand-supply imbalances and provide reliable the context, they are able to use recent techniques supplies in water scarce regions. The reason being: and technologies and management tools, while the (a) significant part of these regions are traditional ones, represented the best engineering characterized by low mean annual rainfalls, high feat of those times. The modern water harvesting inter-annual variability in rainfall, with high systems are at best miniatures of the large water potential evaporation and larger share of resource systems that use advances in civil evaporation occurring during rainy season, engineering and hydrology. As regards the reducing the runoff potential and increasing the purpose, they are employed as resource occurrence of hydrological stresses; and (b) management solution, and not as resource another significant part is characterized by development solutions. The limited Indian medium rainfalls, with medium inter-annual research on RWH/artificial recharge so far had variability, but "medium to high evaporation", focused on engineering performance of individual making surface storage difficult. [2] A large part of structures. While a lot of anecdotal evidences on the water-scarce regions, which fall under the the social and economic gains exist, there is little "medium rainfall-medium to high evaporation" understanding based on empirical work of: [a] the regime are underlain by hard rock formations such impacts of water harvesting activities on local as basalt, crystalline rocks and other consolidated hydrological regime in terms of net water gain; [b] formations such as sandstones. The percolation basin level impacts on overall basin water balance; tanks, the most preferred recharge structures, are and [c] economic imperatives from a long term likely to have low efficiency in these hard rock perspective. areas and also areas having silty clay and clayey 1 Project director, NGI, International Water Management Institute, VV Nagar, Anand, Gujarat. 2 Consultant, International Water ManagementInstitute, VVNagar, Anand, Gujarat. 3 Freelance Consultant, Ahmedabad 4 Consultant, International Water Management Institute, VV Nagar, Anand, Gujarat. 5 Project Officer, Foundation of Ecological Security, Anand 32 soils. In high rainfall, and medium evaporation increasing storage capacity of RWH systems, the regions which experience high reliability in economic viability becomes poorer as the average rainfall, the overall potential and reliability of cost of water harvesting per unit volume of water water supplies from RWHS would be high. [3] increases. [8] In "closed basins", there is apparent Inefficient recharging in hard rocks is due to lack trade off between local benefits and downstream of integration of groundwater and surface water benefits. U /S diversions reduce the prospects of use. In these regions, planning of recharge storage and diversions systems d/s. [9] In many schemes should consider surface water important basins, there is an apparent trade off impoundment of all the available excess flows, between maximizing overall benefits for basin than direct recharge. This should be followed by communities in terms of enhancing the gross water use programming to create underground value product of water, and maximizing the local storage for incoming surface flows. However, this benefits of water harvesting. This is owing to the is not followed. [4] Many water-scarce regions fact that in these basins, water from well-endowed have water demands which far exceed the regions with low water demands is being diverted supplies, with vulnerability to hydrological to poorly-endowed regions with high water stresses, that they would require exogenous water. demands, enhancing its social and economic [5] Economic evaluation of water value. [10] Extensive review of existing literature harvesting/ groundwater recharge systems poses on RWH shows that the past studies did not several complexities due to the difficulty in involve "scale considerations" in analyzing the quantifying the inflows, the storage and recharge physical and economic impacts of water efficiency, and the economic value of the harvesting. The scale considerations should incremental benefits, which are social, direct include both space and time. Space considerations economic and ecological or environmental. [6] are important as water harvesting only follows Scale considerations are extremely important in large water development projects in many river evaluating the cost and economics of water basins in India. Temporal considerations are harvesting/ groundwater recharge structures important almost everywhere due to high inter because of the integration of catchments at the annual and inter-seasonal variability in rainfall and level of river basins. The economics of water erratic nature of monsoons. harvesting cannot be performed for structures Future research on water harvesting/groundwater based on their individual benefits and costs, when recharging should focus on basin level marginal the amount of surplus water available in a basin is impacts and benefits to capture the scale effects, limited; but on the basis of incremental benefits. apart from covering different hydrological Further, higher in degree of basin development, regimes, and typical rainfall years. This can help higher will be the marginal cost and lower would proper targeting of investments in water be the marginal benefit. [7] The basins which harvesting. Making water harvesting more experience high inter-annual variability in the effective calls for enhanced knowledge of stream flows are many and cover significant areas catchment hydrology, basin-wide water in India. In such basins, the trade off between accounting and water balance studies, improved hydrological impacts of water harvesting and efficiency of utilization of green and blue water economic benefits is likely to be large. With for crop production, and "wet water" saving. 33 for the Yennehole river basin (327 km110cated in simulations, especially considering the fact that no the coastal district of Udupi in Karnataka. NITK efforts were made to calibrate the model. model with parameters fixed a priori was applied In present study, a simple catchment-scale on the daily basis for the period from 1 January conceptual hydrological model has been 1993 to 31 December 1998. Daily catchment developed whose parameters may be estimated a average rainfall was computed by the Thiessen priori from satellite data and GIS analyses. Lsin~ polygon method and daily PET was computed this so-called 'identifiable' parameters approach In from climate data using the FAa-56 Penman a humid tropical river basin, we demonstrate that Monteith equation and assumed to be spatially reasonably accurate simulations of daily invariant. Model performance was evaluated by streamflow time series and water balance comparing daily values of simulated and gauged components can be obtained at ungauged flows. 1993 was considered as model warm-up locations. Further research is necessary to test the year and simulated and observed flows for the general applicability of the model in several more ~emaining period only were used to compute the catchments in diverse hydroclimatic settings. correlation coefficient (R), root mean square error However, preliminary results presented in this (RMSE), and Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency. paper are extremely encouraging because It is apparent that simulated streamflow responses appear to be only a few crucial parameters to daily rainfall events more or less follow the controlling the process of conversion of rainfall pattern of observed flows. While medium flows into runoff at the catchment scale. are reasonably well simulated, the ability of model The Indian hydrologic research community must to simulate peak flows and low flows appears focus on development of such simple yet limited. Given that the model structure does not scientifically-based tools for hydrologic incorporate use of rainfall intensities to simulate predictions in ungauged basins. The success of flood flows, the result is only to be expected. Also, water management policies in India will be it is known that measured flows during flood determined to a large extent by availability of events are less accurate on account of being accurate hydrological information and it is . extrapolated from stage-discharge curves. Overall imperative that the community of hydrolOgIC model performance indicates slight practitioners in India adopt the best possible tools underestimation. For the simulation as a whole within the constraints imposed by input data comparison of simulated and observed daily flows availability. The topic of predictions in ungauged :yielded a correlation coefficient (R) of 0.8745, basins provides a perfect opportunity for initiating root mean square error C&,\fSE) of 14.63 mm/d a much-needed dialogue between researchers and and Nash-Sutcliffe of 72.61 per cent. These practitioners thereby paving the way for brid~ng statistics are indicative of reasonably accurate the gap between hydrologic science and pracTIce 35 WA:l·BR'Il~~~~P~$flt()M'DECCAN BASALTS IN CENTlW..-WBS1'J~r~, WI~~~a~l!MPHASIS ON GROUNDWATaR B.ALANCEC:O~m;Nn;S()~,J;."RELlMINARY OBSERVATIONS Himanshu Kulkarni!, Vma Badarayani2 and Vinit Phadnis3 Crystalline rocks commonly referred to as 'hard physiography and highly variable rainfall pattern rocks', underlie around 60 per cent of India's of the region. landmass. Porosity and permeability in such rocks The Deccan basalts of west-central India offer a are a result of weathering and fracturing, rather unique hydrological setting for water balance than inter granular openings. Weathering and 2 studies. Covering an expanse of over 500000 km , fracturing patterns in these rocks are variable, in these basalts constitute one of the largest 'single' their geometry, thickness and alignment. Hard lithological expanse in the country. Regionally, the rocks generally store and transmit less water than basalts are described as rocks possessing low sedimentary rocks. The Deccan Volcanic Province porosity and permeability, with litde prospects for in central-west India is a unique hydrogeological large-scale groundwater occurrence. However, on setting representing a major hard rock a watershed or aquifer scale the hydrological and groundwater regime. Groundwater resources hydrogeological inhomogeneties of these basalts within this basalt-dominated province are largely create a very complex environment for the controlled by the type of basalt, its degree of accumulation and movement of water, especially weathering, and the nature and intensity of groundwater. fracturing. Hydrogeologically, the Deccan basalts are quite inhomogeneous in nature with highly Deccan basalt aquifers, by virtue of their highly variable conditions controlling groundwater variable weathering characteristics and fracture occurrence and movement. The Deccan basalts patterns, respond differendy to recharge and cover a vast expanse of central-west India, discharge stimuli, both natural and artificial. For estimated to be more than 5,00,000 km2• Their instance, even within a small river basin, recharge thickness is not only considerable (several of individual aquifers can be variable, depending hundred metres, on average) but also variable upon the local characteristics of the basalt lavas. from place to place. Similarly, discharges in the form of base flows can be significandy different in adjoining watersheds, Regionally, the Deccan basalts can be described as again depending upon processes of recharge and rocks possessing low porosity and permeability, more significandy the amount of groundwater with litde prospects for large-scale groundwater abstraction in catchment areas. Transmissivity and occurrence. However, on a watershed or aquifer storage coefficient values can vary over several scale the hydrological and hydrogeological orders of magnitude in basalt aquifers even within inhomogeneties of these basalts create a very a microwatershed. complex environment for the accumulation and movement of water, especially groundwater. The variability in the hydrological and Because of such inhomogeneities, it is hydrogeological characteristics of basalts makes commonplace to find good groundwater supplies water balance estimation highly complex. This in one location against very poor supplies in complexity is especially apparent considering another within tens of metres from each other. different scales of water balance measurement The scale factor, therefore, is strongly linked to and computation and degree of generalization in the inhomogeneity in the conditions governing such computations. In the Deccan basalt region, the behaviour of water, especially groundwater. river basin studies and measurement have been Superimposed on the geological controls that generally limited to rainfall-runoff calculations. change from place to place is the typical However, even a basic rainfall-runoff calculation 1,2,3 Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management ACWADAM, Plot 4, Lenyadri Society" Sus road, Pashan, Pune 411021 Phone: 020-25899539 e-mail: [email protected] 36 can become redundant if issues like storages and Deccan basalt points to the former configuration releases from minor, medium and large irrigation in a majority of cases. tanks are not considered. As one studies water This paper highlights some important findings balances on larger scales, i.e. microwatersheds and during the estimation of water balances and also individual structures like tanks (percolation and attempts to illustrate the differences that can irrigation tanks) and check dams, one comes result for estimating any single parameter using across specific inputs like measurement of water balance calculations on different scales. The absolute evaporation and net evaporation, paper uses some preliminary results from an evapotranspiration, stream flows (separation of ongoing study in the Kolwan valley (W'alki river base flows from surface runoff), and last but not basin) from Mulshi taluka of Pune district in least , the natural and induced infiltration. Maharashtra. Computation of groundwater balances in the The paper, in addition to discussing some of the Deccan basalt calls for a correct understanding of above mentioned factors, using studies in the the basalts that underlie the surface in a small Deccan basalt, hopes to take a step further in microwatershed. A single watershed may understanding how water behaves in some parts constitute one or more aquifers or one aquifer of the Deccan volcanic province where water may be contiguous underneath two or more balance attempts have been made using primary watersheds, although our experience in the data on various aspects of the hydrological cycle. 37 predicting the runoff and sediment yield. These hydtology were developed as a DSSWHR and selected prameters were mathematically associated watershed prioritization was decided based on with the rainfall and fed to a BPNN model to runoff and sediment yield, erosion status (eg., high develop a trained and tested ANN model. Finally, hypsometric integral value indicates more all these observed and simulated hydrological proneness to erosion) and interpretation on the responses with respect to the geomorphologic limiting ranges of the geomorphologic parameters. parameters were coded in VBA to develop Based on these, We concluded that the Banha different scenarios on hydrologic responses watershed of India requires more attention to leading to the DSSWHR interface. conserve soil and water through construction of Dsing the developed WMET interfaces within soil and water conservation structures at ArcGIS, geomorphological parameters were appropriate locations than the St-Esprit estimated for the two watersheds. The BPNN watersheds of Canada, which is a stabilized flat model was developed after training and testing the watershed not much prone to erosion. This available data for prediction of runoff and fl11ding was also confirmed from the observed sediment loss using the screened parameters; viz. sediment and runoff data from the watershed (drainage area ratio) RA, (bifurcation ratio) RB, outlets. (drainage length ratio) RL, drainage factor (Df) It can be concluded that the developed ArcGIS® and Relief ratio (RR) are associated with the based interfaces are useful in estimating the rainfall (R) as RRB, RRA , RRL , RRR and RDf geomorphological parameters from watershed to predict the runoff. We observed that geo-databases. The process is efficient, quick, and Geomorphology based Artificial Neural Network accurate, and is the first of its kind to be (GANN) models performed well when compared developed so far. Further, screening of the with the observed runoff and sediment yields parameters and use of ANN modeling for with R2 (Coefficient of determination between prediction of runoff and sediment loss is an the predicted and observed values) ranging from efficient approach with minimal input data 0.85 to 0.95 and model efficiency (E) from 0.74 to requirement and can be used as a replacement of 0.82 for peak runoff rate and R2 from 0.78 to data intensive conceptual models. Finally, the 0.93 and E from 0.71 to 0.76 for sediment loss. developed DSS as an interface with ArcGIS® has The performance indicators (R2 and E) resulted in generating the possible scenarios on approaching one indicated better model runoff, sediment loss and water yield behaviour of performances. Finally, the influence of the the watershed based on the geomorphologic geomorphological parameters on watershed parameter values and prioritizing the watersheds for management activities. 39 WATER HARVESTING ANn GROUNDWATER RECHARGE IN THE WEST COAST OF INDIA: MYTH ANn TRUTH S.G.Mayya1 It is often expressed in various platforms that the months of March to May. It is also true that large static groundwater level and reserves in the quantity of water flows to the sea during coastal region towards west of Western Ghats in monsoon months. The groundwater table peninsular India has dropped resulting from fluctuates alarmingly reaching a low ebb to the groundwater mining. This apprehension is mainly extent of more than 20 m in some places. It is attributed to over-exploitation of through also true that borewells are sunk indiscriminately, indiscriminate sinking of borewells through even in areas very close to the sea. It is also true various schemes of the government. Further, it is that deforestation takes place and sand also said that there is no effort for recharging of accumulation in river beds is a continuous groundwater reservoirs. It is argued that natural phenomenon. replenishment of groundwater is not enough to build up the groundwater table. It is interesting to However, it is rather very difficult to accept the note the argument that deforestation is also one reasoning for this natural phenomena of of the primary reasons for the groundwater groundwater fluctuations. Hence, the methods of drought in the region and the siltation in the river rainwater harvesting and techniques of basins and rivers has brought down the recharging groundwater recharge proposed to be practised in capabilities. This argument is advocated to the the region are in question and being debated. extent of alarming the people that the present Is it really true that natural replenishment of situation may lead to contamination of groundwater does not take place sufficiendy ? Is it groundwater by saline water from the sea. true that groundwater table is constandy declining As a measure to protect the coastal region from ? Is the salinity intrusion in the rivers a grave this calamity, individuals, NGOs and the problem in the region, because of insufficient Governmental agencies have taken in large scale recharge ? educating the public in artificial recharge How deforestation can be linked to the drinking techniques. Conventional methods of water problem in the region? Do sand and silt groundwater recharging, such as spreading, deposits in the river beds adversely effect recharging pits, percolation tanks, infIltration groundwater recharge? None of the above trenches are advocated at all possible platforms. arguments appear to have either scientific basis or Rainwater harvesting techniques which are physical and logical support. It is very difficult to effectively practiced elsewhere are also promoted find proper justifications for these arguments. in large scale. Demonstrations of theses water Then, what are the ground realities. harvesting techniques are held in schools and If one is concerned with the water resources, public places in the coastal region sponsored by surface or subsurface, in the coastal region, it is both NGOs and Zilla Panchayats. The basic very essential to consider topographical argument is that natural replenishment taking / geological features along with hydrological and place is insufficient. geomorphological characteristics of the river Well, it is true that inspite of having annual basins. It is equally important to study the rivers rainfall, to the order of more than 3500 rum, in and river basins including soil behaviour. The the region, it often experiences acute shortage of coastal region flanked by high Western Ghats on drinking water, particularly during the summer the eastern side and the Arabian sea on the west, 1 Professor & Dean (P&D), N.I.T.K., Surathkal 40 has very undulating terrain with highs and valleys erosion and facilitates sustained inHltration of of laterites or lateritic soil. The rivers originate in water for a long period, it does not help much in the high ranges of ghats with scarp outcrops, fall to be practiced in the coastal region. down foot hill and flow through the midland Since, sufficient natural replenishment of before joining the Arabian sea. The rivers are groundwater takes place every year during invariably joined by another tributary or main monsoon, including the vear, of low rainfall , the stream at the estuary, running almost parallel to conventional techniques of groundwater recharge the sea for a considerable distance along the coast. may not be necessary. Obviously, during this The region receives heavy monsoon rainfall period, roof water harvesting will be a wasteful spread over 3 to 4 months. The soil in the region exercise. InHltration pits or some such techniques gets saturated within first 2 weeks of rainfall. As a of groundwater recharge will only facilitate result, the replenishment of aquifers takes place, increased soil erosion. raising the water table, which in some area crosses the ground surface. The observations of the water It is necessary to reduce lateral flow from table made either in the open wells or in the unconfined aquifers in the lateritic deposits, to borewells in the region, clearly indicate this maintain the groundwater table high for a longer phenomena, defeating the argument that period. The existing vented dams across groundwater recharge in the region does not take rivers/ streams are found to be very useful in this place sufficiently. However, high gradient of the regard. Further, series of subsurface barriers of river basin towards its outlet at the sea, makes the lateritic soil and clay mix, at carefully located surface flow to recede quickly during the post places in the river basin may be more successful monsoon period. The porous lateritic deposits in and, efficient in reducing the outflow. It is the region helps the subsurface lateral flows to necessary to have more surface storage structures maintain the same characteristics as that of rather than recharge structures. The existing tanks surface flow. Laboratory investigations show that and ponds are to be looked into as storage the hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal structures and not as recharge structures. direction in lateritic formations is more than twice Given the background of these realities, it is a than that in the vertical direction. As a result, myth that natural replenishment of groundwater groundwater from unconfined aquifers quickly during monsoon is insufficient to avoid water drain to Arabian sea, brining down the crisis in the summer months. Adopting recharge/ groundwater table. rainwater harvesting techniques during the Further, it could be observed that large quantity monsoon period will not be of much use. The of sand deposits in the river bed. However, there problem of the coastal region on the west coast is no silt deposition and hence no delta of peninsular India, is one of reducing ground formations. Though the seawater travels to a water outflow from the aquifers to the sea rather considerable distance upstream during high tide in than recharging the same. Advocating, the summer months, the subsequent monsoon conventional recharging or rainwater harvesting flow leaches the soil in the bed and banks, thereby techniques which are successful elsewhere, may avoiding accumulated effects of salt water. not be a wise decision to be practised in this Afforestation though it helps in prevention of soil coastal belt, as these methods are site specific. 41 4. Exploring Water Issues in the Himalayas Studies from Kashmir, Uttaranchal and the North-East Sanjoy Hazarika and FA Shaheen [[email protected]] 24th February 2005 11:00 - 13:30; 14:30 - 16:00; 16:30 - 18:30 Session Chair: Ravi Cho ra Inspite of the physical, cultural and resource richness, hills in general, and the Himalayan region in particular, remain woefully underdeveloped and under-studied. With the aim of filling this obvious gap in ITP's research portfolio, this session marks ITP's foray into the mighty Himalayas and pools together knowledge and experience of people working on social, economic, cultural and political aspects of water management. The session covers water management and policy issues from three regions and presents a bouquet of research led by FA Shaheen in Jammu and Kashmir; Development Centre for Alternative Policies (DCAP) in Uttaranchal; and former New York Times reporter and founder of the Centre for North East Studies and Policy Research, Sanjoy Hazarika in the North East. Ravi Chopra, Director of the People's Science Institute, Dehradun leads the discussions. 4(a). Water Issues in the North-East: Studies from the Brahmaputra Brahmaputra is India's largest and world's fifth largest river. Between Tibet and the Bay of Bengal this mighty river (the only one with a masculine name), traverses some of the richest cultural and biological landscapes of India. With 32% of India's water resource potential and 41 % of its total hydropower potential, Brahmaputra river basin in North-eastern India holds the key to the country's water future. Author(s) Paper C. Mohanta and R. K. Goswami Nutrient flux cascade to the Northern Indian Ocean Ext. Abstract (Bay of Bengal) from the Brahmaputra Catchments: Biogeochemical Evaluation of C, Nand P i Arup Kumar Sharma Reservoir. Operating Policy Considering F!ood Mitigation: I Ext. Abstract A NeceSSIty for Northeastern part of IndIa • Exploratory Use of Artificial Neural Network and Ext. Abstract Nayan Sharma and R. N. Sankhua Remote Sensing for Management of Bank Erosion in Brahmaputra S. Baruah and SP Biswas Arresting Aqua-Terrorism: Viable Alternatives Ext. Abstract R. Wangkheriakpam Water Management and Potential Ethnic conflicts Ext. Abstract in Northeast India S. Hazarika and S. Sharma The Brahmaputra: Livelihoods and Policies, as if People Ext. Abstract Mattered 43 4(b). Water Issues in War-torn Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir is well endowed with water resources. The state has some of the largest fresh water lakes in the region. It has large areas under snow-peaked mountains and glaciers. I t is the origin of three mighty river systemsChenab, Jhelum and Indus and their tributarieswhich drive the agrarian economies of north-western India and Pakistan. Yet, Jammu and Kashmir itself is facing growing water scarcity and ecological degradation. Glaciers are depleting; and its vast biological capital is eroding. Kashmir was once a lively hydraulic society with elaborate irrigation systems, which now lie in a decrepit state. Militancy and war are also taking their toll on the water infrastructure of the state. \Vhat are the water management issues in this critical region? Author(s) Paper E A. Shaheen Indus \Vater Treaty: Scrapped or Abrogated? Ext. Abstract Falendra K Sudan Participatory \X'atershed Development in Jammu and Ext. Abstract Kashmir: Experiences of Integrated \Xiatershed Development Project (IWDP), Hills-II F. A. Shaheen Ecologic and Economic Valuation of 'Wullar lake for Ext. Abstract sustainable development f---.. EA. Shaheen Asia's largest freshwater lake vanishing: problems and Ext. Abstract remedies J. Prabhakara \V'ater resources development and utilization scenario Ext. Abstract in Jammu province: problems and perspectives c-----..... E A. Shaheen Comparative management performance of government Highlight and farmer managed irrigation systems in Kashmir 4(c). Water Policy Issues in Uttaranchal State Agriculture is of critical importance in Uttaranchal as with only 16(10 of the total geographical area, it supports 75-80% of the 60-65 million people and forms the nucleus of most economic activities in this hill state. While development of agriculture in the state has been long understood as a challenging and complicated task, the importance of protecting and maintaining existing cultivated area has somehow become obfuscated. As a result, cultivated and irrigated areas and productivity have been declining, denying local population their legitimate sustenance. What should be an appropriate Irrigation Policy for the state? What kind of institutional, policy and legal frameworks will be needed? What can be the role of Panchayati Raj Institutions? DCAP reviews the current physical and management status of irrigation in Uttaranchal and tries to address some of these key questions. Author(s) Paper ! Development Centre for Review of Irrigation Policy of Uttaranchal State Presentation Only Alternative Policies I NUTRIENT FLUX CASCADE TO THENORTHERN INDIAN OCEAN (BAY OF BENGAL) FROM THE BRAHMAPUTRA CATCHMENTS: BIOGEOCHEMICAL EVALUATION OF C, N AND P Chandan Mohanta1 and R. K. Goswami2 Early signs of global change would appear in myriad of natural and human induced interactive places of biogeochemical hot spots like the forces. Brahmaputra basin, which is located the It is necessary to understand the natural and transitional zones between different climatic anthropogenic mobilization rates of C-N-P in the regions and different distinct ecosystems, that of Brahmaputra system and their environmental the cold dry climate of the Tibetan plateau and responses. This study, based on laboratory the warm tropical climate of the Assam analyses of sediment samples collected from 38 Bangladesh plains, where temperature contrast locations over the basin for particulate nutrient will occur earlier than other regions. The thermal concentrations, indicates that the high soil erosion and dynamic influence of the Tibetan plateau not and sediment discharge in the river watershed, only plays a significant role in the evolution and apart from being naturally induced, is also formation of the Asian monsoon circulation; it perturbed by human activities, affecting the, affects climatic modulation of organic matter biogeochemical fluxes of C-N-P to the Indian fluxes through the Ganges-Brahmaputra as well. Ocean. Over the past few decades, combustion, Based on actual measurements, the flux of agriculture and deforestation in the Northeast particulate organic carbon (pOC) throug~ the region have grown having significant effects on Brahmaputra River at a downstream location (at the natural cycles of Carbon, Nitrogen and Pandu) was computed as 6.3 x 106 tons/year. The phosphorus (C-N-P). With a relatively much flux of particulate phosphorous and nitrogen higher population growth, the region has become were calculated as 8.4 x 104 tons/year and 8.5 x a significantly potential C-N-P source. Although 105 tons/year respectively. These figures for C, N the relative magnitudes of anthropogenic and and P in the Brahmaputra are comparable to natural fluxes are still uncertain, it is apparent that recent concentrations in some other major rivers C-N-P cycles are strongly influenced by fluxes of the world experiencing human interference. from human activities in the region. Much of the unfavorable change of local ecological climate is Current uncertainty about the future effect of the linked to continuing deforestation and increasing Brahmaputra on the ecological and land denudation in the basin as indicated by the biogeochemical processes of the Indian Ocean is present study. However, the seasonal jumps, high increasing. 95 percent of the nearly 1600 million inter-annual variability and rapid change on tons of average annual sediment load (one of the decadal or larger rime scale of the monsoon over highest in the world) of the Brahmaputra-Ganges the basin would require further research to system is injected to the Bay of Bengal during the establish such links conclusively. northeast monsoon. This translates into an episodic pulse of a significant percentage of the Sporadic monsoon pulses of enormous water and global dissolved and particulate riverine C-N-P sediment discharge from the Ganges load. Unlike most other parts of the world, Brahmaputra are phenomenon of significant sediment discharge in the Brahmaputra basin has relevance to the biogeochemistry of the Indian remained high due to lack of dam and reservoir Ocean. Impact on the trace metal and nutrient construction. Rather the sediment discharge of fluxes are perhaps the most important of the the Brahmaputra has also been re-evaluated to be 1 Faculty Member, Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute ofTechnology, Guwahati, Guwahati-78I039, Assam, India. Email: [email protected];[email protected] .. . 2 Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, lIT Guwahatl, GuwahatI 781039, Assam, India. 45 - larger than previously estimated. Although to be paid to the land- coastal ocean ecosystem, historical data for the Brahmaputra basin is not which will be heavily impacted by growing available for comparison, some of the current regional human population and their activities. figures for C, ~, and P are comparable to recent nutrient and sediment, will be involved in the concentrations in few major rivers with physical, chemical, biological, and pronounced human interference. Thus, the sedimentological processes of the coastal region present C, N and P concentrations in the and be exchanged with the open ocean. So far, northeast region may already reflect little is known about the processes on the Indian anthropogenic contributions. Ocean shelf, which control the fate of those Relative to rivers without significant materials. To track these changes, to understand anthropogenic influence (e.g. Amazon, Yukon), the processes and to find measures to deal with concentration of inorganic ~ and P in highly what would happen to the coastal region, program populated drainage basins (e.g. Po, Rhine) shows me is needed to survey, monitor and understand large increases. The Brahmaputra River, although the changes of the biogeochemistry of the Bay of not indicating such high concentrations currently, Bengal. Particular attention needs to be paid to the its deviation from a pristine state is noticeable, land- coastal ocean ecosystem, which will be particularly in the case of phosphorus heavily impacted by growing regional human concentration. population and their activities. Nutrient input from the Brahmaputra to the In conclusion, the outlook for Brahmaputra basin coastal zone of the Indian Ocean will in the coming years is that it has the potential to undoubtedly increase, owing to intensive and effect the environment of the Bay of Bengal extensive fertilizer application under way, coupled significantly in terms of C-N-P cycling as well as with population growth. The input materials, to that of the world. In turn, both global and deal with what would happen to the coastal regional changes will overprint the internal region, program is needed to survey, monitor and perturbations of C-N-P cycling in the area and understand the changes of the biogeochemistry lead to both positive and negative feedbacks to of the Bay of Bengal. Particular attention needs change. 46 RESERVOIR OPERATING POUCY CONSIDERING FLOOD MITIGATION: A NECESSITY FOR NORTH-EASTERN PART OF INDIA Arup Kumar Sharma 1 The north eastern region of India accounts for as Pagladia, Tipaimukh, Dibang, Lohit, and Kynsi about one-third of the water resources potential have been proposed in this region. However, these of the country. However, development of this multipurpose dam projects may not be able to huge water resource potential has remained mitigate flood hazard and can rather worsen the limited so far and on the other hand the region is situation if flood mitigation is not considered as suffering from disastrous floods almost every year. one of the prime objectives during development The high degree of temporal and spatial variations of reservoir operating policies. A monthly/ ten of available water makes the problem of daily operating schedule prepared on the basis of harnessing water resources quite complex and average monthly/ten-day inflow, while definitely calls for strategic planning and management. This reducing the monthly/ten-day outflow from the part of India is the best example of the reality reservoir, may fail to reduce the flood peak on the that merely having huge amount of water cannot downstream of the reservoir. This is because, if help and can rather hamper development. More power generation is kept as the prime objective, important is the amount of utilizable water and the operating policy will be adopted to keep the not the available water in a year. It is interesting to reservoir head as high as possible. This may lead note that out of 586.60km30f yearly available to a situation where the reservoir is already full water of the Brahmaputra basin, only 24.0km3 has when the flood is coming. This situation will been assessed as utilizable. This is basically compel the authority to release the inflowing because of the fact that, out of the available flood to the downstream. Adoption of daily water, 477.5km3 of water flows through the river operating schedule on the other hand is also system during the monsoon period. Therefore, to difficult because of many other practical achieve benefit from the available water and to constraints such as gate operation and flow minimize the flood havoc, we must make forecasting. Therefore, providing a storage space provision to store the monsoon flow for use in particularly to absorb flood is essential if one the non-monsoon period. Improving ground wants to have flood moderation as one of the water storage, increasing surface retention in the objectives of multipurpose reservoirs. form of ponds, and construction of reservoirs are Better operation of a resetvoir for avoiding some of the options to achieve the above artificial flood situation will be possible if objective. Watershed management practices in the reasonably accurate flow forecasting can be made form of bund, pond, vegetative treatment, etc. can at appropriate time. A mathematical model minimize surface erosion and surface runoff to developed for simulating flood movement some extent and can therefore contribute towards through the basins and channels from rainfall flood moderation at watershed level. Large-scale events occurring in the upper catchments can benefits in the form of power generation, help. A model of this kind can be used to forecast irrigation, navigation and recreation can be the inflow at the reservoir site to facilitate prior achieved by constructing storage reservoirs. A release from the reservoir, if necessary, to make reservoir if planned and operated properly can room for absorbing the in flowing flood. moderate the flood peak to a great extent. Again it is seen that several reservoirs have been To utilize the available water as well as to mitigate proposed in different tributaries of the the flood hazard, a number of dam projects such Brahmaputra river. While a good operating policy I Associate Professor, Civil Enginering Department, Indian Institute ofTechnology Guwahati. E-mail: [email protected] 47 for a single reservoir can ensure flood benefit in past record leads to development of a better the Lohit, Dibang, and Subansiri reach the operating policy. Use of synthetic data is therefore confluence of the Subansiri-Brahmaputra gaining popularity. New techniques like Artificial simultaneously, the flood level of the Neural Network (ANN) have been used Brahmaputra may rise significantly. Therefore, successfully for developing synthetic stream flow while making a large release from a reservoir, required for development of efficient operating releases made from the other reservoirs and the policy. New heuristic optimization techniques like time of travel of those releases must be taken into Genetic Algorithm have also been found to give consideration for avoiding adverse flood better policy compared to commonly used situation.the downstream of that reservoir, a existing techniques. Therefore, it is advisable to coordination in the operation of all the reservoirs adopt the most efficient operating policy after a located in different tributaries of a river is also detailed analysis of different policies by using necessary to avoid artificial flood because of different techniques. adverse combination of releases made from The basic objective of this paper is to highlight different reservoirs. For example, if large releases that to achieve optimal benefits from the available made from the reservoirs located on the Lohit, water and to minimize damages due to flood, Dibang, and Subansiri reach the confluence of some of the important issues as discussed above the Subansiri-Brahmaputra simultaneously, the should be considered during planning and flood level of the Brahmaputra may rise operation stages of proposed multipurpose significantly. Therefore, while making a large reservoirs. This is particularly important for the release from a reservoir, releases made from the reservoirs of the northeastern part, as erroneous other reservoirs and the time of travel of those planning and operation of reservoirs can even releases must be taken into consideration for worsen the flood situation in some localities. Due avoiding adverse flood situation. emphasis should be given towards the use of Benefit from a reservoir can be increased latest available techniques in the development of significantly by using an efficient operating policy. reservoir operating policy. Experience has shown that use of long series of 48 EXPLORATORY USE OF ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK AND REMOTE SENSING FOR MANAGEMENT OF BANK EROSION OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIvER Nayan Sharma1 and R N Sankhua2 The Brahmaputra is the largest river in the Indian In this study, the simulation of intricate river plan subcontinent and ranks fifth in the world in terms form variability of the Brahmaputra is attempted of discharge. The specific yield from its using artificial neural networks (ANN). The ANN catchment area is one of the highest in the world model is developed by feed-forward back due to very high rainfall on a narrow drainage propagation training algorithm with suitable input basin. Relentless stream-bank erosion along with and output neurons along with one layer of 102 flooding in the densely populated riverine region hidden neurons. The number of hidden neurons of the Brahmaputra basin in the Indian province has been obtained after several runs of the of Assam has become one of the causative network with different number of neurons. factors for impoverishing a large segment of Appropriate GIS applications are resorted to agrarian population every year. About 18 square extract bank-line information for incorporating in kilometres of prime inhabited land is lost every the ANN model. year to river erosion in the Brahmaputra basin. This research is focussed on evolving erosion and Furthermore, unrelenting bank erosion has caused deposition simulation model of the Brahmaputra channel widening creating navigation bottleneck river. Towards this end, one set of Survey of India zones in the Brahmaputra owing to inadequate toposheets (1965) and four sets of digital satellite draught during non-monsoon months. For images of IRS LISS-III sensor, comprising 32 efficient management of bank erosion spanning scenes for 1990, 1997, 2000, and 2002 have been over hundreds of kilometres along the used. A segment of the data base for channel Brahmaputra, the need has arisen for a scientific geometry and satellite-derived plan-form has been tool which can aid systematic monitoring of deliberately left out from the model training phase bank-line changes, help prioritization of erosion for its use later in model validation. zones, and facilitate maintenance of navigation Using ERDAS Imagine digital image processing for all-weather fairway. software, the satellite images were geo-referenced Artificial neural networks (ANN) have been with respect to the 1:50,000 scale Survey of India considered to be appropriate particularly in toposheet. The geo-referencing was done by situations where the physics of the problem is not hardcopy map on digiti sing table using second yet properly understood and thus cannot be fully order polynomial with root mean square errors explained by mathematical functions or (RMSE) less than 0.5 pixel and the nearest relationships, as in the case of the changing neighbourhood re-sampling technique to create morphology of the braided Brahmaputra river. geo-referenced image of pixel size 23.5mx23.5m. ANN is an information processing technology Subsequently, other images were also registered that uses an approach entirely different from with the geo-referenced image using image to conventional algorithmic programming or image registration technique. The 622.73 km long regression analysis. It is a flexible mathematical main river has been divided into 100 strips of structure, which is composed of many non-linear equal base length for convenience. Base lines of computational elements operating in parallel and 89.88°E longitude and 250 N latitude have been arranged in patterns reminiscent of biological taken as fixed reference lines for measurement of neural networks of the human brain. bank-line parameters. The areas enclosed by strips were calculated. 1 Professor Indian Institute ofTechnology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India E-mail: [email protected]@yahoo.co.in 2 Research Scholar Indian Institute ofTechnology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India E-mail: [email protected]@yahoo.co.in 49 The derived data from the satellite images for neurons or weak learning process. For evaluation 1990, 1997,2000 and 2002 were analysed and the in the present case, the network is first trained bank-lines were digitized for all the above years; with all the pairs selected for the learning process. and then the above derived data were fed to the Then one of the pairs is eliminated from the set ANN model. The arc lengths of both left and and the network is trained. The eliminated pair is right banks for all the above years were found by used as the validation set. The network is trained using Arc Info GIS software. The years 1991 and till RMSE value of 0.001 is achieved. This order 2001 have been taken for comparison of erosion of error has been set in the present study as this and deposition along the left bank. The gives a realistic estimate of the output. A passing dimensionless parameters, a1 ...a100, are the reference has been made in the paper on emerging ratios of area of a strip and sum of area of all new research directions for evolving cost-effective strips and 11. ..1100 are the ratio of length of arc anti erosion measures for the Brahmaputra. of a strip and total length of bank-line. Methods like submerged vanes, board-fencing, toe Month and year have been taken as input neurons, pile, dikes, and polymer rope gabions have as the output parameters are to be computed for potential applications warranting further R&D different years. For training, validation, and initiatives. The study has revealed that conjunctive testing, the ratio of the dimensionless output application of ANN and remote sensing parameters al ..al00 and 11 ...1100 have been techniques have the prospects to be powerful calculated to feed into the two ANN models. The simulation tools for predicting morphological validation process consists of error analysis, changes in the Brahmaputra and other rivers. With defined as the difference between observed and periodic updating, the ANN models developed estimated values of each set of outputs (learning, can be advantageously used for monitoring and validation and testing sets). A high value of management of bank erosion, prioritization of RMSE will indicate a deficiency of generalization zones for bank protection, and navigation in the because of bad selection of number of hidden Brahmaputra. 50 ARRESTING AQUA-TERRORISM: VIABLE ALTERNATIVES 2 Sanchita Boruah 1 and S. P. Biswas The north-eastern Himalayan region is well species have disappeared. People of the region known for excessive rainfall. An entirely dry have to depend on imported fish to meet the ever month is rare, except in the western part where growing demand. The prime causes of the December and January usually remain dry. About depletion of the natural stock are terrorist like 75% of the rainfall is received during the destruction of aquatic biota and habitat shrinkage. southwest monsoon (June-August). The mean Not only fish, other types of biota like ghanal and annual rainfall is 1991 mm with a minimum of dolphin have either vanished from the region or 1400mm and a maximum of 2500mm. are on the verge of extinction. Precipitation in the hills above 2500m is in the Large rivers like the Brahmaputra cover different form of snow, which generally falls in the month types of climatic zones, landscapes, and bio of November to February and sometimes up to geographic regions. The hydrodynamic March. High rainfall causes an almost continuous characteristics of a river are dependent primarily percolation of water through streams and as a on the size of the river and the climatic and result, the soil has very low water holding capacity. drainage conditions within the catchment area. Humus content is poor in hill slopes because the Description of the habitat reach (riparian organic matters are washed away in heavy rainfall ecotone) of the four tributaries and the main river assisted by steep slopes and loose texture of the (the Brahmaputra) reveals that except the reaches soil. of the Subansiri and the Noa-Dihing, the riparian Innumerable and diverse type of water bodies zone of the Brahmaputra and its tributaries is have made the northeastern part of India home unstable and subject to bank erosion on one or for over 300 species of aquatic fauna ranging both sides. The fast flowing section of the river is from tiny colourful wedand species to gigantic characterized by rocky substratum and relatively freshwater dolphins of the Brahmaputra. The stable bank. The soil is alluvial with high floodplain lakes (wetlands) of the Brahmaputra percentages of sand and low nitrogen and and Barak river basins in Assam are globally phosphorus. Frequent changes of the river course recognized for their aestheic and biodiversity coupled with heavy siltation of the riverbed, values as they provide an unique habitat for a especially in the upper reaches, have a great good number of indigenous food and ornamental bearing on the faunal composition of the river. As fishes. About 60 species of ornamental fishes the river continuously widens with every passing belonging to 39 genera and 20 families have been year, the average depth of the river simultaneously recorded from the floodplain lakes of Upper decreases and water is distributed among Assam. Of these, Botia dario, Chaca chaca, numerous channels. As a result, water cover for Channa barca, Colisa fasciatus, Glossogobius giant fishes and other mega fauna like river giuris etc. are widely acclaimed species and fetch dolphin becomes inadequate during the dry high prices in domestic and overseas markets. Till season. Shallow channels are sometimes totally the early 1970s fish was the easiest available dried up during summer. Thus, the river dolphins commodity for most of the villagers in the Assam and turdes, which were abundant a couple of valley. As such, people hardly gave any importance decades ago, now can be seen occasionally during to aquaculture. However, the scenario has rainy months and then only in selected spots. At changed very fast during the last three decades present, residential population of river dolphin is and consequendy, many of the hitherto common noticed only at Dibru-Saikhowa in upper Assam, 1 Dept. ofZoology, D.H.8.K. College, Dibrugarh, Assam 786001 E-mail: [email protected] 2 Dept. ofLife Sciences, Dibrugarh University, Assam 786004 E-mail: [email protected] 51 Kukurmara near Guwahati, near Dhubri in lower Control or mitigate flood related problems. The Assam, and at Lalmati Dohr near Silchar in advantages of non-structural measures are that southern Assam. In the event of the construction they are easier to implement, sustainable, and less of dams in the upstream, the situation will further expensive. worsen, as there will be less water in the Water availability, food production, biodiversity, downstream, particularly during the dry season. population and economic growth, and climate Many of the problems of river management change are linked in a complex way. Changes today relate to land use changes, water resource made by engineers on the rivers have made a developments and industrial expansion which severe impact on the bio-diversity as there was no have altered the pattern of runoffs, quality of knowledge of the hydrological impact on the river water, and the load of sediment delivered to biological or ecological environment. There is a river channels. Erosion control structures like need to do an environment impact assessment dams, embankments, and spurs provide according to the notification of 1994. The temporary solutions to flood problems. evaluation criteria should include assessment of Construction of dams in the highly seismic the effect on the productivity of the surrounding northeastern Himalayan zone is definitely a highly soil, loss of genetic resources, and loss of or risky proposition. This practice should be used as damage to habitat in both up and downstream, a last resort because of the design and and should be developed in consultation with construction expenses. The structure takes the experts and stakeholders. A feasibility study that erosive force of the water and can reduce the takes into account the ecological and economic remaining slope. Moreover, structural measures and social impacts at regional level will defmitely for flood control often proved detrimental as far turn out to be a boon for the entire basin. Setting as biodiversity conservation is concerned. up equilibrium between eco-hydrology and proper Therefore, non-structural means which involve a management of the rivers would result in balance number of possibilities ranging from flood of economic development and biodiversity warning systems to phytoremediation that can conservatlon. control or mitigate flood related problems. The advantages of non-structural measures are that they are easier to implement, sustainable and less expensive. 52 WATER MANAGEMENT AND POTENTIAL ETHNIC CONFLICTS IN NORTH-EAST INDIA: CASE STUDIES FROM MANIPUR Ramananda Wangkheirakpam Manipur state is marked by sharp ethnic and create an independent Nagaland. A forced project territorial boundaries, and has several disputes on can have serious security implications including water within its boundary. It shares its problems non viability of projects. with neighboring Indian states and with 2. Inter Ethnic Conflicts. neighboring countries. All together 32 officially Ethnic identity may not be the sole source of recognized communities co-exist in 21,327 sq. violent conflict or war, but to ignore it or belittling kms. Myanmar is in the western side, Nagaland is the relationship between ethnicity, water, and in the north, Mizoram and Assam to its south. conflicts can sometimes mislead the public or Two main rivers Barak and Manipur, not only those attempting to reduce tension or conflicts. traverse through areas inhabited by different Understanding this relationship also will greatly communities but also pass through other states save resources that may be otherwise spent on (as in the case of Barak) and end their journey in resolving conflicts. different countries. Any water management effort in the state is now under the close scrutiny by -Kakching Ethei: The Kakching irrigation canal, ethnic communities, neighboring states, and by locally known as Kakching Ethei khong, is a 10 neighboring countries. km long canal dug and maintained wholly by Types of Water Related Conflicts farmers of the Kakching area of Thoubal district in Manipur. This water diversion from the Sekmai 1. Conflict between Ethnic Communities and Government River has enabled three crops in a year earning This part deals with how there can be conflict Kakching the title "Granary of Manipur". between ethnic communities and government Upstream tribes now demand that the when traditional systems are not acknowledged. downstream Meetei community reaping the The Loktak multi-purpose Project submerged benefits of the river pays them water (river) tax. more than 50,000 ha of seasonal agricultural land. This has strained the relations between the No compensation was given to affected farmers. communities. As a result several peoples' movement were 3. Inter-state Coriflicts launched for compensation, and now to de commission the Ithai Barrage itself. The Barrage While conflict between states is yet to raise its and the project have been even considered as a ugly head, there are already signs and processes in colonizing element of the Indian government. place. In the case of the Tipaimukh dam on the Despite the failure of the project, one main Barak river, conflicts can arise in 'sharing' of water contention between the government and the local between Assam and Manipur. One might note people is the failure of both the government and here that conflicts between states might not NHPC of the traditional commons that once happen for a long time because they do not have governed the lake. In any future water projects, it the resources to implement large projects. is absolutely necessary that local norms and 4. Transnational Water Coriflict systems are taken into consideration. Any intervention on the Manipur and Barak rivers -Construction of the Mapithel Dam which began has transnational implications. While there is in the early 1980s is still in not completed. The already the Ithai barrage built on the first river, the reasons are varied, but two obvious reasons stand Tipaimukh dam is being planned on the Barak out. One is the resistance from indigenous river. Till now there has been no complaint from communities, and the second being the Myanmar, but in the case of the Tipaimukh dam underground group NSCN (IM) whose goal is to there are already protests in Bangladesh. 53 ·Tipaimukh Dam: The proposed Tipaimukh dam of Manipur. All these conflicts are borne by three across the Manipur river has become a point of factors: insensitivity of the government and lack contention between India and Bangladesh, of tools to govern multi-ethnic territories; particularly because India has clearly not informed disability to think beyond narrow nationalistic its intention to dam the Barak river. Relations conception of boundaries, and fear of small between the two countries are already sour over ethnic communities of being overwhelmed by the issue of the Farakka Barrage and people in others and their attempts to protect their interests. Bangladesh have made it clear that no dam can be For any water management project, proper raised in India without the consent of the guidelines on negotiations and conflict resolution downstream communities. An almost nationalistic must be in place. If such processes are not in reaction from Bangladesh is a road march place, incidences of violence will probably "Tipaimukh Dam? No!" planned from 23 to 25 increase as environmental scarcities worsen and February 2005. While there has been no violence might even have serious implications on security, or overt conflict between the two countries, with financial resources, disintegration of regions and increasing scarcity of water in the future, the human relations. possibility of violent conflicts may become real. 5. Conclusion This paper has made an attempt to highlight four kinds of water related conflicts in the Indian state 54 ~--~-~~~-~~~~~~~~-~ ------THE BRAHMAPUTRA: LIVELIHOODS, POLICIES AS IF PEOPLE MATTERED Sanjoy Hazarika1 and Sanjay Sharma2 The Brahmaputra, earlier known as the Tsang-po their own right. There is little transparency in in Tibet, and a number of its tributaries such as these departments on how and where they spend the Lohit and Manas, have their origins in Tibet their money, the process of contract award, and and Bhutan. The main stem of the Brahmaputra virtually no review of their functioning or also flows into Bangladesh as do the Teesta and accountability. Access to information is difficult. the Barak. These are international rivers, water Last year (2004), according to the state bodies which have upper, middle, and lower government, over 300 embankments which were riparians in different countries. Bangladesh, after either over-age or poorly built gave way during the all, has not less than 52 rivers which flow into it floods, carrying away people, property, and from India. livestock. The result was the highest toll and the Each riparian, especially Bangladesh, is extremely worst floods in decades. But there are not even sensitive to what it perceives as a possible the stirrings of an effort to seek new strategies to potential threat by the other to divert, dam, and deal with the problem, apart from knee-jerk and otherwise use and exploit the resources upstream ad hoc reactions. with little positive impact for itself. It is our In 1982, the centre created the Brahmaputra argument that cooperation, joint scholarship, and Board to look at the water resources of the region building better understanding, especially with and ways of tapping it. But the board is moribund Tibet, Bangladesh and the north-east, is one of and ineffective. It has gone for years without a the major ways of bringing the rural marginalized fully functional chief and has never been given the into the process of growth and development, funds to be truly autonomous and conduct its through a participative process that enables all work professionally. After the 2004 floods, the stakeholders and civil society to benefit. Prime Minister announced a high-level committee Apart from this larger picture, it is also our to suggest long-term ways of tackling the problem argument that the government's campaign to of floods in Assam and other states of the region. "develop" the north-east pays little attention to its One of the proposals is to set up a new regional water resources except seeing these exploitable Water Resource Management Authority but its commodities with a proposed network of dams, specific goals and charter, independence, funding, hydro power stations, large pondage, and staff, and specialists are still unclear although the irrigation benefits. There is another aspect to this: Prime Minister himself has remarked that it could it is reflected in the relentless effort to be on the lines of the Tennessee Valley Authority "engineerize" solutions to problems which have (TVA). But these are still early days. their roots in environmental, social, and other What would be of critical importance to such a issues. Thus, various departments of the new body is its effectiveness in coordinating with government of Assam, for example, rush to build other water management/resource/research more and more embankments and "porcupines" institutions of the central and state governments and bamboo structures aimed at bundelling or as well as its transparency on issues of public reducing the impact of river currents on significance. shorelines and banks. But there has not been a detailed, structured, logical debate on the efficacy It is especially important to note what the TVA's or otherwise of such structures in a river of the former director declared as its principal scale and size of the Brahmaputra and its various constituencies and strengths (emphasis ours): tributaries, which are independent large rivers in "One of TVA's greatest strengths has been its 1 Managing Trustee, Centre for North East Studies and Policy Research (C-NES) 2 Coordinator, C-NES study on Brahmaputra 55 strong base of local constituencies including policy levels. We advocate strong early warning grassroots support; state and local governments; systems, platforms, and shelters, and a special interests (such as distributors, industrial participative process of planning and and environmental groups); other federal implementation which restores dignity to those agencies; and the Tennessee Valley Congressional who are hit by floods and river bank erosion. Caucus. The TVA Caucus is composed of Indeed, one of the most frequently heard congressmen and women from the TVA region." comments in Assam during the floods is that, interests (such as distributors, industrial and while people can cope with floods, they are unable environmental groups); other federal agencies; to handle the greater threat of erosion. and the Tennessee Valley Congressional Caucus. Thirty years ago when a former chief minister of The TVA Caucus is composed of congressmen Assam declared that the people of the state had and women from the TVA region." no choice but to "live with floods", he drew a What is important to emphasize is the approach furious outcry from across the state and the which appears to be open, democratic, inclusive, media. But 30 years down, Assam and its and involves both grassroots activists and neighbourhood are still living with floods and environmental groups. This is in stark contrast to conditions for the rural population have become that of the government of India's various water worse, not better even though Assam has the management agencies and ministries for decades. largest length of embankments in the country: 4,500 km! Yet, only 1.5 million hectares of 32 Information is difficult if not impossible to get on million hectares of flood-prone areas are basic water issues from the ministry. The core protected! issues therefore are transparency and access to or right to information, both are now becoming The Centre for North East Studies and Policy increasingly important matters of public concern Research is conducting a three-year program and which are being openly debated in different supported by the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (2002 parts of the country. We have to start thinking out onward) which seeks to develop participative and of the box. Only then will innovative and sustainable planning for improving incomes and sustainable changes, based on local realities and livelihoods for rural populations along the river in pragmatism develop. a range of aspects with focus on inland water transport and dairying. There are researchers, This approach is missing in the context of the about 20 research sites, and approximately 2,000 north-east and particularly the Brahmaputura and respondents spread across six districts of Assam: its tributaries. All work is ad hoc and policies, if Dhubri, Darrang and Kamrup, Jorhat, Dibrugarh, these can be called that at all, are knee jerk. There and Dhemaji. All the sites are flood prone, a is no transparency; the NGO movement is number of them are affected by erosion, and the scattered, unsustained, and largely ineffective. respondents are primarily rural residents. Public participation in planning and preparation is low. Although rural communities are the worst This participative socio-economic study, which affected, much is left to the whims of government involves villagers at the sites, has looked at the and its public works departments which begin prevailing status of resource utilization, work with a semblance of energy closer to the demographic and livelihood patterns, and time of high water. problems and prospects of the processes of social development. It has identified bottlenecks in the Other papers in this session will deal with the various sectors and regards the introduction of a problems of river basins, reservoirs, and dams on fleet of improved locally-built vessels, the the rivers of the north-east. Our effort is to give development of high water platforms, a perspective from Ground Zero and look at improvement of agriculture and dairying as being ways rural populations can be empowered to use as crucial as tackling of river bank erosion and water resources for resource building, livelihood channel migration. generation, and income growth. We do so from our experience in the field and advocacy at the Inland water transport is the core of the study 56 ---.-..----...... ------ which also looks at dairying. carrying capacity The project examines in detail the following areas: of vessels and the economics of transportation, relationship between dairy and agriculture, animal engine capacity, markets at the ghats and the management, training of farmers, marketing, data dependence of these markets on the stability of on passengers and goods, movement of ghats, the ghats are also being looked into. Researchers erosion, sanitation, floods, conservation, and boat have reviewed the operation of the ghats and census. vessels, reflecting the perceptions of stakeholders. 57 INDUS WATER TREATY: SCRAPPED OR ABROGATED? F. A. Shaheen1 Growing scarcity of water resources, increasing Under the treaty,J&K can use only limited waters population, and poor water management in of the Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum for power developing countries have resulted in increasing generation and lift irrigation. It cannot build demand for water resources. Increasing scarcity of reservoirs or dams on these rivers to store water water has led to the desire for control of water for irrigation and power without the prior resources, which in turn becomes a ground for approval of Pakistan. Nor can it construct any breeding conflicts. Conflicts over the use of water barrage for irrigation. The treaty imposes limits between states become severe when they are on the storage capacity that the state can create. It typically agrarian based economies. The Indus can only store 0.40 million acre feet (MAF) on the Water Treaty (1960) between India and Pakistan is Indus in Ladakh, 1.50 MAF on the Jhelum in one of a few examples in South Asia of the Kashmir, and 1.70 MAF on the Chenab in settlement of a major, international river basin Jammu. conflict. The state's agricultural potential has also been The Treaty fixed and delimited the rights and worst hit. There has been only a marginal increase obligations of India and Pakistan in relation to in the irrigation infrastructure. In 1950-51, the each other concerning the use of the waters of state could irrigate 2, 61,000 ha but in 2000-01, the Indus system of rivers. Indus, an international the state irrigated only 3, 05,970 ha through river basin, is the largest, contiguous irrigation various sources. As a result, the state has now system in the world, with a command area of rationed population of 86.14 lakh people about 20 million hectares and annual irrigation dependant on supply by the consumer affairs and capacity of over 12 million hectares. The Indus public distribution department which procures system of rivers comprises three eastern rivers rice from outside the state. Besides this, a good (Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi) and three western rivers percentage of population also purchases rice from (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab). Under the Indus private dealers. The foodgrain import graph of Water Treaty (IWT), waters of the eastern rivers state shows a sharp increase in overall imports. stand allocated to India and those of western J&K, according to an estimate, could have rivers largely to Pakistan. The treaty which was increased its area under irrigation by one lakh carried out in the best interest of nation has, acres had the state freedom to harness its available however, deprived Jammu and Kashmir G&K) of water resources. In case of the Kashmir valley, using its own water resources and thereby severely only 0.5 MAF could be stored under general affecting the development process in the state. storage on the Jhelum basin and that too not The treaty made Punjab prosperous by using the directly on the waters of river but on various water of eastern rivers for agriculture and power streams that form its tributaries. And for every generation and on the same has put J&K behind new irrigation scheme, the state has to seek by an estimated Rs 6500 crore annually. The losses permission from the Indus Commission. The are not there in the agricultural sector alone but Irrigation and Flood Control Department of the on a much higher scale in the generation of state has proposed 12 new irrigation schemes for hydropower which has an otherwise estimated Baramulla, Kupwara, Anantnag, and Budgam potential of 20,000 :M\Vo The state's rightful districts on the various streams which are awaiting riparian rights have been snatched in the so-called approval. national interest without the state being consulted Being a state with a dearth of plain agricultural at the time of treaty or compensated for the land, the state would be enormously benefited by consequent loss. 1 F. A. Shaheen, Research Consultant, IWMI-TATA Water Policy Program, E1econ, Anand-Sojitra Road, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 388120. Mail: [email protected]/[email protected] 58 a proper irrigation infrastructure. This would help buy water from India to meet the requirements of bring large acres of Karewa land (highlands the province. They also demanded that the specific to the uneven terrains like that of J &K) government should scrap the Indus Water Treaty. across the countryside under cultivation. This has, On the other side, there is a growing consensus over the years, given rise to groundswell against among the political parties of J&K to scrap or the "unjust treaty" which though has made abrogate the treaty since it has over the period Punjab prosperous by letting that state use freely sounded a death kneel to the state's economy and the water of its rivers for irrigation and power has acted as impediment to development. During production. On the other hand, these very sectors a recent state assembly session, the People's have stagnated in J&K. W'hat is regarded as more Democratic Party (PDP) passed a resolution galling is that though New Delhi compensated demanding setting up the barrage and sought Pakistan for the loss of the pre-partition canal compensation from the centre for the losses it network of central Bari Doab and Dipalpur, J&K suffered because of the Indus water treaty. The received nothing. The Nehru dispensation gave J&K state assembly members also lashed out at financial aid of Rs 83.3 crore to Pakistan to Pakistan for strangulating Kashmiri's by sticking undertake development works like building to the Indus Water Treaty which has taken a heavy storage reservoirs, link canals, tubewells, drainage, toll of state's economy. and hydroelectric installations. Pakistan, in While the new found bonhomie between India addition, received over Rs 300 crore at the time and Pakistan has successfully put political issues from the United States, Britian, West Germany, on the backburner, the fight on water rights is set Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and World Bank to become acute in the coming year. It might even as aid. surpass the political disputes between the two One way to compensate J &K for losses could be neighbors. The main reason for this is growing a favourable sharing ratio for power generated industrialization in both countries, coupled with from centrally funded projects in the state. depleting water levels and mounting power However, so far the approach of New Delhi has scarcities. The Baghliar and Wullar Barrage issues not been encouraging. For example, in the case of currently being discussed at the expert level are, the Salal Project, experts assert that the central therefore, just a tip of the iceberg. The recent government has recovered its capital cost way secretary level talks by India and Pakistan over the back in 1982 but power sharing continues to be construction of Baghliar dam on the Chenab river on the existing ratio. That is, J&K gets a royalty ended in failure. Pakistan has now approached the of only 12 per cent from the project. This is World Bank for arbitration. despite the fact that against the capital investment With water sharing promising to be the new of the central government, the state has provided international quarrel area of the 21st century, all important water and land resources for the India and Pakistan have already got a readymade project. Moreover, in the case of the Salal project, point of friction. Because of growing population, one of the provisions agreed upon was that when industrial growth, and mounting water problems capital cost of the project was recovered, the accompanied by the overall fall in the waters of power plant would be handed over to the state. So the Indus basin owing to climatic change, there is there is a case for the transfer of centrally funded a need to either abridge or abrogate the old treaty, power projects, not only on the principle of particularly looking to the current political and complete recovery of capital investment but more economic situation in Jammu and Kashmir. The so as a compensation for the losses incurred by time has come for a fresh look on all the water the state as a result of the treaty. sharing issues between the two nations for the During the recent secretary level talks in common benefit and put behind bars aU the Islamabad between India and Pakistan on the political issues and do justice to each and every controversial Wullar Barrage or Tulbal navigation area / region of the Indus basin in terms of project, political leaders from Pakistan Punjab equity in water resources of the Indus basin. demanded that the Pakistan government should 59 PARTICIPATORY WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR: EXPERIENCES OF INTEGRATED WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (IWDP), HILLS-II Falendra K. Sudanl The paper examines the participatory processes (VDPs) have been prepared by the respective adopted under the Integrated Watershed VDCs along with user groups on the basis of Development program (Hills-II), Jammu and demands and priorities put forward by the village Kashmir by giving special emphasis to communities. The system of financial methodological aspects of people's participation, management adopted by the VDCs has not been cost and benefit sharing mechanisms, and reportedly satisfactory. At present, there is lack of common property resource (CPR) management, development of more balanced partnerships and analyzes the environmental and economic between IWDP functionaries and VDCs, which is impact of participatory watershed development. reflected in the imbalance in power and control The study is confined to two sub-watersheds of between IWDP and VDC. The project has not Akhnoor Oammu district) and Ramnagar made any attempt to give a legal status to the (Udhampur district) of Jammu and Kashmir. To VDCs created and none of the VDCs has been analyse the participatory processes, data and registered so far. The project in association with information has been collected from members of VDCs has created assets through closing degraded 3 village development committees (VDCs) each forest land, village common lands (VCLs), and from Akhnoor and Ramnagar. For the collection constructing water-harvesting structures. Recently, of primary data and information on election for panchayats have been held, which environmental and economic impact, a purposive would also pave the way for motivating the sample of 20 per cent of the households from beneficiaries in cost sharing. Over the period, the twelve villages (six each from 'project' and 'non proportion of costs shared by the beneficiaries project' areas) have been selected using stratified has improved and is reportedly more than 25 per sampling technique. Care has been taken to cent. The benefits from assets created have started include both forested watersheds villages and accruing to the population of adjacent areas. To agricultural watersheds villages to make a maintain these assets and ensure benefits sharing, comparative study. To begin with, the the project in association with VDCs has formed participatory social development functionaries user groups. The Constitution, number of have conducted PRAs for the base line survey in members, and the method of benefit sharing have which needs assessment, resource availability, been different for each user group and devised by priorities and constraints have been identified. the group for its sustenance and establishing Subsequently, project functionaries have linkage with VDC. facilitated the formation of VDCs in a general There are perceptible environmental and body meeting of the community in selected economic gains to the farmers after the initiation villages. With the formation of VDCs, of participatory watershed management. The land community involvement in watershed values have increased in both forested as well as development and protection has increased agricultural sub-watersheds in the range of 10-15 significantly, which have resulted in social per cent. The effect of regeneration of vegetation mobilization and confidence building among the along with soil and water conservation measures rural community. VDCs have implemented on hill-slopes and wastelands was substantial. In demand driven activities within the framework of Shivaliks, the run-off soil loss on barren hills was the project design. Village development plans 23. 70 tons per hectare in the baseline period, 1 Department of Eeonomics, University of Jammu, Jammu, J&K 180006 E-mail: [email protected];[email protected] 60 which fell to 9.65 tons per hectare after treatment. reportedly remarkable. Fodder collection from The progressive reduction in soil loss and CPRs has also gone up significantly in monetary sediment yield as a result of quick recovery of and volume terms. at 1.0 kg and 1.31 kg, vegetation on hill-slopes and lands adjoining the respectively. The difference in number of sheep foothills has resulted in improving surface and per household and wool yield was also quite ground water regime. significant and stood at 2.5 sheep and 1.18 kg of As a result of the improved soil moisture regime, wool, respectively. The performance of CPRs was increase in supplemental irrigation resources, and reportedly remarkable. The fodder collection increased use of fertilizer (including cow-dung), from CPRs has also gone up significantly in irrigation intensity and cropping intensity have monetary and volume terms. improved. The difference in irrigation intensity User participation in pre-project planning such as was 2.94 per cent and 13.14 per cent respectively information gathering, identification of resources in forested and agricultural sub-watersheds in to be protected, and targeted groups to be project area with VDC and without VDC. The involved, and the design of the regulations related productivity of selected crops is comparatively to monitoring and enforcement has substantial higher in agricultural sub-watersheds than forested bearing on the sustainability of participatory sub-watersheds in project area. The livestock watershed development. Thus, it is suggested to population has declined significantly after the recognize poor villagers not only as beneficiaries project completion. Due to creation of closures of participatory watershed development, but to on VCLs and s, the average collection of fuel assign them the status of stakeholders in real wood per household has declined to the tune of practice and provide them opportunities to Rs. 1957.25 per annum in project area. The crop participate not only in the conservation and yield of major crops was significantly higher in protection phase, but equally in the pre-project project area than non-project area and the phase. Wider linkages are essential between local difference in crop yields of maize, paddy and groups and development institutions, which will pulses respectively stood at 1.45 quintal, 1.65 ensure institutional sustainability. Among others, quintal and 0.39 quintal per hectare, respectively. links are needed ""ith credit institutions, with Besides, a significant differential in milk yield has agencies providing development investments, and been recorded between project area and non with institutions of local government, particularly project area and the difference in milk yield of panchayats. To achieve this, project promoted cows and buffalo stood at 1.0 kg and 1.31 kg, structures have to incorporate the concerns and respectively. The difference in number of sheep leadership of the panchayats without losing the per household and wool yield was also quite advantages of local user control and management significant and stood at 2.5 sheep and 1.18 kg of of common property resources. wool, respectively. The performance of CPRs was 61 ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC VALUATION OF WULLAR LAKE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT F. A. Shaheen1 Today, most planning and development decisions degradation and destruction of wetlands. The are made on economic grounds and, more and goal of the project for which the valuation was more, on the basis of the forces at play in the carried out was to sustain and enhance the free-market system. While this new paradigm has benefits of the lake to local communities. The aim its own limitations and dangers, it would be of the economic valuation study was to value unrealistic to ignore it and to base our quest for annual benefits of the lake and to suggest the conservation and wise use of wetlands on a implications of these values for the management completely different set of values. Hence, wetland of the lake. goods and services must be given a quantitative The study found the lake worth Rs 219 crore per value if their conservation is to be chosen over annum in terms of the benefits which are alternative uses of the land itself or the water transacted in market or have a market value. These which feeds the wetlands. direct benefits accrue to surrounding population. The Wullar lake, known as Asia's largest Other important benefits from the lake which freshwater lake, has become an environmental cannot be quantified in monetary value such as mess due to growing anthropogenic pressure, flood absorption basin, water quality human greed, and unwise practices followed by improvement, natural reservoir for power plants, the people in the catchment. The lake was given etc may be far higher than the marketed product the RAMSAR status in 1990, but still no visible benefits. Not only does the lake supply the people measures to restore its lost legacy are seen on with a number of important resource outputs ground. To justify its conservation, a valuation (fish, timber, nadroo, forage, etc), but also study is carried out which identifies the important performs an unusually large number of ecological structures, processes, and functions of the lake functions which support economic activity. In and tries to explore the ecologic-economic addition, the lake forms an important site for both interface besides employing total economic value resident and migratory birds (waterfowl). (rEV) framework to quantify all the use and non Benefits derived from the lake and important use values of the lake. functions carried by it clearly justify its The total economic value of the lake accounts to a conservation. The major threat to the lake is sum of Rs 219 crore per year besides other heavy siltation. The lake's size is shrinking day by indirect use values which may be far higher than day due to continuous siltation from the inflow of the direct use values. Value of timber produce has the Jhelum river and other tributaries. The built a major share (about 82 per cent) in the total up land is reclaimed by the people and water economic value. Fish production contributes storing capacity of the lake is decreasing. about 16 per cent of TEV Waternut and nadroo (Nelumbo rhizomes) contributes almost same Looking at the importance of the lake, the share to the total economic value. Other products government should take measures for its have a very meager share to the TEV of the lake. conservation on priority basis. TEV and other More than 50,000 people living round the important functions provided by the lake justify periphery of the lake are directly dependent on the budget allocation for the management of the the lake for their livelihood. lake. The values of wetlands are frequently not given sufficient consideration in decision-making, resulting in threats that can lead to the I F. A. Shaheen, Research Consultant, IWMI-TATA Water Policy Program, Elecon, Anand-Sojitra Road, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 388120. Mail: [email protected]@rediffmail.com 62 AsIA'S LARGEST FRESHWATER LAKE VANISHING: PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES F. A. Shaheenl Jammu and Kashmir G&K) is famous the world tributaries drain almost the entire Kashmir valley over for its lakes and wetland systems, ranging before entering into the lake and deposits silt load from the largest natural freshwater Wullar lake to before leaving the lake. the largest brackish or salt water Pangong lake in All human settlements around the lake body have Asia. The lakes and the wetland system of the conventional raw sewage and sewerage disposal state are, however, under serious threat because systems. Most of the effluents from houses are of human greed, onslaught of mindless directly drained into the lake or its feeding urbanization, and encroachments. channels and nallahs. Even the municipalities of Among all these lakes, the Wullar lake has a adjoining towns dump tonnes of refuge, distinct position and status. It is known as one of particularly used polythene bags on the banks of the Asia's largest freshwater lakes. It sustains the the lake, which poses a great threat to its health. livelihoods of a large section of population in the This increases the chloride content of lake water valley. It provides fish, waternuts (frapa natans), and is indicative of the organic pollution of lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) rhizomes, fodder, animal origin. Unless scientific alternatives for timber, water, etc. Besides this, it acts as an sewage and sewerage disposal are provided to important flood absorption basin and natural these settlements, eutrophication of the lake on reservoir for power plants. It also performs vital account of nutrient inflow, especially of nitrogen ecological functions. The lake was declared as a and phosphorus, will continue at an alarming RAMSAR site in March, 1990 because of its level. importance as a permanent winter habitat for Siltation and an extraordinary increase in the waterfowl. Once spread over 252 sq. kms, the NPK level have significantly changed the emerald green lake has effectively shrunk to 24 sq. composition of the lake because of the invasion km of water body. If the reclamation process of many weeds. The marshy and shallow zones of continues with the same pace, can we be able to the lake are infested with weed growth of which see the magnificent lake after four to five decades? more important are Nymphoides peltat, Salvina Is the Asia's largest freshwater body going to natans and Potomogeton species; the disappear forever? comparatively deeper invaded by Ceratophyllum The lake is plagued by a number of problems demersum, Myriophyllum spicatum and Trapa such as encroachment, anthropogenic pressure, bispinosa. sewage and sewerage disposal, weed infestation, The lake has been facing encroachment on many deteriorating water quality, catchment problems, fronts. As the periphery of the lake gets silted up, sedimentation, excessive willow plantations, the villagers reclaim it either by plantation or by shrinking area etc., among which siltation is the paddy cultivation. In this process big villages and major one. The lake has experienced considerable human settlements have mushroomed around the deterioration and decline in the last century, lake or the erstwhile lake body. A vast area of especially, in the last few decades. The principal silted up land has been taken over by the Forest factor responsible for its shrinking area is siltation. Department in order to protect it from private The major deposit of silt into the lake comes encroachment. The forest department generates from the Jhelum river, the only perennial source revenue worth crores from this lake area by way of water inflow into the lake. The river and its of plantation. Innumerable long chains of I F. A. Shaheen, Research Consultant, IWMI-TATA Water Policy Program, Elecon, Anand-Sojitra Road, Vallabh Vidyanagar, 388120. Mail: [email protected]@rediffmail.com 63 embankments and roads have been built in the multi-dimensional action plan with both short interior of this magnificent wetland disturbing its term and long term objectives. The primary very configuration The population of these objective of management here is to strike a villages/towns in the direct catchment of the lake healthy balance between the conservation of the has risen to severallakhs, whose entire pressure is lake and its economic use on sustainable basis being borne by this lake directly or indirectly. which can be achieved by the closely coordinated Willow plantations have been raised around and and integrated working of three principal actors: within the lake which deteriorate water circulation (a) Applied ecologists and conservationists and enhance siltation besides adding biomass especially in the eco-management of the from its foliage. These plantations, inter alia, act as catchment, the governing factor in the barriers for heavily silt, check the conservation of lakes and wetlands. velocity of the current and force it to discharge (b) Scientists for the main lake body to guide the the sediment load completely into the lake, thus managers in the change detection and the causing siltation at an alarming rate. It is high balanced development of aquatic flora, fauna, time not only to stop further plantations but to fisheries, and avifauna by ensuring water quality remove them gradually in a scientific manner. and a balance between inflow and outflow of the The activities carried out in the catchment have a water. direct bearing on the lake ecology. The root cause (c) Administrative and engineering agencies for of the degradation in the catchment is such basic activities as demarcation, delineation, tremendous increase in population, both human removal of encroachments, checking of sewage and livestock. Impact of population growth is and sewerage by engineering methods from point reflected in the form of excessive pressure on source, raising of peripheral bunding, fencing and forests, encroachment, overgrazing, faulty land protections, and permitted eco-friendly use, and unscientific agricultural and horticultural development activities like eco-tourism, eco farming practices. Unmindful of the ecological friendly farming, and other economic aspects. and environmental consequences, these forests Lakes and wetlands representing dynamic and forming the principal catchment of the lake have living aquatic eco-systems can in no case have been overexploited. Besides the tilling of slopes isolated engineering or administrative solutions. across the contours and other faulty agricultural Nor can they be treated like any other urban practices, changing the land-use status, and development activity. Efforts at management and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides in conservation of this important lake have been agricultural and horticultural fields have changed initiated as late as the mid 1990s. Grants on annual the chemical composition of lake water. Ruthless basis were made available by the Government of deforestation coupled with all aforesaid adverse India; however, these were very meager, compared factors have exposed the slopes and enhanced soil to the magnitude of the problem at hand. The erosion. The entire surface runoff with all the slit approach has remained only an isolated one and sediment accompanying it finds direct entry without an impressive impact. Political will and into the lake. coordinated legal, administrative, and scientific Keeping in view, the great magnitude of problems measures coupled with earnest management and involved in the catchment and main lake body, conservation strategies on a comprehensive scale there is an immediate need of a comprehensive are needed to restore the lake to its pristine glory. 64 WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION SCENARIO IN JAMMU PROVINCE: PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES J. Prabhakara1 Over several centuries, our forefathers succeeded current pattern of utilization and management of in bringing 140 m ha of Indian land under available resources so as to optimize them for agriculture. Since independence another 23 m ha enhanced agricultural production and productivity has been added to the net sown area, bringing through fine-tuning of the available technologies. 51 % of the geographical area under the plough. The paper concentrates on the major issues of This is more than 10% of the actual cultivated development and utilization of surface water area of the whole world, supporting 18% of resources in the low-altitude sub-tropical plains of world's population and 16% of livestock, but with the Jammu province possessing vast potential for only 4% of world's fresh water resources. agricultural production. However, India is committed to raise food The level of development of surface water production from the current level of about 200 resources for irrigation in this sensitive border MT to 300 MT by the year 2020 from the same or state has been encouraging, particularly under the reduced area. As far as surface water resources constraints of terrain conditions, inadequate are concerned, India has 7% of all the utilizable power generation and supply, and other flow of all river basins in the world, but only on restrictions imposed like the Indus Water Treaty, 2.3% of world's land, and thus three times luckier 1960. In addition, the low-altitude sub tropical than the rest of the world. The state of Jammu plains of the Jammu province possess a vast and Kashmir is still luckier, for, if the area illegally potential for agricultural production, thanks to occupied by the neighboring countries is excluded; 'ideal climate' for round-the-year cropping, rich the state possesses more than twice the natural biodiversity, and rich soil endowments. proportion of surface water resources to land as They also house the two major irrigation projects that of rest of India. of the Ranbir canal (CCA=38,623 ha) and the The state of Jammu and Kashmir, with its four Ravi-Tawi canal system (CCA = 32,485 ha) main agro-climatic divisions, rich soil and diverse accounting for 71 % of net irrigated area of the natural resources, special horticultural and other province. The gross cropped area of the province crops, has a unique place in the agricultural map is 61 % of that of the state. Notwithstanding all of India. In order to fall in line with the national these strengths, crop production and productivity level endeavors at achieving a second agricultural levels of the region are not at all comparable with revolution, it is about time that the state must set a other neighboring states and regions with similar reasonable target for enhanced agricultural natural endowments. production hy 2020 and work towards achieving The paper envisages to highlight the constraints to that goaL Jammu province, having three of the enhancing agricultural production and four agro-climatic divisions of the state and productivity, scenario of utilization of the created relatively higher production potential for irrigation potential in different sectors, and agricultural crops, has an equally higher opportunities for optimal utilization of available responsibility to contribute towards achieving the land and water resources for achieving a set target. This paper is an attempt to make broad breakthrough in overall agricultural production inventorization of the natural resources of the and productivity in the light of encouraging Jammu region (especially surface water resources) results from on-farm water management research and analyze the strengths and weaknesses in the endeavors in command areas conducted since Water Management Research Centre, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu, Main Campus, Chatha, Jammu 180009 (J&K), Tel: (0191) 2263821 (0), 2504613 ®; (Cell) +91-94191-34688, e-mai1:j-'prabhakara@rediffmaiLeom, [email protected], [email protected] 65 1990 by WMRC, SKUAST-]. It also attempts to methods with active participation of stakeholders. prioritize the future research areas in resource Drastic change in the attitude of the state conservation and management including government in judicious use of rich surface water diversification of crops and cropping systems by resources as well as harnessing and management tapping the vast potential for sub-tropical fruits, of rain-water and concomitant drafting as well as vegetables, medicinal and aromatic plants, implementation of a sound water policy have condiments, spices, floriculture, etc. through been suggested as remedies for the present poor watershed development and management management of rich water resources. 66 5. Groundwater, Energy and Livelihoods Aditi Mukherji and Avinash Kishore [[email protected]] 24th February 2005 11:00 -13:30; 14:30 -16:00; 16:30 -18:30 Session Chair: Shashi Kolavalli In 1999-2000, India's 81 million land owning families had over 20 million tubewells and pump sets among them. On average, fourth landowning household has a pump set and a well, and a large proportion of non-owners depend on pump set owners for buying trngation water, supplied through local, fragmented groundwater markets. In the first part of this twin session, the changing nature and livelihood implications of groundwater markets are discussed. Most of India's Electricity Boards are in a bind on the country's energy-irrigation nexus. The second session discusses the political economy of power subsidy to and the viability of alternatives to metering, including one proposed by ITP. 5(a). Groundwater Markets and Livelihoods The nature of groundwater economy and water markets is rapidly changing across India. Water markets have become most prolific in eastern India where groundwater development had been slow and halting to begin with. The round of National Sample Survey shows that more than two-third of the irrigators in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and \X1est Bengal rely on purchased irrigation. This sub-session brings in latest field evidence from Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan and Karnataka as well as results from NSSO surveys to examine these trends. Author(s) Paper The spread and extent of irrigation rental market in India, Aditi Mukherji 1976-77 to 1997-98: What does the National Sample Survey data reveal? S. C. Deepak, M. G. Chandrakanth Groundwater Market Providing Efficiency in \X7ater Use in and N. Nagaraj Agriculture in Kamataka N. Nagaraj, AH. Suvama Kumar Institutional and Economic Analysis of Groundwater Highlight and M. G. Chandrakanth Markets in Central Drv Zone of Karnataka Dalbir \Vho Loses and who Gains in Groundwater Market Game Ext. Abstract in Water Scarce Regions: The Case of Rajasthan? Impact of \'Vater Prices and Volumetric Allocation on ~L Dinesh Kumar Water Productivity: Comparative Analysis of \X1eIl ()wners, Highlight Water Buyers and Shareholders Prakash Sharecropping, Migration and a New Phase in Water Highlight Markets: The Case of Sangpura Village in North rU)aral Ranjan Kumar Sinha and Water Markets and Groundwater Economv in Bihar and Ext. Abstract Amalendu Kumar Jh~r~l~and R.p. Singh and D. R. Singh Structure, Determinants and Efficiency of Groundwater Ext. Abstract Markets in \Vestern Uttar Pradesh K. Adiseshu Groundwater '\Iarket Dvnamics in the Villaves of ()rissa Ext. Abstract Aditi Mukherji Of Ground\vater Markets, State Policy and Local Politics Highlight in West Bengal: Evidence from 15 villages across the State 67 5(b). Energy-Irrigation Nexus Experts have long averred that flat, subsidized electricity to agriculture is enemy number one for financial sustainability of India's electricity industry and environmental sustainability of its groundwater economy. So strident was I-AP'-U" and donors' opposition to electricity subsidies it seemed only a matter of time before tube-wells were metered and farmers began to pay for electricity at a full-cost tariff. Quite to the contrary, last 24 months have witnessed further retrogression. Instead of metering tubewells, newly elected State governments have announced free power. And in other states, flat tariff and subsidies have come to stay; unless, of course, the Indian state suddenly metamorphoses so as to mobilize courage to pursue a reform most Indian farmers consider anti-farmer. ITP has always argued that it is wise to take flat-tariff as a given and work around it in evolving strategies that will make electricity industry viable and groundwater irrigation sustainable. ITP's case is that if the best solution is infeasible, wisdom lies in concocting and honing the second-best which seems to lie in radically transforming the way we supply power to farmers. Author(s) Paper A. Kishore and Zankhana S. Shah Banking on Supply Management: Analyzing the Feasibility Highlight of Energy Rationing for Groundwater Management A. Kishore and K. N. Mishra Impact of Cost of Energy on Groundwater Use in Highlight Agriculture Navroz K. Dubash The Electricity-Groundwater Conundrum: Political Ext. Abstract Solution to a Political Problem Sebastian :V[orris Towards a Water Resources Strategy for India: Issues in Ext. Abstract Pricing, Regulation and Financing of Water Development Sarbani Mukherjee Subsidized Energy and Groundwater use for Agriculture Ext. Abstract Arguments and Facts 68 WHO GAINS AND WHO LOSES IN THE GAME OF GROUNDWATER MARKETS IN SCARCE REGIONS Dalbir Singhl The present study is aimed at understanding the to buyers with the motive of making profits. They operations of groundwater markets in fragile adopt strategies at farm level to make groundwater conditions and identifying the losers and gainers available for sale. They continue their efforts for in the game of water markets in the long run. The water augmentation, which help to meet the study was carried out in selected villages in the increasing demand for groundwater of their own arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan. and that of buyers. Sellers are not ready to There is inverse relationship between farm size compromise with the prevailing terms and and proportion of area under irrigation. It may be conditions of water markets that are in their favor. due to the fact that small farmers utilize irrigation Buyers have to purchase water on any condition, facilities through water markets. Size of holding, otherwise, they are deprived from groundwater availability of buyers and technology used by well irrigation. Therefore, we can conclude that, in owners are the major factors that determine the water scarce regions, water markets work under participation of farmers in water trading. Non conditions of monoposony, where sellers act in a availability of water and buyers, and perception of concerted manner. In water scarce regions, water water quality deterioration were the main reasons prices remain substantially higher than that in for not participating in the selling water on the water-endowed regions. The experience shows one hand. Surplus water, prevailing power policy that in water scarce regions, buyers use and profit-earning motive of well owners groundwater more productively due to higher encourage water sellers to be part of the game. price. But this does not happen when payment for Absence of sources such as water structure groundwater is made in kind as a fixed share of followed by the power fluctuations compel the total produce. Sellers continue to make more farmers to purchase water. Three contracts prevail water available to increase agricultural production in water markets- as (i) time based contract, (ii) so that may get the maximum crop share as water crop and input sharing contract and (iii) crop prIce. sharing contract. Water markets mitigate the Various institutional provisions have been made to inequalities in accessibility to groundwater check overexploitation of groundwater. This resources. Individuals who do not own wells have includes withdrawal of institutional support for access to groundwater irrigation through water digging new wells and restriction on electric markets. Thus, resource -poor farmers can connections for irrigation purposes particularly, in allocate a large proportion of total cropped area problematic areas. However, these measures have to irrigated crops and make best use of their proved to be ineffective in regulating the limited size of holding. No doubt, water markets extraction of groundwater. Often, such measures play an important role in minimizing the are taken when the situation reaches an alarming inequalities among the resource poor and rich stage. In other words, when the potential zone is farmers in the short run. But, in long run there converted into a dark or overexploited zone, only may be adverse impact. Excessive use of then restrictions are supposed to be exercised. groundwater may increase inequity among the The study indicates that the existing institutional farming community in the long run. In water set-up, both formal and informal, behaves in an scarce regions, water markets work on the adverse manner. Under existing property rights principle of profit maximization. Sellers sell water 1 Head, Peoples' Management School, Seva Mandir, Udaipur-313004. Email: [email protected]; 69 system, groundwater is considered as an open over-exploitation of aquifers. Similarly, water acess resource over which farmers make private trading should be allowed in a limited manner. Cd) investment thinking that they have absolute rights Information system should be transparent so as to to water beneath their land. This results in facilitate right action before the alarming stage. (e) unchecked extraction of groundwater. Programs for recharging aquifer should be taken Unrestricted access makes the situation more on a large scale. Experience shows that limited complicated by converting a common property efforts made for recharging aquifer have given resource (CPR) into an open access resource satisfactory results The involvement of voluntary (OAR). Informal institutional arrangements also sector should be encouraged. (f) A Community added their undesirable role in groundwater based action is required for efficient use of water depletion. resources in scarce conditions through making the Some of the specific and important policy effective functioning of informal institutions. In implications that can be derived are as follows. this regard, the model of "pani-panchayat" of (a) There is an urgent need to define water rights. Maharashtra can be experimented with, in other Groundwater should be treated as a common scarce regions. In this model, community property resource in a real sense. Nationalization determines the use pattern of scarce resources. of water resources is the only solution for During times of water scarcity, no farmer is sustainable use of groundwater in scarce regions. allowed to grow water intensive crops. In case, any (b) An integral approach at various levels should farmer violates the provisions made by the be adopted. Institutions that play an important panchayat, (s)he is punished as per norms. Similar role in encouraging and! or discouraging the efforts should be experimented with in the case groundwater markets in particular conditions of groundwater. should be the focus. (c) Effective provisions should be formed and implemented to restrict 70 WATER MARKETS AND GROUNDWATER ECONOMY IN BIHARAND JHARKHAND Ranjan Kumar Sinha and Amalendu Kumar This paper presents the intensity of groundwater per cent is being used for buyer's fields in Bihar. markets, their nature and structure, impact and Similarly, in Jharkhand, about 85.00 per cent of constraints in the states of Bihar and Jharkhand. the command belongs to OWED farmers and 15 Bihar faces a paradoxical situation as the per cent to the buyers. It reveals that water syndrome of non-development lies amidst plenty markets in Bihar are in a developing stage, of water resources whereas in Jharkhand, which is whereas those in Jharkhand are in one of the richest states in the country in terms underdeveloped stage favoring mainly OWED of mineral resources, has in contrast, agricultural farmers. As regards the breadth of water market, scenario is characterized by its heavy dependence which is an indicator of the proportion of area of on nature and mono-cropping with paddy as the farmers as well as farm lands in the beneficial dominant crop. However, groundwater structures umbrella of the water market, it has been analyzed have played an important role in irrigation in both with the irrigation status of per farm operated states where around 47 to 49 per cent of the area across the OWED and NOWED farms in irrigated area is being served by them. Over the both the states. The density of water extraction years, groundwater over-exploitation has increased devices (WED) has increased significandy in many states, but the situation in these two touching the level of 95 per cent on both sets of states is an exception where the number of over farms in Bihar. But inJharkhand, it has reached exploited blocks has decreased from 14 to 1 by the 50 per cent mark of irrigation on both the 1993. In Bihar, groundwater markets have, to categories of farms. Factors responsible for this in some extent, transformed a stagnant traditional Jharkhand are a) natural compulsions due to agriculture during the 1980s with some beneficial having hard rock regions; b) low surplus of and equity impacts. irrigation water to sell it to the NOWED farms This paper is a part of a larger study being and c) poorer economic proftle of farmers. Thus, conducted in several states by respective AERCs. water markets did not seem to have acquired Primary data were collected from a sample of 120 significant breadth in Jharkhand. farm households from each state. The sample was Annual pumping pattern and competitiveness of equally distributed in two different districts: one market were also analyzed. Access to groundwater with developed and another with less developed is not equal in a strict sense. In Bihar, OWED groundwater potential. Out of 120 sample farm farms received 65-98 per cent of irrigation for households in each state, 50 per cent belonged to their crops against the required volume of the owners of water extracting devices (O\X.'ED) irrigation, while NOWED farms receive 44-92 and 50 per cent to non-owners of water extracting per cent on their farms. In Jharkhand, OWED devices (NOWED). farms received about 42-77 per cent of required The intensity of water markets has been analyzed irrigation for their crops and N OWED farms on two variables: depth and breadth of water received 35-75 per cent. As regards the markets. Depth of the water markets has been competitiveness of the water market, field level analyzed with the help of command area per data did not suggest that the market is under pure OWED farm. Nearly 72.00 per cent of command competition; rather it enjoyed some degree of area is being used by OWED farms, and of 28.00 monopoly. The fact is that most of the WED 1The authors are Research Officers in the Agro-Economic Research Centre for Bihar & Jharkhand, T 1\1 Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur 812007 (Bihar). 71 owners desired to meet the entire operational and structural and micro and macro economic other overhead costs by way of sale of water. constraints faced by both OWED and NOWED The reasons for this are low returns and soaring farms. Irregular power supply, unfavourable diesel prices. power tariff, high operational and maintenance The percentage of operated area covered for five costs, etc. were the prominent constraints faced studied crops is not very different between by OWED farms, whereas exorbitant water prices, OWED and NOWED farms in both states. Thus, failure of ST\Vs and lack of fair participation in the benefits are equally balanced in distributive marketing practices were problems faced by terms for both sellers as well as buyers. Yield NOWED farms. Finally, the paper suggests some variation is not significant. In many cases, the policy implications such as regular power supply differences are very small. The study shows that and its judicious scheduling and expansion of the incidence of l;bour migration i; reduced and diesel sub-distributorship at the village level to absorption of rural labor has increased in area improve water markets. with increased groundwater irrigation. It is interesting to note that water markets were not found free from constraints due to some 72 STRUCTURE AND EFFICIENCY OF GROUNDWATER MARKETS IN WESTERN UTTAR PRADESH R P Singhl and D R Singh2 Reliable irrigation is a vital ingredient in modern sellers (23 per cent), self-users cum sellers (19 per agriculture. Initially, surface and groundwater cent), self-users (18 per cent), and self-users cum irrigation through traditional water extraction buyers (14 per cent). In other words, a large devices brought stability in the agriculture sector, proportion (82 per cent) of farm holdings entered but they could not cope fully with the demand into one or the other form of water market made by modern agriculture. Therefore, policy transactions. With increase in farm size, there was makers and farmers started giving more emphasis decrease in number of buyers, while reverse was to the development of groundwater irrigation true in the case of water sellers. The average size through modern water extraction mechanisms of holding was found to be the lowest (1.30 (WEMs). However, ownership of private WEMs hectares) for buyers only category. The buyers' is confined mostly to large farmers. Small and category had proportionately higher accessibility marginal farmers and even large farmers with to diverse WEMs than the self-users category fragmented holdings are buyers of irrigation water mainly because of the fragmented nature of the from neighboring WEM owners. Against this buyer's holdings. backdrop, the spontaneous emergence of water markets and their imaginative management offer The estimated logit model showed that farm size, easy access to groundwater irrigation to resource fragmentation of holdings and joint ownership poor farmers with smaller and fragmented were the major factors contributing to installation holdings. The present study is an attempt to of electric operated WEMs. The other factors examine the structure, determinants, and were non-availability of canal water and adoption efficiency of groundwater market in Western of modern varieties of seeds. The model further Uttar Pradesh. established that the farmers with small sized and fragmented holdings, low education attainment, Data on groundwater markets were collected and less probability of joint ownership of a WEM from 180 randomly selected farmers from Meerut were more likely to buy groundwater. Owned District for agricultural year 1994-95. Farmers operational holdings, fragmented holdings, were classified as buyers, self-users cum buyers, installed electric operated WEMs (horse power self-users cum buyers cum sellers, self-users cum per hectare), and joint ownership of WEM were sellers, and self-users only based on their factors influencing water selling decision of accessibility to different forms of groundwater farmers. Fragmented holdings and non-availability markets. The determinants of buying and selling of canal water along with multiple uses of diesel of groundwater were identified using a logit engine/ tractor and erratic supply of electricity model. The efficiency of water markets was were important factors responsible for installation examined with the help of resource productivity of diesel operated WEMs. Major factors which analysis and by comparing the cost of affected water buying were the farm groundwater extraction and its selling price. fragmentation, non-availability of canal water in canal command area, non-availability of suitable It was found that, of the total farm holdings, joint owners, higher WEM density, smaller size of buyers only constituted the largest segment (26 holdings, and accessibility to state own tubewells. per cent) followed by self-users cum buyers cum 1 Head, Division of Agricultural Economics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110012. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Scientist, IndianAgricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi 110012. E-mail: [email protected] 73 Crop productivity and farm income varied widely share (35 per cent) in total cost of water across different players in the water market. The extraction followed by the share of electricity cost self user realized relatively higher returns than the (29 per cent) and diesel cost (37 per cent). On the buyers. This was because they devoted other hand, average selling price of groundwater proportionally more land to high value crops and extracted by electric and diesel operated WEM partially because of better accessibility and respectively were Rs 6.8 and Rs 29.5 per hour. reliability of groundwater irrigation. Yield values Lower selling prices than the cost of water of the two major crops in the area, sugarcane and extraction, implied that water markets were not wheat, showed the same trend. efficient in pure market theory sense and water buyers were in better position than the WEM Using the Cobb-Douglas production function, the owners. Although, water selling does not seem to coefficient of irrigation was found to be positive be an economically viable proposition, WEMs sell and significant for buyers only, suggesting that water to recover part of expenditure incurred on increased use of irrigation would further increase electricity or diesel charges and operation and the productivity of sugarcane on buyers' field. maintenance costs. The irrigation coefficient however, was negative and significant for self-user farms, indicating over Thus, both WEM owners and groundwater utilization of this resource. In the case of wheat, buyers stand benefited in one way or the other by irrigation was found to be positively significant in the water market. In order to achieve better buyers' farms and non-significant in other distributive social justice and to encourage categories of farms. This suggests that there is a efficient water markets, suitable water price policy possibility of increasing the productivity in needs to be evolved. Similarly, erratic electricity sugarcane and wheat by reducing excessive water supply compels farmers to install more than use on self-user farms, which in turn will increase optimum numbers of WEMs, thereby making the availability of water on buyers' farms. them bear high fixed cost per unit of water extraction. This calls for rationalization of The cost of water extraction of an electric and electric distribution system. The study also diesel operated WEM was Rs 12.6 and Rs 44.7 per identifies policy prescriptions such as hour, respectively. The shares of fixed and consolidation of land holdings and joint operating cost respectively were 47 and 53 per ownership of WEMs for the realization of cent, respectively for both types of WEMs. equitable benefits from groundwater irrigation. Interest on fixed capital constituted the highest 74 GROUND WATER MARKET DYNAMICS IN THE VILLAGES OF ORISSA 1 Dr. K. Adiseshu One of the most striking features of irrigation afford to take up such investments. For instance, development in India during the last four decades among semi-medium, medium, and large holdings, is the rapid growth in groundwater use. 7.6 per cent had wells without pumpsets, 2.26 per Groundwater is cheap and easily available and can cent had wells with pumpsets and 1.62 per cent supply required quantity of water at appropriate had tube wells, whereas among small and time. Hence the strategy in revolutionizing marginal farmers, only 0.43 had wells with irrigation should be the use of ground water pumpsets and 0.98 per cent had tubewells in 1995 resources on a massive scale. There is one school 96. Thus small and marginal farmers have which believes that efficient utilization of relatively less access to ground water, which is a groundwater is best achieved through a system common property resource. If there is a well competitive water markets without any developed market for groundwater, the small and subsidization of capital or current inputs. The marginal farmers can have better access to this development of such markets is supposed to be resource. It may also have an expansion effect on facilitated by legally sanctioned private property cropped area, yields, employment, and agricultural rights over, and freedom to trade in groundwater. incomes through adoption of technology and But there are serious practical problems in changes in crop pattern. Water markets in India implementing this approach; and the social have a history of more than 70 years. Although, consequences are very much a matter of initially, selling water was considered as immoral contention. and many owners of water extracting machines In Orissa, area, under both surface and were reluctant to participate in water markets; groundwater irrigation, has not considerably slowly, they overcame this moral scruple giving increased during the last 6 -7 years. This may be more weight to economic considerations over attributed to the erratic nature of rainfall and non-economic considerations. This led to the vagaries of monsoon. Owing to this, the emergence of ground water markets in many parts quantum of percolated water from the surface of India. flow has decreased which has led to a decrease in As ground water is a common property resource, the ground water potential. With limited water extracting machines are mostly privately groundwater resources, farmers in the villages of owned and over-extraction of groundwater causes Orissa irrigate their crops. As per the calculations externalities because of environmental based on Groundwater Estimation Committee degradation. Development of groundwater norms of 1997, the state has a ground water markets may pose issues of equity and resource of 2,101,128 HM (hectare meters) of environmental problems. which 1,988,856 HM (95 per cent) is the utilizable This paper presents the groundwater market resource for irrigation. But the annual draft for dynamics: (1) crop wise number of irrigations irrigation use is only 236,044 HM (11.87 per cent) required and the number of irrigations actually leaving a vast chunk of untapped potential. provided by farmers to important crops like Therefore, there is a wide scope for developing maize, paddy, tomato and brinjal; (2) conditions ground water irrigation and reduce the risk to imposed by the owners of water extracting devices agriculture. In the expansion of groundwater on non-owner farmers; and (3) the extent of water irrigation, private investments playa crucial role rates demanded by owner farmers. The analysis is and mostly large and medium farmers alone can focused on both owner and non-owner farmers in 1Research Officer, Agro-Economic Research Centre, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530003. 75 the selected villages of Ganjam block in Ganjam villages are facing the problem of inadequate district and Gunupur block in Rayagada district power supply. Frequent cuts in electricity supply of Orissa. Untimely and inadequate rainfall has are causing damages to the water extracting resulted in the decline of groundwater table to a devices. As a result, farmers have to incur heavy considerable extent. Overexploitation of expenditure on repairs of electric motors. groundwater lead to further decline in the Sometimes the burden of repairs has to be borne groundwater table and resulted in intrusion of sea by water buyers. Farmers are unable to adopt water into land and salinity in some villages. better cultural practices and technical know-how Owners of water extracting devices charge because of inadequate irrigation facilities. The exorbitant rates to release water per hour, government should implement the watershed depending on the distance of the cropped area development programs in these selected blocks to from the water source and also urgency of crop improve ground water potential. Uninterrupted conditions. Almost all the farmers in the sample power supply, at least, in the crucial periods of the crop condition must be ensured. 76 THE ELECTRICITY GROUNDWATER CONUNDRUM: THE CASE FOR A POliTICAL SOLUTION TO A POLITICAL PROBLEM Navroz K. Dubash1 The problematic interface between electricity use the way forward for the rest. If, by contrast, there and groundwater access has been a subject of is some weight given to the democratic process debate for well over a decade. This debate has through which policy change must pass, then the taken on a renewed urgency following the recent reasons why farmers have been so opposed to the 2004 Indian national elections, in the aftermath of standard reform prescription must be taken which free or cheap power came roaring back on seriously, weighed, and addressed. This is not to the political agenda. The electricity-groundwater say that the prescriptions themselves are conundrum has implications not only for the necessarily wrong, but that a political solution is productivity, viability, and sustainability of India's needed to provide a larger framework within agrarian economy, but also for the health and which technical and economic solutions can be future '.riability of the larger project of electricity embedded. Efforts to solve the electricity-water reforms in India. Indeed, power to farmers is problem by advocating technological and perceived, in many ways correctly, as being at the economic have so far have put the cart heart of the electricity reform agenda. For the before the horse; sustainable reform first requires '.riability of both water and electricity sectors, this a workable political bargain to which the various interlinked problem needs resolution. parties involved, particularly farmers, can agree. Although the debate on the electricity Technical and economic instruments are, then, groundwater link is longstanding, it is marked by a needed to implement the political bargain. focus on technocratic approaches to policy This paper is organized in three parts. The first making rather than an appreciation for the provides a brief summary of the electricity-water entrenched political nature of the problem. Fixes intersection, and the nature and history of the have tended to be economic raise prices to problem. The paper stresses the path dependent farmers - and/or technical install meters. Both nature of the problem and the consequent are standard elements of the electricity reform destructive cycle that has developed between prescription that the nation has struggled with, groundwater and electricity use. The second part largely unsuccessfully, to implement over the last develops the argument that the electricity five to ten years. Failures to follow both groundwater conundrum is, at root, a political prescriptions are ascribed to a lack of political problem. The paper discusses some of the will. And there the matter rests. Until politicians conventional wisdom on which the standard develop a backbone, it is argued, there is little that prescriptions of tariff increases and metering can be done. agricultural supply rests, and argues that farmers By contrast, this paper seeks to develop a more may indeed have good reason to be concerned consciously political interpretation of the about their future under these prescriptions, electricity-water conundrum, and consequently a concerns that are not being taken sufficiently case for a more deliberate political solution. The seriously. In particular, the paper examines the "lack of political will" argument suggests that, real contribution of farmer subsidies to the fiscal when technocratic solutions run into a political problems of states, asks whether farmers are obstacle, the political process should be bypassed, misguided in demanding subsidies, and whether either by stealth, or by pinning hopes on a political farmer subsidies really should have the support of strongman at the state level who can demonstrate a few rich farmers. In the third part, the paper lIDFC Chair Professor of Governance and Public Policy, National Institute of Public Finance and Policy, New Delhi, India [email protected] 77 turns to the literature on proposed solutions, at conventional metering and tariff hike approach, both macro and micro levels, to assess them in and some hybrid approaches. The paper light of the political understanding developed concludes with reflections on what it would take earlier in the paper. These solutions include to transition to a more political solution to the proposals for a rational flat tariff, the highly politicized electricity-groundwater conundrum. 78 TQW~;~.\lt~~.ltBSOURCES STRATEGY FOR INDIA TSs;l~JJB$~JNPRICING, REGULATION AND .... . FlN;4;NC...·.. IN.G.. OFW.... ATER DEVELOPMENT , " ;' T, ,_' ,,- Sebastian Morris1 This paper discusses the stylised problems relating management. We also argue for solutions that are to water and irrigation in India and argues that incentive compatible in the sense that the designs most of the inefficiencies, misuse, and for pricing and regulation and financing (within environmental damage have their roots in the the appropriate policy and rights framework) are mispricing of water and electricity. Since the only internally consistent and would work without kind of subsidies thus far used are price based depending continually upon political input subsidies and they end up distorting the commitment, administrative initiatives, and allocative prices, from which other distortions managerial energies. follow. The problems of the sector can be By incentive compatible we mean that the policy overcome by setting the subsidization method and design meet the criteria that the actors, civil right converting price based subsidies into direct servants, proposed water companies and subsidies and endowments with improved cooperatives, electricity companies, and farmers tradability. These and other actionable measures have the correct incentives to do what is right for would not only solve the problems in the sector efficient production, management, allocation, and but also result in political capital for its initiators; consumption of the resource without it should also make private and public financing administrative direction or urging or demanding of water projects possible. the presence of persons with exceptional morals, The issues related to pricing, water rights, or leadership qualities. Key elements of our subsidies and financing are deeply interlinked, and recommendations are as follows: the correct pricing would have recognize the The right to water of a state should also include financing implications. Being a scarce commodity the right to trade, i.e. to sell the water. This would with major composition and coordination be consistent with the fact that the bulk of water economies in its use water pricing cannot be is for commercial use. A formal perhaps discussed without a consideration of the rights constitutional basis of sharing the waters of (implicit or otherwise). interstate rivers, rather than national level optimal More than a diagnosis of the problem, we have use being pursued weakly through agreements, is been led by the need to find solutions to a fast important. deteriorating situation: rising implicit subsidies, The irrigation sector at all levels is open to the movement away from optimal use in a major way, private sector. It would be far more useful to huge distortions, and resulting social costs in the institute regulation which is incentive in approach use and misuse of water with as much as 30 and price cap in form, though uniform caps percent of the irrigation water supplied being across large regions would not be possible nor wasted. The environmental effects of such desirable inappropriate use and waste increase by the day. Reform is not possible if the present approach to All subsidies whether for electricity or water have work around major policy and design continues to be direct subsidies delivered to the farmer. An infirmities rather than remove them in the first identification exercise done once that allows the place. This is because the distortions have been so endowments of a farmer to be fixed, so that he deep-rooted as to have fed back into the can be issued electricity and water coupons governance and institutional structure of water periodically. This ensures the political commitment of the farmer since now he has 1Affiliation & Contact address with email ID: Professor, Indian Institute of ManagementAhmedabad Vastrapur, Ahmedabad, INDIA 380015 Email: [email protected] 79 nothing to lose but a lot to gain. Without such also slowly emerge subject to certain safeguards commitment, and certainly with their hostility no against the monopolization of access rights to reform is possible water. With all subsidies going direct, there need not be Water distribution companies are ideally WUAs restraints on commercial behaviour and but cast as cooperatives with some allowed orientation for the participants in the market. The asymmetry in shareholding. But they ought not be productive organizations: bulk water companies, limited to WUAs or even to farmers' companies. retail companies and distributors including Bidding for distribution business should be open WUAs, and farmers can all relate to the regulated to entirely private companies too. bulk and retail market prices. For entirely new projects requiring construction Current subsidies in irrigation are converted to of new distribution assets, access rights can be endowments in units of water and provided to sold at prefixed prices or market prices but strictly the farmer in the form of coupons with which (as limited to farmers with operational! own holdings also with cash) he can buy and even sell subject to of land in the command area, to raise the capital certain constraints. Prices are, thus allowed to to construct the distribution system. This can be perform their function of ensuring allocative and done separately for each of the distribution areas, use efficiency. Since water supplies may be limited since the bid prices are likely to vary depending (because of natural factors, and because of upon such factors as the alternative supplies limited existing capacity to produce and store) available including from groundwater. Such bulk water rates are regulated, with only small purchase of the rights to water would lead to opportunity for water companies (bulk and much flow of finance into the sector in a way that distribution) to gain from (high) retail water is functional and entirely incentive compatible. market prices. Regulated prices could be LRMC, Banks could support participation of farmers in in which case the difference between commercial the equity of distribution companies. viability prices and the LRMC prices is made up Tank systems would also require a certain through annuities in an appropriate PFr deal. recasting with formally defined rights and prices The benefit of the difference between regulated for use of groundwater and surface irrigation. retail prices at which water is supplied to the The need is to minimize the free-rider problem farmer and retail water market price in the that is inherently a barrier in the management and command area is to the account of the farmer. judicious use of tank irrigation (a common Since the farmer is able to internalize this benefit resource in many ways). The key to reform is to with reference to the price, there are strong lead the system to an explicit relative valuation of incentives for judicious use and optimal trade and, the direct and indirect output of the tank (canal depending upon the situation, even investments water and groundwater) through bids restricted to in water saving technologies. Some benefits will farmers from ",'ithin the ayacut. A prior fixation accrue to the water distribution entity so that it of the shares of each farmer in the tank business has the incentive to save water in distribution, that includes already existing use of wells is the recover losses, and make investments for repairs, key. Tradability among members of such rights rehabilitation, and augmentation. water would ensure its judicious use, and the Tradability across an entire command is a expansion in supplies would follow from the large desirable objective, which can come through profits that the farmer would make in avoiding experience. Cross-command tradability should leakages and siltation. 80 SUBSIDIZED ENERGY AND GROUNDWATER USE FOR AGRICULTUR,g: ARGUMENTS AND FACTS . .' " Sarbani Mukherjee1 Over the years, groundwater has emerged as an charges. As users refrain from paying, cost indispensable resource for irrigation, especially in recovery diminishes for the power utilities thereby those regions where surface water is scarce. worsening the funds problem. In other words, However, intensive groundwater extraction in although farmers are using more power, this is not several regions of the country has led to critical getting translated into more revenue to the utilities. situations such as depletion of water, increased Further, because of political reasons, farmers pay drilling and extraction cost for farmers and the lowest charge amongst all consumer premature failure of irrigation wells. These, in categories. Subsidized energy for groundwater has turn, have adversely affected the economic encouraged inefficient patterns of energy and condition of farmers. Many of the problems are water use by farmers. It is, therefore, necessary to rooted in high governmental subsidies in the regulate groundwater extraction not merely to agricultural sector, especially power. In most states ensure its sustained availability but also to electricity is provided either free of charge or at a optimize economic benefits from energy use. flat annual rate based on pump capacity. It is argued that subsidization of electricity for Availabilitv of electricity at subsidized rate has pumping groundwater reduces the marginal cost facilitated 'farmers to in~rease the area under of extraction to near zero and thereby encourages groundwater irrigation significantly. On one hand, farmers to use the resource inefficiently. In other this has made a substantial contribution to raising words, subsidized energy for groundwater agricultural productivity and farm incomes; irrigation encourages over-pumping, as lower excessive extraction has led to depletion of electricity rates decrease the cost of pumping and groundwater in many parts of the country. This, increase ~he depth to which it is profitable for in turn, has resulted in increased drilling and farmers to pump water. However, it is difficult to extraction costs for farmers and complete assert with certainty that reduction in electricity abandonment of some wells. Life of irrigation subsidy would make significant changes in the wells and their groundwater yield are gradually groundwater use. This is because, apart from declining due to overdraft of the resource. electricity tariff, consumption of groundwater for Subsidy for lifting groundwater eating into the agriculture is also dependent upon factors like finances of state electricity utilities. Rise in pump capacity, irrigation intensity, proportion of demand for electricity coupled with low groundwater irrigated area to total irrigated area, realization has raised subsidy to agriculture to energy efficiency of pump sets, etc. Besides, unmanageable proportions. Moreover, the quality electricity subsidy does not necessarily mean of supply to farmers has worsened over the years. overexploitation, unless market forces exist for the Operational inefficiencies and high distribution product of groundwater irrigation. Groundwater losses due to pilferage have led to financial has a 'derived demand'. In other words, the insolvency of power utilities across India. With demand for groundwater is actually derived from little or no funding available to rehabilitate the the demand for 'groundwater products', which are power generation and distribution system, the different crops. Therefore, ultimately it is the unscheduled power failures and voltage "derived demand', which is the influence of fluctuations have become increasingly frequent. subsidy and not just demand. Overexploitation Farmers' dissatisfaction has grown and so has also results from lack of well-defined property their unwillingness to pay even highly subsidized rights. In India, rights to groundwater are vested 1 Research Scholar (under ICRISAT fellowship). Institute for Sodaland Economic Change, Bangalore- 560072. Email [email protected];[email protected] 81 with the landowner as groundwater is attached to relatively better-off farmers. Many of the farmers the land. There is no limitation on the volume of possess diesel pumps as backup. This is indicative groundwater that can be extracted by a landowner. of the fact that capacity to pay is not a real issue. Since, landownership is a prerequisite to Besides, supply of power to agriculture has far ownership of groundwater, it is difficult to assign reaching social and economic implications. Hence, 'open access' nature to groundwater resource. one needs to look into this issue more Although landowners own groundwater, this right pragmatically. is limited by the huge investment required for In this backdrop, it becomes necessary to explore tapping it. Farmers often tap the resource with the areas of inter-linkages between energy and myopic behavior, not recognizing that each one's groundwater irrigation so as to adopt effective extraction is a function of the neighboring well's measures for energy-groundwater co extraction at a time and over time. This, in turn, management. In addition, it is also vital to leads to cumulative interference of wells and examine whether subsidy meets the social reduction in life of wells and in the gross area objectives or not. This paper examines the impact irrigated by wells. of subsidized energy on groundwater use for Efficiency of groundwater use cannot be agriculture. It also attempts to develop an improved simply by manipulating electricity analytical framework for assessing whether pricing policies through reduction in subsidy. electricity subsidy meets the social objectives or Subsidy for agricultural consumption of electricity not. This is addressed by examining the is a complex issue. Often, losses in electricity distribution of the benefits of subsidy across supply to the agricultural sector reported by State different categories of farmers. Finally, the paper Electricity Boards are inflated. As supply is highlights some alternative policy options to un metered, losses arising from theft of power are increase groundwater use efficiency in agriculture. also ascribed to agriculture. Subsidy accrues to 82 6. Understanding Culture Fisheries Revolution in India Santanu Ghosh [[email protected]] 24th February 2005 14:30 -16:00; 16:30 -18:30 Session Chair: Deep Joshi During recent decades, India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have experienced a veritable revolution in culture fishery in small and large common property tanks. This has powerful livelihood, food security and nutritional impacts in rural areas. At the same time, the rise of culture fishery has simultaneously strengthened complementarities as well as competition between irrigation and fishery in inland water bodies. Fishery science, which is leading this charge, is thickly into this massive change. However, social science has overlooked the massive socio-economic change this can bring about and the institutional drivers of this productivity revolution. ITF digs into this phenomenon to explore if it yields generalizable lessons about institutional drivers of productivity growth. Author(s) Paper D. Pandya Growth of Inland Culture Fishery Sector in India Paper only Amalendu Jyotishi The Tawa Reservoir Fisheries Management: Experiences Ext. Abstract and Options Sachin Mardikar Whose Fish is it anyway? Maharashtra' s Struggle to keep Ext. Abstract Alive its Fisheries R. Indu and S. Ghosh Inland Fishery in a Traditionally Vegetarian State: Ext. Abstract A Guiarat Story Fish or Fowl? Dialectics of Multiple Economies, Property J anaki Turaga Rights and Institutional Regimes in Kolleru Region, Ext. Abstract Andhra Pradesh Harsh Vivek Opportunism W'ith Guile? Aquaculture Revolution Ext. Abstract in Haryana Dinesh Marothia I Ponds and Tank Management of Fishery Co-operatives: Ext. Abstract Analysis of Chattisgarh 83 Amalendu Jyotishi1 and R. Parthasarathy2 In developing economies, open water inland Madhya Pradesh with thirty-two medium and five fisheries not only plays an important role in the large dams has more than thirty-two and ten nutrition for the poor, but also provides livelihood percent area of medium and large dams in India for many people. Reservoir fisheries are classic respectively. In the last three decades, there were examples of common pool resources, which have four different regimes, which encompassed the the characteristics of rivalry in consumption on Madhya Pradesh fisheries management at different the one hand, and non-excludability of resource points of time. Before 1979, it was the state extraction on the other. Therefore, it requires an fisheries department that managed fisheries. In analytical framework to describe the management 1979, the MPFDC (l\fadhya Pradesh Fisheries of them towards an equitable, efficient and Development Corporation) was formed which sustainable end. A system, which delivers or became the nodal agency for fisheries ensures these, becomes a reliable response to the management in reservoirs. In the early part of institutional requirements in Common Pool 1990s, MPFDC started leasing out fishing rights to Resources (CPR) type of resources in general and private contractors. Madhya Pradesh Matsya in reservoir fisheries in particular. In the case of Mahasangh (Fish Federation) replaced MPFDC in reservoir fisheries, we identify various types of the year 1999 and this fish federation is now institutional regimes. Each regime has its responsible for management of fishery activities advantages and disadvantages in terms of except for the Tawa reservoir. allocation of rights, appropriation of the fish An attempt is made here to understand resource, and distribution of income. In India, functionaries and regime change in the case of the these institutions can be broadly classified as, Tawa reservoir. The analysis contrasts productivity state, private and cooperative managed. Each (efficiency criterion), wages and employment regime has diversified activities relating to (equity criteria), and stocking production and stocking, production, collection, transportation, technology use (resource sustainability criteria) marketing and distribution of products, income across different regimes. Further, the paper details and profit. These factors are driven by the management practices under the Tawa Matsya opportunities and uncertainties. Sangh (fMS) and emphasizes that management Institutions in reservoir fisheries are of varying practices should be integrated with the nature in different states of India. The system of understanding of resource base. leasing rights and fishing rights also vary from The Tawa reservoir was constructed on the river state to state. Even within a state, leasing and Tawa, a tributary of the River Narmada. The fishing rights vary between reservoirs. In most of construction of Tawa Dam began in 1956 and was the states, the department of fisheries or state completed in 1974 and fish production started in fisheries development corporations obtain fishery the reservoir in the year 1975, initiated by the state management rights from the reservoir authorities government. The authority was transferred to by paying a nominal amount or royalty (and in (MFDC), which continued till 1994. In 1994, the cases without any payment at all). Fishery reservoir was auctioned to a private contractor departments or corporations either manage the from Bhopal. During this period, the local system themselves or lease-out the reservoir on a communities were not allowed to catch fish from royalty basis for a definite period ranging from a the reservoir even for self-consumption. Denial of few months to a few years. 1 Assistant Professor, Gujaratlnsrltute of Development Research (GIDR), Gom, Ahmedabad 380060 E-mail: [email protected] 2 Professor, HUDCO chair, School of Planning, Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology (CEPT) , University Road, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380 009 85 access to the resource led the local communities to members actively participate in fishing activities. demanding exclusive fishing rights over the Tawa Twenty-nine out of thirty-four primary cooperatives reservoir and gave birth to the Tawa Matsya Sangh are dominated by Gonds and Korkus communities (fMS). Initially the TMS got exclusive fishing rights (both scheduled tribes). Of the remaining, the five for five years commencing in 1996. The rights were cooperatives consist of heterogeneous communities, further extended in 2001. including the scheduled castes, other backward An analysis of different regimes during this period castes and scheduled tribes. The affiliated shows that private or cooperative regimes societies largely consist of traditional fishing performed better than the MPFDC regime. It is communities of Dhimar and Kabar. The local therefore essential to understand the factors that people who do not belong to traditional fishing would have led to these outcomes. Though the communities get a larger stake over the resource and existing micro level scenario would be different for hence a share on the revenue. Besides, by taking the reservoir, the poor performance during the initiative in rearing fingerlings, large number of MPFDC regime can be attributed to inconsistent people from the Tawa region got additional level of stocking, irregularity in marketing and employment and income. Fingerlings being one of lower wage and lower number of fishing days. This the major inputs in reservoir fisheries, production led fisher folks to pass on the catch to illegal of it within the system also has implication for marketing networks. Therefore, the reported level sustainabillty of the institution and resource base. of production may be an underestimate of actual Over the years, TMS has developed capacity among production. All these factors point towards the the local communities to harvest fingerlings that has inefficient management system of the regime. significantly reduced the dependency on external sources. This shows the internal institutional Efficient and sustainable production accompanied capability to manage and sustain fish production of by more equitable distribution of income is what is the reservoir. However, declining production in required for a desirable institutional arrangement. recent years is a matter of concern. On income and employment generation front too, private and cooperative regimes performed better The Tawa case points out that natural resources in than MPFDC regime. Private regime, though effect, offer a vector of management options. In the yielded a very high per capita income, also macro environment context where the state is enhanced the cost of production owing to change increasingly withdrawing from day-to-day in the quality of net. But, contractors did employ management and maintenance of local outsider fishing-communities. Therefore, income infrastructure, the contextual importance of this was not accrued to the local people. On these historical analysis is obvious. What makes Tawa a aspects cooperatives seem to be a better alternative. c~se by itself is the management of the reservoir by different management regimes in a relatively short MPFDC managed the resource for a long period, period. As expected, the government system whereas other management regimes did it only for a appears weak while the private option manifests the brief period. As a result, strict comparison of much-debated issues of sustainabillty and equity. management regimes is difficult. In Tawa, the dam Cooperatives seem to be the best bet. It should be displaced people, who traditionally did not belong noted that the strength of the cooperative is not to the fishing communities, got the fishing rights only from within the reservoir activities, but also after a sustained struggle. Therefore, the largely owing to establishments or claims of implications of such cooperatives in terms of aboriginal rights. Therefore, to claim the success of fishing rights are different from the usual cooperative purely on merits of use and cooperative regime. The TMS, which started with management of the resource alone would be 31 primary cooperatives and three affiliated mi~leading. What the study does signal is the need cooperatives, now consists of 34 primary for an arbitrator who could take into account not cooperatives and 6 affiliated cooperatives spread only production-trade-marketing related functions across the Kesla and Sohagpur blocks of but also a scientific analysis of resource base Hosangabad district. There are about 1300 primary planning. J members of the cooperative, of which 477 86 WHOSE FISH IS IT ANYWAY? ~"'J1!.A'SSTRtJGGLE TO KEEP At.IVE ITS FISHEltlES Sachin Mardikar1 Maharashtra produces 15 to 20 percent of the The state government's response to this was annual fish production of the country. With six construction of 27 new circular hatcheries and marine districts, marine fish landing is nearly 5 introduction of a renewed policy of leasing lakh tons. The state has a coastline of 720-km through public tender system for tanks more than along with 112,000 square km area of the 200 hectares. The expectation was that it would continental shelf available for coastal fishing. It introduce healthy competition, increase revenue also has a vibrant tradition of inland fisheries in from leasing and result in higher production by over 13,000 tanks which include minor, medium, stocking optimum fingerlings in tanks. This led to and major irrigation tanks. The total water spread the increase in revenue for the government. area of these tanks is around 311,000 ha. There is However, fishermen co-operatives strongly also a brackish water area of nearly 80,000 ha opposed the policy and therefore in October 2001 along the coast, out of which about 10,000 ha of the policy was modified and societies in whose area is suitable for brackish water aquaculture. The jurisdiction tanks were situated were granted lease fishermen population in Maharashtra is 4.24 lakh at an upset price fixed at 3 percent of total and constitutes 0.4% of the total population. The income based on the price of fish at Rs.25/kg. average per capita consumption of fish is around 3 to 5 kg in urban area and less than 1 kg in rural As per the prevailing policy (2002), the. expected area. value of fish from a tank was based on the sale value of fish at Rs. 20/- per Kg (the ruling market The ownership of tanks in Maharashtra is price then was Rs. 50/- Kg). And lease rent for a dispersed and is one of the major factors in tank was kept at 1 per cent of the expected value promotion of inland fisheries in the state. Culture of production calculated above. fishery in Maharashtra is centuries old, dominated by migrants from the north. They have adapted to The state has all the while encouraged fisherman the region's culture and are an integral part of cooperatives for inland fishing and reservoir every village with a water body. They have played development. There exists a three- tier a major role in construction and maintenance of cooperative system in the state. However, the tanks which primarily provided support irrigation cooperative movement in this sector has remained to paddy. They were granted fishing rights by the ftnancially and organizationally weak. Members erstwhile landlords. They have organized come from one of the most marginalized themselves into cooperatives but still it is an segments of society. Subsidies have done little to exclusive club. Elsewhere in the state the improve their productivity and ftnancial strength. governments attempt at popularizing culture The leasing policy itself underwent drastic fishing in large reservoirs has not met with changes from total reservation for cooperatives at success as these water bodies are located in subsidized rates to maximization of revenue perennially drought prone areas. through public auction. Leasing Policy Private Trade: A Caged Tiger? Before June 1995, tanks below 200 hectares and As against organizations, institutions are not static. above 200 hectares under irrigation department The study of some of the ftshermen's were given to primary fisheries cooperative cooperatives, which in essence is an attempt to societies on annual lease. However, these societies formalize traditional institutions, offers interesting did not make enough stockings of optimum fish insights. Prohibited from sub letting or leasing out seeds in the tanks because of financial difficulties. tanks to third parties; in reality most of the tanks 1 Management Consultant, B-7 Vrindavan, Bharat Nagar, Amravatt Road, Nagpur 440 033. Email: [email protected] 87 report existence of some kind of private Was a marked preference for partnership rather partnership often with the full knowledge of the than taking loans from the moneylenders. When officials from FFDA. At the state level, there is we asked the members of the cooperatives about fierce competition in the eastern part (dominated this arrangement, almost all of them were by inland fisheries) that has created a new investor apprehensive of taking credit from formal class. Private trade continues unabated and is quite banking sources saying, "Who will bear the risk of adaptive to the changes being brought about repayment? This gives rise to a more generic through several legislations. However, there is litde observation as whether the members per se are regulation and check on the functioning of private better off as a "rent seeker" than as a producer? players. Production due to private efforts is not If there are competing claims for livelihood recorded any where, but increasing bid amounts opportunities, the trade-off is not just likely to be quoted by private players could be a good between production of fish versus rent but also indicator of the likely productive value of the with the likely return (social and economic) that tanks. the alternative activity is likely to bring to the The Natives - Does anyone Care about Them? community. The Suradevi tank is unique in many Forming a committee to manage common ways. The property rights on the tank are with 23 property resources is no guarantee of success families and their descendants. Although the 35 (Stalker 2001). Decentralization and local acre tank offers tremendous scope for fishing, empowerment is not a guarantee for cultivation of Singhada takes precedence over environmental stewardship. In fact, the opposite fishing. Although fishing offers good money, its may result. Jodha quantifies the extent to which ability to provide employment to a larger the rural poor benefit from CPRs. community remains restricted. In the case of production of Singhada, the community members Most of the fishermen are poor, have no assets felt that almost everyone had a chance to make (except for a chosen few, namely office bearers) anywhere between Rs. 5-15,000 during the three and are marginalized in the village. The FFDA months of winter. officials concur that an average fisherman in Maharashtra engaged in inland fisheries is not The technology in many cases is alien to the aware of any of the policies and schemes that native practices. Driven by the urge to have been made for his protection. Part of the geometrically multiply the states fisheries blame lies in the fact that he has no access to production, the officials simply imported fish information about the key aspects such as markets seeds from west Bengal and encouraged the and an alien technology (fish seeds were imported farmers to take up culture fishing in a big way. from Bengal and the local varieties have practically There was litde support (except for a training ceased to exist). program for youths, where some stipend was paid) to the local fishermen in training and A good amount of time of the officials is spent in upgrading their skills. The learning curve has been handling court cases f1led by aggrieved parties. slow. As evidence from some case studies show, Ironically, the average fishermen now needs to even now the fishermen community is hired for know the nuances of contract laws and their ability to catch fish and nurture them. interpreting government resolutions when all along he was simply casting the net and earning During the field visits and interactions with the his livelihood. officials of the fisheries department, it became obvious that a new class of intermediate service The Response of the Fishermen's providers has emerged. These are people with Community . background in fisheries and technically qualified We spoke to a number of members from the professionals, who are often hired by influential fishermen's cooperatives on why they do not seem private contractors to provide technical know-how to be investing money (own or obtained through for culture fishing. The local fishermen are credit) into fisheries. Most cited their own increasingly turning to be labor provider. This financial condition as the biggest obstacle. There shift from operating in a knowledge market to a 88 labor market has had a negative impact on the revolution in inland fisheries through redefining fishermen. For they do not share the profits of institutional arrangements. The traditional arising out of better prices in the market and have community arrangements have given way to more to contend with wages market friendly practices that are based on ease, The government kept changing the institutional speed, and sharing of risk and profits in an environment through promoting multiple equitable manner. agencies, tinkering with lease rental charges, or This is the best, the marginalized fishing announcing rehabilitation packages for the ailing community can leverage on the only strength it Maharashtra State Fisheries Development has, that is its ownership rights over tanks. Corporation. Yet, the state has witnessed a silent 89 W.IlPtsfHJB:.RY IN A TRADITIONALLY VEGETARIAN STA1'B: A GUJARAT STORY Rajnarayan Indu1 and Santanu Ghosh2 Though traditionally a vegetarian state, Gujarat Probably the best weapon for the government to has recorded a threefold increase in inland culture influence growth in inland fishery is the leasing fisheries production Over the last three decades. policy. The government made small changes in The major drivers of growth, as stated by the the leasing policy over the years; in fact a lease government fishery department, have been policy for village ponds and tanks was finalized in interventions of the FFDA's training in fish 1976 and subsequently amended in 1982, 1990, culture technology and improved fish 1992,1995,1996,1997, and 2003. The focus of management practices. But there has been very the government in the initial years was to develop little understanding of the role played by fisheries as a viable livelihood option for the institutions as a driving force to the inland culture tribals displaced by the construction of dams, fishery revolution in the state. This study looked generate livelihood opportunities for the poor in into the leasing policies of the government, villages, and bring as many village ponds under existing institutional arrangements, and the fishing as possible. Over the years, the historical perspective of the change which has government set-up co-operatives and doled out occurred Over the years. large amount of subsidies to make them The major growth of inland fisheries in Gujarat sustainable. However, the co-operatives found it has been seen in the village ponds and irrigation difficult to control poaching including by their tanks. These water bodies have multiple uses for own members; and the gross revenues could not human and animal populations of the village. This even meet the bank loans. Many of the co system is governed not only by a well-defined set operatives became defunct while the ones which of institutional arrangements concerning who survived, metamorphosed and adapted themselves mayor may not use the resource but also by rules to the changing policy environment. Most of concerning the conduct of accepted users, both these co-operatives have become the domain of formal and informal. Conflicts arise within this family-run businesses who were traditionally system since these rules are not explicitly stated. fishermen, or a few influential people within the co-operative, who used the monopoly rights Institutional arrangements can be both formal conferred on the co-operatives by the government (contracts, agreements) and informal (norms, to the full, yet showing poor performance in their customs and conventions, etc). While formal books. institutional arrangements can be changed through legislation, political power, influence, and However, the government, with the help of the so on, informal institutional arrangements (like FFDA's, has done its job. It has reduced the huge culture of a society, village culture) develop over transaction costs related to learning and finding long periods of time and are thus not very out the relevant costs and prices related to starting amenable to change in a short time span. This the fishing business, thus paving the way for study is an example of how institutional budding entrepreneurs to enter the fray. But the arrangements adapt to reduce conflicts, reduce costs related to negotiating and concluding transaction costs, and induce growth over a period contracts, and then of monitoring and enforcing of time. We selected Bharuch district which had them, were still high. This was because the village 23.80 percent share of inland culture fishery in panchayats had the right to lease out fishing Gujarat in 2002-03. ponds and the irrigation department for the irrigation tanks. Because of the fear of losing the 1 Email: Rajnarayan Indu: [email protected] 2 Santanu Ghosh: Consultant, IWMI-Tata Water Policy Program, Anand, India. E-mail: [email protected] 90 lease with change in the village panchayat, the To bring in more transparency to the system of beneficiaries had to dole out huge amounts to the allocation of fishing rights, the government sarpanch and the talati to extend their lease brought in the open auction system in July 2003. periods. This change in leasing policy has helped in reducing the transaction cost associated with Many private contractors, noticing the huge negotiating and concluding contracts and brought profits which could be made in fisheries, entered extra income to the village panchayat, which was the business and developed their own informal otherwise being diverted to the sarpanch and arrangements which made them move towards a talati. The increase in leasing period from 3 years low transaction cost-high payoff scenario. Usually to 10 years also reduced the transaction cost of these fishing contractors came from the lower getting loans from banks. The immediate effect of rung of the society. The contractor was this new policy is seen in the astronomical rise in sometimes a village toughie or a local bootlegger. leasing amounts as much as 10 times the upset Successful fishing contractors had painstakingly price received before. cultivated the image of a toughie, or a ruffian capable of enforcing his rights even at times by Bharuch district has a very large saline-affected using violence. But this is not always the way they area. It has both coastal and inland salinity. Inland enforce their rights. Many of these budding salinity is caused in many areas, because the floors entrepreneurs actually share a part of their income and sides of canals are not cemented and natural with the villagers in their times of need. Many of geographical drainage is poor. Also some of the the contractors got the lease of the ponds only inland salinity is man-made due to over-irrigation. after they had helped in the renovation of the Fishing is turning out to be a lucrative income tank with their own resources, which eventually proposal in comparison to low return crops grown helped the whole village. It helped them not only on saline land or keeping the land fallow. to build their image in the village as a good Therefore, fisheries can be promoted in these samaritan but also helped them retain the lease for saline areas, which would give a high return to a longer period. In fact it will be difficult for the landowners or even to non land holders, who can fishing contractors to justify their huge profits be given saline land on lease for culture fishery. generated from fishing without distributing a part Income from fisheries would have a multiplier of it to the village community. These are the more effect through other allied activities connected important issues that are working as 'real deal' in with culture fishery. the world of inland fisheries in Gujarat. 91 ;~~~·~(ftll,/:tOWL?DlALECTICS OF MULTIPLE ECONOMIES, · PltOPERTYRIGHTS AND INSTITUTIONAL REGIMES IN I{OLLERU REGION, ANDHRA PRADESH JANAKI TURAGA1 This paper analyses the inland culture fishery economies. intervention in the Kolleru region in Andhra The culture fishery intervention was initiated Pradesh. The intervention has clearly through the FCSs in the Kolleru Lake. The FCSs demonstrated that private entrepreneurship, rather were not able to sustain the profitability of culture than government interventions per se, has fishery and consequently accumulated huge loans revolutionized culture fishery-technologically and to the banks. In order to recover the loans, private economically, besides bringing about socio entrepreneurs were given the fish tanks on lease. economic changes in the region. The intervention The commercial success of private manager is analysed over six phases: genesis, manager entrepreneurship paved the way for the decline of entrepreneurs, fish entrepreneurs and growth self management of the FCS and the emergence phase, expansion phase in and around the Kolleru of private entrepreneurs. Whether, the FCS were lake, spread effect phase, and present phase of the right institutional mechanism for culture sustainability issue. Each phase is marked by fishery is a question for which there are no specific entrepreneurship and technological answers. But what is unquestionable is the critical innovations. role it played in acting as agent of change through Culture fishery in the Kolleru region operates in which culture technology was transferred from multiple paradigms- of property the lab to the field on a collective basis. The rights-individual, community and state; of department of fisheries could reach out to the shareholder and stakeholder; of economies, larger collectivity of fishermen through the livelihood and commerce; of resource use institutional arrangement of cooperative societies. livelihood and commerce/ individual! collective, The actual functioning of the societies is judicious use and exploitation; of institutional dependent on myriad factors and in Kolleru, one systems and arrangements; of fishery as an of the chief reasons was that fishermen were not occupation and business; of cottage industry able to transition from the mind set of capture capture fishery and modern industry of culture fishery to culture fishery, which made it difficult fishery. Each of these paradigms operates in for them to handle the 'high risks' associated with conjunction with others and a complex mosaic of culture fishery, the chief among them being competing interests over resource use has market facilities which were located in Calcutta. emerged. This gave rise to the formation of informal Culture fishery in the Kolleru region (which institutional arrangements with local private includes the Kolleru lake and the areas entrepreneurs, who managed the fish tanks, took surrounding it in Krishna and West Godavari the high transaction costs and risks, and gave an districts), is practiced in the Kolleru lake itself, in agreed upon profit amount to the fish farmers. private agricultural lands around the Kolleru lake, This institutional arrangement continues on a in addition to government land in and around the vastly higher scale to this day, with huge areas of Kolleru lake, legally through the fisheries the lake being brought under illegal fish tanks. cooperative societies(FCSs) and illegally by private The formation of FCSs enabled members of the 'shareholders. Each of these geographical units of cooperative societies to become 'entrepreneurs' culture fishery operation brings with it specific who privately leased out the FCS to 'manager issues of property rights, institutional regimes, and entrepreneurs' . 1 Environmental Sociologist, Independent Researcher and Consultant, New Delhi, India House of Shyam Sundar Tokas, 243 A1, 2nd Floor #5, Behind Rama Market, Munirka Village, New Delhi 110067 E-mail: [email protected] 92 ~ Since the government formed FCS for below The key driver of the growth of inland fishery poverty line fishermen, the remaining fishermen was private entrepreneurship. The growth of felt deprived and the Kula Panchayat (caste private entrepreneurship was possible as the panchayat of the Vaddi fishermen community), returns from agriculture were very low with high built tanks around the Kolleru lake and leased transaction costs, while culture fishery with high them out to fish entrepreneurs. Whether the fish transaction costs also gave high returns. At tanks were built on common property resource or present, fish farmers have moved on to fresh on government land is a matter that is to be water prawn aquaculture, which has higher decided by the Revenue department. At present transaction costs and is riskier. The upward spiral the very legality of the FCSs is under question of entrepreneurship, with each new enterprise with the declaration of the Kolleru lake from 0' having more transaction costs than the other, +5' MSL contour as a wild life sanctuary, and the from agriculture to inland fishery to aquaculture, enforcement of G.o. Ms. 120 of 1999. The characterizes the entrepreneurship of the region. Department of Fisheries is now caught in difficult Having charted a new growth sector through a position where its legal FCS are now 'illegal' process of 'community or collective according to the Department of Forests, and entrepreneurship of stakeholders over years, the would need to relocate from the sanctuary area. intervention faces critical issues of sustainability, Therefore, while the formal institutional both economic and ecological, primarily because arrangements are now under question, the of the emergence over years of a large informal institutional arrangements continue to heterogenous/ amorphous group of shareholders thrive. This gives rise to the generalization that the in the water resource ecosystem. Conflicts over initial institutional space created by the water emerged in the summer of 2003 in the government facilitates the emergence of private spread effect area near Eluru, with agriculturists entrepreneurship. and fish entrepreneurs fighting over the limited The success of the inland fisheries in the Kolleru water in irrigation canals. The agriculturists region has demonstrated the sheer might and perceived the fish entrepreneurs as water guzzlers, potential of 'collective entrepreneurship of the who deprived the farmer of their rightful share of stakeholders', which made it possible for water. Thus, the future of culture fisheries is technological innovations, establishing marketing fraught \vith conflicts within Kolleru and in the linkages, and providing infrastructure without any spread effect areas. The emergence and assistance from the government. The model strengthening of the new and old multiple developed by the Kolleru culture fishery property rights regimes with corresponding entrepreneurs is based on three planks-technology multiple economies have resulted in the lake area of culture fishery, management of fish tanks, and being reduced, its hydrological processes marketing of the produce. The Kolleru culture interfered with, and the regional ecosystem fishery model is now widely replicated across the tampered with. The very survival of the lake and country with varying degrees of success. consequently the culture fisheries is now at stake. 93 'COl'roRTONISM WITH GUILE? AQUACULTURE REVOLUTION INlIAJl¥~.l!~, Harsh Vivek1 Haryana has been ruling the roost in aquaculture panchayat and the FFDA to circumvent certain revolution with manifold increase in inland fish rules and regulations, he does it because he is production and per annum per hectare fish ready to take risks for reaping higher returns in productivity. With a per hectare per annum fish the future. A few such instances are cited below: productivity of around 4500 kg, Haryana today • In Maina village in Rohtak, a fish-farmer stands next only to Punjab in inland aquaculture operating on two perennial common property productivity. This exploratory study investigates ponds, upon sensing opportunity for maximizing the current status of inland fishing in Haryana his pay-offs paid a consideration to the panchayat and the factors that have been the driving forces to the two seasonal ponds (informally) leased behind the stellar performance of aquaculture in much below the minimum reserved price set by this state. the FFDA. The seasonal ponds were being run Much of the development in aquaculture in and managed by the village panchayat and were a Haryana has been attributed to the advancements good example of "tragedy of commons". made in the fields of technology, rearing However, with private entrepreneurship, even practices, and the interventions made by the these seasonal ponds are registering good fish government through its departments and fishing production adding to the pay-offs of the fish development agencies like FFDA. However, as farmer. There is a clear incentive diffusion in such this study reveals, behind the success of fishing as an institutional arrangement between the a preferred livelihood option lies strong entrepreneurial fish-farmer and the panchayat institutional environment at the macro-level and members, which makes it natural and lasting and especially institutional arrangements at the micro also ensures compliance. level. These institutional arrangements have spurted from the entrepreneurial acumen of fish • In Mandnaka village in Faridabad, a fish-farmer, farmers, who have devised newer and innovative driven by his own sheer motive of profits, was ways of reducing the uncertainty and costs successful in getting the reserved price reduced involved in the business and safeguarded their for two common property ponds during auctions. long-term extended payoffs. Several case studies By doing so, he was able to pay the lease rent for of fish-farmers in villages of Rohtak and the entire 10-year period, and in turn was able to Faridabad highlight the fact that opportunism has save for himself the 25 percent increment in been at the very core of several institutional lease-rent every three years if lease-rent was paid arrangements at the grass-roots level, however, annually. By bearing a cost of Rs. 2000 as such opportunism and the motive of profits also bargaining and contract-making cost, he was able trigger investments in fishing, improvements and to assure for himself a pay-off of around creation of assets, and experiments in devising Rs.45000 extended over a 10-year period. better and more efficient practices. • On similar lines, a farmer in Dubalo village in In villages in Rohtak, several experiments have Faridabad, unable to secure a loan for excavation been tried by entrepreneurial fish-farmers to take of pond in his own farmland, did not hesitate to advantage of the opportunities in fishing by pay a small consideration to the FFDA to vouch carefully managing the stakeholders, especially the for his creditworthiness. The FFDA did not argue village panchayat and FFDA officials. Even if the this farmer's case with bank officials out of any fish-farmer has to make certain payments to the altruism, but to make some easy money in the 1 Independent researcher and consultant, A-36 LokVihaar, Pritam Pura, New Delhi, 110034. E-mail: [email protected] 94 transaction. It was again a case of sheer motive of hi~ personal profits. Such feelings are especially profit that got the transaction through, but, as an high when the fish-farmer wins the contract after end-result, fish production got a boost by the defeating a bidder from the village whose setting-up of a private fishpond in this farmer's common property was put on auction. A fish land. farmer, who has won the lease of a pond in Bhagwatepur village in Rohtak after defeating a There is an inherent instrumentality of the bidder from the native village, reported such an exchange partners in the institutional instance. He does not belong to Bhagwatepur arrangements between the different stakeholders village; rather he is a native of Kasar village in in the transaction. In other words, the institutional Jhajjar district of Haryana. He has to significantly arrangement's primary concern is with t~e bear costs in maintaining goodwill in the village transacting parties and not other players m the so that he can carryon with his business without institutional environment. For instance, in the the risk of breach of contractual agreements that above cases, both the fish-farmer and the FFDA the panchayat has done with him on behalf of the stand to gain from the transaction, and the village community. inherent "opportunism" on part of both the players gets the deal through despite the risk of What is striking is the absen'ce of cooperative repercussions in the future. societies in fisheries primarily because Haryana as a state has never had a strong history of • Unlike villages in Faridabad, common property cooperatives. Fishing here has been developed as ponds in most villages in Rohtak get perennial an allied activity of agriculture, and just as water supply from irrigation canals. However, . agriculture is an all-out private activity (done on farmers have to be statutorily charged commercial privately-owned or leased farms and not . water rates at Rs. 100 per 2500 cusecs. But, it is collectively on community farms), the same is not uncommon to fmd arrangements (albeit illegal true for fisheries. Here the preferred mode is to and unethical) between fish-farmers and officials undertake fishing as an entrepreneurial activity in the irrigation departments to charge the bulk whether on private or leased ponds - and there is (rather than commercial) water rate at ~s. 40 per no initiative on the part of fish-farmers to form 2500 cusecs, which is also the rate applicable for cooperatives and practice fishing collectively. This irrigation. It was reported by a fish-farmer that has implications for transaction costs, and t~e upon consideration of 20 percent of the water fish-farmers, given the high costs of collective bill, the lower rates would be charged. The fish decision-making, do not prefer to form farmer agreed and his effective water rate became cooperatives for fishing. The FFDA too does not RsA8 (RsAO 0.2 x 40), thereby effecting a + feel any such need, as it is able to meet its saving of Rs.52 per 2500 cusecs. mandate of development of fisheries through the There is a clear benefit for the fish-farmer to get existing system of open-auction to fish-farmers. the water rates reduced, and even the irrigation It comes out clearly from the study that private official stands to gain personally by striking this entrepreneurship has been the driving force deal, even though the society may stand to lose. behind the growth and development of inland This commonisation of costs and privatization of fishing in Haryana. Despite the institutional profits is at the core of many such institutional environment being deliberately created by the arrangements, which have emerged out of the government through regulations and legislations, unbridled pursuits of profits and maximization of most of the institutional arrangements at the long-term pay-offs by entrepreneurial fish micro-level have emerged on their own without farmers. any deliberate attempt on the part of the Owing to the open-auction system, the fish government or the village authorities, but o~~ of farmer, in most cases, is an outsider in the village, the sheer innovative acumen of the enterpnsmg and many in the village have a feeling that he fish-farmer. It does not come as a surprise that impinges upon the common rights of the. village there exists an institutional similarity in fisheries community over common assets of the village for across different villages in Haryana. With the 95 development of social capital, informal airangements that check perverse incentive institutional arrangements no longer remain diffusion, induce investments in the enterprise, and confined to just one village; rather many fish take the activity to higher levels of production and farmers in different villages, faced with similar productivity. Many would argue that the issues of transaction costs and risks of institutional arrangements discussed in the report transaction failures, resort to similar institutional do not pass the test of ethics. However, this being arrangements. an exploratory study just explores what exists on the ground, and discusses it in the context of The entire gamut of institutional arrangements transaction costs and pay-offs. Commenting upon point to the fact that private entrepreneurship, in the ethics or morality of any such institutional its quest for profits and long-term pay-offs, has arrangement is beyond the scope of this study. devised innovative means of reducing transaction costs in the activity, installed effective institutional 96 PONDS AND TANK MANAGEMENT By FISHERY COOPERATIVES: ANALYSIS FOR CHHATTISGARH Dinesh K Marothia1 In the state of Chhattisgarh, fisheries cooperative inadequate water availability. The Kura FCS has societies (FCSs) have been assigned usufruct been given usufruct rights for fish culture in these rights to use common ponds and tanks for culture common water bodies. The Barbanda FCS has fisheries, subject to certain socio-economic and leased in five tanks for fish culture. Three tanks administrative conditions. This study provides an were constructed by the soil and water overview of the governance structure of culture conservation (SWC) wing of the State fisheries in ponds and tanks in the state and to Department of Agriculture and handed over to discuss outcomes of an in-depth analysis of five the village panchayat for management. The three fish cooperative societies (FCSs), which cover tanks and two other tanks constructed by ex different categories of ponds and tanks zamidars have heen leased out by the panchayat to administered under different property rights the Barbanda FCS. Tanks constructed by SWC get regimes. Out of five FCSs, four are located Boriya water from canals and are perennial. The other Khurd, Barbanda, Serikhedi, and Kura villages of two village tanks are also perennial in nature. The Dharsiwa block of Raipur district and one is Matwa talab is rainfed and the Dev talab is located in Raipur city. All the four FCSs canalfed. All five tanks have multiple uses. functioning in the rural areas have usufruct rights The Mahamaipara FCS is a basically an urban fish over village water bodies whereas the FCS located cooperative society and has leased in two tanks in Raipur town is basically engaged in leasing in which were constructed almost 300 years ago by urban water bodies. The State Department of the Gond kings for meeting water requirement of Water Resources Development has the ownership the local people. These tanks are located in the over the Boriya Khurd Irrigation Tank (BKIT) heart of Raipur city. The Raipur Municipal and Serikhedi Irrigation Tank (SIT), while the Corporation has ownership of these tanks. Both fishing rights under the three tier panchayat tanks are multi-purpose and multi-functional in institutions have been assigned to Boriya Khrud nature and water quality is regularly monitored by and Serikhedi primary fisheries cooperative Chhattisgarh Pollution Control Board. societies respectively. Both tanks are canal fed and the minimum water level required for fish culture An institutional framework was applied to analyze is available throughout the year. However, there is the strength and weakness of cooperative restriction on adding manure and fertilizer as feed governance structures. The institutional input for the fish culture. Also these tanks are framework has assessed physical and technical multipurpose in nature, since water is provided for attribute of tanks and ponds, characteristics of irrigation of kharif paddy and one irrigation of fishermen community in relation to other rabi crops. The Serikhedi FCS leased in a village stakeholders using common water bodies, common pond constructed by an ex-zamidar and external and internal institutional arrangements, the village panchayat has ownership over this impact and outcome (in terms of fish catch, input pond. The Kura FCS leased in 29 common pool use pattern, disposable pattern and distributive village ponds. Out of these ponds, 8 perennial and gains). 7 seasonal ponds have been effectively used for The key findings of the questionnaire survey are fish culture. For nursery hatching, two seasonal summarized here. In terms of objectives, social tanks have been used. Remaining 12 tanks have structure of members, membership criteria, not been used for fish production owing to management system, and external institutional 1 Professor & Head, Department of Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics, LG. Agricultural University, Raipur-492006 E-mail: [email protected] 97 support, all the five FCSs have more or less making arrangement, and pattern of interaction similar pattern. Differences can be seen with provided economic and equitable outcome for respect to membership fees, working capital, fisheries cooperative in terms of fish production, assets, lease period and rents, and differences income and employment, rational disposable basically associated with ownership, size, and pattern and equitable distribution of benefits, and water spread area of the ponds and tanks leased effective enforcement of working rules by FCSs. in by a particular FCS. Decision making It may be inferred from the analysis of FCSs that mechanisms are more or less similar with all further research on understanding of institutional societies working under the cooperative hierarchy in terms of property rights, entitlement governance structure. Members of FCSs derive systems and mechanism for adjusting common benefits jointly from the resource as all operations pool water resource allocation is needed for of fish culture are collectively managed by promoting freshwater aquaculture in the state. members of the FCSs at a specific time period. Further research is also needed in Chhattisgarh, Fishermen contribute to each others welfare eastern India and north eastern states to through reciprocity which eventually leads to understand nature of property rights structures, collective action. The decision making institutional arrangements and governance arrangements deal with operational rules, pattern of ponds and tanks and possibilities to collective choices and external arrangement and transfer ownership of some of these their relationship with FCSs, state department of multipurpose common pool resources, on fisheries, and panchayat. Owing to well defined experimental basis for five years, to fisheries institutional rules and their effective cooperatives or contractors or other agencies. An implementation by FCSs, free riding behavior is ex ante analysis of such transactions in governance not seen among fishermen. Effective structures may be studied for formulating interrelationship of pond and tank attributes, sustainable institutions to promote and enhance fishermen community characteristics, decision productivity of common pool water bodies. 98 7. Tank Rehabilitation Experience of Two Decades R. Sakthivadivel [[email protected]] 24th February 2005 16:30 - 18:30 Session Chair: Madar Samad IWMI-Tata researchers have been recording strange things happening to tanks and their relationship with their users. In Eastern India, where millions of tanks far more than in Southern India--dot the landscape, their condition and socio-ecological role has been neglected by researchers and policy makers alike. ITP has just begun a study of tanks in eastern India. But in the meanwhile, in Haryana, ITP researchers have come across farmers converting otherwise productive agricultural fields into small tanks for culture fishery. In parts of Gujarat where tanks were never known to be a major irrigation tradition, tank-like structures have come up in thousands during the past decade to recharge aguifers. In eastern Rajasthan, Rajendra Singh's johad movement has pitch-forked small tanks to the centre-stage of semiarid livelihood systems. And in South India, researchers find users of irrigation tanks converting them into percolation tanks by sealing their sluices. Against this changing dynamic, we have large donor and government-supported tank rehabilitation programs that are designed to restore decrepit tanks to their centuries-old role: of flow-irrigating paddy fields. ITP's two year-long researchwhich intensively studied 40 rehabilitated tanks found that one reason why rehabilitation is not working is that the socio-ecological context of tanks today is different. However, it also concluded that the approach adopted to rehabilitate tanks offers scope for improvement. The session concludes ITP's tank-research in southern India by offering a superior protocol for rehabilitation programs. Author(s) Paper II P. Gomathynayagam . Two Decades of Tank Rehabilitation in India: Evaluating Ext. Abstract . Sustainabilit:y of Rehabilitation J. D. Sophia and B. Anuradha Two Decades of Tank Rehabilitation in India: I Ext. Abstract Livelihood Options and Gender Related Issues - A. B. S. Raj and D. Sundaresan Declining Trend in Tank Irrigated Area: Is there a Ext. Abstract Way to Arrest? K. Sivasubramaniam, R. Farm Level Land and Water Productivity in Tank Irrigation Paper only Sakthivadivel and A. Vaid;,,,n'lthan R. Sakthivadivel Two Decades of Tank Rehabilitation in India: Investment, . Ext. Abstract I Institutional and Policy Issues I 99 Two.DE~ESOF EVALUA1:-ING Dr. P. Gomathinayagam1 India's water resources potential and its Tamilnadu and Karnataka carried out repairs to agricultural economy hinge around monsoon rains tanks from their own funds either directly or with and its spatial and temporal variations. To support from NGOs. There are NGOs who had attenuate temporal variability of rainfall, India had rehabilitated tanks through contribution from followed from time immemorial, a policy of tank users and other donor agencies without conserving rainwater for subsequent use through getting any funds from the government. However, innumerable tanks and small storage structures many administrators and policymakers consider like ponds, built, owned and managed by the local that tanks are in a vicious cycle of "poor people through community organizations. Tank maintenance decline in condition - rehabilitation systems provided insulation from recurring - poor maintenance". On the other hand, there droughts and floods and vagaries of monsoon, are others who argue that tank rehabilitation is a and provided the livelihood security to the poor. must around which livelihood options of the rural The tank is recognized as having at least four poor are to be built in view of the multiple uses different functions in irrigated agriculture water of tank water. conservation, soil conservation, flood control and Under the I\x'MI-Tata Water Policy Programme protection of ecology of surrounding area. an explorative study was made in the states of Behind these existing indigenous systems of Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Pondicherry to make irrigation, there are thousands of years of an evaluation of rehabilitation implemented by tradition. This system gradually collapsed from different agencies and to find out what invasions and changes introduced by the British in components of rehabilitation are cost effective, the administration. sustainable, and have a bigger impact on the rural After Independence, the canal irrigation was poor. Purposive sampling technique was used to developed in a massive way including in tank select 40 rehabilitated tanks under different irrigated areas. Most of the public investment in models from the rehabilitated tanks. The study irrigation has gone to major and medium canal relied on both secondary data obtained from irrigation and development of groundwater. official and village records and information from While the area under irrigation increased field visits. The field study made use of substantially after the beginning of the five year participatory rural appraisal techniques, focus plans at the rate of more than one million group discussions, and structured and hectares per year, the percentage of irrigated area unstructured interviews. A methodology of under tank to total irrigated area showed a steady scoring the factors that contribute to the decline. Realizing the importance of tanks, south sustainability was developed and used. This paper Indian states have started rehabilitating the tanks looks at the sustainability of rehabilitation and the in the mid 1980s under state funds and with factors that contribute to the sustainability from external assistance. the findings of this study. The European Economic Community [now Findings of the study European Union], NABARD and World Bank The investments often depended on the objective provided financial assistance for tank of tank rehabilitation. The EEC project had the rehabilitation in the southern states with their own objective to increase food production and rural models. Besides this, the governments of income by achieving higher cropping intensity 1 Research Associate, I\XlMI-TATA Water Policy Program P. Gomathinayagam, No. 76, Fourth North Cross Street, Kapaleeswarar Nagar, Neelangarai, Chennai 600041, Phone No. 044 - 24490300 Email: [email protected] 101 through improved water management and reduced their share of 25%. PAUvIYRA, an NGO losses. The focus is dearly conserving storage and working in Pondicherry and Tamilnadu, worked in improving command area water use. Physical the same way. If farmers were prepared to pay 30 works like reconstruction of weirs, sluices, and percent of the cost for any rehabilitation lining of water distribution channels took the component, that work was carried out. The works lion's share in investment. provided livelihood options to the poor in the 1\;ABARD funded projects were conceived on the both cases. EEC model with modernization of structures, The World Bank funded Karnataka tank constitution of tank water user's association and rehabilitation project encompassed all these farmers' involvement from the planning stage. learnings. Tanks are viewed as multiple use Farmers' contribution to rehabilitation cost was structures; the investment pattern has changed not stipulated, but formation of tank user group accordingly and cost per ha has increased. The was stipulated. The implementation is through tank users group with all villagers as members contractors. shared the rehabilitation cost to the tune of 25%. The Tank Rehabilitation Project-Pondicherry This project brought back the tank as a common (fRPP), with aid from the European Union property of the village. (BEC) had the objective of preserving agricultural From this study, we found that the sustainability incomes from irrigated crop production, of rehabilitation depends mainly on the diminishing reliance on underground water institutional sustainability and the sustainability of resources, and halting the process of salinization physical works. If livelihood options for the poor of the aquifers. Here also, implementation of the are made a component in the rehabilitation project was through contractors. project (as made by JSYS and NGOs), people World Bank, under WRCP in Tamil Nadu, show keen interest in the upkeep and management increased the allocation to bund strengthening. of the tank system. As the sustainability of Though earth was removed from tank bed for rehabilitation depends on the availability of water strengthening, it was not uniform de silting that to the tank, most farmers want cleaning of feeder left pockets of depressions. Institutional channels to be taken up fIrst. The next choice is strengthening was not considered. In this project de silting of the tank. After making suitable also farmers were not required to contribute a provisions of augmenting supply and increasing share to rehabilitation cost. storage capacity, the focus should be on providing livelihood to all including landless during off During this period two NGOs demonstrated a season and during the dry periods. different mode of rehabilitation. The IYD, an NGO in Karnataka, helped villagers get fund from CAPART only after they started contributing 102 Two DECADES OF TANKREHABILITA110N IN INDIA: LIvELIHOOD OPTIONS·AND GENDER RELATED ISSUES J. D. Sophia1 and B. Anuradha2 Though tanks are the oldest sources of irrigation receive full storage only in two years out of ten. in India, many have fallen into disuse and are They get half ftIled in three years and less than dysfunctional. There is a continuous decline in the one-third filled in three years. They go dry in the tank irrigated area and a neglect of the remaining two years. With this precarious maintenance and upkeep of the tank system. condition, marginal farmers have to work in Realizing the importance of tanks, the south other's fields to earn their livelihood in the years Indian states have started rehabilitating the tanks of less rainfall and deficit inflow to the tanks. In in mid 1980s. More than 5000 tanks out of 80,000 the years of poor storage, farmers have to switch tanks in the States of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and over to rainfed dry crops. These crops are less Pondicherry have been under rehabilitation with labour intensive. Most of the landowners use their different level of success and failures. household members and do not employ outsiders. Rehabilitation work has been carried out by the Under this situation, the option before landless States and NGOs with funding from EEe, and other marginal farmers is to migrate to nearby NABARD, and World Bank. These projects urban areas to earn a living. All able bodied male initially had the objective of increasing the and female members go out like this. But the old agricultural productivity of tank water and later and children remain in the villages. Generally, on, focus was shifted to poverty alleviation. those who remain earn their livelihood through A research study under the IWMI-TataWater cattle grazing, poultry rearing, collecting fuel Policy Program was undertaken to assess the wood, etc. This opportunity is not always available physical, institutional, and livelihood sustainability to all. If lands are kept fallow in succession, of the tanks rehabilitated over the past decades. fodder and water may not be available, resulting in Purposive sampling technique was used to select distress sale of cattle. Because of the tanks not 40 rehabilitated tanks under different models from getting filled regularly, maintenance works of the the rehabilitated tanks in three states. The study tank systems is poor resulting in reduction of tank relied on both secondary data obtained from flow. The entire economic activities of the official records and information from the field community are thus decided by whether the tank visits. gets filled or not. The field study made use of participatory rural The tank rehabilitation projects in the beginning appraisal techniques, focus group discussions, and focused mainly to benefit the farmers and were structured and unstructured interviews. Detailed implemented by contractors. Even in this type of field investigation was carried out to look at the rehabilitation, the poor and landless received extent to which tank rehabilitation has helped some benefits during rehabilitation with increased the marginal farmers and landless poor to number of workdays as spin-off effect. In the improve their livelihood options and gender tanks where rehabilitation works were related issues in tank rehabilitation. implemented by the local community with stakeholders' participation, the local landless and Among the households in these 40 villages, 51 the poor were employed to work in the project percent are landless and 35 percent are marginal and earned wages. This provided the livelihood who operate lands less than one hectare. Thus the during progress of works. majority households are predominantly marginal farmers and landless. Statistically, rainfed tanks Most of people said that rehabilitation components that will bring water to the tank like 1 Research Associate, I\1\7MI-TATA Water Policy Program 2 Research Scholar, Centre for Water Resources, Anna University, Chennai. 103 feeder channel cleaning and tank de silting are the confidence among them. SHGs are not only most beneficial. Increase in water availability involved in savings but are engaged in income increased the intensity of agriculture, brought generating activities. Tank rehabilitation projects changes in cropping pattern and increased in future should ensure more active role for agriculture production. More water availability led women stakeholders through SHGs. In the past, to more biomass production, which provided women were strategically excluded by stipulating opportunities for livestock rearing especially, the landholding criteria. But the Pondicherry project small ruminants. This resulted in more milk provides a dual membership for each household production and regular income to households. that empowers women as stakeholders. This is a In most of the study areas, the poor are allowed better proposition as many men migrate out for to cut juliflora [wild tree] grown on tank bunds work while women stay back at the village. In for fuelwood purposes and also earn an income Karnataka, the JSYS project includes all villagers by selling them. Increase in the groundwater table especially, the vulnerable groups, in the through recharge is another important impact of rehabilitation process. tank rehabilitation. In some tanks, wells in and To conclude, in tank rehabilitation, augmentation around 10-15 villages get recharged due to tank of tank water and increasing tank storage have a rehabilitation that not only supplement tank marked impact on the livelihood options of the irrigation but provided drinking water also to landless and marginal farmers. Involvement of these villages. SHGs in rehabilitation and providing funds for During the last decade there has been an income generating activity has had a marked effect increased awareness on micro-finance through on the livelihood of marginal farmers, landless self help groups (SHGs). These SHGs have not and women. Moreover when all the villagers are only brought out the poor women from the debt made members of the Tank Users Group (TUG), trap but also have gradually grown into a social all are benefited in one way or the other and such capital, empowering women and build~g tanks are likely to be more sustainable. 104 DECLINING TREND IN TANK IRIUGArnJ)AItEA: Is THERE A WAY TO AIUtESTr' A.B.S. Raf & D. Sundaresan2 Three-fourth of average annual water availability and management of tank systems. from rainfall in India is concentrated during the Some of these observations were based on monsoon months of June to September. This isolated studies and some based on official necessitates creation of facilities to hold the statistics. The official statistics on tanks is rainwater for use at a later date. A reliable estimate perplexing and each government organization has of the number of tanks and ponds existing in its own data on tanks. different states is not known; the reported W'hile South Indian tanks are known for their number varies anywhere, between 200 ,000 and 350,000. The shape and size of each tank seems antiquity and were created essentially as a source to have been determined by the terrain. Over flow of supplementary irrigation during monsoon of one-tank moves into another tank in the season, innumerable small water holding downstream and so on up to sea or drain. structures called ponds have been in existence in Building and maintaining such an extensive system many north Indian states and even constructed and sharing the waters need extraordinary social after independence for multiple uses including and managerial skills. In the past, tanks were irrigated agriculture. For example, Marothla common property resources and the center of quotes that more than 10,000 ponds have been socioeconomic activities of villages. constructed in Madhya Pradesh (now Chattisgarh) for rearing fish under the Fish Farmers After Independence, canal irrigation was Development Program(FFDA) with World Bank developed in a massive way including in tank assistance during the 1970s and 80s (Marothla, irrigated areas. Water resources development has 1992). Although these ponds are primarily meant been carried out through successive five-year for inland fresh water aquaculture, water from plans since 1951. Millions of rupees were invested them is used for irrigated agriculture, livestock, in major, medium, and minor irrigation systems and domestic consumption. The multiple uses of with extensive canal network. The government, these ponds makes management of fish rearing even under planning, did not give due attention or difficult, mainly because of the common property resources to keep the tanks in good repair. Area rights regime. The institutional setup also varies under irrigation increased substantially after the from place to place depending upon how five year plans at the rate of more than one effectively the common property rights are million hectares per year. In percentage terms tank converted into a private property regime. irrigated areas showed a steady decline. There are many reasons attributed for the decline in tank Under the IWMI-Tata Water Policy Program, a irrigated areas: [a] construction of large canal study was undertaken to investigate the reasons systems has led to the displacement of traditional for continuous decline in tank irrigated area over tank systems; [b] groundwater exploitation got a the last five decades and to identify possible lift in the form of heavily subsided electric and ameliorative measures to arrest such decline and diesel pumping and availability of institutional stabilize tank irrigated area. Rapid appraisal finance. This resulted in financially better off studies were undertaken in nearly 100 tanks in the farmers to go in for well irrigation in the tank states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra command. [c] Decline in the traditional local Pradesh, and Pondicherry while in-depth studies institutional arrangements for the maintenance were conducted in four tanks located in the Palar basin of Tamil Nadu. The study indicates that the Superintending Engineer, WRO / PWD (Retired), Government of Tamil Nadu Research Assistant, IWMI-TATA Program 105 main reason for decline in irrigated areas is studies. All these factors have contributed to decreasing flow to tanks which is because of the replacement of tank irrigated areas with well decreasing trend in rainfall pattern, encroachment irrigation. of supply channels and tank bed, unplanned Presently, tank rehabilitation is considered as catchment development, sand mining of supply panacea to arrest the decline and revive tank channels and absence of institutional irrigated areas. The paper argues that selection of arrange~ent to maintain and manage the tanks. physical components of tank rehabilitation The decreased inflow coupled with focus on should be based on the hydrological endowment groundwater development, improvement in of a tank and conjunctive use rather than the technology with regard to locating well sites, conventional methods of identifying the tank as improvement in drilling and abstraction devices the sole source of water supply to irrigated and techniques, easy institutional credit, and agriculture. Based on hydrological endowment, a availability of free and/or cheap electricity supply classification procedure for identifying has spurred the ground water development in the appropriate physical rehabilitation components is recent decades and well irrigated areas have presented. By implementing such a procedure, it replaced tank irrigated areas. In the context of is possible to improve the production and present scarcity of water supply to tanks, wells profitability of tank irrigation and thereby arrest have assumed a greater role in providing the the declining trend in the tank irrigated area; this additional water needed for crops and make the strategy seems to work in a number of tanks. tank irrigation more productive and profitable to farmers. Conjunctive use of rain water, tank water, and well water has become a necessity for the survival of tank irrigation and is being extensively practiced in some tanks taken up for 106 Two DECADES OF TANK REHABILITATION IN INDIA: INVESTMENT, INSTITUTIONAL, AND POLICY ISSUES R.Sakthivadivel1 Over the last two decades, more than 5000 tanks decision-making regarding components to be out of 80,000 tanks in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, rehabilitated, implementation, maintenance and and Pondicherry have been under rehabilitation management. with different levels of success and failures. These The maintenance and management component rehabilitation works have been carried out by the will be provided as a corpus fund, the interest of states and NGOs with funding from agencies which can be withdrawn only if a matching such as EEe, NABARD and World Bank. In this amount is mobilized by farmers in terms of labor process, the agency which funds the project or cash or both. The budget provided for physical imposes its policies which has a bearing on the rehabilitation will have two levels: a base level models used for rehabilitation. No systematic which can be drawn without any matching analysis and evaluation of performance have been contribution from tank user groups and a hitherto undertaken. supplementary level for which tank user groups A study under IWMI-Tata Water Policy Program contribution is a must. A higher level of (ITP) was initiated to evaluate the impact of contribution from the tank user group will fetch rehabilitation on their sustainability and options more government grant for physical rehabilitation provided for the livelihoods of the rural poor. A of tank work. The base level budget should be total of 40 sample tanks from among the 5000 used to remove encroachment, provide requisite rehabilitated tanks were selected and a detailed dead storage through desilting and to provide analysis was carried out. Based on this study, the livelihood options for the landless and marginal guidelines for change in the investment pattern farmers. The present time allocation for various and institutional and policy related changes for activities of tank rehabilitation is not adequate and future rehabilitation projects are presented. the thrust is only on completion of physical The present investment strategy is heavily loaded works. The tank user groups are given training toward physical rehabilitation and very little during the fag end of the project. But they have to towards institutional development, and be trained in the beginning and continued training maintenance and management. throughout the rehabilitation period should be provided. It is recommended that the rehabilitation budget be allocated in the ratio of 10, 75 and 15 percent Each tank is unique in terms of its physical, to institutional development, physical works, and hydrological, institutional, socio-economic and maintenance, respectively. The institutional cultural parameters. As a result, tank rehabilitation component should be implemented through a components and requirement for its effective well-trained NGO and continue to provide functioning differ from tank to tank. Adopting assistance for at least five years from the start of uniform norms and following a blueprint the rehabilitation work. Adequate funds must be approach leads to wastage of money and dead provided for linking tank user groups to market investment. For example, there is no point in and knowledge centers for improving gross tank rehabilitating and increasing the width of a surplus product of rehabilitated projects through capacity weir which has not surplused over the last 10 building and training. The physical component years. Local people who have been using the tank should be implemented by the tank user group for years together are the best judges to say what (rUG), which should be made responsible for is to be rehabilitated and how that can be done to get the maximum benefit out of it. They need to 1. R. Sakthivadivel, Senior Fellow, IWMI, No.33, First East Street, Kamarajnagar, Thiruvanmiyur, Chennai 600041. E-mail: [email protected] 107 be consulted and they must be allowed to make In view of multiple uses of tank and its decisions and their decisions must be appurtenant structures, all village community implemented through them with their including landless must be made members of the contribution to rehabilitation cost sharing. tank user groups. Involvement of two members Components to be rehabilitated and budget for from a household ( 1 man + 1 woman) in tank different components and timing of completion user groups as practiced in Pondicherry State is must be flexible to meet the requirement of tank recommended as many men migrate out for work users. Rehabilitation components aiding while women stay in the village to take care of the augmentation of tank water and improved storage family, livestock and agriculture. Through training of water to cater to the needs of the summer given by self help groups; these women should be season and to recharge the groundwater should be made effective to participate in tank user group's given preference over others. activities. Providing livelihood to all including landless There are too many agencies having control over during off season and during the dry periods different components of tank system. One way to should form part of rehabilitation. Some options circumvent this is to lease the tank water spread are: area and the tank to the tank user groups on a • Allow the landless / self help groups to plant long term basis and vest with it the responsibility fruit bearing trees / herb cultivation / flower of upkeep. On the government side, a plethora of cultivation / vegetable cultivation in the tank agencies interfering with tank management should puramboke and foreshore. The planter should be dispensed with and one agency must be made tend the plants and the revenue from usufructs in charge of the tank system. will be shared at 20 percent to the tank user A regulatory body for small water holding groups and 80 percent to the planter. structures including tanks is to be established at • Allow the removal of soil for brick making by district level to provide needed assistance to leasing earmarked areas in the tank bed. Tank user maintain and manage these structures and to groups can charge nominal for each cartload. monitor and safeguard these structures from encroachment, pollution and their misuse. A good • Allow fish rearing to group of landless or database comprising all the past studies made by fishermen in the village. various organizations on tanks and ponds is to be • Allow the self help groups to grow and cut created and made available to all who need them. fodder grasses from the tank bund. Similarly, an authentic database on tanks, ponds, • Dig a community well to be owned and and ooranies, percolation ponds on the lines of operated by the tank user groups to encourage erstwhile tank memoirs has to be created under a conjunctive use. special drive. 108 8. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) Assessing the Prospects Jayesh Talati and Shekhar Sinha [[email protected]] 24th and 25th February 2005 16:30 - 18:30; 8:30 - 10:00 Session Chair: Norman Uphoff Developed first in Madagascar, the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) has a lot going for it; claims are that it reduces water use in rice cultivation by 25-50% and raises rice yields commonly by 25-100 percent but according to some scientists by 3-4 fold!!! PRADAN, an ITP partner, has got some hundred poor farmers in Purulia, West Bengal to experiment with SRI, and feels strongly encouraged by results over two successive years. If these claims are true, SRI can act as a broad spectrum medicine against many ills that bewitch Indian agriculture, including poverty, low productivity, water scarcity. But claims about SRI's benefits are questioned by many, including scientists from IRRI, world's leader in rice research. These claims and counter claims obfuscate the discussion on SRI. Can it really revolutionize rice cultivation in South Asia? IWMI-Tata partners bring new evidence from field studies; and Norman Uphoff, SRI's best-known protagonist, leads the ITP discussion on the promise of the magical technology from Madagascar. Several senior Indian scientists share their research results and experiences with SRI. Author(s) • Paper Shekhar Kumar Sinha and Impact of SRI on Rice Yields: Results of a ::-.Jew Sample Highlight Jayesh Talati Study in Purulia District, India T. M. Thiyagarajan and S. Optimum Water, Grain Yield and N-use Efficiency of Highlight Jothimani Rice under SRI: Synthesis of Results from Tamil Nadu T. M. Thiyagarajan et at. SRl for Enhanced Water and Rice Productivity in Tamil Ext. Abstract Nadu A. R. Pathak, N. P. Bhuva and Performance of Rice Genotypes under Different Ext. Abstract Atul M. Mehta Establishment Methods r-- C. Shambu Prasad and P. K Basu C nderstanding Scientific Controversies: The case of SRI Highlight Producing More Rice With Less Water: Farmers, P. Punna Rao and A. Satyanarayana Researchers and Extensionists' Experiences with SRI Ext. Abstract in Andhra Pradesh Regassa E. ::-.Jamara, Prospects for adopting System of Rice Intensification in Parakrama Weligamage and Sri Lanka: A Socioeconomic Assessment Ext. Abstract Randolph Barker 109 SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION FOR ENHANCED WATER AND RICE PaODUCTIVI1Y IN TAMIL NADU, INDIA. T.M. Thiyagarajan\ K. Senthilkumar, R. Priyadarshini\ K. Ezhilrani\ S. Jothimani\ P.M.M. David!, J. Sundarsingh\ A. Muthusankaranarayanan\ Huib Hengsdij~, Prem S. Bindraban3 Rice cultivation in Tamil Nadu consumes 70 per significantly reduced the yield indicating that water cent of water available for agriculture and hence was limiting production during the grain filling economizing water use in rice production has period. The highest water productivity (kg m-3) become important. The System of Rice was obtained for 24 day old seedlings and Intensification (SRI) offers much scope in that alternately submerged-non-submerged irrigation direction. in experiment 2 (0.732) and experiment 3 (0.871). Five experiments were conducted in a sequence to In these treatments water productivity increased (i) understand the principles of SRI, (li) study the by 84 and 96 per cent respectively, compared to effects of SRI components, (ill) develop a SRI conventional flooded irrigation. package for farmer practice, iv) test the effect of Confirmation of results on water saving with SRI the developed SRI package in large plots, and (v) cultivation methods prompted submission of a evaluate the SRI package in farmers' fields. To suit policy note to the government of Tamil Nadu the handling of younger seedlings, the method of suggesting the possibility of reduced water use for nursery bed preparation was altered. Additionally, rice cultivation. The state government sanctioned two experiments were conducted to better Rs.25,00,000 to conduct adaptive research trials understand pest interaction and the effect of (experiment 5) in two major rice-growing areas of polymer coated urea. the State, one of which was the Tamiraparani Results of experiment 1 showed that grain yields basin in southern Tamil N adu. were low using plant density of 16 m-2 or less. The results of the on-farm evaluation showed that This suggests wide spacing is not suitable but a grain yields recorded under SRI and conventional plant density of 32 m-2 could result in yields cultivation ranged from 4214 to 10655 kg ha-1 equal to conventional (50m-2) spacing. (SIDEV: 1379) and from 3887 to 8730 (SIDEV Four SRI components were considered in : 1108) kg ha-1, respectively. The mean grain yields experiment 2: seedling age, irrigation, weed for SRI and conventional cultivation were 7227 management and green manure application. This and 5657 kg ha-1 respectively, showing an overall showed a significant yield increase because of the yield advantage of 1570 kg ha-1 for SRI-derived use of a weeder and non-significant effects for practices. Nearly 31 farmers recorded grain yields differences in seedling age, irrigation and nutrient of more than 8 t ha-1 under SRI. The maximum management. Grain yields with alternately yield advantage recorded for SRI was 4036 kg ha-1 submerged-non-submerged irrigation were similar (70%). to yields realised with conventional irrigation The Tamil Nadu Agricultural University has while on average per cent less irrigation water recommended SRI as a techonolgy to increase rice was used. productivity and save irrigation water. The results Results of experiment 3 showed no interaction of SRI evaluation through experiment 5 drew the between the factors but confirmed the statistically attention of extension officers of the state significant yield increase owing to weeder use. department of agriculture. They laid out Direct seeding also resulted in significantly higher demonstration trials in all the rice areas of the yields. Continuation of alternately submerged state during the 2004 rice season which helped in non-submerged irrigation up to maturity spreading SRI methods to farmers. Farmer to 1 Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Killikulam, Vallanadu 628252, Tamil Nadu, India 2 Plant Production Systems, Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands 3 Plant Research International, B.Y. P.O. Box 16,6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands 111 farmer spread is also taking place. A combination of management options using Research on SRI has continued to generate more younger seedlings, square planting of single information for refining it. Experiment 6 and seedlings with wider spacing, using a rotary experiment 7 concerned studies on pest and N weeder in between hills to incorporate the weeds management in relation to SRI. The pest studies and disturb the soil, and limited irrigation could experiment 6 were carried out as farmers wanted promote the growth of rice crop and increase its to know the impact of wider spacing and less productivity. Irrigation water use would go down standing water in the field on crop protection by 30 to 50 per cent Nutrient use efficiency also aspects. The experiment 7 with polymer-coated increases. The technology is now being urea (PCC) was carried out because of its higher disseminated to farmers of Tamil Nadu. N use efficiency and hence wanted to assess its effect in combination with SRI. 112 PERFORMANCE OF RICE GENOTYPES UNDER DIFFERENT ESTABLISHMENT METHODS A. R. Pathak!, N. P. Bhuva2 and A. M. Mehta3 India is the second largest rice producing country in considerably higher grain yield. The concept of next to China in the world, but ranks first in area. SRl is still evolving and therefore needs to be Water is an important natural resource which is evaluated further and refined to suit local becoming scarcer because of population pressure environments. Keeping the foregoing discussion and inefficiency of the developed water in view, an experiment on the evaluation of infrastructures. This warrants an urgent need to different crop establishment methods including study the water use efficiency in agriculture, SRl was laid out at Main Rice Research Station, especially in rice being a water hungry crop. In the Anand Agricultural University, Nawagam, during context, concerted efforts are being made all over Kharif 2004 with the following objectives: the world to increase water productivity besides (i) Identify the sustainability of different crop increasing labour productivity and profitability of establishment methods for increasing the yield in lowland rice cultivation. transplanted rice Generally, farmers follow a traditional method of (li) Identify the cultivars for the SRl method of rice cultivation where they transplant 25-30 days rice cultivation. age old seedlings in puddled fields and the fields The experiment was arranged in split-plot design are kept flooded throughout the crop period. The replicated thrice with main plot treatments as System of Rice Intensification (SRl) is an three varieties viz; KRH-2, Krishnahansa and GR alternative to the existing practices where fields 11, and sub-plot treatments as five cultivation are kept wet and not flooded with water. This methods viz; S1 Standard practices of system seems to be promising to overcome the transplanting, S2 Systems of rice intensification shortage of water in irrigated rice. SRl appears to method (SRI), S3 Integrated crop management be a viable alternate for rice cultivation that saves (lCNt), S4 Direct seeding with drum seeder, and expensive inputs, improves soil health and S5 Farmers practice of random transplanting. optimizes water use efficiency. The practices of The results revealed significant differences in SRl are helpful in improving soil quality and soil grain and straw yield. The variety KRH-2 was biodiversity. It appears to be an environment found significantly superior as it produced the friendly approach of rice cultivation. highest grain (6575 kg./ha.) and straw (5959 SRl was developed in Madagascar in the early kg./ha.) yield than the rest of the varieties. 1980s by a French priest. SRl involves use of Further, significant differences in grain and straw certain management practices which together yield were also observed because of different provide better growing conditions for rice plants, sowing methods. The standard practice of particularly in the root zone. Four "novel" transplanting produced significantly higher grain practices worth a mention are key practices in yield of 5840 kg/ha which was found at par with SRl: (i) seedlings are transplanted early in SRl (5813 kg/ha.) and ICM method (5721 unpuddled conditions, (li) seedlings are kg/ha.). In the case of straw yield, the standard transplanted singly, (ill) seedlings are widely method of transplanting produced 5754 kg/ha spaced, and (iv) moist but unflooded soil which was found to be at par with that in SRl. conditions are maintained till panicle initiation Although significant grain yield (kg/ha) stage. differences were not observed amongst The ultimate effect of SRl techniques is reflected establishment methods S 1, S2 and S3, a net saving 1 Director ofResearch & Dean P. G. Studies, AAU, Anand-388 110 2 Asso. Res. Sci. & 3 Res. Sci. (Rice) at M.R.R.S.,A.A.U.,Nawagam-387 540 113 of 46% of irrigation water was realized in SRI. practices. It further appears that SRI method of On the basis of a one-year study, although cultivation uses 46% less water compared to standard transplanting practice produced traditional/ normal method of cultivation. significantly higher grain and straw yield, it was However, this needs further study. statistically found on par with SRI and ICM 114 PRODUCING MORE RICE WITH LEss WATER: FARMERS, RESEARCHERS AND EXTENSIONISTS' EXPERIENCES AND IMPRESSIONS WITH SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI) IN ANDHRA PRADESH P.Punna Rao1 and A.Satyanarayana2 Scarcity of water in agricultural production is strategies for popularization of SRI. The study becoming a major problem in India. In many was carried out by contacting 291 respondents areas, rainfall is becoming unreliable, with (SRI farmers (67), neighboring farmers (71), extremes of drought or floods occurring at researchers (77) and extensionsists (76). The key unexpected times. Water saving, therefore, is a findings of our study are reported below. high priority for rice production in the years ahead SRI farmers reported that their rice plants were because irrigated rice production is the leading healthier with extensive root growth and resistant consumer of water in the agricultural sector. to pests and diseases and no longer needed Finding ways to reduce the demand for water to chemical pesticides. Farmers observed that Sheath grow irrigated rice should benefit both producers blight and BPH incidence were low under SRI and consumers. environment. Only a seed rate of 5 Kg/ha was The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a followed as against 50 Kg/ha in the conventional methodology for increasing the productivity of method. Because of alternate wetting and drying irrigated rice by changing the management of of the Rice fields, nearly half of the water was plant, soil, water and nutrients. This methodology saved, making it possible to double the area under which is based on agro-ecological principles with irrigation in the state using the same quantity of good scientific foundations is of interest because water. An average yield advantage of over 2t/ha of its potential to achieve higher yields at lower was reported. With reduced seed rate, water saving costs of production along with saving of water. and reduced pest load leading to reduced SRI is a set of principles (use of young seedlings, expenditure with high yields, SRI farmers realized careful transplanting, planting at wider spacing of higher benefits. 25 X 25cm, weed management, water However SRI farmers faced the difficulties in management- keeping field only wet, not flooded operating rotary weeder and complained that it and organic manures) for enhancing plant growth did not work well. Transplanting young seedlings performance. and water management were also the problem SRI was introduced in Andhra Pradesh during areas reported by them. kharif 2003 which was given wide publicity with a Neighboring farmers, researchers and slogan "Produce More Paddy with Less Inputs" to extensionists were impressed by less seed rate, less exploit its potential to double rice productivity water, more root volume, more tillers, more grain with less inputs particularly water. Farmers were / panicle, less pest incidence and high yield in informed before the season about the skills SRI. They also felt that farmers needed special needed by organizing on-farm demonstrations education on transplanting young seedlings, (0.4 ha each) across all 22 rural districts. With a weeder operation and water management. view to understand the performance of SRI in the context of farmers' realities, a systematic study The study helped in identifying areas where owner was undertaken i) to find out the experiences of farmers, practicing farmers and laborers needed SRI farmers with respect to advantages over the skill upgradation like, on raised bed nursery, conventional system and difficulties encountered transplanting young seedlings, weeder operation ii) to obtain impressions of neighboring farmers, and water management. Strategies like awareness researchers and extensionists and iii) to suggest building using electronic media, field demonstrations, skill upgradation on identified 1 Assistant Director of Extension, [email protected] 2 Director of Extension, Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500030, Andhra Pradesh, India. 115 areas and bringing out publications on SRI, made including better implements and techniques, particularly the manuals in local language were, in addition to farmers innovations needs to be suggested for SRI promotion. encouraged and considered to further improve Farmers not only learnt the SRI management upon. practices, but also adopted and realized high yields The experiences of SRI farmers and impressions with reduced seed, water and chemicals. of other stake holders show the vast potential of Improvements in SRI that are continually being SRI in the region. 116 PROSPECTS FOR ADOPTING SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION IN SRI LANKA: A SOCIOECONOMIC AsSESSMENT Regassa E. Namara, Parakrama Weligamage and Randolph Barker1 These days the demand for water resources is farmers, 60 from each of the two study locations, becoming intense as a result of population and from each location 30 each, from SRl and pressure, competitions among different uses and non-SRl farmers. The resulting data were analyzed users, and the inefficiencies of the developed using descriptive statistics, econometrics of water infrastructures. As agriculture currently qualitative dependent variables, enterprise consumes the bulk of the available water budgeting, and indicator based poverty assessment resources, the efficiency and productivity of water tools. use in this sector may contribute to the relaxation There was a wide variation in the way that farmers of the demand for water. The System of Rice practiced the SRl, with the majority of the Intensification (SRI) first developed in adopters using the methodology on only a portion Madagascar and now being tested in many of their farms. However, as found in other countries, is an example of an on-farm water studies, many farmers disadopted after a season or productivity enhancing approach. The system is two largely because of heavy labor requirements based largely on organic farming principles and (about 3 times more than that for conventional additional requirements for the timing of rice cultivation), owing mainly to transplanting, transplanting and spacing of seedlings, and weeding, bund construction and cleaning, and irrigation scheduling. organic fertilizer collection and transportation. SRl recently generated interest and discussions Among nonusers, 87.5 percent reported having among researchers, development practitioners and heard about the SRl, mostly from other farmers, policymakers in Sri Lanka. This has often resulted and, of these, only 25.4 percent confirmed that in polarized views. Some proponents claim that they intend to practice SRl. Consistent with the SRl will revolutionize the method of rice practicing farmers' observations, the non-adopters production, while others see it as a fad. Studies in reported that the major obstacle to the adoption Africa, Asia and Latin America provide mixed of SRl was the high labor demand and the tedious results. But most of these studies are anecdotal in nature of the associated management practices, nature or are limited to experimental and such as transplanting and manual weeding. demonstration activities. Only one other study The determinants of adoption of SRl were that we are aware of (conducted in Madagascar) identified using logistic regression analysis. Labor applies an appropriate methodology that would availability, years of schooling, access to training assess the farmers' experience. This study programs, farm or field location, and the poverty contributes to filling this research gap based on status of the household were the main Sri Lankan farmers' experience. The study determinants. Households with a large family size specifically assesses the adoption pattern, and greater labor availability were more likely to economics and the poverty outreach of the SRl, adopt SRl, which reflects SRl's higher demand for and draws research, extension and policy labor. There was no significant difference in the implications. SRl adoption probability between farmers situated The data for the study were obtained from focus at the head of the irrigation canal and rain-fed group interviews and structured questionnaire farmers. On the other hand, farmers at the middle surveys conducted in Ratnapura and Kurunegala and tail of irrigation systems are less likely to districts of Sri Lanka. The sample farmers were adopt SRl than rain-fed and head farmers. For selected using a two stage stratified random rain-fed farmers, the opportunity to minimize sampling design. The total sample size was 120 cash costs from weather risks was an incentive for 1 International Water Management Institute; [email protected] 117 the adoption of SRI. In a parallel analysis of losses. The incidence of losses among the SRI determinants of disadoption of SRI, average farmers was substantially lower than that for realized yield during the first season(s) of conventional rice cultivators. The reduction in adoption and poverty group membership were inorganic fertilizer and other agrochemical use statistically significant variables. One of the under SRI are environmental benefits, which only controversies surrounding SRI is whether it is a few farmers appreciate, or are concerned with. suitable for adoption by poorer households. The But these societal benefits could justify public analysis showed that the rich and poor farmers efforts to support the spread of SRI. were equally likely to practice SRI, though for Thus we conclude that the SRI, like its closely different reasons. The rich are more educated and related practices, such as organic farming, more inclined to experiment with new methods; ecological farming, and low-input sustainable the poor have more urgent need to raise the agriculture, is a niche production method. productivity of their limited land and their Without widespread adoption, there is little, if relatively more abundant labor. Their net benefit any, water saving at a system or basin leveL The per hectare was somewhat less than for richer main avenues for making SRI more viable for rice farmers. Once they adopted SRI, the poor were farmers in Sri Lanka are: (1) improving the more likely to continue using it. efficiency of or mechanizing the transplanting SRI farmers in Sri Lanka reported a yield increase and weeding operations; (2) research into an of 44 percent, which is lower than that reported alternative source or method of soil fertility by many other countries. Returns to crop budgets management; and (3) improving the reliability of were higher even when charging a relatively high irrigation supply. Whether or not to pursue these rate for labor. The cost of production per hectare avenues and promote SRI remains an open was not lowered with the SRI methods. However, question. However, this study will provide given that production significantly increased, the policymakers with a realistic appraisal of the cost of production per unit of paddy output was potentials and limitations of SRI in Sri Lanka. considerably lower. Consequently, the estimated Hopefully, it ""ill stimulate further systematic average profits for SRI was almost double that of research efforts to assess the potential benefits the conventional practice. But not all farmers and limitations of SRI adoption in diverse registered positive profit figures. Some had net climatic and socioeconomic environments. 118 9. India's Water Future 2025/2050 Shilp Verma and Sanjiv Phansalkar [[email protected]] 25th February 2005 10:30 - 13:00; 14:00 - 15:30 Session Chair: Frank Rijsberman India has hotly debated a US $ 120 billion dollar mega river-linking project that ,,,ill help make India water-secure in 2050. Just what will India look like in 2050? How much water will it use, where and for what? In a 3-year research program beginning 2005, IWMI aims to promote a balanced, analytical national discourse on India's water future 2050, and approaches to shaping it, including through the proposed mega project. As a precursor, IW'Nll-Tata Program presents a clutch of studies towards a ~U"U~'J. textured and nuanced understanding of India's water challenge. Frank Rijsberman, IW1'vH's Director General, brings in a global perspective on how best can nations brace up to face water scarcity. Author(s) Paper Shilp Verma and S.J. Phansalkar India Inc. 2050: Potential Deviations from 'Business-As- Comment Usual' Tushaar Shah Nature of India's Water E 'Y Presentation Only A. D. Mohile National Water Policies of India: Need for Interventions Ext. Abstract and Reforms A. Mahmood and A. Kundu India's Demography in 20?Q: ~e, Structure and Habitat Ext. Abstract S.J. Phansalkar, P. Deshpande and Expanding Rings of Dryness around Indian Cities: Shall Ext. Abstract Vivek Kher Crisis alone Drive the Policy? S.J. PhansaJkar and S. Verma Water Intensity of Rural Livelihoods in 2050 Highlight M. Gayathri Devi and C. Scott \~'astewater Use in Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture: Ext. Abstract Generating Livelihoods and New Management Challenges C. Amarasinghe, B. R. Sharma, N. Aloysius, C. Scott, V Smakhtin, Spatial Variation in \X1ater Supply and Demand across River. Ext. Abstract C. de Fraiture, A. K. Sinha and Basins of India: PODIUM Results for 2025 and 2050 A. K. Shukla Frank Rijsberman Water Future Projections: Global Experiences, Key Issues Presentation Only and Concerns 119 NATIONAL WATER POLICIES OF INDIA: THE NEED FOR INTERVENTIONS AND REFORMS A.D. Mohile1 The paper aims at analyzing on one hand the Parliament to enable the Union to more Indian water situation, present and future, and, on effectively manage interstate river valleys. This the other, the present policies and programs of includes the empowerment in regard to the the union government. This comparison, leads to approval of development plans, collection of some suggestions for interventions in the Indian information, overseeing water management, water sector. These interventions covering three creating empowered basin authorities, approving closely related aspects, water related laws, water and converting interested agreements into related institutions and the system of water enforceable instruments, dam safety certification, policies. and decisions about surplus water availability. It The National Water Resource Council, in 1987, also recommends the establishment of a new and finalized the National water policy. This was just regime of water rights, in which it would further revised in 2002. This document become clear that water is a "negative represented the consensus in regard to the various community", and that the water rights are policy issues after considering the opinions of the usufruct, are revisable, and need to be delegated States. In order to arrive at such a consensus, this from the state to users. policy document is occasionally vague, and does In regard to institutional reforms, it recommends not elaborate the various strategies, which would a legal support for the National Water Resources have to be used. Some important shortcomings Council and reforming the Ministry of Water resulting from this process are: Resources and the Central Water Commission to It does not provide for the creation of enabled enable consolidation of various water related and regular basin authorities, with stakeholder concerns and disciplines; as also the reforming of participation. the National Committees related to water. It recommends a reformed institutional mechanism .• There are no guidelines regarding water to settle water-related discords, by integrating the allocation amongst states. processes of mediation, arbitration and .• Water policies do not reflect new economic adjudication To facilitate this process and to build policies, and do not spell out strategies on expertise, a permanent or standing water disputes privatization in the various activities of the water tribunal, has been suggested .It indicates that the sector. various discipline-wise National Committees be .• It does not deal with water rights of the final broad based, towards professional autonomy. users of water. In regard to water assessments, it recommends .• Although the policy recognizes "water" as a that the precipitation be considered as the main single resource, it does not indicate actions for full water resource, (rather than considering the river integration of surface and groundwater use in and aquifer flows as the water resource). assessments, allocations, planning development Management of evaporation can then become an and management, beyond the conjunctive use in important additional strategy. Also, proper water canal commands. accounts, indicating, inter-alia, the use by the 'nature', 'food' and 'people' sectors would become In regard to legal reforms, the study concludes possible and give a more meaningful information. that Constitutional reforms are not required. It Both the nature sector and the agriculture sector recommends enactment of legislation by the seem to involve some water use, which does not 1 Former Chair, Central Water Commission 121 result in any significant goods and services. This The paper recommends the need to consider use could be reduced through evaporation wise water allocation and integrating the priority management for the core domestic demand with the concepts Apart from these basic and conceptual planning since irrigation may be an important interventions, it recommends other important option both for increasing the 'carrying capacity' interventions. These include the reconsideration of high density low rainfall area and alleviating of food security in the changing world trade poverty of the rural population in such area. The regime, clarifying and elaborating the role of the study indicates that if the cereal farm households private sector in water management, considering have to improve their incomes, large crop diversification would be essential. In this context ~nd adjusting water policies to the likely changes m the role of the Government, detailing the the provision of the National Water Policy (2002) policy in regard to water shed management etc regarding water zoning needs elaboration. .The paper indicates that there is a need to involve Different strategies related to agriculture and the private sector in a large way, in some fields irrigation needs to be prescribed for different such as hydropower, distribution of domestic zones, with deferring water availability and water, development of urban water sources, etc population densitie .In regard to irrigation, a limited role in 5~eondary and tertiary distribution of public supplies may be beneficial. 122 INDIA.S DEMOGRAPHY IN 2050: SIZE, STRUCTURE ANDlIABITAT 1 2 Aslam Mahmood , Amitabh Kundu Success of a developmental planning effort in developmental parameters incorporated in their meeting certain projected requirements of people models. Importantly, the National Commission for will depend, among other things, on the accuracy Integrated Water Resources Development (1999) of population projections. Water, which until has taken estimates given by Visaria and Visaria recently was taken almost as a free gift of nature (1996) as the "high variant" (1581.00 million) and to human society along with many other natural those of the United Nations (1995) as the "low resources, is increasingly becoming scarce. variant" (1345.90). These have then been used for Population explosion of recent times and its making future estimates of food requirement for concentration in a few large conurbations is the growing population in the country. posing tremendous pressure on available water The two projections, providing the basis for the resources. analysis undertaken by the Commission, suffer Like in many developing countries, size and from two major deficiencies: (a) these were made growth of population in India was not alarming prior to 2001 and therefore did not have the until the first quarter of the last century. Even up benefit of the recent Census data with regard to to the second quarter, the problem had not the size and composition of population, its age acquired any serious proportions. It was only structure, geographical distribution etc. and (b) the during the third quarter of the last century that projections had not given due consideration to the population and its growth started being viewed as impact of the HIV/ AIDS on the expectancy of a problem causing serious resource constraints. life and other demographic parameters. Population stabilization has thus emerged as a The present paper tries to fill in this gap by major agenda, particularly in the context of acute making fresh population projections by pressure on agricultural resources and urban incorporating the trends patterns noted in Census facilities. of India 2001. Also, it takes into consideration the A review of projection exercises in India reveals impact of HIV/ AIDS on the future estimates of that the figures vary extensively depending on the mortality. For making these projections for Population Projection of India: 2001-2051 Year High Variant LoW Vati~nt Total Urban Total Urban 2001 1019.72 286.40 1,019.72 286.39 2006 1101.48 302.91 1,096.21 301.45 2011 1180.38 354.12 1,167.64 350.43 2016 1270.92 413.04 1,249.64 404.88 2021 1360.91 476.32 1,330.08 459.06 2026 1440.76 561.90 1,400.54 528.93 2031 1504.24 586.65 1,455.64 540.83 2036 1569.52 635.66 1,504.96 573.14 2041 1626.96 683.32 1,549.92 602.77 2046 1685.15 733.04 1,594.09 630.06 2051 1731.92 779.37 1,621.23 650.45 1 [email protected] 2 [email protected] -Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 123 quinquennial periods - from 2001 to 2051 the future course of urbanization also. The Cohort Component method has been used. projected total population of India along with its urban component is given in the table. Revised Population Projections for India 2001 -2051 I t is interesting that the projected population in the country shows a continuous increase over the Based on the results of a UN study on the next twenty five years as the population is estimated effect of HIV/ AIDS on the life expected to rise from the present figure of expectancy, the projected course of mortality in 1028.61 million to 1440.76 in 2026, as per the India has been modified to account for the effect high variant. By the low variant, the figure is of HIV/ AIDS, using the UN model South Asian expected to go up to 1400.54 million. It may be life table. For projecting fertility, regression line noted that after 2026, the growth rate of fitted to the TFR figures from 1982 onwards has population reports a significant decline. Indian been used. Average values of TFR, as given by population would continue to rise during the regression estimates, have been taken as the low second quarter as well reaching 1731.92 million variant of fertility and the upper limit of the and 1621.23 million by the high and the low confidence interval of the regression estimate as var~ants res~ectively in 2051. As per the high the high variant. Using the age structure of vanant, the lficrease in population during the first population, as given by the Census of India quarter is expected to be in the order of 421.04 2001,and applying the projected values of fertility ~illion. In the subsequent 25 year period, the and mortality, the projected population estimate lOcrement would be only 291.16 millions, about for India have been obtained. The population two third of the figure of the first quarter. As per figures have then been divided into urban and the low variant, incremental population would be rural components, by making assumptions about 380.84 million and 220.69 millions respectively. Population Projection of India, 2001·2051 2000 1800 1600 IIIc 1400 ~ E 1200 l\ll High Variant .= 1000 I • LON Variant i 800 '3 Q. 600 0 D.. 400 200 0 2011 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041 2046 2051 Year 124 EXPANDING RINGS OF DRYNESS AROUND INDIAN CITIES: SHALL CRISIS ALONE DRIVE THE POlleY? 1 Sanjiv Phansalkar , Pradyumna Deshpande and Vivek Kher Domestic and municipal water requirements This paper looks at the domestic water situation in account for less than 10 percent of the total fresh four cities Nagpur, Coimbatore, Aurangabad, and water requirements. And yet, most water crises Solapur in peninsular India and explores the emerge from a shortfall in meeting this demand. following issues: [1] at what pace and to what The media and civil society are also more extent groundwater resources of surrounding responsive and alert on issues of drinking water areas are being exhausted; [2] what are the drivers scarcity. Water from irrigation dams is routinely of this process; [3] what are the costs to the "diverted" for meeting domestic and municipal exchequer, to the consumers, and indirectly to demand. Most states are considering legal surrounding areas; and [4] how are the people in solutions for getting a measure of control on peri-urban areas coping with the phenomenon. allocating groundwater in favor of drinking water The speed at which the ring of dryness expands use. Literally billions are spent in paying for water around a city can be hypothesized as a function of tankers that carry water to urban and rural the population of the city, local hydrology, populations. availability of surface sources of water in/near All this apart, most water resource planners tend cities, and the extent of development and to ignore or undermine the importance of this reliability of the municipal water supply system. demand since, in terms of billion cubic meters Data was gathered by: [1] carrying out extensive (BCM), this demand is miniscule compared to the discussions with the municipal water supply huge demands in irrigation. however, with several authorities in the four cities; [2] conducting a projections indicating that by 2050, between 45 survey among the private water vendors in the and 60 percent of India's population will live in cities; [3] conducting a survey among the owners cities, the need to focus attention on growing of the water sources from which the private water domestic water requirements is imminent. The vendors pump water; and [4] discussing with the situation is most likely to be more critical in people living close to these water sources to see peninsular India, which is already water-starved. how water being taken to cities affects them. A recent ITP study in six A-class cities found that Crbanization is a continuing phenomenon. The in three of them (Jaipur, Ahmedabad and boundaries of the cities have expanded to include Chennai), the contribution of groundwater the surrounding rural areas, in some cases as towards meeting the domestic and municipal much as up to 15 km. In all these cities this rural water requirements ranged between 72 and 99 land was previously under regular cultivation. This percent. Several of these cities also have a thriving is the expansion of the ring of urbanization. The tanker water economy, supplying anywhere problem of "unauthorized layouts" (that is, between 14 and 55 Mill [total volume in the six housing areas not accorded sanction by the cities equals 166 MLD] with annual revenues municipal authorities and hence not provided with ranging between Rs. 11 and 100 crores. This amenities such as water supply) increases in direct informal water economy depends entirely on proportion to the growing urbanization. Also, the groundwater extraction from peri-urban areas and, topographical constraints have been often ignored in the absence of any regulation, has led to the for the sake of urbanization, new housing emergence of well-fields all over the cities' schemes coming up on top of hills or highlands. periphery. This trend has direct negative influence over 1 AMOL Management Consultants, Flat G-2, Laxmikrupa Apartments, Plot T-7, Laxminagar, Nagpur, Maharashtra 440022 e-mail: [email protected] 125 municipal water supply network. Here lies the inherently intertwined and water happens to be opportunity for private tanker trade to prosper. another item of exchange between the two. We, Deficit rains have also contributed to the growth however, need to project ahead and see what of private tankers. Around Solapur city, almost all would happen thirty or forty years down the line. the cultivators sold water from their borewells These four cities represent instances of well during 2000 and 2003 instead of growing crops. established, old cities which had significant and at Private tankers now are indispensable for times remarkably good urban infrastructure. A obtaining water to a large number of residents in large number of rapidly growing urban the municipal area in all study cities except agglomerates perhaps have no established water Nagpur. Groundwater depletion is very rapid supply infrastructure at all. In such locales, the everywhere. Although Solapur presents the only phenomenon of private provisioning will proceed instance of groundwater exhaustion in wells and grossly unchecked. Since drinking water is a non borewells, new borewells have appeared rapidly in negotiable human requirement, severe stress last five years in Nagpur and Aurangabad. Boring anywhere on this front has, as it should, always is as lucrative as private tanker trade. Running spurred decisive action on the part of the state for private tankers is free of any legal formalities. mitigating disasters. The trouble is most often this Growing demand due to urbanization and lacunae action tends to be knee-jerk and hurried. As a in municipal water supply have created intense result, huge expenses are involved. Funnily, the competition since last 5 years. In all cities, except stress occurs every year and each year sees knee Nagpur, the private tanker owners have increased jerk reactions. There of course are instances by about 25 percent. Profits of tanker operators where the expenses in hiring tankers for water have multiplied several times. supply are undertaken by municipal authorities We find that municipal authorities in Nagpur purely as a patronage dispensation mechanism. In (pench), Aurangabad (Jayakwadi) and Solapur a case currently pending in the Nagpur High (Ujani), get water from dams located in their Court, the municipal authorities as good as hinterlands for urban water supply. The main admitted this and agreed to reduce the reason for private trade of water is the inability of expenditure on tankers by 80 percent in a year. the municipal authorities to keep pace in This would require larger and more planned developing supply infrastructure with the cities' investments in water infrastructure for dties. growth. By design, the cities take water originally There is a serious cause to examine if inter-basin stored in these dams for farming and by default transfers of water for meeting urban needs are not the cities take water from aquifers in surrounding really required to be planned on much higher areas causing lands to remain uncultivated. priority. The Narmada drinking water pipeline There is nothing inherently wrong in these project in Gujarat is perhaps only the first of developments. The town and the country are several similar initiatives India will need by 2050. 126 WASTEWATER USE IN URBAN AND PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE: GENERATING LIVELIHOODS AND NEW MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES M. Gayathri Devil and Christopher Scott2 Rapid urbanization places immense pressure on side of wastewater use for irrigation is that it the world's fragile and dwindling fresh water generates livelihoods for farmers, agricultural resources and over-burdened sanitation systems, labourers, transporters of produce, market leading to environmental degradation. In this brokers, and vendors of the produce. Consumers context wastewater is a resource of increasing are also benefited as they get fresh and cheap global importance, particularly in urban and peri produce because of low transportation costs. It urban agriculture. According to reports, at least 20 saves freshwater which would otherwise be used million ha in 50 countries are irrigated v.dth raw or for irrigation and it recycles nutrients. But it has partially treated wastewater. Wastewater is used in negative implications for human health and various forms for irrigation: untreated, partially environment. In most developing countries treated, and diluted. Very little information is wastewater used for irrigation is inadequately available on area irrigated with wastewater at treated. WHO/UNICEF estimates the median national and global level, which is essential for percentage of wastewater which receives effective policy-makers to make realistic policies. Hence, treatment to be 35 percent in Asia, 14 percent in before a global assessment of the extent of Latin America and the Caribbean, 90 percent in wastewater use is done, a common understanding North America, and 66 percent in Europe. on different types of wastewater use is essential. Agricultural use of untreated wastewater poses Wim van der Hoek of IWMI proposes a typology various kinds of health problems depending on for wastewater use that categorizes wastewater use the kind of product produced. The most into three types: direct use of untreated wastewater common health problems associated with where wastewater is directly applied to land from a consumption of wastewater-irrigated produce sewerage system; direct use of treated wastewater include cholera, typhoid, faecal bacterial diseases, where treated wastewater is directed to a particular bacterial diarrhoea and dysentery. Studies in area for irrigation; indirect use of wastewater Faislabad and Haroonabad in Pakistan showed where wastewater is taken from another receiving that agricultural workers in wastewater-irrigated water body like pond, lake, canal, tank, or river. fields and consumers of wastewater-irrigated Wastewater is used in crop production which produce are five fold more likely to be infected by includes fodder, vegetables, cereals like maize and intestinal helminths. The contamination of the rice, ornamental plants, nurseries, cotton, mulberry, produce may not be limited at field level. It could coconut, banana, horticultural crops like sapota, take place anywhere between the point of citrus, mango, timber crops like teak, flowers like production and the point of consumption. More jasmine, crosandra, hibiscus, chrysanthemums etc; research is necessary to determine the type and urban forestry which includes avenue trees, trees in degree of health risk, the paths of contamination, parks and conservation and plantation zones, and the likelihood of infection. In addition to the industrial estates and institutional areas; and pathogen contamination of wastewater, illegal aquaculture. dumping of untreated industrial effluents in the wastewater channels is a common practice. Use The various reasons that drive farmers to use of such contaminated water mainly with heavy wastewater for irrigation are: it is the only source metals like lead and cadmium pose grave of irrigation available; it is nutrient rich and hence problems for consumers of such produce. farmers can save on fertilizer costs; it is highly Cadmium and lead have been shown to reliable and available round the year. The positive accumulate in fodder grass, grains and green leafy 1 Consultant, International Water Management Institute, South Asia Regional Office, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh. e-mail: [email protected] 2 Regional Director, IWMI, South Asia Regional Office, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh. e-mail: [email protected] 127 vegetables. Cadmium accumulates in the kidneys economic and environmental conditions. WHO of humans who ingest the plants and eventually and other scientists have argued that the causes kidney failure. Lead can have adverse guidelines must be accompanied by other health effects on the nervous and reproductive system. promoting measures such as health education, Protective health measures can be taken at hygiene promotion, provision of adequate various levels and by various actors/stakeholders. drinking water, and sanitation. Pay Drechsel and Ben Keraita of IWMI-Ghana Past experiences with wastewater reveal that and Ursula Blumenthal of London School of importance of wastewater in agriculture is on the Tropical Medicine propose appropriate health peripheral edges of public awareness and unclear protection measures at farmer level, market level, to policy-makers and donors; the informal nature and consumer level. of wastewater irrigation tends to leave it in WHO's guidelines for wastewater use in institutional no-man's land. The challenge is to agriculture, introduced in 1989, have been taken identify practical, affordable safeguards that do by most governments as the legal framework not threaten the substantial livelihoods dependent dictating safe use of wastewater for agriculture, on wastewater or diminish the important role this even though they were not intended for absolute resource plays in achieving household food and direct application in every country. The security and supplying low cost produce to present WHO guidelines, which recommend only growing cities while at the same time minimize treated wastewater for irrigation and impose crop health and environmental risks. In order to restrictions do not take into consideration the enhance the positive outcomes while minimizing economic and political realities of the developing the risks of wastewater use, Faruqui et al provide countries, the high cost of treatment, and urban recommendations that are feasible and measures poverty of these countries. But the 1989 that need to be applied: cost-effective and guidelines are currently being revised based on appropriate treatment of wastewater; until new data from epidemiological studies, treatment is possible, other measures should be quantitative microbial risk assessments and other taken such as increase farmer and public relevant information in accordance with the awareness of safe crops and irrigation practices, Stockholm Framework. The Stockholm improve institutional coordination, increase Framework encourages a flexible approach for security of land tenure, treat infections and invest setting up guidelines, which can be adapted by in research to find solutions in above areas, and each country according to their social, cultural, evaluate the feasibility and cost effectiveness of the above suggestions. 128 SPATIAL VARIATION IN WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND ACROSS RIvER BASINS OF INDIA Upali A. Amarasinghe, Bharat R. Sharma, Noel Aloysius, Christopher Scott, Vladimir Smakhtin, Charlotte de Fraiture, A. K. Sinha and A. K. Shukla India is a large country with the per capita water water-scarce, but these basins have a significant supply and demand varying across regions. But a food surplus. The grain surplus of the Indus comprehensive assessment of water accounting basin alone is able to meet 85 percent of the grain across river basins is not available at present. Such demand from basins with grain production an assessment is a timely exercise in the context deficits. The water scarcity problems of the third of the increasing focus on integrated river basin group of 11 river basinshome to 75 percent of management. This report assesses the water the Indian populationare mixed, but almost all supply and demand across river basins of India, have significant deficits in crop production. The classifies river basins according to water scarcities fourth and fifth groups of river basins are and crop production surpluses or deficits, and classified as "non-water-scarce and food discusses issues that are important for future sufficient" and "non-water-scarce and food water supply and demand projections. surplus," respectively. These last two groups of India's land area can be divided into 19 major river basins hold 12 percent of India's population. basins. The per capita water resource availability Several factors could influence India's future of these basins varies from a low of 240 m3 in water supply and demand. These include: the Sabarmati basin to a high of 17,000 m3 in the spatial variation and future growth of population, Brahmaputra basin, while water withdrawals vary urbanization and income, and associated changes from a low of 243 m3 in the Meghna basin to in dietary preferences, on the crop consumption 1,670 m3 in the Indus basin. Irrigation'is by far side; growth in crop yield, cropping intensity and the largest water user in all the basins. The basins groundwater use, and contribution to production of the westerly flowing rivers of the Kutch and from rain-fed agriculture, on the crop production Saurashtra regions of Gujarat, and the Luni side; and future growth in other factors such as riverhome to 6 percent of the Indian domestic, industrial and environmental water populationare classified as physically water-scarce demand, and internal and international trade. and food-dependent. The second group of basins, These factors need to be carefully assessed in the Indus and Pennar river basins, with 7 percent future water supply and demand projections. of India's population, are classified as physically 1 Research Associate, IWMI-TATA Water Policy Programme, Tamil Nadu 2 Research Scholar, Centre for Water Resources, Anna University, Chennai. 129 10. Watershed Development: Strategies for Sustainable Scaling Up Amrita Sharma [[email protected]] 25th February 2005 8:30 -10:00; 11:00 -13:00; 14:00 -15:30 Session Chair: B. N. Yugandhar The Common Minimum Program of the new Government at the Centre has placed renewed emphasis on the importance of watershed development for livelihoods generation as well as for regenerating the nation's land and water resources. Science for doing this is largely in place. The challenge is institutional. We find small islands of excellence amidst an ocean of mediocrity in watershed development. In giving a new lease of life to the program, needed are institutional models of scaling up without losing quality and impact. Harnessing lessons generated by some of India's outstanding watershed management projects. B N Yugandhar, the pioneer of Integrated Watershed Development Program, leads the ITP discussion. The session runs in two parts: in part I, we present field studies and macro-assessments; in part II, rchitects of some India's best-known watershed projects share their experience and insight. Paper Only Highlight G. Anand Vadivelu Amrita Sharma Development Programs: Scaling ~AJUOIU"- Quality and Impact Part II: Leaders of Some of India's Best-known Watershed Programs Al Fernandez i ,\;[YRADA's Watershed 1 Presentation Crispino Lobo and B. Kakade Presentation 131 -~.---.------SCALING UP OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN INDIA: LEARNINGS FROM THE FIRST GENERATION PROJECTS 2 3 5 1(. J. Joy1, Suhas Paranjape , Amita Shah , Shrinivas Badiger4 and Sharachchandra Lele The concept of integrated and participatory often limited and temporary; [2] landless and watershed development and management has marginal farmers often benefit only marginally or emerged as the cornerstone of rural development not at aU, increasing inequities within the village; in the dry and semi-arid regions of India. The [3] common lands do not get adequately treated, country has made massive investments in this and revegetation does not take place as expected; approach and even more ambitious plans have [4] gains from recharge of groundwater are rapidly been made for the future. As we enter this second dissipated through increased withdrawal; [5] generation of watershed-based development domestic, livestock and ecosystem water needs programs with such heightened targets and often do not get addressed, and may even suffer as expectations, it is important to ensure that the a result of increased withdrawal; [6] downstream experiences from the first generation of widely impacts of intensive upstream water conservation implemented watershed development are fully (and use) are not being considered; [7] costs at understood and internalized. which the gains are achieved seem to be (relatively) The paper details the important and significant rather high; and [8] people's participation is limited learnings from the 'first' generation watershed to the implementation stage; and [9] no building development experience. It takes the view that the of institutions for long-term collective interconnectedness of the biophysical and the management of resources. social aspects is intrinsic to watershed There are two basic reasons behind these development and the final outcome of any shortfalls. One, there is often no dear normative intervention is a combined effect of both. It also framework as to what rural development is all highlights some of the 'gaps' in policy, practice about. At least for some practitioners, equity or and research especially in relation to the sustainability concerns really do not figure in the biophysical aspects of watershed and watershed concept. Two, even when these concerns are development. present, problems arise because the interaction Learnings from the First Generation Projects between the biophysical and the socio-economic The results of the first round of widespread processes in watershed development is not implementation appear to be rather mixed. There understood and addressed in an integrated is certainly evidence of positive impacts in terms manner. of improved soil and water conservation and Sustainability of Biophysical Changes and its agricultural productivity in normal rainfall years in Relationship with Livelihoods: A Neglected regions that have been ignored in the traditional Parameter green-revolution-based rural development. But on Watershed as a biophysical entity is an ecosystem the other hand, several individual studies and comprising of all biophysical processes within the reviews show that there are also likely to be watershed and their interactions with the larger serious limitations, even in the 'model', heavily systems, and biophysical interventions constitute funded and intensively managed programs. Some modifications of these processes. However, the of these limitations are: [1] productivity gains are very same interventions are also social processes. Forum for Watershed Research and Policy Dialogue (SOPPECOM-GIDR-CISED) 1,2 SOPPECOM: Society for Promoting People's Participation in Ecosystem Management 3 GIDR: Gujarat Institute ofDevelopment Research 4,5 CISED: Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Environment and Development 133 Thus, the biophysical and social interventions are seen so, as it has basin-wide impacts. They are not two separate processes, but aspects of a single now showing up in decreased flows into unified process and ecosystem processes and downstream tanks and reservoirs. Drinking water resources are basic economic resources as well, is increasingly being met from deeper aquifers. and watershed development has brought this However, many of these phenomena have not unity to the forefront. been adequately studied because there is a lack of It may be argued that it is important to know the sufficient awareness and sensitivity to these issues social context of intervention to understand fully and there is also a lack of adequate data. There is how the ecosystem processes generate indirect also lack of proper water balance studies that impacts on different groups over different would allow monitoring of the status of resources temporal and spatial scales, so that one can go within a watershed. beyond the immediate reaction that local The Gaps communities might offer more to the direct The divergence between the official hopes and benefit flows. beliefs about watershed development and reality The spatial or locational inequalities, to a great on the ground may be explained by four extent, are also primarily because of the simultaneous gaps. The first is the conceptual gap biophysical characteristics of the watershed itself. - the fact that the normative framework within For example, in case of water, one's location in which watershed development is taken up is itself the watershed (upper reaches versus the valley a narrow one. The second is the research gap - the portion) often determines one's access people fact that limited and poor quality research does who own land in the valley portion benefit most not generate the kind of critical feedback that is from the augmented resource. This issue of required. Even the above insights that have upstream-downstream difference is not limited to emerged from some exceptional studies are these differences within the watershed alone. It somewhat indicative e.g., the conditions under crops up as an issue between adjoining which downstream impacts may be significant are watersheds, between upstream and downstream not at all well understood. This prevents the communities, right up to those differences within formulation of clear-cut policy recommendations. the entire river basin itsel£ Given that the The third is an outreach gap - the fact that the relationship is fundamentally asymmetric, that is, critical findings or warning signals from rigorous activities of upstream land owners or water users studies are not reaching the policy-makers, donors can affect downstream communities, but not vice and practitioners, or not reaching the wider public versa, the question of what constitutes fair or so as to bring pressure on these agencies to unfair behavior by upstream communities (or change their policies and practices. And finally, equitable allocation of resources or benefits there is the monitoring capacity gap - the inability between upstream and downstream communities) of practitioners themselves to identify and address crops up immediately and needs to be carefully some of these issues in the course of addressed at all scales: within the micro implementation. Ultimately, critiques of watershed, across watersheds and across the approaches and practices need not emerge from entire basin. researchers alone; they should emerge from the Thus, watershed development cannot be seen field as well. only as a localized activity, though very often it is 134 11. Which Water Counts? Hydrology, Water Use and Water Economy in Narmada River Basin M. Dinesh Kumar [[email protected]] 25th February 2005 10:30 - 13:00; 14:00 - 15:30 For decades now, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, the four riparian states sharing the Narmada basin have engaged in a legal battle for the sharing of the basin's water. Since the Narmada Tribunal's 1979 award allocating the basin's surface water to the four feuding states, numerous changes throughout the basin - such as, increase in the area cropped, expansion of groundwater draft and surface water diversions for irrigation - have raised awkward questions about the sanctity of the Tribunal's formula. Run-off production in catchment areas has declined; so have surface water flows downstream. A clutch of ITP studies assesses the challenge of managing the basin water economy by analyzing the productivity of water use in agriculture; water use hydrology and water accounts. David Molden and Hugh Turral, IWMI principal researchers lead the discussion. Author(s) Paper I The Blue and Green \Vater Use and M Dinesh Kumar and 0. P. Singh Agriculture: Studies from l':armada River Basin, Madhya Pradesh, India i I 'Oop. Singh Dinesh Kumar Changing Water Use Hydrology of l':armada River Basin: Highlight . and S. Ghosh Implications for Basin Water Allocation M. Dinesh Kumar, S. Ghosh, Changes in Groundwater Ecology and Its Implication for O. P. Singh, Rahul Ranade and Surface Flows: Studies from Narmada River Basin, I Highlight R.Ravindranath Madhya Pradesh, India I Jayesh Talati, M. DineshKumar Local and Sub-basin Level Impact of Watershed ! and R. Ravindranath Development Projects on Availability of Water in Highlight l':armada River Basin, Madhya Pradesh S. Ghosh, M. Dinesh Kumar and I Water Accounts of ~armada River Basin: A Preliminary Paper Only O. P. Singh Analysis Environmental and Social Impacts associated with Afroz Ahmad Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) \Vater Resources Project, Paper Only I India: A Success Story of Conflict Resolution and Implementing Sustainable ,'-v· P. Gomathinayagam, I Water Productivity Potential in Tank Irrigation: A Onh D. Sundaresan and]. D. Sophia I Comparison . 135 " 12. Issues in Improving Water Supply Rural, Peri-Urban and Urban K. V. Raju [[email protected]] 25th February 2005 8:30 - 10:00; 10:30 - 13:00; 14:00 - 15:30 Session Chair: S. S. Meenakshisundaram uring the process of economic growth, pressures towards urbanization create tensions between towns and hinterland for various natural resources. Water is often at the centre of the new emerging town-hinterland dynamic. Planned investment in water infrastructure is often the best way of diffusing these tensions. \\later supply systems rural and urban in many parts of India are retrogressing. What are the reasons? And what is the way out? Studies on a broad range of water supply issues from Guiarat, Karnataka and elsewhere in India. S. S. Meenakshisundaram, Secretary (retd.), Rural Development and Panchayati Raj Department of he Government of India, and currently Advisor, Village Resource Centre, leads the discussion. I Author(s) Paper Veerashekharappa, K.Y. Raju and Financing Rural Drinking Water Supply (D\XlS): Ext. Abstract S. ~1anasi A Case Study of Karnataka and Gujarat K. Das and Management Participation: Village Institutions and Ext. Abstract R. Gupta DWS in Gujarat K.V. Raju, S. Manasi and Perceptions and Politics: Grey Zones in Rural \X/ater Paper Only Veerashekharappa Supply D Rajasekhar, R Manjula and User Charges for Rural Drinking Water: A Study of Gram Ext. Abstract K. II. Anantha Panchayats in Karnataka K.Y. Raju, S. Manasi Understanding People's Views on Rural Water Supply: Ext. Abstract and VeerashPkharappa A Citizens' Report Card \.pproach A. Anand and C. Chawla Access for Urban Poor: Situational Analysis of \.h l\fumbai Slums B.K. Anand, K.Y. Raju, Urban \Vater Supplies Dependency on Groundwater: Can Ext. Abstract N. Praven, N. Deepa and N. Latha i it Sustain? Latha N, Deepa N, Wastewater Re-use in Mega Cities: Emerging Trends Ext. Abstract Anand B.K. and K.Y. Raju in Bangalore S. Puttaswamaiah Environmental Problems in Karnataka DWS: Causes, Ext. Abstract Impacts and Remedies N. Praveen, B.K. Anand, Drinking Water Quality in Urban Areas: Why and How it Ext. Abstract N. Deepa, N. Latha and K.Y. Raju is Getting Worse? KV Raju, K. Das and I Emerging Trends in RWS: Comparative Analysis of Paper Only Manasi S i Karnataka and Gujarat - ... Gagan Bihari Sahu, K.H. Ananth Rural-erban Disparity in the Provision of Water Supply Ext. Abstract and D. Rajasekhar and Sanitation Services in Karnataka Keshab Das Managing Finance for Drinking \'{'ater: Pointers from Ext. Abstract Gujarat Villages K.R. Nisha Institutional Changes in Rural Water Supply in Kerala Ext. Abstract FIN~CINGRtJRAL DlUNtaNGWATER SUPPLY: AcASBSTUDy OFKARNATAXA AND GUJARAT 1 2 3 Veerashekharappa , K V. Raju and S.Manasi It has been argued that "the ratio of hospital beds value in all its competing uses and should be to population is far less important than the water recognized as an economic good". Since then taps to population ratio in achieving public health. countries are looking at new approaches in pricing Investment in water is not just a humanitarian of water and judicious use of water. measure; it brings immediate bankable sa'vings". [Halfdan Mehler, Director-General, WHO). This paper identifies analytically, inefficient Thus, investment in drinking water not only allocation and utilization of funds for poor reduces public and household expenditure on performance. In last five years funds allocated to health but also contributes to quality of life and create awareness programme, information human development. Considering this, various technology, upgrading skills not used by various efforts are being made globally to provide local governments. The capital expenditure has accessibility to potable water. increased because of inefficient operation and maintenance of assets created at the village The government of India has also introduced level/ user level. This supports the argument that sector reforms to increase private investment the philosophy of funding and management of through community participation. Unfortunately financial resources by state may not be appropriate owing to low-level equilibrium trap, political risk, for solving today's water scarcity problem. Hence and poor governance, the flow of private there is need for developing new institutional investment is minimal. The Ninth Five-Year plan mechanisms for financing the sector. approach paper recommends for involvement of public and private sectors on various models. In some states, the community has funded capital expenditure and funds have been efficiently used Given this background an attempt is made in this by service providers and beneficiaries (brought paper, to examine the changing pattern of together under co-operative societies). Capital investments, by institutions in enhancing the investment is one time investment, whereas the investment and utilization of funds. This paper investment on operation and maintenance is a builds upon rural water supply study undertaken recurring one, which contributes for increase non in Karnataka by ISEC, Bangalore and the plan expenditure every year. For instance, in publications of international agencies and Karnataka, 64 per cent of total allocation goes for government documents. operation and maintenance. To reduce the non Most of the developing countries provide plan expenditure the Government of Karnataka drinking water free of cost as basic need to has transferred the responsibility of operation and consumers, under the guise of social justice and maintenance to the local governance welfare economy. But now it has been realized (Gramapanchqyat), but due to lack of funds they are that in the long run this approach cannot be unable to carry out function efficiently. The state sustained for two reasons .The first is resource government forced to provide grants, but the constraint. Second, lack of appropriate pricing grants and revenue earned by the Grampanchqyat is policy that has led to inefficient use of water, not enough for 0 & M. Hence the services posing threats to sustainability. To preempt this provided are low quality and sustainability of uncertainty, it was accepted in the Dublin assets is doubtful. Conference (1992) that "water has an economic 1 Assistant Professor, RBI Unit, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore. Email: [email protected] 2 Professor, Ecological Economics Unit, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore. Email: [email protected] 3 Research Associate, Ecological Economics Unit, Institute for Social andEconomic Change, Bangalore. Email: [email protected] 139 Though, large amounts are being allocated for of the assets around their households. The operation and maintenance, the institutions that committee can outsource the recovery of user deliver services are unable to get enough funds to charges and delivery of service to an NGO or any meet required expenditure. If the process of dedicated organization. This arrangement helps in implementing continues at this level, the freeing government agencies from routine work possibility of achieving the set goals is difficult. to concentrate on activities that they can and To achieve the set goals there is need to should do, such as formulating policies, restructure the implementing process, making the monitoring the programme, and developing Gramapanchqyat as a regulatory body rather than parameters to assess the quality of services. service provider. The Village Water Supply Otherwise, the alternative is to make way for Committee (VWSC) can take on the function of private participation, bringing reforms on regulation on behalf of the Grampanchqyat. The commercial approach, and making allowances for Grampanchqyat can compel households to take care cross subsidy to protect the genuine poor. 140 ';':}~,'A:RTICIPATIQN? , ;iNGWATERSUPPLYIN GUJABAT Keshab Das! and Ruchi Gupta In rural Gujarat, drinking water supply continues centre stage. However, during the last decade the to be the prerogative of the state government. groundwater table has declined in many villages. Efficient management by popular participation at One of the most critical dimensions of rural the village level has remained the ultimate route to water supply has been participation by the local success of a given scheme. community in managing the source and finances. In order to capture aspects of policy on ground, This, it has been argued, would ensure stakeholder nature and extent of the problem of supply of responsibility and sustainable water supply. With and access to potable water and popular views on close to three-fifths of the sample households various mechanisms of sustainable management reporting attendance, the Gramsabha emerges as at the local level this study has drawn its empirical the key institution where issues relating to core through a case study approach. A total of 20 management and finances can be discussed villages were chosen from 17 districts of the state, threadbare with the involvement of the local representing important geo-climatic/ rainfall population. Of those who attended, about 88 per regions, Kutch, Saurashtra, Central, South and cent of households reported having discussed North Gujarat regions. Based on discussions held issues relating to water supply. Nevertheless, with state officials, NGO functionaries, academics there remain certain constraints that need to be and other informed individuals, such villages were addressed in order to render this village institution fmally chosen which would, in all probability, dynamic, broad-based, and inclusive. Such an represent diverse scenarios in interventions in observation is derived from the findings of the' rural water supply. A total of 404 households village cases. About one-fifth of the respondents were covered finally in the survey. In addition to had some idea about water charges, contribution, using structured household level questionnaires, and responsibility to manage the sources. village meetings were also held to obtain However, a slightly better response was obtained information about various aspects of water on their awareness about the water distribution supply and its management. The study was mechanism. A low 38 per cent were in some way initiated in November 2003. involved in the planning and decision making Apart from piped water systems (which, process. Lack of time, improper timing of the essentially, draw upon scarce groundwater) each meetings and, importantly, women not attending village had its share of traditional water reflect factors responsible for low participation conservation and storage arrangements. and poor management at the village leveL Narmada water is also awaited in many villages. Moreover, in a few cases, households belonging to In some villages large number of public-access the lower caste groups were either not informed open wells and talavs met the local needs. In most about the Gramsabhas or, even when attended, cases at present these sources either lie disused or their views were not given any attention; these have been abandoned. There seems hardly any acted as disincentives for further participation. change in the importance attached to the specific Relatively low attendance in Gramsabhas sources over the last decade. The continuing notwithstanding, water related issues do get complementarity between the traditional and discussed in the meetings. Experience suggests modern sources almost in all villages, probably, that there could be wide gap between a decision strengthens the case for reviving/ promoting the taken and actual action taken. The most former keeping the sustainability issue frequently raised concerns have been irregular and 1 Associate Professor, Gujarat Institute of Development Research, Ahmedabad, E-mail: [email protected] 141 inadequate water supply as also laying pipelines or Apart from the efforts by the state government, installing standposts for the purpose. As certain Grampanchqyats, in their own right, have Gramsabha also discussed other water problems, taken important steps towards augmenting! the institution of Panisamiti did not seem to be of improving water supply in their respective villages. much importance. In fact, it was disappointing to Also, in quite a few villages, NGOs have played an note that in about half the sample villages, important role in providing drinking water and Panisamitis simply did not exist. Further, wherever maintaining the sources. This has improved the these existed they hardly met regularly or took up groundwater level and has largely tackled the issues of importance at the local level. drinking water problem of the area. The A specific enquiry in the study was concerned predominant view was that of collective or with the households' preference for and utility of participative management of this critical resource the few main agencies dealing with water supply at the village level. The overwhelming choice of and maintenance. As was obvious, Grampanchqyat Grampanchqyat as the most preferred body to was clearly the most approached institution manage the source, collect water charges and also whether for minor complaints, emergencies, in for maintenance and repairs underscores the maintenance and repairs or financial management. significance and relevance of this local level A generally high level of satisfaction was reported institution. This probably is one of the most by the villagers, certainly when they dealt with the important findings of this rather limited field level Grampanchqyat and to some extent when the exercise towards comprehending the nature of the agency was GWSSB. problem of sustainable water supply in rural areas and possible way-outs. 142 D. Rajasekhar, R. Manjula and K. H. Anantha1 Though the Indian government's efforts to Data were collected from secretaries of 5,212 provide adequate potable water yielded significant GPs from all the 27 districts in the state for 2002 results, yet the goal of providing adequate 03 and cross checked with official documents. drinking water to all rural dwellers has not been Data were analysed across four types (highly achieved. This despite a shift in the concept from developed, developed, backward and highly water as a public good to a commodity that should backward) of districts, the categorization of be priced, and change in the approach from that which was based on per-capita income in a of supply to demand-driven. People's participation district. in water supply programmes is emphasized to Over 84 per cent of GPs had all the types of incorporate their needs and preferences into the water supply sources, and the proportion of GPs design, mobilise resources, improve transparency providing water through only one source was and accountability, and to achieve long-run insignificant. The distribution of GPs by sustainability. User financing, the contribution functioning water supply sources shows a from users to meet recurring costs in the different picture. In general, the combination with provision of water supply services, is also PWS shows an increase at the expense of other emphasised to achieve efficiency (restrictions on combinations. The mix of water supply sources overconsumption and wastage of water) and in a GP depended on size and type of habitations. sustainability (contributions towards operation and A large proportion of GPs had come to depend maintenance). But, water is a merit good, the on multiple sources for providing potable water. provision of which contributes to health and Not all these sources were characterized by productivity benefits. Hence, user finance has excludability and, hence, were not amenable for trade-off between equity, effectiveness and the imposition and collection of user charges on sustainability. water provided through them. This paper examines the performance of gram About 83 per cent of the GPs provided PHCs. panchayats (GPs) in the collection of user charges The proportion of GPs not providing PHCs was in Karnataka. GPs operate and maintain mini highest in the developed and highly developed water supply (MWS) and Piped Water Supply districts for the following reasons.since the people (PWS) and also collect user charges from in hilly districts (falling in highly developed and households having rivate household connections developed categories) traditionally depended on (PHCs). The engineering department constructs open wells within the house premises, the need PWS schemes and takes care of digging borewells for PHCs was felt to a lesser degree. As the and maintaining them. In the context of such a households in these districts were scattered over a functional assignment there is a need to analyse vast geographical area, it became expensive for the performance of GPs in the collection of user them and GP to install pipes for a long distance charges for the two reasons. Firstly, If the to provide PHCs. institution mandated to construct the water supply is different from the one collecting user charges, In 2002-03, the total demand was Rs.134.28 the latter may not succeed if the former has crores in GPs having PHCs. Of this, Rs.64.37 constructed a faulty water supply source. crore formed arrears of the previous years and Secondly, GPs, being elected bodies, may adopt Rs.69.91 crore formed current years demand. populist stance in the collection of user charges. Collection was Rs.66.37 crore. Thus, the 1 The authors are Professor and Researchers, respectively, at Decentralisation and Development Unit of the Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore 560 072. E-mail: [email protected]. 143 proportion of actual collection to the total of GPs collecting less than 50 per cent of the demand was 49.43 per cent. Among different dues was higher in the backward and highly categories of the districts, the performance of backward districts as compared to the highly highly developed districts was better. Around 45 developed category of districts. This implies that per cent of the dues were collected in developed a larger proportion of GPs in backward districts and backward districts. The performance of the have fixed water rates and have had good success highly backward districts was poor. Another in recovering the dues. notable feature is that past arrears in highly The key finding is that participation of the people developed districts were lower than current in payment of water user charges was better in demand. In contrast, the past arrears in all other poorer districts. There was no significant regions were higher than the current demand. association between water rates and proportion Less than 50 per cent collection in these regions of water user charges collected. implies that GPs did not even manage to recover the arrears. The paper provides the factors influencing the performance of GPs in collection of user An analysis of GP-wise performance, however, charges. Some of the key factors are insufficient shows that the proportion of collection to total staff, lack of control on the staff by elected demand was more than 95 per cent in 16.32 per leaders, lack of political will to implement cent GPs in highly developed districts. In institutional rules, incentive structure not being general, GP-wise performance was relatively congenial to collection of water charges, etc. better in backward and highly backward districts Further attempt is to be made to analyse the as compared to highly developed category. The factors influencing performance of GPs in proportion of GPs not collecting water user collection of user charges from rural households charges was less in backward and highly backward in Karnataka. category of districts. The proportion of GPs collecting more than 95 per cent of water user charges was almost the same across these different categories of districts. The proportion 144 K. V. Raju!, S. Manasi2 and Veerashekharappa3 Providing drinking water being the state's citizen feedback have been to bring about responsibility, efforts are made through various effective results in terms of action. In reality, it is approaches to improvise water supply in rural observed that public institutions are sensitive to areas. While the government claims to provide negative feedback and the citizens experiences in safe drinking water in actual terms the using citizen feed back indicates that satisfaction performance has not been satisfactory. As people levels and comparisons evoke reactions but not are the end users, their experiences with respect automatically to concrete action. A systematic to water supply service status, appraisal of the effort to mobilize local citizen's bodies and efficiency, reliability, adequacy of services and the NGO's to put pressure for improved services, is problems encountered in the process help in vital to institutionalize changes in the manner providing valuable information for improving public service agencies operate. Public Affairs service delivery and the constraints affecting the Centre has used the report card methodology and same. In the present context, people are at the conducted various studies. receiving end with respect to the various public The report card concept presented in this paper services provided and competition is absent to addresses the assessment of rural water supply improve performance. Public feedback and report from the perspective of the rural people. cards help in giving a chance to the people to Feedback obtained from the citizens helps in express their views and understanding the ascertaining the degree of satisfaction with the problem as they perceive it. quality of services provided by the public The missing links cannot be attributed only to the agencies. Based on field coverage in Karnataka monopolistic nature of the service but various covering representative districts from various other factors, inclusive of initiative and attitude geographical zones and issue based, case studies of the people, which have resulted in poor were conducted in 18 villages coupled with both performance, and inefficiency of service. primary and secondary data collection. Problems in providing adequate water often Discussions were held with various actors, discussed by various actors include depletion, officials at various levels of panchayat raj quality, scarcity, negligence of traditional sources institutions, members of local user committees, etc. However, the intricate details of specific NGO's, staff members of donor supported issues have gone unnoticed. In this backdrop, the implementing agencies, and people. 'Report card' helps in providing a better picture Primary data were collected using a questionnaire and provide specific ideas to the respective from households. The questionnaire design agencies. Perceptions and opinions of the people covered aspects of socio-economic, physical and can be subjective and sometimes incomplete due fmancial aspects of source extraction and use, to various biases in the process of collecting alternative sources, and 'Report card information, however the number of times that a methodology', which aided in getting a systematic problem is pointed at will reflect on the situation public feedback to assess performance and and the problem, in particular. perceptions. Survey of households was conducted The report card concept has emerged as a at different districts of Karnataka to understand powerful mechanism to demand better the field situation. Based on purposive sampling accountability and responsiveness from public method 20 households were picked up per village. service providers. The efforts towards facilitating Responses were collected from a total of 380 1 Professor and Head, Ecological Economics Unit, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore.. Email: [email protected] 2 Research Associate, Ecological Economics U nit, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore. Email: [email protected]. 3 Assistant Professor, RBI Endowment Unit, Institute for Socialand Economic Change, Bangalore. Email:[email protected] 145 households. Water availability and accessibility was accounts was' not maintained in majority of the based on geographical locations and the lpcd villages. Access to accounts was also limited. levels and usage was high in the Malnad regions Poor participation in Gramsabhas shows that there compared to dry regions. Scarcity was prominent was little involvement among the people in in both groundwater depletion was obvious as addressing problems in the village. Awareness scarcity during summer was prominent creation programmes by various agencies did not throughout. People's perception on inadequacy bring about expected results. Reasons and of water depended on other socio-economic and situations varied; poor awareness creation at field cultural conditions. The lpcd range that the state level, drying up of sources, political interventions, government aimed to achieve (55 lpcd) was corruption, withdrawal of the agency led to viewed differently by the people between the failing of the system, and power problems. regions; 52 per cent of households expressed Although the schemes were meant to involve inadequacy. People had access to water but the people and participation at every stage, awareness water obtained was inadequate. among the people with regard to the Poor awareness on installation of de fluoridation implementation of the scheme and their role was units in quality affected villages did not serve the very insignificant. Operations and maintenance purpose as there was no comprehensive plan to problems were witnessed as the people educate people in using water although impact on complained about poor responses by the health caused due to fluoride contamination was Grampanchcryat during complaints. Women were obvious. 70 per cent of households did not use totally unaware about the whole context, except treated water. Willingness to pay was high (80 per for an insignificant few who knew that the cent) but people expected good service. However, building of the overhead tank would help in people were not aware of the actual expenditure access to better water supply. that was incurred for 0 and M. Transparency in 146 M(;ESS ..O.A.j~)lc!.gR.f1~~POOB: A C_y'1' >SLlJM.sBnuMENTSI:N Mt;'N.l~fMi; Aruna Anandl and Chandan Chawla2 Water and sanitation sector reform is taking place guideline of 5%, a generally accepted international in many countries and promises unlimited figure, as the maximum amount a family should potential to improve services to all, through public pay for water. The fmdings of the study reveal or private provision of water services. Of that the poorest families suggested a maximum of particular concern however, is the situation of the about 4% of their meager incomes for water. poor, and reforms must be designed so that they Although many were compelled to spend more receive increased access to affordable services. than this because of lack of affordable water. We While the slums represent the urban poor in cities, use 5% as a conservative tool to identify two main issues with regards to water supply are households paying unacceptably high amounts for the legal status of slums and the pricing of water. water and 50 lpcd as minimum quantity that meets In most South Asian cities, public agencies are sufficiency. struggling to provide water supply and sanitation Poor families provide all estimate of about 80 and end up with more expenditure than income. lpcd as desired for perso~ and domestic use, On the other hand private providers are also not highlighting the fact that the'amotiflt sufficient for too eager to connect the poor, because they do health benefits as assessed by scholars and amount not buy much water, cannot pay for one-time desired by the families can be substantially connection fees and often lack security of tenure. different. In light of above, it becomes extremely critical to design water pricing policy for urban poor that Given the necessity for affordable access to the takes in to account their ability and willingness to public water system to protect the urban poor's pay for water services and facilitates connection to human right to water, more funds need to be water services. Water delivery, public or private, earmarked for subsidizing the costs of should take into account the considerations of connection. urban poor who constitute 23 percent of the total In the current policy of underpricing water, urban population in India. because of losses accrued from selling water to This paper reviews the situation in the slum slum and non-slum consumers at rates below the settlements of Mumbai with respect to cost of production, the BMC is unable to invest accessibility, sufficiency, safety, affordability, and sufficient resources into subsidizing connection acceptability of water services. The findings of costs for the poor residents or into expanding the paper are drawn from a detailed household infrastructure into slums. To be effective, a study conducted by YUVA to estimate willingness connection subsidy would have to be carefully to pay for water for the urban poor in Mumbai structured so as to not create perverse incentives, using the contingent valuation method. to minimize leakage of subsidy to the non-poor,to ensure administrative simplicity, and to maximize Water needs vary from household to household, coverage and scalability. Equally important to and can also be affected by conditions specific to subsidizing the cost of individual connections of region, season, and other variables. Defining clear the poorest households would be to systematically standards on the consumption of water and price plan and provide more main water pipelines to of water for poor households have always been a slum areas. Streamlining the connection process dilemma for urban water pricing policy. can be done by reducing bureaucratic bottlenecks The authors of this paper accept affordability in the process that force urban poor to employ 1 Executive Director, Youth For Unity l¥ Voluntary Action YUVA Mumbai. Email: [email protected] 2 ProgramAssociate, Youth For Unity & Voluntary Action YL'VA Mumbai. Email: [email protected] 147 ~ middlemen to facilitate their connection costs, application process, and other water related application. The findings of the research reveal programs. Such an organization could also community management to be crucial for potentially be a platform from which successfully managing a scarce resource and for communities could join together to purchase taking advantage of existing BMC programs. pipes in bulk to secure discounted rates. In However, there is a need for local non addition, innovative payment plans that spread the governmental agencies to support communities in cost over several installments need to be accessing accurate information about connection developed concurrently with savings and credit options for water infrastructure. 148 URBAN WATER SUPPLIES DEPENDENCY ON GROUNDWATER: CAN IT BE SUSTAINED? 2 4 5 B K Anand\ K V Raju , N Praveen3, N Deepa and N Latha This paper is an attempt to understand the extent not able to meet the demand for water leading to of dependency on groundwater, the reasons for blossoming groundwater market dominated by shift from surface to ground water, water private suppliers. The water table has gone down consumption in different sectors, understanding from 60-80 ft to 120-130 ft. water markets, access to water supply, reasons for Tubewells in Bangalore city have increased from relying on groundwater. Also an attempt is being 5000 to 450,000 over the last three decades. made to estimate the number of private tubewells, During the last five years, more than 100,000 and investments on groundwater. An intensive tubewells have been drilled in Bangalore city to study carried out in Kolar and Bangalore (South meet the growing demand. It is estimated that Indian cities) has revealed some of the hidden from 3.25 lakh tubewells, 750 MLD of facts on the dependency on groundwater. A brief groundwater is extracted from different sectors. study carried out in Chennai has revealed the The cost spent on groundwater is 3.5 times that extent of groundwater being extracted and found on the Government supply. Study of groundwater that the cost involved is enormous. use in Ward-39 of Bangalore city revealed 710 Bangalore, one of the fastest growing mega cities private tubewells within a 2.1 sq km area, costing in South India, presently is facing with serious private investment of Rs. 35 million in just one water problems, quality and quantity wise. ward. Absence of a perennial river and the In Kolar, dependency on groundwater is total and encroachments of the lakes have further water quality analysis of 137 samples shows that intensified the problem. Urban authorities and 97% is non-potable. Neither, the city municipal private agencies have failed to meet the supply corporation nor private suppliers are able to meet demand gap. As a result dependency on the growing demand for water in urban areas. groundwater is increased. Per capita supply is just one-third of the urban Kolar city, often regarded as a major drought water supply norms. There are around 200 private prone area in South India lacks surface resources. tubewells in the city. Of the 29000 households, To counteract, groundwater is being exploited to a 9000 of them have piped connections of which greater extent. The supply-demand gap continues one third of them is unauthorized. Demand is to be large. The 1960's pipe networks, 7.27 MLD and supply is 4 MLD and the gap is unauthorized connections, leakages ,and sand met by groundwater. Only 6 wards have lpcd mining continue to be the major issues apart from more than 40 lts, 8 wards have lpcd within 301ts administrative and technical issues. Increase in 401ts, and 17 wards have lpcd less than 30 Its. depth of tubewells has worsened the quality of In Chennai, the water table has gone down from water in the city. Wastewater intrusion from 60-80 feet to 120-130 feet. The increase in private domestic and industries has led to further agencies has rocked the groundwater market, in complications. which a low-scale farmer has largely benefited to Chennai, one of the four metropolitan cities, is a large extent. It is estimated that the number of also in the water distress zone. Local bodies are wells owned by all types of users in the city is lAssistant Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Email: [email protected] 2 Professor and Head, Ecological Economics Unit, ISEC: Email: [email protected] 3 Geo Spatial Metadata Expert, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.Email: [email protected] 4 Research Assistant, Ecological Economics Unit, ISEC, Bangalore. Email: [email protected] 5 Research Assistant, Canara Bank School of Management, Bangalore University, Bangalore. Email: [email protected] 149 around 150,000, while the actual number Kolar Municipal Corporation spends according to local researchers is around 600,000. approximately Rs. 20 lakh/month on the water An agency with 35 tubewells in 1968 is currently supply. While only 50 percent revenue is having 8 tubewells. Each well owner, earns generated from all the 31 wards. Total number of anywhere around Rs 12,000-15,000/month which connections available was 6153 in 2002-03 and is not possible in five acres of irrigated land. unauthorized connections numbered 3000. The The surface supply to Bangalore City is from the technical issues are pump house conditions being river Cauvery, which is 100 km from the city, river critical, improper water treatment during supply, water has to be pumped up to 500 m above MSL. and sewage disposal into tanks. The analysis The minimum requirement of water for the dearly indicates 50% shortage in supply of water. present population of 6.5 million at 200 lpcd is To meet the demand, the present level of around 1136 MLD, supply is 864 Mill including extraction has to be doubled. 38 percent indicated as unaccounted. So the . It is evident that proliferation of tubewells in actual quantity of water reaching the city is 533 Bangalore, Kolar and Chennai would evidently Mill. There are around 4.08 lakh tubewells in the lead to more costly consequences in terms of Bangalore Urban district. It is estimated that water extraction and cost aspects. Measures to around 750 MLD of groundwater is being minimize groundwater use have to be initiated extracted every day. immediately- such as recycling wastewater, In Kolar, the inadequacy in supply is because of rejuvenation of tanks in Kolar, and compulsory administration, resource and technical constraints. rainwater harvesting. 150 · .;\VASTEWATBItJlEUSE.IN MEGA CITmS-EMERGING T:~NDS IN BANGALORE ClTY 2 3 4 N. Latha1, N Deepa , B K Anand and K V Raju Six million citizens of Bangalore are feeling the Vrishabhavathi. A recent survey of the stream has heat presendy owing to the lack of adequate revealed that the water is contaminated and some water. The paper indicates the potential of reuse of the sewers at certain stretches are not capable of wastewater for meeting the supply-demand gap of handling the existing and expected future and focuses on the quantity of wastewater flows. Further some of the sewers are in critical generated in Bangalore, present treatment condition and require immediate replacement. technologies and disposal methods adopted, Waste water generated in the city is drained present extent of reuse existing and the other through three principal valleys of Vrishabavathi, reuse possibilities that can be adopted for Koramangala and Challaghatta and Hebbal and Bangalore city. other minor valleys of Tavarakere, Hebbal Minor Presendy Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Valley I and Hebbal Minor Valley II). Presendy, Board [BWSSB] supplying 864 million litres per the Bangalore Metropolitan Area is currendy day (MLD) of surface water to the city from the served by three major sewage treatment plants, river Cauvery. Per capita of water supplied is with a combined capacity of 403 MLD and two around 110 to 115 liters including unaccounted tertiary treatment plants with a combined for water (UFW) which is around 38 per cent. capacity of 70 Mill. Hence actual per capita supply is around 75litres Wastewater reuse is minimal in the city. Around which is far below the recommended limit. 25 Mill of wastewater is being treated in two Although sufficient quantity of water is tertiary treatment plants i.e. one in Vrishabhavathy withdrawn, a huge share of it goes as valley (60 J\fLD) and the other is in Yelahanka (10 unaccounted and this has resulted in increased Mill). Though the capacity of TTP in dependency on ground water. There are around Vrishabhavathy valley is 60 MLD, only 25 MLD four lakhs borewells in the Bangalore Urban of wastewater is being treated here just to keep district and it is estimated that around 750 million the plant operating. Treated water from this plant litres of groundwater is extracted every day both is not reused fully as only small quantity is being from the domestic and commercial sector. This taken up by a private industry. But it is proposed has resulted in the overexploitation and severe to supply this treated wastewater to the Karnataka stress on the aquifers; hence groundwater levels Power Corporation, which is coming up in near are coming down to a large extent. Bidadi. In the case of Yelahanka TTP, 1 Mill of Around 800 Mill of wastewater is being treated wastewater is being supplied to Bharathi generated in the city (considering 531 MLD of Electronics Limited, around 2 lakhs per day is supply from BWSSB after excluding 38% UFW supplied to the Indian Air force, Wheel and Axil and 750 MLD of groundwater utilization industry, ITC Limited etc, for non-potable considering 80% of the total water used), out of industrial purposes. Apart from this, around 5 to 6 which, approximately 200-300 :MID is entering MID of water is to be suppliied to the the secondary treatment plant's owing to the lack International Airport, which is coming up near of adequate sewerage system. Remaining Devanahalli. In addition to these two TIP, there wastewater is being let into streams such as the are other private treatment plant of 1 MLD 1 Research Assistant, Canara Bank School of Management Studies, Bangalore University, Bangalore., Email: [email protected] 2 Research Assistant, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore. Email: [email protected] 3 Assistant Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal, Email: [email protected]. 4 Professor and Head, Ecological Economics Unit, ISEC, Bangalore: Email: [email protected] 151 capacity in Golf Club and one in Karnataka Golf 6000L + transportation charges since TIPs are Association, Airport road. One more is under located at the outskirts of the city). This attitude construction in Lal Bagh and Cubbon park. of the people is mainly because of ignorance or These treatment plants draw raw sewage at a cost lack of awareness about depleting natural of RS 0.50 per KL from the BWSSB sewerage resources. Industries having surface water lines and after treatment it is reused. connection, supply will be for 24 hours. So they Because of the increasing gap between supply do not think of using treated wastewater. Hence and demand and non availability of perennial there is no demand for reclaimed water at present. Rivers, providing water would be a gigantic task in By reusing wastewater the city not only meets the the coming years. There are also limitations on supply and demand gap but also reduces pressure drawing Cauvery water beyond 600 cusecs .The on ground water draft. Since conventional concerned authorities should look for various treatment plants are costly effective and requires alternatives such as rainwater harvesting, recycling energy and manpower, decentralized waste water of wastewater, reducing unaccounted water,etc. treatment systems plants can be a good alternative Since the cost of ground water and recycled in slums, industries and apartments. Authorities wastewater is almost same, people prefer fresh should think of dual water supply which is in water (the cost of a private water tanker is Rs. 150 practice in many countries so that the burden on to 200 per 6000L and the cost of wastewater at fresh water can be reduced. the rate of Rs. 19 per 1000L comes to Rs. 114 for 152 DRINKING WATER SUPPLY: ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS, CAUSES, IMPACTS AND REMEDIES EXPERIENCES FROM KARNATAKA S. Puttaswamaiah1 Drinking water, in adequate quantity and quality, has been accentuated by non-functioning water is a basic requirement for life and a determinant supply schemes. In urban areas for which of standard of living. Significant efforts are being information is available only about 23 per cent of made for covering more habitations with adequate the urban local bodies of them provide adequate safe drinking water. However, in addition to quantity of drinking water supply. Towns in more government efforts, supply and demand side than 10 districts suffer from inadequate quantity factors determine water supply level available to of drinking water supply. people. Supply side, factors include water Bangalore, the capital city, too is experiencing availability in adequate quantity and quality, inadequate supply of water, which is also on sustainability of water resources, kinds of declining trend. Water scarcity during summer institutions, operation and maintenance of water months constitutes another major problem and supply schemes. On the demand side, factors such irregularity and reduction in the per capita as population pressure, use and discharge of availability of water. Supply level in rural drinking water by industries, inefficient land use, water schemes declines goes down by 50 to 75 per wastewater and fertilizer flow into water bodies cent of the scheme during summer months. and soils, inappropriate water pricing mechanisms or market, etc., contribute to water quality Depletion of drinking water sources accentuates deterioration and depletion problems. These adds to further environmental problems, via water factors increase w'ith pollution, degradation and shortage and quality deterioration of quality of depletion of resources such as water and land, water. The groundwater table has been drastically limiting water supply provision and raising declining putting more than 78 per cent of people delivery cost. This paper examines the nature of at risk for drinking water. In the districts such as environmental problems, causes, and impacts in Bangalore, Chitradurga, Kolar and Tumkur the drinking water supply of Karnataka . problems are acute. Pressures exerted by supply and demand side In Karnataka, ground water in more than 37 per factors on water resource have caused several cent of rural habitations and surface water at environmental problems in drinking water supply: certain pockets in some rivers is contaminated. inadequate quantity of drinking water supply, a Habitations in Bagalkot, Bangalore Urban, problem of scarcity and governance; scarcity in Bijapur, Chamarajnagar, Chitradurga, Haveri, summer months, a problem of natural factors, Mandya, Tumkur, Beliary, Davanagere, Kodagu, seasonality, governance and management; Kolar, Raichur and Koppal districts face serious depletion of sources, a problem of resource ground water quality problems. Groundwater management ,deteriorating quality, a direct contamination is caused by excess fluoride, excess environmental problem. brackishness, excess nitrate and excess iron. The drinking water quality problem is observed in Inadequacy of safe drinking water supply is the urban areas also due to contamination of ground forerunner of several environmental problems, as and surface water at source and poliution during a minimum quantity of water is essential for life, transmission and distribution. maintenance of personal hygiene and environment. In rural Karnataka, over 35 per cent Environmental problems in drinking water supply of the rural habitations are yet to be covered with are caused by both supply and demand side adequate supply. This problem is more acute in factors. While environmental problems associated drought prone areasof 55 LPCD. The problem with drinking water supply are many, the root causes can be fewer. 1 Assistant Professor, Gujarat Instirute of Development Research, Gota,Ahmedabad 380060, Gujarat. 153 Problem in drinking water supply are caused by resources like water and land. Consumption of both supply and demand side factors. Two major water less than required quantity results in 'water supply factors are depletion and deterioration in washed diseases'. Irregular water supply causes the quantity and quality of water. The major pollution in distributional pipes contaminates environmental factors causing inadequate supply owing to rusting and back syphonage of of drinking water supply are non-availability of waterleading to contamination of water and perennial water sources, high dependency on health problems. Inadequate water supply ground water, etc. Ground water availability is increases the hardship on women and children. experiencing wide fluctuations and cyclical Unsustainable drinking water sources decreases decline. Another cause is reduced the availability water availability. The decline in the ground water of surface water during summer, which results in table causes geo-chemical changes leading into inadequate drinking water supply. The general widespread chemical contamination of water (e.g. neglect in conserving rainwater has resulted in excess of Fluoride, Brackishness, Iron, Nitrate) waste of rainfall by way of run-off and which has its adverse effects on health of evaporation. Finally, manmade factors like population. discharging untreated waste, sewage flow, etc, to water bodies causes depletion and deterioration Poor quality water has serious implications on of water resources. In addition, lack of operation health and environment. Common major diseases and maintenance, leakage, and unaccounted for arisipg from unsafe drinking water are water also reduces the supply level. gastroenteritis, cholera, typhoid and others. Gastroenteritis is the major disease whh nearly Various factors, such as natural, man-made (or 24000 incidences and claiming about 200 lives demand driven) and institutional (like lack of during 2001. It should be noted that viral hepatitis monitoring system), are responsible for is increasing rapidly in the state from 1714 cases deterioration in drinking water quality. Quality of in 1997 to 5438 cases in 2001. ground and surface water is affected by [1] factors like natural factors such as geological and Considering the present status the the following geographical characteristics leading to inorganic points might be considered to resolve the contamination resulting in with excess fluoride, problems and augment the services. Partially iron, nitrate, etc., [2]man made factors like over covered habitations, in rural and urban areas, extraction of ground water, discharging pollutants should brought under full coverage of water to surface and groundwater bodies, inadequate supply, giving high priority to drought prone and improperly designed drainage and sewerage areas. Drinking water quality affected habitations systems etc., etc. and [3] institutional factors such should given priority by providing safe drinking as lack of integrated drinking water quality water through alternative sources or by treating monitoring system. Many of these institutions water. Importance needs to be given to operation lack either adequate equipment for testing of and maintenance activities. Urban local bodies can chemical and bacteriological contamination of consider privatization of operation and water, trained staff, etc. or there isare serious maintenance of water supply schemes, but by coordination problem among all these facilities. protecting poor and vulnerable groups. In villages, Further, local organizations have not given village water supply and sanitation committees can adequate importance for operation and be established to supervise operation and maintenance activities of drinking water supply maintenance activities. A single water quality schemes in rural and urban areas because of testing agency should be promoted for rural and paucity of resources,financial and manpower. In urban areas. An integrated institutional system for spite of the presence of many institutions there is groundwater conservation and recharging inadequate information or database. measures needs to be promoted to conserve the major source of drinking water. Institutional Environmental problems in drinking water supply initiatives need to be promoted for rainwater impact significandy on health status and other harvesting. 154 DRiNKING WATER QUALITY IN URBAN AREAS: WHY AND HOW IT IS GETTING WORSE? 2 4 5 N Praveen\ B K Anand , N Deepa3, N Latha and K V Raju Water is depreciating in quality and in the quantity. huge share of it goes as unaccounted and this has Deterioration in water quality is rapid in almost resulted in increased dependency on all the places, the reasons being rapid growth in groundwater. There are around four lakh population, overdraft of groundwater and the tubewells in Bangalore city and it is estimated effluents of the industries- thus contaminating that around 750 million litres of groundwater is both surface and groundwater resource. The extracted every day. A series of new wells are paper is an attempt to understand the quality reported to have been dug to supplement once issues in urban areas of South India, and the in-two-day city water supply. This has resulted in implications of deterioration in quality. The the overexploitation of groundwater selected cities are'Kolar and Bangalore, fast ,degradation in water quality. The quality of growing cities m~nly depending on groundwater. water is also declining because of the pollutants Kolar city is one of the major drought prone areas from industries and domestic sewage outlets. The in South India is currently under tremendous risk Vrishabhavati River, once used to be the major as the water supplied is inadequate and not source of water resource, is entirely potable .Moreover there is total dependency on contaminated from household, commercial, and groundwater. Because of overexploitation the industrial wastes. water table has gone down to a large extent, and In Kolar city the dependency on groundwater has the quality of water is under stress. Inadequacy in led in drilling more and more tubewells. resource and quality has led to a large gap in the Currently for a population of 113,299 ,the supply and demand. The traditional pipeline number of tubewells owned by city municipal networks, tubewells- some of them being re council is 119, out of which only 90 tubewells are bored year after year have led to further in working condition. All the surface water deterioration in the quality. Because of intrusion resources have dried up and the municipality has of nitrate affected sewage and wastewater to a installed tubewells in tanks. The city lacks surface tank, from which most of the water is adequate and good quality water. The physico supplied to Kolar city. The people are relying on chemical analysis of 137 samples reveals that the alternative sources. 97% of the water is not potable. Total hardness, Bangalore is also facing the same problems in calcium, nitrate, iron ,etc are the major supply levels and in the quality aspects. Most of contaminants. Contamination levels are very high the extraction is in the peripheral areas of the city. and alarming mainly because of the deeper Presently BWSSB [Bangalore Water Supply and depths of the tubewells and wastewater intrusion Sewerage Board] supplies 864 l\fillion liters from households and industries. The most (.MLD) of Surface water per day to the city from affected parameter is sodium, which is found in the river Cauvery. Per capita supply is around 110 17 wards (55% of the total wards). Bicarbonate to 115 liters including 38 per cent unaccounted. exceeds permissible limits in 12 wards (39% of Hence the actual per capita supply is around 75 the total wards).Excessive chlorine, total hardness litres which is far below the recommended limit. and calcium are found in 9 wards (30% of the Although sufficient quantity of water is drawn, a total wards). From the survey of 985 households, 1 International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Email: [email protected] 2 Assistant Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal. Email: [email protected] 3 Research Assistant, Ecological Economics Unit, ISEC,Bangalore. Email: [email protected] 4 Research Assistant, Canara Bank School of Management, Bangalore Cniversity, Bangalore. Email: [email protected] 5 Professor and Head, Ecological Economics, ISEC, Bangalore. Email: klf:[email protected] 155 there is around 40% gap in the supply of and and biological contaminants like coliforms demand for water supply. Groundwater is (30.71% and 74%) are high compared to extracted commercially through private suppliers. permissible limits. As a result of this over-exploitation the quality of The Vrishabavathi river originates near the water has worsened. Southwestern end of Bangalore city. While the Bangalore city is still dependent on groundwater original river has dried up, at present, it is carrying resources for the domestic requirements in industrial effluents and sewage water from about developing areas, revenue pockets and old village hundred small-scale industries. It receives areas. A survey in Bangalore city of 163 improperly treated and untreated effluents and households showed that 77 per cent relied both domestic wastewater from the treatment plants of on surface and groundwater, 13 per cent of them BWSSB containing various organic materials, purely depend on the ground water and 8.6 per toxic elements and disease causing pathogens. The cent are used only piped water supply and less water quality of the stream was tested by than 1 per cent drew water from open well. collecting six samples at regular intervals along Though the quality of surface water is good and with the stream and water was found with high not contaminated ,it cannot be directly supplied content of BOD and COD. The main source of for potable purposes without treatment. The high BOD and COD content in the water Cauvery water is treated at different stages before samples may be attributed to the flow of supply. According to the DMG and RDED industrial effluents and the domestic sewage. studies, groundwater quality is getting worsening. People in this part of the city are mostly relying The concentrations of pH (0.66% and 11.5%), on corporation water as they find bad odour TDS (3.44% and1.3%)total hardness ( 2.4% and from groundwater. There are also cases of water 5.5%), nitrate (35 %), iron (38.16% and 15 % ) borne diseases in the vicinity. 156 RURAL-URBAN DISPARITY IN THE PROVISION OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION SERVICES IN KARNATAKA Gagan Bihari Sahu, K. H. Anantha and D. Rajasekharl Drinking water supply, sanitation and health are (viz., rural and urban with respect to access to public services, the demand for which exceeds the potable drinking water). The major findings are: supply. This, therefore, leads to a situation where rationing is inevitable. Since water and sanitation • The disparity is more in 'Malnad' region have direct bearing on the health of the people, because of more hilly areas in these districts. This provision of safe drinking water and sanitation to indicates that the reach of water supply is less the rural and urban poor is a fundamental duty of where topographic condition is not congenial. any government. Since the situation in terms of • The rural-urban disparity in access to potable provision/providers and the perception of drinking water is less in backward and highly beneficiaries vary across the regions and backward districts. This can be attributed to population groups, the access to safe drinking interventions by international donor agencies in water and sanitation facilities may not be uniform facilitating the provision of water services in rural in different regions. areas. Further, the topographical features are more The present analysis is confined to the demand conducive and the large size of the villages side assessment consisting of the extent of together with concentrated spatial location of coverage, source proximity and availability of houses make drinking water supply sources water from potable sources. It is evident from the viable. analysis that the coverage of households under • Though the coverage of potable drinking water potable drinking water sources was 92.1 per cent has increased in rural areas, still urban areas are in urban areas, for the state as a whole, in 2001 as well ahead of providing this basic infrastructure. compared to 81.4 per centin 1991. A similar trend Low coverage in the provision of potable can also be observed in the case of rural areas. drinking water, especially in rural area, can be due For instance, the coverage increased from 67.3 per to people in this area not able to afford these cent in 1991 to 80.5 per cent in 2001. This services. However, a large number of studies (in indicates that there was an additional coverage of India and elsewhere) have found that poor people potable water supply in rural and urban areas to do pay for water provided the quality of services the extent of 13 per cent and 10 per cent of the is good. total number of households respectively. The proximity of sources is an important The analysis on status on coverage suggests that characteristic, which affects the consumption of in spite of various steps undertaken for the drinking water. In other words, the frequency of provision of drinking water facility, tube well with use of a source within the premises of the hand pumps (IWHP) was still the major source dwelling units is usually higher than that of a of drinking water in rural areas. Nevertheless, source located away from it. In the case of urban there was an improvement in the coverage of areas, out of total number of households about households under potable drinking water facilities 47.4 per cent of households had access to the in both rural and urban areas of the state. The same within the dwelling unit and/or within the intervention by donor agencies has lead to better premises during the same reference period. provision of water supply and sanitation services Nevertheless, the coverage of rural households in these areas. Disparity is defined in terms of the under potable drinking water facility increased to differential rate between the two sections/ regions 80.5 per cent by 2001. But only 18.5 per cent of The authors are Research Officer, Researcher and Professor, respectively, at the Decentralisation and Development Unit, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore 72. E-mail: [email protected]. 157 " total number of rural households had access to minimum user charge was levied to the this facility within the premises. The proportion households. The analysis of the availability of of households accessing drinking water within the toilet facilities in both urban and rural areas clearly premises in urban areas was more than three times brings out that the rural areas had poor access to it that of rural areas in 2001. This indicates that the as against the urban areas. More than 82.6 per cent rime spent for meeting the drinking water of the rural households did not have any latrine requirements by rural people was more than their facility. Among those who had latrine facility, a counterparts in the urban areas. Importantly, the high percentage depended on pit latrines, which percentage of household's access to potable were unhygienic. The provision of latrine facilities drinking water within the dwelling unit and/or requires more individual effort rather than any premises shows positive association with the level government intervention. A higher proportion of of development, irrespective of whether it is rural urban households using latrines may perhaps be and urban areas. attributed to individual efforts rather than those made by the government. As per the 2001 census, only 17.4 per cent of the rural households had been covered by toilet Finally, the analysis reveals that the provision of facility as against 6.8 per cent in 1991. Similarly, water supply and sanitation is highly skewed in about 75.2 per cent of the households had access favour of urban areas. The coverage and to toilet facility in urban areas as against 62.5 per distribution pattern is more urban biased. This has cent during 1991. This coverage widely varied a bearing on two important issues: First, lack of across districts. It is also noticed that though there clean drinking water and inadequate sanitation was a high coverage in urban areas, still a majority facilities are detrimental to the health of the of the households did not have this facility. society and it adversely affects the productivity and efficiency levels. Second, the operation and It is clear from the analysis that there is high maintenance of these basic amenities, especially disparity between urban and rural areas in water supply sources, needs to be looked carefully, Karnataka and there is a bias towards urban areas. as this is vital for sustainability. For better Though there is an increasing trend in the access operation and maintenance, corrective measures to toilet facility both in rural and urban areas of such as proper pricing mechanism should be taken backward and highly backward districts, still the up. On the whole, the target of ensuring adequate gap is substantial. In this context, it is important water supply to all the people in rural areas seems to note that although many programmes [such as to be still distant, and efforts should be made in Centrally Sponsored Rural Sanitation Programme this direction. Almost all local bodies that supply (CRSP)] have been implemented to improve the drinking water are financially weak. To reduce the sanitation facility, the achievement in rural areas financial burden, privatisation [including Build, has been far from being satisfactory. This is partly Operate and Transfer (B01)] and maintenance due to the fact that rural households are not quite contract should be taken up but this should not be used to toilet facility. Probably, this contributes to at the cost of compromising on the equity aspects a low rate of access to toilet facility in rural areas of provisioning, else poor people would be as against their urban counterparts. The use of 'crowded out' of this basic necessity. Since water toilet facility is more in urban areas mainly due to schemes are not being equitably distributed to all the impact of hygiene awareness and education, areas, the proposed water schemes should be and more so due to considerations of lack of restructured in the light of these findings and privacy and dignity of the woman and lack of implemented. To prevent open air defecation, space for open defecation. especially in rural areas, it is necessary that toilet The distribution of households having latrines of with water supplies must be constructed. This is different types shows that the percentage of very much essential as sanitation programmes have households having access to water closet was failed in most of the villages due to lack of proper higher in urban areas in all the districts. These water supply to the toilets. sources were managed and maintained by the local authorities for which in some cases nominal 158 MANAGING FINANCE FOR DRINKING WATER: POINTERS FROM .GUJARAT VILLAGES Keshab Das1 Very unlike most other basic infrastructure, household surveys) in 20 villages of 17 districts drinking water by being an essential good for both in the state of Gujarat. It deals with variety of survival and health could not be excluded from its mechanisms, as being practiced, of fixing/ provision on the mere ground of affordability. In revising of water charges and the dynamics of fact, drinking water supply has been primarily and mobilizing and managing finance both for the largely in the domain of the state. So much so capital and maintenance purposes. There that paying for drinking water is still considered emerges no pattern of any kind at all. A close needless, or, insisting on it a politically study of revenue and expenditure data unsustainable proposition. Apart from the concerning water supply, distribution and popular notion that the government should pay maintenance has revealed that most villages face for and provide drinking water, as often hyped by severe fmancial constraints in meeting the various politicians with vested interests, affordability is a regular expenses. Whereas incidence of genuinely serious issue, what with pervasive rural widespread default in payment of water charge poverty. Hence, water has, conventionally, been (not to mention the rate) had been the real cause subsidized towards achieving food security, of concern, panchayats or the state bodies see providing wider access to clean potable water, this as a delicate matter that could become a improving the income and health of the rural politically charged issue. This is despite the fact poor. Nevertheless, the definite emergence of that households/ panchayats are actually not scarcity of clean potable water as a serious meeting even part of the power bills. There have challenge, now being acknowledged even globally, been complains from villagers over lack of has compelled societies to consider it as an information about the quantum and mode of economic good whose sparing use would only payment. Irrespective of the supply- or demand point to its not being free. driven approach, villages differ substantially in While the main purpose of alternative financing the manner they collect and spend whatever has been to reduce the burden on the state water charges. Non-revision and part-collection exchequer, in terms of long-term sustainability of of charges have been a worrying factor in face of the schemes, strong involvement of the local rising demand from the growing population and community in both mobilizing and managing also need to pay for both augmenting the sources finance has been recognized as a crucial necessity. and maintaining them for the future. An The introduction of the Sector Reform Project important aspect of enhancing rural drinking (SRP) or, now what is broad-based as the water supply by promoting water harvesting Swajaldhara scheme, largely aims at energizing and systems needs to be effected in a major way as banking upon village level management of that would, inter alia, help reduce the level of finances for drinking water. It needs to be noted water charges. Much work awaits understanding here that currently the financing and its the wide variety of practices on ground as that management concerning rural water supply in defy stylised accounting systems often suggested Gujarat villages do not follow any particular under controlled scenarios. It is important to pattern. In fact, both the supply- and demand examine why certain manner of mobilising and driven approaches of the government co-exist managing finance is effective or difficult to with other private and local initiatives. change. More now than before, explorations of This paper is based on extensive field research mechanisms of participatory and professionally (including discussions at the village levels and handled financial management at the village level Institute of Development Research, Ahmedabad 380 060 Email: [email protected] 159 are essential that would tackle the vital equity water harvesting structures both at the question unambiguously. Discussions also household and community levels. Clues for include sources other than the piped water policy in this crucial aspect of rural water supply schemes, such as, revival and/ or installing of can be found in the paper. 160 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS IN RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN KERALA: CONSTRAINTS AND POSSIBILITIES KRNisha1 Water plays an important role in the quality of life that the efforts of the state owned agency alone and welfare of society. India is currently facing would not be sufficient to meet the drinking crisis on the water front in the form of falling water needs of the state especially in the rural water tables, waterlogging and salinity, inadequate areas. Environmental constraints have also access to safe drinking water and sanitation, etc. increased the momentum of failure of the state Among the states, Kerala has been placed as a regulated water supply system. Since the 'water safe' economy. In spite of heavy annual government provided water supply services are rainfall, high 'well density' and numerous rivers always underpriced, they require subsidy and ponds, the state of Kerala is facing shortage (partially or fully) from the government towards of safe drinking water. Though blessed with operation and maintenance. The increasing abundance rainfall of about 3000 millimeters, difference between the expenditure and revenue there is significant variation and shortage of safe has led to financial chaos and has created a drinking water in many places of the state. The negative impact on the accountability of public 'scarcity in the midst of plenty' is because of services. This in turn has led to a vicious circle of several reasons such as high runoff due to high unreliable services, low willingness to pay, and slope, terrain condition, loss of forest cover and further decline in the capacity to provide services soil and ecological imbalances. The climate of the in the state. The problem of financing water state is typically tropical with seasonally excessive service is one of the major contributing factors rainfall and hot summer. It is observed that the for institutional change. ground water table is declining every year. Some new initiatives have been experimented A number of institutional arrangements have with in providing water supply with a reduced come up for water conservation and management, role for the government. Privatization of water ranging from public owned water authority to supply service has emerged as a policy community participated schemes. The purpose of suggestion. However, the market- based profit this paper is to the constraints of major dominated approach to an essential service, such institutional arrangements in water supply and to as drinking water, is not considered politically and look at new initiatives in water management. socially viable. As a result, community based Drinking water system in Kerala can be broadly initiatives including local self-governments and classified into categories :river based urban NGOs, have emerged. Alternative forms of and rural water supply schemes, groundwater water supply schemes in the state are: Jalanidhi based rural water supply schemes, and family (World Bank assisted), sector reforms (Rajiv managed drinking water supply schemes. The first Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission), Dutch two systems are owned and operated by the Assisted Schemes (SUEF), and various small government and third involves individual private initiatives and panchayat owned schemes. families creating their own drinking water Government is the dominant player among water resources by constructing wells in their house management institutions in the state. The role of compounds and managing it themselves. Until state, as provider of public often does 1998, the state owned Kerala Water Authority not succeed because of various technological and (KWA) was the only nodal agency for the design, administrative constraints. The state led water construction, operation, and maintenance of supply schemes have mainly concentration in water supply and sewerage schemes in the state. urban areas alone and were not able to meet the Experience of last two decades has revealed 1 Research Scholar, Institute for Social and Economic Change,Nagarbhavi P.O, Bangalore 72 Email; krnlSh',(aJ.\'~ [U'(}.\(}lIl 161 water demand among the rural areas. Poor management in rural water supply is, 'economic' financial performance with high revenue loss consideration rather than sustainability played an important role in the failure of consideration. Also the withdrawal of state from government owned water supply schemes. In the provision of drinking water has some welfare community managed schemes, the beneficiary implications. Locally managed community groups are responsible for planning and schemes are more flexible and work more implementation. This may lead to more efficient efficiently. Management through gram panchayats valuation of water resources and 'economic is found to be more stable and less conflicting. pricing' in drinking water. Success of community The community based approach is srill in infant based projects depends on various factors. One of stage and hence needs more research to the major limitations of the community understand its policy implications. 162 13. Showcasing IWMl's New Global Public Goods David Molden, Hugh Turral and Upali Amarasinghe 26th February 2005 12:30 - 13:30 Session Chair: Frank Rijsberman Have our 1llater investment and management detisions paid off? haz!e impactedPOl'frl), food Jecurity, and the environment? What are our options for future? m7Ml'., Comprehensil!e AJSeJJment takeJ stock of queJtions; David l·Aolden presents interim results. T'he RS-GIS Unit of IWMI turrent!y holdr over one Tetra-~yte of data which has recently been catalogued, streamlined and released to the public through the Data Storehouse PathuJqy (DSP). How can researchers and academics in India use this important resource to enhance their research? U?'hat does this offer to poliq makers ill the ,government and in grassroots organizatiom? This session willfocus on highlighting some of the new globalpublic goods produced by IWi\II. This llJili include IW'i\;II's recent work in Comprehensive .Assessment, R5'-GIS, }.1odeling and Databases. Hugh Turral Presentation Only the Uses of IWMI's PODIUMSi1J7 Model Presentation Only 163