GLACIERS of NEPAL—Glacier Distribution in the Nepal Himalaya with Comparisons to the Karakoram Range

Glaciers of Asia— GLACIERS OF NEPAL—Glacier Distribution in the Nepal Himalaya with Comparisons to the Karakoram Range

By Keiji Higuchi, Okitsugu Watanabe, Hiroji Fushimi, Shuhei Takenaka,

and Akio Nagoshi

SATELLITE IMAGE ATLAS OF GLACIERS OF THE WORLD

Edited by RICHARD S. WILLIAMS, JR., and JANE G. FERRIGNO U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 1386–F–6

CONTENTS

Glaciers of Nepal — Glacier Distribution in the Nepal Himalaya with Comparisons to the Karakoram Range, by Keiji Higuchi, Okitsugu Watanabe, Hiroji Fushimi, Shuhei Takenaka, and Akio Nagoshi----------------------------------------------------------293
Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------293
Use of Landsat Images in Glacier Studies ----------------------------------293

Figure 1. Map showing location of the Nepal Himalaya and Karokoram
Range in Southern Asia--------------------------------------------------------- 294

Figure 2. Map showing glacier distribution of the Nepal Himalaya and its surrounding regions --------------------------------------------------------- 295

Figure 3. Map showing glacier distribution of the Karakoram Range------------- 296

A Brief History of Glacier Investigations -----------------------------------297
Procedures for Mapping Glacier Distribution from Landsat Images ---------298

Figure 4. Index map of the glaciers of Nepal showing coverage by
Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images ---------------------------------------------- 299

Figure 5. Index map of the glaciers of the Karakoram Range showing coverage by Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images ----------------------------- 300

Table 1. Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the glaciers of Nepal --- 301 Figure 6. Index map of optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the glaciers of Nepal------------------------------------------------------------------ 301

Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram Range---------------------302
Glacier Inventory Based on a Map Compiled from Landsat Images ------302

Table 2. Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and surrounding regions-------302–306 Table 3. Glaciers in the Karakoram Range ---------------------------------------------- 307 Figure 7. Map showing location of individual glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and its surrounding regions, identified by glacier number ------------- 308

Figure 8. Map showing location of individual glaciers in the Karakoram
Range identified by glacier number ----------------------------------------- 309

Comparison of Nepal Himalaya and Karakoram Range Glacier
Distribution--------------------------------------------------------------------310

Table 4. List of glaciological characteristics of the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram Range ----------------------------------------------------- 310

Glacier Inventory from Ground Surveys in the Dudh Kosi
Region, Nepal, and Comparison with Landsat Image Analyses------311

Comparison of Results for the Khumbu Glacier, Nepal, from
Landsat Image Analysis and Ground Surveys--------------------------311

Figure 9. Landsat image, glacier inventory, and glacier distribution in the Dudh Kosi region, east Nepal-------------------------------------------- 312

Figure 10. Oblique aerial photograph of the Khumbu Glacier, taken on
11 December 1978 -------------------------------------------------------------- 313

Figure 11. Distribution of supraglacial debris, bedrock, and other features and surface characteristics of the Khumbu Glacier ----------- 314

Landsat Image Analysis for Monitoring Glacier Disasters ----------------------315

Figure 12. Oblique aerial photograph of the supraglacial lake of the
Imja Glacier, taken on 30 November 1975 -------------------------------- 316

Conclusions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------316
Supplement to “Glaciers of Nepal,” by Yutaka Ageta--------------------------------------317
Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------317 References Cited--------------------------------------------------------------------------319

CONTENTS

III

IV

CONTENTS

GLACIERS OF ASIA—

GLACIERS OF NEPAL— Glacier Distribution in the Nepal Himalaya with Comparisons to the Karakoram Range¹

By Keiji Higuchi, Okitsugu Watanabe, Hiroji Fushimi, Shuhei Takenaka,

and Akio Nagoshi²

Introduction

The Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram Range are the highest mountainous regions on Earth, with many peaks higher than 6,000–8,000 m in elevation. As a result, attempts to study glaciers in these ranges using field and airborne surveys have presented many difficulties historically. The availability of Landsat images in the 1970s, however, offered the opportunity to study the distribution and morphological characteristics of glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya, and to compare them to characteristics of glaciers in the Karakoram Range. The images were particularly valuable because no large-scale official maps were available. Additionally, a series of field investigations of the Nepal Himalaya glaciers, organized by Nagoya and Kyoto Universities, Japan, and conducted over six years (1973–1978), provided ground truth which could be used in resolving inherent Landsat image interpretation issues. This was the first attempt at glacier surveys in these two regions using Landsat images.
The Himalaya dominates the central and northern portions of Nepal
(figs. 1 and 2). The Karakoram Range lies in northern India and Pakistan, along the border with China (figs. 1 and 3). Although these ranges are geographically near one another, they are separated by the Indus, Gilgit, and Shyok Rivers and by approximately 150 km of lower elevation terrain.

Use of Landsat Images in Glacier Studies

Because of the many logistical problems in conducting field and airborne surveys, Landsat images are more effective tools for obtaining preliminary information about glaciers in relatively unexplored areas such as the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram Range. However, there are several problems in the application of Landsat images to glaciological studies. First, the resolution

¹This section was written in the early 1980s, and describes the glaciers of Nepal during the 1970s, the baseline period for the Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386. Because there was a delay in publication, a supplement by Yuteka Ageta has been added at the end of this section to describe more recent research.

²The authors were with the Water Research Institute, Nagoya University, when this section was written.

GLACIERS OF ASIA — NEPAL

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70°E

75°E

80°E

85°E

90°E

95°E

TURKISTAN
CHINA

35°N 30°N 25°N
Kabul
Islamlabad

PAKISTAN

Lhasa
New Delhi

NEPAL

Thimbu
Kathmandu
Kanpur

INDIA

Dhaka

0

1,000 KILOMETERS

0

1,000 MILES

Figure 1.— Location of the Nepal Himalaya and Karokoram Range in Southern Asia.

of the image may not be adequate to identify smaller glaciers. For example, small cirque glaciers (less than 100 m in width) are difficult to recognize on Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) images (Higuchi, 1975). Second, some glacier surfaces are covered by a combination of materials such as soil, ice, and rock that are not only hard to see but difficult to differentiate, so that snow facies and glacier structures are not distinguishable in the images. Third, observations with sensors in the visible part of the spectrum are impossible to make during the monsoon season, and are difficult at other times of the year (particularly in the afternoon) because of cloud cover. In addition, the orbital parameters of the Landsat satellite result in the images for this area being acquired in the morning hours which makes it difficult to see details on the western slopes of mountain ridges because of shadows. Therefore, results of the ground investigations conducted during the same period as this study provided a means of checking questionable Landsat interpretations.
In this paper, the results of a preliminary application of Landsat images to the analysis of glaciological characteristics in the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram Range are presented. Ground investigation results from detailed studies in the Dudh Kosi region of Nepal Himalaya (Higuchi and others, 1978, 1980) were used to improve the Landsat interpretations.

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A N B H U T

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A N

A F G H A N I S T

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A Brief History of Glacier Investigations

Since 1949, foreign mountaineers and scientists have repeatedly visited the Nepal Himalaya. The first glaciologist to visit Nepal was Fritz Müller who was a participant in the Swiss Everest Expedition of 1956. He studied the Khumbu Glacier, East Nepal (Müller, 1958). During the following years, the number of mountaineering and scientific expeditions has gradually increased, improving our knowledge of the Nepal Himalayan region and glaciers.
The T a kpu Glacier,³situated in the northwesternmost part of the Nepal
Himalaya, was visited by a Japanese expedition in 1963. After additional Japanese glaciological work in 1965 on the Gustang Glacier in central Nepal, Watanabe (1976) classified the glaciers of the Nepal Himalaya into two types, based on climatic characteristics of glacierization and surface morphological features: (1) Nepal-type glaciers and, (2) Tibet-type glaciers. The former type has relatively wet-maritime characteristics and the latter type has relatively drycontinental characteristics.
In 1963, Miller and others (1965), as scientific members of the American
Everest Expedition, did glaciological studies on the Khumbu Glacier of eastern Nepal. They studied the accumulation processes in the Khumbu Glacier by tritium dating ice layers above the equilibrium line in the West Cwm, at the head of the Khumbu Glacier. An inventory of glaciers in the Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha) region was first attempted by Müller (1970) during the International Hydrological Decade (IHD) as a pilot study for the Himalayan glacier inventory.
The concept of using a representative glacier as an index of the regional characteristics of the Nepal Himalayan glaciers was proposed by Watanabe (1976). He selected 80 glaciers from the entire region encompassed by the Nepal Himalaya, and described their topographical features from the perspective of the regional characteristics of glaciers. His study is useful for monitoring long-term change in glaciers.
The first systematic investigation of the Nepal Himalayan glaciers was organized by Nagoya and Kyoto Universities, Japan. The Glaciological Expedition of Nepal (GEN), led by Higuchi (1976, 1977, 1978, 1980), carried

out a series of field studies in the Khumbu, Shoron g , H ink, and Hunk regions

in eastern Nepal, and the Mukut Himal region in central Nepal from 1973 to 1978. Year-round meteorological observations were made at Lhajung Station (4,420 m), Khumbu region, East Nepal, which operated from 1973 to 1976. Also, precise inventory work was performed on the glaciers in the Dudh Kosi region, East Nepal, as part of this research program (Higuchi and others, 1978, 1980). Detailed results of this work are described in this report.
Although the Karakoram glaciers are much larger than those of the Nepal
Himalaya, fewer glaciological studies have been performed there. For a discussion of some of the earlier work on the Karakoram glaciers, see the section in this chapter on the Glaciers of Pakistan, as well as the work of Visser (1928), Untersteiner (1955), and von Wissmann (1959).

³U.S. Government publications require that official geographic place-names for foreign countries be used to the greatest extent possible. In the Glaciers of Nepal section, the use of geographic place-names is based on the U.S. Board on Geographic Names (BGN) Website http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/index.html. Names not listed on the BGN Website are shown in italics.

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Procedures for Mapping Glacier Distribution from Landsat Images

Landsat images are available for most of the Nepal Himalaya and Karakoram
Range. Images acquired between 17 September 1972 and 6 December 1976, were used for the analysis of the Nepal Himalaya glaciers (fig. 4); images acquired between 19 September 1973 and 27 September 1977, were used for the analysis of the Karakoram Range glaciers (fig. 5). The optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 images for glacier studies in the 1970s time frame are shown in table 1. An accompanying index map is shown in figure 6.
Landsat image analysis is the most effective remote sensing technique available for analyzing the seasonal and secular variations of cryospheric phenomena. The areal distribution of glaciers and seasonal snow cover are easily discernible on the images. However, it is difficult to map the glaciers using Landsat MSS images because of the low spatial resolution.
Other problems include how to ascertain the extent of individual glaciers and how to distinguish the firn limit from the temporal snow cover in the upper part of the glacier. In the ablation area, drawing a clear boundary between the area of the supraglacial debris cover and that of the moraine field on glaciated ground is also a serious problem in analyzing the images. These difficulties in interpretation directly affect the accuracy of maps made from the images.
To solve these problems, comparison studies were conducted using objective criteria from ground observations to validate the interpretations from the images. The following procedures were used in making the maps.

1. An area was selected where ground survey and aerial photography data were available and much data had been collected on the glaciers.

2. Ground observations were ploted and image data related to the glacial features on a geographic base map of these areas.

3. Glacier features were classiﬁed, and compared to information from
Landsat images and ground observations.

4. Criteria were established for determining the areal extent of a glacier and its morphological surface characteristics.

After some trial and error, the following criteria were established.
1. All snow and/or ice surface areas above the ﬁrn limit would be included in the “cryospheric zone.” However, there were severe difﬁculties in deciding whether these features were glacierized or not. e limit of perennial snow/ice cover becomes clear just before the summer monsoon season, April or May in the Himalaya, so a satellite image taken during that time period should be used, if available.

2. According to results obtained from preliminary studies in the area, it was not diﬃcult to distinguish between the areas of supraglacial debris cover and the areas of moraine which had no subsurface ice body (at the image scale). is was because, aﬅer comparing Landsat images with ground observations, the supraglacial debris-covered area did not make much diﬀerence in the determination of the glacier extent.

These criteria can only be applied to glaciers larger than a certain limit— approximately several kilometers in length and several hundred meters in width. Therefore, glaciers smaller than this limit were not mapped as individual glaciers but were included in the total cryospheric area. It should be noted that debriscovered areas with stagnant and/or fossil ice, being remnants of past expansion, were not mapped as active glacier areas.

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A N B H U T

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A N

A F G H A N I S T

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Table 1.—Optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the glaciers of Nepal

Solar
Nominal scene center latitude and longitude
Landsat identiﬁcation number elevation angle
Cloud cover
(percent)
Path-Row

150–41

Date

Code

Remarks

(degrees)

27°23′N. 87°31′E.

2150041007635490

28

19 Dec 76

5

Dudh-Kosi,

Mt. Everest region

151–40

151–40 151–41 151–41 152–40 153–40 153–40 154–39 154–40 155–39
28°49′N. 86°29′E. 28°49′N. 86°29′E. 27°23′N. 86°05′E. 27°23′N. 86°05′E. 28°49′N. 85°03′E. 28°49′N. 83°37′E. 28°49′N. 83°37′E. 30°15′N. 82°35′E. 28°49′N. 82°11′E. 30°15′N. 81°09′E.
2151040007507290 2151040007635590 2151041007507290 2151041007635590 215204007633890 1153040007226190 2153040007700990 2154039007632290 2154040007632290 2155039007634190
43 27
13 Mar 75 20 Dec 76 13 Mar 75 20 Dec 76 03 Dec 76 17 Sep 72 09 Jan 77
17 Nov 76 17 Nov 76 06 Dec 76
10
5

44

5

28

10

5

30

~45
27
20 10 10 30
5
Line drops
32 33 28

80°E

82°E

84°E

86°E

88°E

CHINA

30°N
30°N

Row
40
Row
40

NEPAL

28°N
28°N

Kathmandu
Lucknow
Kanpur
Biratnagar

INDIA

26°N

Row
Row

42
42

80°E

82°E

84°E

86°E

88°E

100 200 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

EXCELLENT IMAGE – 0 to ≤5 percent cloud cover. GOOD IMAGE – >5 to ≤10 percent cloud cover. FAIR TO POOR IMAGE – >10 to < 100 percent cloud cover.
0

0

100

Scale is approximate

200 MILES
NOMINAL SCENE CENTER – For a Landsat image outside the area of glaciers of Nepal.

Figure 6.—Index map of optimum Landsat 1, 2, and 3 MSS images of the glaciers of Nepal.

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Glaciers in the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram Range

Based on the Landsat image analysis, a glacier inventory was developed for the Nepal Himalaya and the Karakoram, and the glacier distribution and characteristics were compared between the two areas. A ground survey of glaciers in the Dudh Kosi region of Nepal was conducted and results were compared to results from a Landsat image analysis by Müller (1970). A comprehensive comparison of results from Landsat image and ground investigations was conducted on the Khumbu Glacier, in Nepal.

Glacier Inventory Based on a Map Compiled from Landsat Images

Tables 2 and 3 list the glaciers which were identified using Landsat images, based on the established criteria, for the Nepal Himalaya and Karakoram Range, respectively. The locations of these glaciers are shown on figures 7 and 8. Italicized glacier names in the tables are tentative designations assigned for practical convenience, because official geographic place-names have not yet been established for many of the glaciers in these two regions. The elevation of the terminus and the length and width of each glacier in horizontal projection are estimated from various published papers and maps, and from direct measurements on the Landsat images.
The “Description” column in tables 2 and 3 includes specific surface features and other characteristics of the glacier that were identified directly from the images. Surface conditions of a glacier, such as the distribution of supraglacial debris and the occurrence of medial moraines, glacier lakes, and other glacial features were easily recognized using Landsat images. This information contributed effectively to our knowledge of the present conditions of individual glaciers. Additionally, the monitoring of glacier lake conditions and surge-type glaciers by means of satellite images appears to be an effective means of obtaining advanced warning of potential glaciological catastrophes.